10-Ballistics Manual89

BALLISTICS MANUAL
Copyright, 2004, Precision Drilling Technology Service Group Inc.

All Rights Reserved
2101 84th Avenue
Edmonton, AB
Telephone: 780.449.3222
Facsimile: 780.449.3263
Revision: Monday, May 17, 2004
Revision Notes
Revision Date Notes

0.9 March 22, 2004 First pre-release for review (Kevin Trotechaud).
0.95 May 17, 2004 Second pre-release for review.
Credits
This manual was compiled, edited, and principally authored by Scott Sanders of the Wireline Training
Department. Employees throughout the company contributed to various sections and concepts throughout
this manual. Particular credit should be given to Kevin Trotechaud and Brent Rudy.
Living Document
The Ballistics Manual is intended to outline, document, and communicate all of the knowledge and
procedures required by field operators, supervisors, and engineers to safely and successfully conduct field
operations. Field failures whose root cause is deemed to be, in whole or in part, due to poor
communication or inadequate documentation of operational procedures, should be communicated to the
documentation department so the required topics can be addressed in future releases of this manual.
If any sections of this manual are difficult to understand or if any topics are incorrect or missing please
communicate these errors or omissions to the Wireline Documentation Department in Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada, by calling 780.449.3222, or by sending email directly to scott.sanders@precisionwireline.com.
Notice of Proprietary Information

This manual contains Precision Wireline Technologies, a division of Precision Drilling Technology
Services Group Inc., proprietary and confidential information. It may not be reproduced in whole or in part
without the written consent of Precision Wireline Technologies and must not be disclosed to others not
having need of such disclosure consistent with the purpose of this manual. That purpose being the correct
operation, safe handling, and maintenance of ballistic tools and associated materials.
Wireline Documentation 2
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 7
2 SAFETY ................................................................................................................................................ 8
2.1 EXPLOSIVES STORAGE – SHOP ........................................................................................................ 8
2.2 SHOP WORK ENVIRONMENT............................................................................................................ 9
2.3 TRANSPORT REGULATIONS ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4 FIELD WORK ENVIRONMENT ......................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Safety Meetings..................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Disposal of Explosive Waste and Packaging........................................................................ 11
2.4.3 Clearing the Line of Fire ...................................................................................................... 11
2.4.4 Perf Monitor ......................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.4.1 Ground Connections ......................................................................................................... 12
2.4.4.2 Voltage Monitor ............................................................................................................... 14
2.4.4.3 RF Energy......................................................................................................................... 15
2.5 METERS ......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.6 INTERNAL PRESSURE IN GUNS AND SETTING TOOLS ..................................................................... 17
2.7 EXPLOSIVE FIRES .......................................................................................................................... 17
3 EXPLOSIVES THEORY................................................................................................................... 18
3.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION .............................................................................................................. 18
3.1.1 Organic Explosives............................................................................................................... 18
3.1.2 Inorganic Explosives ............................................................................................................ 18
3.2 DEFINITIONS.................................................................................................................................. 18
3.2.1 Oxygen Balance.................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Energy of Formation ............................................................................................................ 19
3.2.3 Enthalpy of Formation.......................................................................................................... 19
3.2.4 Explosion Heat ..................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.5 Detonation ............................................................................................................................ 20
3.2.6 Detonation Velocity .............................................................................................................. 20
3.2.7 Deflagration ......................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.8 Deflagration Point................................................................................................................ 20
3.2.9 Melting Point ........................................................................................................................ 21
3.2.10 Impact Sensitivity.................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.11 Density.................................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.12 Grain of Explosive ................................................................................................................ 21
3.2.13 Volume of Explosion Gases .................................................................................................. 21
3.2.14 Specific Energy ..................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.15 Nitrogen Content .................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.16 Decomposition ...................................................................................................................... 21
3.3 TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES................................................................................................................... 22
3.3.1 Pyrotechnics ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.3.2 Primary High Explosives...................................................................................................... 22
3.3.2.1 Lead Styphnate ................................................................................................................. 22
3.3.2.2 Lead Azide........................................................................................................................ 23
3.3.3 Secondary High Explosives .................................................................................................. 24
3.3.3.1 PETN ................................................................................................................................ 24
3.3.3.2 RDX.................................................................................................................................. 25
3.3.3.3 HMX................................................................................................................................. 26
3.3.3.4 HNS .................................................................................................................................. 27
3.3.3.5 PYX .................................................................................................................................. 28
3.3.4 Deflagrates ........................................................................................................................... 28
3.3.4.1 Black Powder.................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.4.2 Setting Tool Power Charges ............................................................................................. 30
3.4 SHAPED CHARGES ......................................................................................................................... 32
3.4.1 Shaped Charge Construction................................................................................................ 33
3.4.2 Shaped Charge Performance................................................................................................ 36
3.4.2.1 Charge Performance Testing – API RP 19B..................................................................... 37
3.4.2.2 Manufacturer Lot Testing ................................................................................................. 38
3.4.3 Shaped Charge Detonation................................................................................................... 42
3.4.4 Jet Velocity Gradient ............................................................................................................ 43
3.5 DETONATING CORD....................................................................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Ribbon Cord and Round Cord .............................................................................................. 44
3.5.2 Extra High Velocity Cord ..................................................................................................... 45
3.5.3 Shrinkage.............................................................................................................................. 45
3.5.4 Low Shrink Cord................................................................................................................... 45
3.5.5 Cord Load............................................................................................................................. 45
3.5.6 Flexibility.............................................................................................................................. 46
3.5.7 Exposed Detonating Cord Sealing Instructions.................................................................... 46
3.5.8 Types of Detonating Cord Commonly Used ......................................................................... 46
3.5.8.1 Ensign Bickford 80 RDX LS XHV .................................................................................. 46
3.5.8.2 Ensign Bickford 80 RDX LS ............................................................................................ 46
3.5.8.3 Ensign Bickford 80 HMX LS XHV ................................................................................. 47
3.5.8.4 Ensign Bickford 40 RDX Ribbon LS ............................................................................... 47
3.5.8.5 Ensign Bickford 40 HMX Ribbon LS .............................................................................. 47
3.5.8.6 Ensign Bickford 80 HMX High Temp LS........................................................................ 47
3.5.8.7 Ensign Bickford 80 PYX .................................................................................................. 48
3.5.8.8 Dynamit Nobel PT250 HNS............................................................................................. 48
3.5.8.9 Dynamit Nobel PT165 HMX XHV .................................................................................. 48
3.5.8.10 Dynamit Nobel PT185 HMX XHV .............................................................................. 48
3.5.9 Handling Policy.................................................................................................................... 49
3.6 DETONATORS ................................................................................................................................ 50
3.6.1 Conventional Resisterized Detonators.................................................................................. 50
3.6.1.1 Crimp on Detonators......................................................................................................... 52
3.6.1.2 SureFire Detonators.......................................................................................................... 52
3.6.1.3 Block Detonators .............................................................................................................. 53
3.6.1.4 Butterfly Detonators ......................................................................................................... 54
3.6.2 Safe Detonators .................................................................................................................... 54
3.6.2.1 Exploding Bridgewire Detonators .................................................................................... 55
3.6.2.2 Exploding Foil Detonators................................................................................................ 56
3.6.3 Percussion Detonators.......................................................................................................... 56
3.6.4 Detonator Features............................................................................................................... 56
3.6.4.1 Fluid Sensitivity................................................................................................................ 56
3.6.4.2 Intrinsically Safe............................................................................................................... 57
3.6.5 Detonators in Common Use.................................................................................................. 57
3.6.5.1 Owen 008c........................................................................................................................ 57
3.6.5.2 Owen 006 Mini-Block ...................................................................................................... 57
3.6.5.3 Owen G-21 ....................................................................................................................... 57
3.6.5.4 Owen 086 Squib ............................................................................................................... 58
3.6.5.5 Owen E-12........................................................................................................................ 58
3.6.5.6 Owen Hostile Environment Detonator.............................................................................. 58
3.6.5.7 Owen E-161...................................................................................................................... 58
3.6.5.8 Ensign-Bickford EB105.................................................................................................... 59
3.6.5.9 Austin Explosives A140 ................................................................................................... 59
3.7 IGNITERS ....................................................................................................................................... 60
3.8 INITIATORS .................................................................................................................................... 60
3.9 BOOSTERS ..................................................................................................................................... 60
3.10 DETONATION SEQUENCE ............................................................................................................... 61
3.11 GUN GEOMETRY AND CHARGE SELECTION ................................................................................... 62
4 SHOOTING SOFTWARE AND CIRCUIT DESIGN..................................................................... 63
4.1 SHOOTING CCL INSTRUMENT ....................................................................................................... 63
4.1.1 Tool Information Screen ....................................................................................................... 64
4.1.2 View/Plot Depth Offsets........................................................................................................ 65
4.1.3 Depth Offsets (Zero at CCL)................................................................................................. 66
4.1.4 Shooting Power Control ....................................................................................................... 67
4.1.5 Shooting Control................................................................................................................... 69
4.1.6 Test Fire................................................................................................................................ 70
4.2 FRONT END SETUP ........................................................................................................................ 72
4.2.1 Channel Device Setup........................................................................................................... 72
4.2.2 CHIP Setup........................................................................................................................... 73
4.2.3 A/D Setup.............................................................................................................................. 75
4.3 SHOT PLOTS .................................................................................................................................. 77
4.3.1 Open Circuit ......................................................................................................................... 77
4.3.2 Short Circuit ......................................................................................................................... 77
4.3.3 51 Ohm Resistorized Detonator............................................................................................ 77
4.3.4 120 Ohm Resitorized Detonator ........................................................................................... 77
4.4 SIGNAL FLOW................................................................................................................................ 78
5 WIRELINE CONVEYED GUN SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 79
5.1 DEPTH CONTROL ........................................................................................................................... 79
5.2 FIRING HEADS ............................................................................................................................... 80
5.2.1 Top Fire ................................................................................................................................ 80
5.2.1.1 Configuring the Gun ......................................................................................................... 81
5.2.1.2 Preparing the Top Fire Sub............................................................................................... 81
5.2.1.3 Pigtail Installation............................................................................................................. 82
5.2.1.4 Quick Change Assembly .................................................................................................. 83
5.2.1.5 Check Fire – Open and Closed ......................................................................................... 85
5.2.1.6 Connect and Arm the Perforating Gun ............................................................................. 86
5.2.1.7 Misfire Procedures............................................................................................................ 90
5.2.2 Bottom Fire........................................................................................................................... 92
5.2.2.1 Connect the Hot and Ground Wires.................................................................................. 92
5.2.2.2 Check Fire – Open and Closed ......................................................................................... 96
5.2.2.3 Connect the Gun to the Quick Change ............................................................................. 98
5.2.2.4 Arm the Gun ..................................................................................................................... 99
5.2.2.5 Misfire Procedures.......................................................................................................... 102
5.2.3 SureFire.............................................................................................................................. 103
5.2.3.1 Cable Head and Main Body............................................................................................ 103
5.2.3.2 Top Sub .......................................................................................................................... 104
5.2.3.3 Quick Change ................................................................................................................. 104
5.2.3.4 Misfire Procedures.......................................................................................................... 113
5.2.3.5 Post Job Maintenance ..................................................................................................... 114
5.2.4 Slim SureFire – RTG Guns ................................................................................................. 118
5.2.4.1 Detonating Cord Placement ............................................................................................ 118
5.2.4.2 Arming Procedures ......................................................................................................... 121
5.2.5 Slim SureFire – Strip Guns................................................................................................. 128
5.2.5.1 Components .................................................................................................................... 128
5.2.5.2 Leak and Continuity Checks........................................................................................... 128
5.2.5.3 Assembly ........................................................................................................................ 129
5.2.5.4 Check-Fire – Open and Closed....................................................................................... 131
5.2.5.5 Electrically Connect the Detonator................................................................................. 132
5.2.5.6 Ballistically Connect the Gun ......................................................................................... 132
5.3 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT ...............................................................................................................138
5.3.1 Centralizers ........................................................................................................................ 138
5.3.2 Decentralizers..................................................................................................................... 138
5.3.3 Orientation Subs ................................................................................................................. 138
5.3.4 Swivels ................................................................................................................................ 138
5.4 REUSABLE GUNS ......................................................................................................................... 139
5.4.1 Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers (RHSC) ........................................................................ 139
5.4.1.1 Loading Procedures ........................................................................................................ 139
5.4.1.2 Post Job Maintenance ..................................................................................................... 147
5.4.1.3 Storing Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers ..................................................................... 147
5.5 THROW AWAY GUNS (TAG) ....................................................................................................... 148
5.5.1 Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers (EHSC)........................................................................ 148
5.5.1.1 Loading Procedures ........................................................................................................ 148
5.5.1.2 Storing Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers ..................................................................... 158
5.5.2 Retrievable Tubing Guns (RTG) ......................................................................................... 162
5.5.3 Semi-Expendables – Strip Guns.......................................................................................... 162
5.5.3.1 Components .................................................................................................................... 162
5.5.3.2 Charge Installation.......................................................................................................... 163
5.5.3.3 Detonator Cord Installation ............................................................................................ 164
5.5.3.4 Strip Gun Storage ........................................................................................................... 166
5.5.3.5 Auxiliary Equipment ...................................................................................................... 167
5.5.4 Fully Expendable Guns....................................................................................................... 168
6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 169
7 INTERNET RESOURCES.............................................................................................................. 171
1 Introduction
Ballistic services comprise a very large percentage of the work performed by the wireline division of
Precision Drilling Technology Services Group Inc. Safe and profitable operations are key to the
professional and financial success of each employee providing ballistic services to our clients as well as the
success of the company as a whole.
This manual is designed to serve as a learning tool and an operational reference for wireline staff. The
primary goals of the manual are twofold. First, the manual is designed to communicate operational
expectations and procedures; and second, the manual also contains content aimed to build a greater
understanding of why these services exist – and are in demand – as well as why operational procedures are
in place.
Explosive materials are by their very nature unsafe. It is vital that a firm understanding of the power and
danger of these materials is fully understood before any on the job exposure to ballistic materials. For
obvious reasons, the safety section comes first.
The theory of explosives and the design of explosive components are also covered in detail. This section
discusses what explosives are, how explosives compare to one another, and how they are configured to
perform work as part of different components such as detonators, detonating cord, shaped charges, and
power charges. The theory section is designed to build a firm understanding of terminology and function,
before the individual components are placed into context with other ballistics equipment.
The shooting procedure, and the circuitry and software that control it, are also important topics that are
given extensive consideration. Understanding the system and utilizing all the features it possesses greatly
reduce the probability of an explosive fortuity. The system is designed to make it effortless to shoot on
depth and very difficult to shoot anywhere else.
Operational procedures covering most of the wireline perforating gun systems in wide use by Precision
Wireline today, form the bulk of this manual. Operational work processes for Select Fire Perforating
Systems, Tubing Conveyed Gun Systems (TCP), Dump Bailers, and Setting Tools will be communicated
independently in the future. Virtually all of the ballistic services equipment used by our company is
supplied by third party vendors, who, when requested to do so, can usually supply operational and
maintenance documentation, as well as detailed specifications for their equipment. This manual often
refers to third party documentation and employees are encouraged to acquire and read all the information
available that covers the services they are delivering. The operational procedures covered in this manual
are designed to augment the material available from the vendors, and they are often geared toward
explaining why the procedures exist and how they improve safety and efficiency.
A strong understanding of the content of this manual, coupled with solid on the job training will go a long
way to prepare Precision staff to deliver ballistic services – so read on and work safe.
2 Safety
Safety is without a doubt the most important part of this manual, which is why it comes first. It is so
important in fact that safe operating concepts and practices are not limited to this section alone, but rather
permeate the entire document – much like safe practices must permeate all aspects of the job, from
conception and planning through to execution and completion.
Much is made of using ‘common sense’ to make safe operating decisions. But, it is important to remember
that decision making is based on personal experience and knowledge; and inherently influenced by
personal motivations, and corporate and client expectations. In other words, ‘common sense’ is different
for different people and changes for individuals as they grow and are exposed to different environments.
This is the reason why safe operating practices, policies, and expectations are created and communicated to
Precision Wireline employees by the Health, Safety, and Environment department and fully endorsed by all
levels management.
The goal of the safety section of this manual is not to state expectations and policies; they are covered and
communicated very well by the Health, Safety, and Environment department. Rather the goal is to explain
why these policies exist, with the hope of increasing the knowledge base of the corporation to enable our
staff to make ‘common sense’ decisions that are always based, first and foremost, on safe operating
practices. That stated, it is important to make clear that if, in any way, the information contained in this
manual contradicts a safe operating practice outlined by the Health, Safety, and Environment department,
or any policy or regulation of a governing authority, the relevant policy must be considered to take
precedence.
Safety is an attitude. Explosive accidents are rare, which means that most of our employees are not directly
familiar with the consequences of an explosive fortuity. This unfortunately leads to the development of
‘equivalent practices’ that are neither equivalent nor safe. Remember that even though safe operating
policies may seem redundant and extreme, they are nowhere near as extreme as the results of an explosives
accident. Explosive accidents are almost always catastrophic.
2.1 Explosives Storage – Shop

The policies and procedures for storing explosives are well explained and itemized in the Health, Safety,
and Environment Handbook. Most operating jurisdictions must also comply with local storage regulations
that are usually very well documented and enforced by local authorities. In every environment, all
company policies and local regulations must be followed. Contact the management and safety departments
responsible for your operating region for detailed information.
The rest of this section touches on some of the high points governing explosives storage, and makes an
effort to describe why some of these regulations exist.
Explosive magazines serve three primary purposes. The first (and most important) is the prevention of an
accidental detonation, the second is the containment of the explosive force that would result in the event of
an accidental detonation, and the third is the prevention of explosive material deterioration. Most of the
rules and regulations that govern the design and use of explosives magazines revolve around these three
points.
There are numerous design features and operational policies that govern the use and construction of
explosive magazines that contribute to the prevention of accidental detonations. The list below itemizes a
few.
• The interior of explosive magazines must be constructed from spark proof materials. Wood is
commonly used.
• Magazines must be vented to the atmosphere to prevent pressure (which could cause auto ignition)
from building up inside as a consequence of an external fire heating up the outside of the
magazine.
• Magazines must also be kept clean and free of any unapproved materials. In fact, the only tools
allowed inside are approved spark proof explosives tools.
• The use of electrical power in any way is prohibited. Winches used to raise and lower explosive
magazines into the ground are powered by compressed air or an electrically isolated motor.
Natural light or approved flashlights are used to illuminate the interior.
• Magazines must also be kept away from combustible materials. Outdoor magazines must be kept
away from trees and brush.
• Magazines must be positioned to protect them from purposeful or accidental contact. They must
be positioned to prevent damage from falling objects or moving vehicles.
• Magazines must be secured to prevent unauthorized access. The area around the magazine must
also be secured to prevent contamination of the storage environment by unauthorized persons.
The following design features and operational policies are geared toward mitigating the effects of
accidental detonations.
• Primary and secondary explosives must never be stored in the same magazine. Primary explosives
are much more ballistically sensitive then secondary explosives and since their purpose is to
provide enough explosive force to detonate secondary explosives it only makes sense to isolate
them when in storage.
• Magazines are usually rated to contain a specific quantity of explosive materials. By ensuring the
explosive load never exceeds this rating the chances of an accidental detonation being contained is
substantially increased.
• Charges must be packed facing each other (pointed up or down) within the charge box, and the
charge box must be stored with the largest dimension flat on the shelf. Charges are packed this
way at the manufacturer, and the boxes are stored in this manner to (a) direct the force of the
explosion either up to the sky or down to the ground as opposed to out the side of the magazine,
and (b) to hopefully offset the force of an explosion in one direction by the force of an equal
explosion in the other.
Explosive magazines are designed to isolate their contents from external influences such as light, wind, and
water to prevent premature deterioration of explosive materials. It is also standard policy to use older
materials first.
Loaded guns are also considered explosive magazines and should be stored in an area that complies with as
many of the regulatory concepts discussed above as possible. Loaded guns should be secured in such a
way that they cannot be moved or altered by any unauthorized person. They should also be stored in an
isolated location away from any sources of electricity and all other equipment to prevent any accidental
contact – including contact with vehicles or falling objects. Loaded guns must also be vented to
atmosphere to prevent pressure from building up inside the gun in the event of fire. Exposed perforating
guns must be stored inside a tube to protect the charges and detonating cord from any type of incidental
contact. Finally, loaded guns cannot be stored if they contain any type of primary explosive.
2.2 Shop Work Environment

Explosive materials can only be handled in a specially configured and marked area within a shop. This
area should be physically separated from the rest of the shop, or clearly marked with painted lines on the
floor. Signs identifying this area as an ‘Explosives Area’ and a ‘No Smoking’ zone must also be clearly
visible at all access points. The Explosives area is usually configured with a spark proof workbench ideally
constructed of wood (sometimes constructed from steel covered with a rubber liner) and a shock proof
electrically isolated rubber floor mat. Steel tool stands are also permitted provided they have rubber lined
contact points to hold the gun.
Access to this area of the shop is restricted to employees authorized by the shop manager. Employees
working in this area are not allowed to smoke, use any power tools, and must behave in a manner consistent
with explosives handling. Only work involving explosive materials can be performed in this area.
Servicing of any other equipment, including equipment used during ballistic operations, is not allowed.
Only approved explosives tools may be used or stored in this part of the shop.
All explosive materials used must be closely tracked and inventoried. To prevent explosives from being
lost or miscounted, the following procedures have been established:
• Explosives must be secured in the magazine until they are ready to be used. Explosives must be
stored and transported in their original shipping boxes.
• Only remove enough charges to get the job done. Multiple gun orders should be completed in lots
to prevent an unmanageable number of charges from being in play at any given time.
• Charge boxes should only be opened one at a time. When all of the charges required have been
removed, reseal the charge box immediately and note the remaining contents on the packing slip.
If the box is empty, flatten it to ensure it is empty, remove all explosive markings, and disposed of
it according to local regulations.
• Unsecured explosive materials cannot be left unsupervised. Ever.
• All charges must be accounted for and tracked from the point of arrival at the shop until they are
expended in the field. The inventory system in the shop must track exactly how much of each
type of explosive material is stored in the shop, and where, as well as what is currently being
transported or used on a job site.
This explosives section of the shop must be kept clean and free of debris at all times. If large gun loading
tasks are being conducted, they must be stopped periodically to clean the area and remove all scrap boxes
and materials. Plastic garbage cans must be used – metal cans are prohibited. Explosive scraps, such as
loose powder or discarded detonating cord must be stored in an approved container in an appropriate
magazine that contains only secondary explosives.
2.3 Transport Regulations

The transport of explosive materials is closely regulated by most (if not all) of the jurisdictions where
Precision Wireline operates. Familiarity with these regulations is an absolute must. Contact your local
management group as well as the Health, Safety, and Environment department for specific information.
2.4 Field Work Environment

Unlike the shop, well sites present a dynamic and constantly changing work environment. Each well site is
configured slightly differently and it is impossible to structure every job in exactly the same manner. This
changing environment presents the greatest challenge to safe operating practices in the field. The goal is to
control the work environment by planning every task, following proper procedures, and fostering
communication both amongst the logging crew and between Precision staff and every other employee on
the well site. In short, step back and evaluate every task before proceeding, give your judgment a chance to
function, and take the time to correct dangerous situations.
2.4.1 Safety Meetings

Safety meetings are excellent opportunities to plan tasks and communicate procedures, dangers, and
expectations to members of the logging crew, as well as other workers on the well site. Pre-Job Safety
Meetings must be conducted before any work begins. These meetings involve all personnel on the well site
and must be documented using an appropriate Pre-Job Safety Meeting Form. Each topic specific to
perforating operations that appears on the standard Pre-Job Safety Meeting Form is discussed below.
• Designated Smoking Area. All smoking materials must be confined within designated smoking
areas; and all open flames or sources for open flames, including smoking areas, must be a
minimum of 15m (50ft) away from any explosive device.
• Name of Designated Lockout Key Holder. The Lockout Key must be in the possession of a
responsible individual and must be removed from the system – and the recorder cab – before
arming commences. The key cannot be returned to the recorder cab until the explosive device is
70m (200ft) below the ground level (or 70m below the sea floor during offshore operations). The
key cannot be in the possession of the field engineer, supervisor, or any other individual tasked
with operating the computer system.
• Blasting Area and Safe Area Defined. The areas where explosives are being stored, loaded,
made-up, or armed must be clearly defined and communicated to all workers on the well site.
Technically speaking, any area within 15m (50ft) of an unsecured explosive device is considered
part of the blasting area and as such, only activities that are directly related to the blasting
operation may be conducted. Only approved blasting tools may be used within the blasting area.
It is the responsibility of Precision Wireline personnel to clear the blast area of any unnecessary
people before explosive materials are introduced. The safe area is defined as any area not
included within the blast area.
• Signs Posted. Signs that display ‘Danger Explosives’, ‘No Smoking’, and ‘Turn Off Radio
Transmitters’ must be clearly displayed at every access point to the well site, in English as well as
in any local language.
• Cathodic Protection and Welders Off. Make sure that all cathodic protection devices and all
welders have been physically shut down.
• Groundlines and Stray Voltage Monitoring Devices Installed. Refer to the Perforation
Monitor section that follows for detailed information on this topic.
• Radio Frequency Generators Off. Refer to the ‘Perforation Monitor section that follows for
detailed information on this topic.
• Only Necessary Personnel Near Loaded Gun. Personnel not directly related to the perforation
operation must stay clear of the blast area at all times. Personnel involved in the perforating
operation should make every effort to stay clear of the line of fire.
• Wireline Generator Off. The wireline generator must be turned off by physically disengaging
the generator PTO (power take off). It is not sufficient to simply switch off the generator breakers
in the recorder cab.
• Rig Isolated from Generator. Turn off all sources of electrical energy on the rig – including the
lights – before arming any explosive device; if light is required, an external light plant must be
used, and it must be located outside of the blast area. If the rig is equipped with a top drive unit
that requires electrical power to operate, it must be electrically isolated; refer to the manufactures
operating procedures for detailed instructions.
• Weather. Perforating operations must be discontinued if the work area is under immanent threat
of an electrical or dust storm. All explosives must be safely secured until the storm has passed and
it is safe to resume operations.
2.4.2 Disposal of Explosive Waste and Packaging

Waste explosive materials, such as scrap pieces of detonating cord, must be stored in an approved box in a
secure magazine for transport back to the shop. As always, primary and secondary explosives must be
stored in separate magazines. Explosive packaging materials must be returned to the shop and disposed of
in an approved fashion. Do not leave any waste explosives or packaging unattended at any time.
2.4.3 Clearing the Line of Fire

Whenever working with explosive materials it is extremely important to plan ahead for the ‘worst case
scenario’, which is accidental detonation. All unnecessary workers must be safely away from the explosive
device and all personnel preparing the explosive materials for use must make every effort to stay clear of
the line of fire.
For example, use a backup pipe wrench (wedged between the gun and the catwalk) to hold the perforating
gun whilst using the other to attach the firing head. This eliminates the need for someone to stand in the
‘line of fire’ of the perforating gun while this task is being performed.
2.4.4 Perf Monitor
The perforation monitor performs three functions. The first is to verify that the truck and the rig (or the
picker) are both electrically shorted to ground, the second is to measure the potential difference between the
truck chassis and the well head, and the third is to measure the amount of radio frequency (RF) energy in
the atmosphere.
2.4.4.1 Ground Connections
The term ‘ground’ is commonly used when electrical circuits are discussed. In the strictest definition the
term ground means, well, ground – the earth. In a looser definition the term ground is often used to refer to
a relatively large and exposed conductor that is used as a reference in a circuit. More importantly, it is the
place current will flow if isolated conductors are leaking. For example, in logging tools the chassis (metal
bracket that slides in and out of the tool housing and has all the boards mounted on it) is often referred to as
the chassis ground. When talking about power flow inside the line truck the metal body (truck chassis) is
the ground. Similarly, the armour around the isolated conductor(s) in the wireline is also a ground. But, as
far perforating goes, ground is the earth; and the best way to establish an electrical connection to the earth
is to drive a long conductive stake into the dirt – which is a very good description of a cased well.
Connecting the line truck and the rig to ground with a relatively large conductor (ground cable) is a vital
perforating safety precaution. This connection ensures that any potential difference (voltage) that exists
between the truck and rig, truck and ground, and the rig and ground will result in current flow primarily
through the ground cables instead of through the wireline or any other electrical connection that is
connected to an explosive device. The size of the ground cable is important because the resistance of a
conductor drops when the diameter is increased, which increases the probability of current going to ground
through the ‘ground cable’ instead of any other conductive path. Grounding cables must be constructed
from insulated stranded copper conductor no smaller then No. 10 gauge.
Connect the truck chassis to ground (well head). This connection ensures that the truck and the
wellhead are at or near the same potential – it must be made using a large gauge wire that is connected to
the steel frame of the truck at one end, and to the well head via a heavy duty C-clamp at the other.
Ground Line
Connect the rig (or picker) to ground (well head) using a short jumper cable. This connection ensures
the rig is also connected to ground – it must also be made using a large gauge wire with C-clamps at either
end. Do not overlook the importance of this connection because service rigs are often on wheels (rubber
does not conduct) and they may not be in good electrical contact with ground.
Short Jumper Cable
Connect the perforation monitor. The perforation monitor is used to verify that the grounding cables
have successfully shorted the truck, the rig, and the wellhead together. Since the perforation monitor leads
are not actually used as grounding lines, they do not need to be as large in diameter. One of the leads must
be shorted to the truck chassis and the other needs to be connected to the rig. The chassis lead is usually
pre-wired when the perforation monitor is installed and the rig lead is usually connected via a cable reel
mounted in the back of the truck.
Rig Lead
Chassis Lead
Now, if all connections are sound, and all cables are continuous, a conductive loop will exist between both
poles of the perforation monitor. Specifically, current will be able to flow from the perforation monitor,
through the ground sense line to the truck chassis; through the truck chassis to the ground line conductor,
and out to the well head; from the well head to the rig via the short jumper cable (or any other electrical
connection – such as the ground itself or a metal connection between the rig and the wellhead); and finally
from the rig, through the rig cable, back to the perforation monitor.
It is important that a separate jumper cable is used to connect the rig to the wellhead as opposed to using a
single ground cable that has two clamps and attaches to both in series. By using a separate line connected
as described above, the perforation monitor measures the integrity of the connection between the truck, the
wellhead, and the rig. Using a single ground cable with two clamps would effectively monitor the integrity
of the truck to rig connection only.
The perforation monitor simply measures the resistance of this conductive path to make sure it exists. So in
effect, the perforation monitor is like any other meter that measures resistance, such as a simpson meter,
digital multimeter, or a blasters galvanometer – and like any other meter, it measures voltage and current to
calculate a resistance. It does this by measuring the amount of voltage required to drive a known current
(1mA for the hanson monitors) through the circuit. As the resistance of the circuit increases, the amount of
voltage required to facilitate the current flow will also increase. When the voltage required to push the
current exceeds a preset threshold, an audible alarm will sound, warning the crew that the grounding cables
are damaged or not properly connected. The alarm threshold is adjustable, but it is set at the factory to
trigger when the resistance of the circuit exceeds 30 Ohms.
It is important to note that the circuit resistance measurement is made using a 370Hz A/C signal. This
signal frequency is used because it is outside the sensitive frequency band of the voltage monitor circuitry,
discussed in the next section, which means that both measurements can be made simultaneously without
adversely influencing each other.
2.4.4.2 Voltage Monitor

Proper ground connections should reduce any potential difference between the truck, rig, and wellhead to a
value so small that any resulting current flow through the wireline will be well below the no-fire threshold
of any explosive devices used during wireline operations. However, if a large potential difference (voltage)
between the truck, the rig, and/or the wellhead is present for some reason, it is possible for an accidental
detonation to occur. This is why the perforation monitor is designed to measure the potential difference
between the truck chassis and the wellhead in addition to the integrity of the ground connection.
The perforation monitor is again little more then a glorified multi-meter – but this time it is set to measure
voltage. The exact same connections are used to measure the potential difference between the wellhead/rig
and truck, as well as the integrity of the ground connections discussed in the previous section. Both
measurements are made simultaneously by the perforation monitor.
The basic measurement system is shown in the diagram below. One lead is connected to the truck chassis
while the other is connected (via the reel) to the rig and the well head (by the jumper cable). The potential
monitor is sensitive to voltages between 0Hz (DC) and 300Hz. Voltages oscillating above 300Hz will not
be detected. Make sure that any power sources operating above 300Hz that are in close proximity to the
perforating operation are completely shut down.
Wellhead Lead
Truck Chassis Lead
2.4.4.3 RF Energy
The perforation monitor RF (Radio Frequency) sensor is designed to measure the amount of ambient RF
energy oscillating between 20MHz and 640MHz. The circuitry is configured to alarm when enough energy
is present to generate 80% of the no-fire current (0.16 amps) for a 50 Ohm resistorized detonator with a 0.2
amp no-fire current limit. These specifications are chosen because 50 Ohm and 0.20 amps are the lowest
resistance and no-fire current limits respectively, present in all resistorized detonators used in the wireline
industry.
The RF sensor used by our company is manufactured by Can Trade Research. It is designed to output a DC
voltage level that is proportional to the total amount of energy present within the RF band bounded by
20MHz and 640MHZ. The actual sensing element is a single antenna mounted on the top of the truck.
This is curious because it is impossible to tune an antenna to measure RF energy across such a large
frequency range, simply because antennas are tuned by adjusting their length to match the wavelength (or
some whole fraction) of a specific frequency. So in fact a bank of antennas would be required to make
precise measurements across a bandwidth this large. But, for this measurement a single antenna is
acceptable because the goal is not to extract specific information from a small frequency band (such as
radios and cell phones do) but rather to measure an overall level of background RF energy. As a mater of
fact, the most important consideration when sizing the antenna is to make sure it is not tuned to any
individual frequency between 20MHz and 640MHz, so that it essentially responds equally poorly to all RF
energy within this band. The sensing antenna used on our units is cut to a length of 6cm, which means it is
ideally tuned to measure a 5GHz signal. It is also tuned to frequencies that are ½, ¼ … of 5GHz but the
larger the fraction the less signal the antenna will return. This is why this antenna does not show
significant preference to any particular frequency within the measurement bandwidth and subsequently
works well for this application.
The signal from the antenna is then filtered by the receiver section of the RF sensor. The filter is fairly
complex but suffice it to say that it performs two specific functions. First, it acts as a bandwidth filter that
strips any frequencies not between 20MHz and 640MHz out of the signal. Second, it acts as a step filter
that reduces the amplitude of the lower frequencies more than the higher frequencies to counter act the fact
that lower frequency signals will induce larger amplitude signals in the antenna. The amplitude matched
signal from the filter is then converted to a DC voltage that is proportional in magnitude to the total amount
of RF energy between 20MHZ and 640MHz. This voltage is then delivered to the perforation monitor
where it is compared to the threshold level discussed previously.
The RF sensing system works, but it has a number of limitations that must be considered. First, any RF
energy whose frequency falls outside the sensitive range will not be detected. AM radio is a good example
(AM transmitters broadcast between 0.5MHz and 1.2MHz) as are cell phones (analog systems transmit
between 824MHz to 894MHz and digital systems transmit within discrete bands that fall between 800MHz
and 2000MHz). Other types of offending equipment include cordless phones, keyless entry devices, garage
door openers, radar detectors, on-star systems, SCADA systems (automated data transmission systems
often used to monitor oil and gas production), and satellite transmission units. For this reason it is very
important to turn all RF emitting devices off before perforation operations start even if the RF sensor does
not alarm. Second, the antenna we use to detect RF energy is oriented straight up, so it will only be
sensitive to energy that is oscillating vertically – otherwise known as vertically polarized. The chief
offender here is television broadcasts which are horizontally polarized, so even though they fall (for the
most part) within the sensitive band it is still possible not to detect dangerous energy levels.
Transmitter proximity and strength are two other important things to consider when talking about RF
safety. With very few exceptions, hand held transmitters will not generate enough energy to ignite a
detonator unless they are placed very close to the explosive circuit. This is both good and bad. Good
because the chances of a transmitter being dangerously close are not very high. Bad because the RF sensor
is measuring energy near the line truck, instead of beside the well head where the gun is being armed. Cell
phones and other devices with exposed connection points pose the additional danger of connecting current
from their batteries to the blasting circuit via direct contact between the connection points and the blasting
circuit. These devices should be shut down and kept away from the blasting circuit. Large fixed
transmitters are a different story. Radio, television, microwave, cell, and CB towers all transmit with much
higher energy levels then handheld devices. To be safe, active towers should be at least 1.2 km (0.75
miles) from location before perforation operations start. For specific information regarding minimum safe
distances please refer the ‘Table of Distances’ published by the Institute of Makers of Explosives in their
Safety Library Publication titled ‘No. 20: Safety Guide for the Prevention of Radio Frequency Radiation
Hazards in the Use of Commercial electric Detonators’. Details for this publication are available in the
reference section of this document.
2.5 Meters
Only specially designed electrical meters are permitted to be used to check the electrical integrity of wiring
that is in contact or proximity with any explosive materials. These meters employ a test current less than
25 milliamperes and include Blasting Multimeters, Blasting Ohmmeters, and Blasting Galvanometers.
Digital Multimeters, Simpson Meters, Triplett Meters, and Megohmmeters all employ test currents that
exceed the minimum rating specified above and must not be used to check explosive devices. They may,
however, be used to test components used to perform ballistic services that do not currently contain, nor are
connected to tools that contain, explosive materials of any type.
2.6 Internal Pressure in Guns and Setting Tools
When explosives detonate or burn they create very large amounts of waste gasses. If these gasses are
contained within a tool they will be restricted from expanding and as a result generate very high pressures.
Setting tools, designed to generate high gaseous pressures to stroke a piston and set an element, are the
most common example. Low order detonations contained within a hollow steel carrier are another
example. Extra care must be taken when servicing tools that contain, or may contain pressure. In the case
of setting tools, detailed procedures are supplied by the manufacturer describing how to deal with the
contained pressure. In any case, make sure the time required to understand the dangers, and develop or
learn proper procedures, is taken before dealing with equipment that contains pressure.
2.7 Explosive Fires

Fires that involve explosive materials are a clear and present danger to everybody within reasonable
proximity to the blaze. The Health, Safety, and Environment Handbook for Employees and Contractors
covers emergency explosive procedures in detail and must be fully understood by all employees working
directly with, or in proximity to explosive materials.
Read the Safety Manual!
3 Explosives Theory
This section covers some of the basic science behind the engineered explosives used by our company world
wide today. The chemical composition, makeup, and properties of numerous types of explosive materials
are discussed first, followed by a brief introduction to the parameters that dictate the design, function,
construction, and operation of different types of shaped charges, setting tool power charges, detonators,
detonating cords, boosters, and igniters.
3.1 Chemical Composition

Explosives are chemical compounds and chemical science divides different compounds into two main sub-
groups, called organic chemicals and inorganic chemicals.
3.1.1 Organic Explosives

Organic chemicals and thus organic explosives are composed of carbon based chemical chains. Most
explosives used by the wireline industry are organic in nature and are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, and Oxygen, and are commonly referred to as CHNO explosives. They are distinguished from
each other by their respective empirical formulas, written as CxHyNwOz – where x, y, w, and z refer to the
number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen required to constitute one molecule of the
explosive in question. RDX, HMX, HNS, PYX, PETN and lead styphnate are all organic explosives.
3.1.2 Inorganic Explosives

Inorganic explosives are simply materials that whose molecular composition is not based on carbon based
chains. Inorganic explosives number few in comparison to their organic cousins, with lead azide being the
only one in common use by Precision Wireline today.
3.2 Definitions
3.2.1 Oxygen Balance

When organic explosive materials detonate and when organic combustible materials burn or deflagrate,
they undergo a chemical reaction known as oxidation. During this reaction, reactant molecules of hydrogen
and carbon combine with oxygen to form water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon monoxide (CO).
This reaction is exothermic, which means energy is released – which is good because this is the energy that
is going to perform work.
The oxygen required for combustible materials to burn can come from the atmosphere, such as when wood
burns, or it can come from the chemical make-up of the reactant materials, propellants being a good
example. On the other hand, high explosives must include the oxygen as part of their chemical structure in
order to sustain the high rate of oxidation indicative of a detonation.
The term Oxygen Balance is used to compare the amount of oxygen present in the explosive verses the
amount of oxygen required to completely burn all of the reactant materials to H2O and CO2. Oxygen
balance is expressed as a weight percentage of excess oxygen with respect to the weight of the entire
explosive molecule. Excess oxygen in an explosive (called over-oxidized or fuel lean) will result in a
positive oxygen balance whereas deficient oxygen (called under-oxidized or fuel rich) will result in a
negative oxygen balance.
The following rules of thumb form the simple product hierarchy that describes the order that reaction
products will form when CHNO materials oxidize. By this model, the reaction will not proceed to the next
step until the current step has burned to completion.
1. Nitrogen forms N2
2. Hydrogen burns to H2O
3. Any remaining oxygen is used to burn carbon to CO
4. Any remaining oxygen is used to burn CO to CO2
5. Any remaining oxygen will form O2
Perfectly oxygen balanced explosives (molecules with an oxygen balance of 0%) will burn through to
completion of step four. Negative oxygen balanced explosives will run out of oxygen somewhere during
step 2, 3, or 4, depending on how under-oxidized the molecules are. Positive oxygen balanced explosives
will terminate in step 5 with the production of free oxygen.
For RDX (C3H6N6O6), the reaction products are:
1. 6N Æ 3N2
2. 6H + 3O Æ 3H2O (3O left)
3. 3C + 3O Æ 3CO (No O left)
4. No remaining oxygen thus no CO2 is formed
5. No remaining oxygen thus no O2 is formed
Since the reaction ran out of oxygen before step 4 was complete, RDX is under-oxidized. Each RDX
molecule would require three additional oxygen atoms to completely burn the three CO molecules to CO2.
The oxygen balance can be calculated by taking the ratio of the atomic weight of missing oxygen atoms to
the atomic weight of the entire molecule. The atomic weights of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen
are 12.01, 1.008, 14.008, and 16.000 respectively, thus the oxygen balance is:
− 3O
OxygenBalance = (100%)
3C + 6 H + 6 N + 6O
− 3(16.000)
OxygenBalance = (100%) = −21.61%
3(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 6(14.008) + 6(16.000)
3.2.2 Energy of Formation

The energy of formation for a molecule is the amount of energy that must be added (or removed) from a
constant volume system in order to combine the base elements into the molecule.
3.2.3 Enthalpy of Formation

The enthalpy of formation for a molecule is equal to the amount of energy that must be added (or removed)
from a constant pressure system in order to combine the base elements into the product. The enthalpy of
formation for a molecule will change depending on the temperature and pressure of the system. This
makes it difficult to compare the enthalpy of formation for different molecular compounds. In order to
overcome this problem the enthalpy of formation for different molecules are compared at a standard
reference state of 1 atmosphere pressure and 25°C.
The standard enthalpy of formation for a molecule is therefore a measure of the energy required to create
the product molecule from the source elements while maintaining the entire system at atmospheric pressure
and 25ºC.
Enthalpy of formation is a relative measurement that assumes the enthalpy of formation for the source
elements existing in their natural state – oxygen is O2 not O – is zero at standard temperature and pressure.
Enthalpy of formation only quantifies the amount of energy required to take the source elements and
combine them into a product molecule, it does not consider the amount of energy required to make the
source elements in the first place.
Enthalpy’s of formation are measured experimentally and are tabulated for many different substances in
most thermodynamic textbooks. The values are expressed either as energy per moles of substance
(kJ/kmole) or as energy per mass of substance (kJ/kg). Positive values imply energy is required to form the
molecule, negative values imply energy is released when forming the molecule.
3.2.4 Explosion Heat

Explosion heat is the difference between the standard enthalpy of formation for the explosive molecule and
the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation for the product molecules. Thermodynamically it is equal
to the amount of energy that will be released when the explosive detonates.
The values for explosion heat displayed in the tables with each explosive in the following section were
experimentally determined. They can, however, be empirically estimated if the enthalpy of formation is
known for the explosive molecule and each product molecule.
Note: The term explosion heat is used interchangeably with other more generic terms, including ‘enthalpy
change of reaction’ or simply ‘heat of reaction’ by other textbooks when they describe the amount of
energy liberated during a chemical reaction.
3.2.5 Detonation
A detonation occurs when a material combusts so rapidly that the reaction propagates through the explosive
faster than the speed of sound. By definition, explosives that detonate create wavefronts that travel through
the explosive faster than 1500m/s. Detonating explosives are commonly referred to as high explosives.
Detonating explosives contain all of the fuel and oxygen required to combust within each explosive
molecule. Explosives that do not contain their own oxygen will not detonate because they cannot create or
sustain the reaction velocity required for detonation. As a side note, the fact that explosives contain their
own oxygen is the reason why they can combust in a well bore environment that contains no free oxygen.
3.2.6 Detonation Velocity

The term detonation velocity describes the rate that the detonation front travels through an explosive
material. The more dense the material, the faster the detonation velocity will be. The detonation velocity
will only reach a maximum value if the explosive is large enough in diameter to prevent the boundaries
from effecting the propagation of the detonation wavefront.
3.2.7 Deflagration
Deflagration is different then detonation because the explosive is decomposing at a much lower rate and the
reaction products are expelled behind the reaction front instead of in front of it. For example, when a
perforating charge is detonated the wavefront and the reaction products travel in the same direction – out
the front of the charge, whereas when a setting tool is ignited the charge deflagrates expelling the reaction
products behind the wavefront as it propagates deeper into the charge.
The term deflagration differs from (but is similar too) the term burning because it implies the explosive
compound (note the use of the word ‘compound’ instead of ‘molecule’) is supplying all of the oxygen
required for the reaction as opposed to drawing it from the surrounding atmosphere. Deflagrating
explosives contain oxygen as part of the explosive compound, but it is usually in a different molecule then
the fuel, whereas most detonating explosives contain the combustion oxygen and the fuel in the same
explosive molecule.
Deflagrating explosives are also termed ‘low explosives’. By convention, explosives that generate a
wavefront that travels less that 1500m/s when they combust are termed low explosives.
3.2.8 Deflagration Point

The deflagration point for an explosive is the temperature when it will either auto-ignite, resulting in a
prolonged burn or violent explosion, or chemically decompose very rapidly. If an explosive is heated to its
deflagration point it will become very unstable, unpredictable, and potentially very dangerous.
3.2.9 Melting Point
The melting point is the temperature at which the explosive in question will liquefy.
3.2.10 Impact Sensitivity

The impact sensitivity is the minimum amount of mechanical energy required to cause an explosive to
decompose or explode. The procedures used to test explosive materials are very well defined and specify
(among other things) the size of the test sample and the geometry of the testing apparatus.
The units used to express impact sensitivity are Newton⋅meter or joule (1N⋅m=1J), with N⋅m being more
common due to the way the test is performed. Specifically, a block with a known weight (in newtons) is
dropped through a known distance (meters) resulting in a controlled amount of energy being applied to the
sample – and the corresponding unit N⋅m.
3.2.11 Density
The density of the explosive is measured in the units of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc). The density
value displayed for each explosive is the maximum density commercially available for the explosive.
Many of the explosives we use have a lower density than the value specified.
3.2.12 Grain of Explosive

The unit of Grain is the base unit of the avoirdupois system, where 1 pound = 16 ounces = 7000 grains.
This system of measure is often referred to as the commercial or imperial system of weights. The grain is
also the base unit for the troy system of weights where 1 pound (troy) = 12 ounces (troy) = 5760 grains.
Surprisingly enough, one grain troy also equals one grain avoirdupois. Converting to metric, 1 grain =
0.065 grams.
3.2.13 Volume of Explosion Gases

This is the volume occupied by the gasses produced by detonation, expressed as liters of gas per kilogram
of explosive material. All resultant water is assumed to be gaseous and all volumes are calculated for
atmospheric pressure and 0°C.
3.2.14 Specific Energy

The specific energy of an explosive is a measure of the amount of energy available to perform work by the
explosion gasses, per unit mass of detonated material.
3.2.15 Nitrogen Content

Nitrogen content is the percent of the explosive material, by mass, constituted by nitrogen.
3.2.16 Decomposition
Most explosive molecules decompose into less volatile compounds over time. The rate of decomposition
determines the shelf life of explosives and is usually exponentially dependant on temperature, which is a
major consideration when choosing explosives for use in high temperature wells. Decomposition is one of
two reasons why the temperature ratings for explosives are given as an exposure to a specific temperature
for a specific period of time, the other being spontaneous detonation. Decomposition is also a non-
reversible process. Explosives exposed to temperatures approaching their operational limits but not
detonated cannot be reused.
3.3 Types of Explosives
3.3.1 Pyrotechnics
Pyrotechnics are explosives designed to burn rather than detonate, and in the process produce light, heat,
fog, or sound. Pyrotechnical materials that produce heat can be used to stimulate thermal ignition of other
explosives such as high explosives or deflagrates, and are commonly employed in fireworks.
3.3.2 Primary High Explosives

The terms primary and high are best defined independently. The term ‘Primary’ means that the explosive
is very sensitive to ignition – either thermal or impact. High means the explosive will detonate with a very
fast detonation velocity (in excess of 1500m/s) resulting in a relatively high explosive yield delivered in an
infinitesimal period of time.
Because primary explosives are so sensitive and have a high explosive yield they are very dangerous to
handle and use. Their use is usually limited to very small quantities in detonators and boosters to provide
enough explosive force to detonate other secondary high explosives that actually perform the work. This is
why primary explosives are stored separately from all other explosive materials in a secure magazine –
both on the truck and in the shop.
3.3.2.1 Lead Styphnate
Lead Styphnate is the common name for lead trinitroresorcinate. It is a very sensitive primary explosive
often mixed with Lead Azide and employed as the initiating element in detonators. One of the chief
advantages of using this material in the well bore is the fact that it is not hygroscopic, which means that it
repels water.
Color Orange-yellow to dark brown crystals

Empirical Formula C6H3N3O9Pb
Molecular Weight 468.3
Energy of Formation -1747.2 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of Formation -1786 kJ/kg
Oxygen Balance -18.8 %
Nitrogen Content 8.97 %
Density 3.0 g/cm3
Heat of Explosion 1453 kJ/kg
Melting Point Decomposes before it melts.
Deflagration Point 275-280°C = 527-535°F
Impact Sensitivity 2.5-5 N⋅m
Detonation Velocity (density = 2.9 g/cc) 5200 m/s = 17000 ft/s
3.3.2.2 Lead Azide
Lead Azide is also a very sensitive primary explosive with a very low hygroscopicity. Lead Azide is used
primarily in detonators as part of the initiating element as well as in boosters to magnify the strength of
input shocks to ensure a high order detonation of an adjacent secondary high explosive component.
Color Colorless crystals

Formula Pb(N3)2
Energy of Formation +1663.3 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of Formation +1637.7 kJ/kg
Volume of Explosion Gases 231 l/kg
Density 4.8 g/cm3
Melting Point Decomposes before it melts.
Deflagration Point 320-360°C = 600-680°F
Impact Sensitivity 2.5-4 N⋅m
3.3.3 Secondary High Explosives
Secondary High Explosives are very similar to Primary High Explosives because they also have a very fast
detonation velocity and correspondingly high explosive yield. The major difference is their ignition
sensitivity – again either thermal or impact – which is comparatively low. As a matter of fact, the name
‘secondary explosive’ derives from the fact that they functionally will only detonate when exposed to an
output shock from another explosive (usually primary). For this reason, secondary high explosives are
much safer to handle, store, form, and use then their primary counterparts. This does not mean that
precautions do not need to be taken – but the degree of precaution is different. For example, a loaded
perforating gun full of secondary explosive shaped charges can be transported and stored outside of an
explosive magazine whereas the detonators, which contain primary explosives, must always be properly
secured in a shock proof magazine.
3.3.3.1 PETN
The name PETN derives from the full chemical name of the explosive, which is Pentaerythritol tetranitrate.
PETN is the most impact sensitive secondary explosive used in the industry and it is this property that
makes it desirable (or undesirable) to use. The chief applications for PETN include detonators and
detonating cord.
PETN experiences very high rates of thermal decomposition long before it melts making it unsuitable for
use in high temperature wells. This is the chief limitation for this explosive. As a matter of course, the
explosive should not be exposed to temperatures exceeding 70°C for any length of time. The maximum
temperature rating for the explosive is 121°C for 1 hour.
PETN is also difficult to cast without mixing it with other explosive materials (usually TNT) making it
virtually impossible to use in shaped charges.

Empirical Formula C5H8N4O12
Energy of Formation -1610.7 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of Formation -1704.7 kJ/kg
Density 1.76 g/cm3
Specific Energy 1205 kJ/kg
Melting Point 141.3°C = 286.3°F
Deflagration Point 202°C = 396°F
Impact Sensitivity 3 N⋅m
3.3.3.2 RDX
RDX stands for Royal Demolition EXplosive, which is also known as cyclonite, hexogen, or by its
chemical formula Cyclo-1,3,5-trimethylene-2,4,6-trinitramine. RDX is one of the most commonly used
high explosive materials in the wireline industry and the world in general. It is almost as powerful as HMX
at a fraction of the cost to produce, it is very easy to cast, and it is much less sensitive to accidental ignition
with a substantially higher temperature rating then its other chief rival, PETN.
RDX is used in shaped charges, detonating cord, and as the secondary explosive output component in
detonators. RDX is rated for exposure to a maximum temperature of 171°C for one hour.

Density 1.82 g/cm3
Melting Point 204°C = 399°F
Deflagration Point N/A
Impact Sensitivity 7.5 N⋅m
3.3.3.3 HMX
HMX stands for High Melting (point) EXplosive. This material is also known as octogen, or by its
chemical name Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine.
HMX was initially an unvalued by-product of the process used to produce RDX until it was discovered that
it too possessed excellent explosive properties. It is now produced for use in high temperature
environments that exceed the maximum ratings for RDX, but are lower then its own maximum rating of
204ºC for one hour. HMX is also slightly more powerful than RDX, it is easily formed, and it can be used
in charges, detonating cord, and detonators – which raises the question why it has not replaced RDX
entirely. The answer is cost; it is much more expensive to produce.

Density 1.96 g/cm3
Melting Point 275°C = 527°F
Deflagration Point 287°C = 549°F
Impact Sensitivity 7.4 N⋅m
3.3.3.4 HNS
The name HNS derives from the full chemical name for the explosive, which is Hexanitrostilbene. HNS
possesses a very high temperature rating of 288°C for one hour; it is less powerful then RDX, PETN, and
HMX; and it is very expensive. HNS is used in detonating cord and shaped charges. The only economical
application for HNS is use in very hot wells.
Color Yellow crystals

Density 1.74 g/cm3
Specific Energy Unknown
Melting Point 318°C = 604°F (decomposition)
Deflagration Point N/A
Impact Sensitivity 5 N⋅m
Detonation Velocity (density = 1.74 g/cc) Approx 7000m/s = 22960 ft/s
3.3.3.5 PYX
PYX, also known by it’s chemical name, 2,6-bis(picrylamino)-3,5-dinitropyridine, is an extremely
expensive explosive with a very high temperature rating of 315ºC for one hour. The performance of this
explosive is slightly better then HNS but still less powerful then RDX, PETN, and HMX. The material is
used in detonating cord and shaped charges. The only economical application for PYX is use in wells that
have a temperature that exceeds the rating of all other available explosives.
Information on the chemical nature of this explosive is hard to find. The table below summarizes all the
information available at the time this document was released. The empirical formula was derived by the
author, and the molecular weight, oxygen balance, and nitrogen content were subsequently calculated from
the empirical formula. Use these values with caution.
Color Deep Yellow

Energy of Formation
Enthalpy of Formation
Oxygen Balance -61%
Nitrogen Content 24.3%
Volume of Explosion Gases
Density 1.75 g/cm3
Heat of Explosion
Specific Energy Unknown
Melting Point 460°C = 860°F (decomposition)
Deflagration Point
Impact Sensitivity
Detonation Velocity (density = 1.74 g/cc) Approx 7200m/s = 23600 ft/s
3.3.4 Deflagrates
Deflagrate, or secondary low explosives are distinguished from primary and secondary high explosives by
their comparatively low detonation velocities. The reaction front does not travel through deflagrating
explosives fast enough to result in the near instantaneous reaction required to create a detonation.
However, like other types of explosives they do not require oxygen from the atmosphere to combust
because oxygen molecules are intrinsic within their chemical makeup. So, even though they do not
detonate, the reaction front still progresses much faster then, say, a fire would through a burning log.
Since the rate of reaction is slow (relatively speaking) for deflagrating explosives the release of reaction
energy is spread out over a larger period of time. Functionally speaking this means that even though the
total energetic output from the explosion might the same as that resulting from the detonation of a
secondary high explosive, the delivery of the force is averaged over time instead of instantaneous; in other
words, it is like receiving a hundred small hits instead of one big one.
3.3.4.1 Black Powder
The most common type of deflagrating explosive is black powder, often called gun powder. The origin of
black powder is the subject of popular debate but it is generally accepted that its use in western civilization
dates back to the mid twelve hundreds, with a history in Asia that predates that by many more hundreds of
years. Black powder revolutionized warfare and was the most commonly produced and employed
explosive up to the early twentieth century.
Like all explosives, black powder consists of a fuel component and an oxidizer. Residual charcoal
produced from burnt wood constitutes the fuel component. Carbon is the chemically active constituent
within the charcoal and the type of source wood varies between manufacturers and is surprisingly
somewhat dependant on the planned application for the explosive. There are two common materials used
as oxidizers. Potassium nitrate (KNO3, also known as saltpetre), is the most historically significant
ingredient used, and sodium nitrate (NaNO3), is an equally functional ingredient used primarily in North
America.
Black powder also employs a third ingredient -- Sulfur (also called brimstone), which very readily
combusts and exists as very small grains that fill the voids between the fuel and oxidizer components.
Sulfur gives life to the explosive by rapidly transmitting the reaction throughout the explosive charge.
Without it, the fuel and oxidizer would simply burn slowly instead of explode.
Black powder exists in many different ratios but the most common ratio, by mass, is 6:1:1 for KNO3
(oxidizer), C (Fuel), and S respectively.
Black powder differs (as do most deflagrating low explosives) from high explosives in one very important
way. Both types of explosives contain fuel and oxidizer components, but in high explosives they are
combined within the same molecule whereas in deflagrating explosives they are not. Black powder relies
on sulfur to transmit the explosion throughout the entire volume of material, and this is the primary reason
why the detonation velocity is reduced.
Since black powder is a deflagrating explosive it delivers its explosive force over a relatively long period of
time. To compensate, most applications for black powder use the pressure created by the resultant reaction
gasses to perform the work. This is accomplished by placing the black powder in a sealed chamber and
then igniting it; the powder will combust and produce high amounts of high temperature gas resulting in
very high pressures. When employed in a gun, black powder charges create enough gas to push the shot
out of the gun barrel. When black powder is employed in a bomb the gas pressure will increase until it
causes the casing to explode.
It is interesting to note that the basic ballistic properties of black powder stem from the fact that
atmospheric oxygen is not required for it to react thus it is possible to ignite it in a contained vessel and
harness the energy of the produced gasses.
Most applications for black powder are optimized by controlling the rate of gas production. Sulfur may
transmit the explosion to each grain, but once ignited, the grains burn from the outside toward the center,
thus the larger the grain size the longer it will take for it to combust and the longer it will take to produce
the gas.
3.3.4.2 Setting Tool Power Charges
Setting tool power charges are primarily composed of the same ingredients used to make black powder, but
they are combined in such a way that the velocity of detonation is severely restricted. Power charges are
constructed to act like a single large grain of black powder by casting the fuel and oxidizer components
inside an epoxy resin. This type of construction prevents the reaction front from enveloping the entire
charge after it is ignited. Instead, the reaction will only progress through the charge as new fuel and
oxidizer are exposed after other materials combust.
Power Charge
Secondary
Igniter
Power charges are long and slender cylinders packed full of explosives. They
are ignited at one end and burn through to the other over a fairly predictable
period of time.
The power charge explosive reaction is relatively difficult to start with an

igniter alone so a small explosive pill called a secondary igniter (sometimes
colloquially referred to as a turkey turd) is used to help things along.
Sometimes the secondary igniter is placed inside the top of the power charge
by the manufacturer and other times it must be inserted when arming the tool;
however it is configured it must always be in very close proximity to the
electrical igniter. The secondary igniter is a priming charge of deflagrating
explosive that has a much higher rate of reaction then the power charge.
The electrical igniter sets off the secondary igniter which then starts the
reaction in the top of the power charge.
Power charges typically burn faster down the center of the charge then they do
down the sides. This results in a conical burn pattern that increases the surface
area of the explosive being exposed to the reaction front as the burn progresses
through the charge. Functionally this is important because the rate of release
of product gasses will exponentially increase after the charge is ignited until
the burn is nearly complete.
In short, power charges are designed to control the rate of burn, and thus the
production of gas, to provide a steadily increasing force to set an element in
the borehole.
There are a few different types of charges provided by a number of different vendors in use by our
company today. It is important to ensure the charge being employed is compatible with the setting tool
being used, as well as the element being set. The volume of gas must be large enough to stroke the setting
tool piston but not so large that it causes the setting tool to explode. For example, the charge shown in the
picture on the previous page is designed for use in a Baker #20 setting tool only. The volume of gas
delivered by this setting tool charge is engineered to match the volume of the Baker #20 chamber. Also,
the rate that the explosive reaction progresses determines how fast the force from the setting tool will be
delivered to the element being set after the charge has been ignited. The charge on the previous page is
called a ‘Slow-Set’ charge indicating that the explosive reaction will progress more slowly then the other
option which is called the ‘Regular’ or ‘Standard’ set charge.
3.4 Shaped Charges
Shaped charges are designed to create a deep penetration in a solid material. As with most explosive
substances, the initial applications for shaped charges were military in nature. The second world war
bazooka is the most known of the early employers of shaped charges – they used a conical charge at the tip
of the warhead to create a penetration hole in the armour of a tank, through which the remainder of the
explosive shock wave could enter and wreak havoc amongst the crew. Uses for shaped charges have since
expanded to include many applications in the civilian world, including in the oil and gas industry.
Shaped charges function by creating a very high velocity particle ‘Jet’ that penetrates and deforms the
material in front of it. The overall design of shaped charges has changed very little since the 1950’s; the
key components, shown in the diagram below, include:
• The priming charge. Priming charges are usually more sensitive than main charges because (1)
they do not contain as many impurities (which are used to shape the explosive) and (2) they are
usually composed of smaller more tightly packed grains. The priming charge is present to ensure
the detonation front is fully developed and axially balanced before it reaches the main charge.
This is important because the symmetry of detonation about the center axis is a must for shaped
charges to work.
• The main charge. The main charge is usually composed of the same explosive as the priming
charge, but it more often than not will also contain some other substance, such as wax or graphite,
that assist when pressing or casting the explosive material into the correct shape. When the charge
is manufactured it is of vital importance that the explosive material is evenly distributed about the
center axis of the charge. If it is not, the jet of liner material will not form and there will be no
collimated output – the shaped charge will simply explode like any other block of explosive.
• The charge casing. The primary purpose of the charge casing is to hold the contents together.
Stronger casings will also act to focus a higher percentage of the explosive force against the liner –
which results in a more energetic jet, but the improvement is not particularly large. When the
charge is detonated the casing is destroyed as the explosive wavefront moves through it.
• The metal liner. The metal liner constitutes the material that is converted into the explosive jet
when the charge is detonated. As the explosive wavefront moves through the charge it causes the
metal liner to collapse in on itself at a very high velocity. When the liner coalesces at the center
axis of the charge, part of it (about 60%) forms a slower (relatively speaking) slug while the rest
forms a very high velocity jet.
3.4.1 Shaped Charge Construction
The pictures in the following sequence were taken at the Owen Explosive Production facility near Ft.
Worth Texas. The sequence shows the construction of a powdered metal liner followed by the assembly of
an RDX shaped charge.
Powdered Metal Liner Construction. The

material used to construct powdered metal
liners varies from charge to charge and
manufacturer to manufacturer, but it is usually
composed primarily from copper and/or
aluminum.
The liners are constructed by placing a precise

amount of powdered metal into a precision
machined metal press. The male end of the
press lowers into the female end, which spins
to ensure the metal is evenly distributed, and
compresses the metal into a solid cone.
The cone is removed, weighed, and the

dimension and thickness are measured (at
multiple points) to ensure it is acceptable for
use in a shaped charge. It is imperative for the
liner to be constructed symmetrically on every
axis in order for the shaped charge to generate
the all important explosive jet.
Completed liners are stored, and

then painted with a non-corrosive
material to prevent the metal from
reacting with components of the
explosive charge.
Charge Assembly. The first component
touched when assembling charges is the
precision machined charge casing.
Each component of the charge is added to the

charge casing by hand, starting with the primer
explosive charge. The primer charge is a more
pure form of the main charge explosive that
does not contain any casting additives, and it
usually has a higher explosive grain density.
Both the primer charge and the main charge are

measured before they are put into the charge
casing to ensure the correct weight is used.
The main charge load in this case was precisely
18g.
The charge casing is now placed inside a hand
operated hydraulic press. A powdered metal
liner is inserted into the top of the charge, then
a press forces it down into the explosive
material. The explosive extrudes between the
charge liner and the charge casing.
A small bead of paint is placed around the rim

of the liner to seal the explosive material into
the charge.
The charge is then inventoried by lot number

and production date, packaged, and shipped to
your station.
3.4.2 Shaped Charge Performance
Even though the core design of shaped charges has not changed very much since the early days, many
design refinements have been made to improve and control how the explosive force from the charge is
applied to a target. This is one of the reasons why so many charges are available in the marketplace today.
There are charges designed to create small-diameter deep penetrations, others create shallow large-diameter
penetrations, and the list goes on. The following graphic is labeled to identify the primary design changes
that exist between different shaped charges. The list that follows discusses how changes to each of these
parameters, as well as changes made to the type and concentration of the explosive materials used and the
position of the charge relative to the material it is meant to act on will affect the work the charge performs.
• ‘A’, the liner angle. Decreasing the liner angle will create a more focused higher velocity jet.
The resulting perforation will usually be deeper with a smaller diameter.
• ‘B’, the distance between the liner apex and the primer charge. Increasing this distance allows
the detonation wavefront to build to a higher velocity before it starts acting on the liner. This
increases the amount of energy applied to the liner and will result in a deeper perforation.
Increasing this distance will also result in a more focused jet that creates a perforation with a
smaller diameter.
• ‘C’, the thickness of the liner. The thicker the liner, the more material available to be converted
to jet, and the more work performed on the formation. Generally, increasing the liner thickness
will result in a deeper penetration and a smaller perforation diameter.
• ‘D’, the charge diameter. Increasing the diameter of the charge will result in a deeper penetration
and a larger hole diameter.
• ‘E’, the apex radius. Decreasing the apex radius (at the extreme the internal cone would form a
point instead of a curve) will sharpen the point of the jet resulting in a deeper penetration and a
smaller perforation diameter. ‘Large hole’ charges often employ very large apex radii resulting in
their characteristic large hole diameters.
• Detonation Velocity of explosive. Increasing the detonation velocity will increase the energy
applied to the jet resulting in a deeper penetration with a larger hole diameter. The detonation
velocity can be changed by using a different explosive or by increasing or decreasing the density
of the explosive grains within the main charge. Another tactic commonly used is to alter the grain
density within certain parts of the charge. For example, using a lower grain density in the
explosive between the primer charge and the liner apex (labeled ‘B’ on the graphic above) will
result in a lower detonation velocity in the early part of the charge which causes a larger diameter
entrance hole.
• Standoff. Standoff is defined as the distance between the face of the charge and the inside surface
of the scallop plug that covers it. Charge performance varies by quite a large margin as standoff is
changed – either too much or too little standoff will cause detrimental effects. In reality, well bore
diameter limits the size of perforating guns to the point that it would be very hard to design a gun
that contains charges with too much standoff.
• Clearance. Clearance is different than standoff. It is defined as the distance between the surface
of the gun and the inside surface of casing. Similar to standoff, the effect of clearance varies for
different charges. Again, too little or too much clearance is a bad thing. Since most guns employ
charges phased around the diameter of the tool, centralization becomes important when
considering gun clearance – this problem becomes very pronounced when small diameter guns are
used to perforate large diameter wells.
• Casing effects. The primary effect casing has on charge performance is on the entrance hole
diameter. The stronger the material used to construct the casing the less the casing will displace as
the jet passes through resulting in a smaller entrance hole. Conversely, the strength of the casing
has very little effect on the depth of the penetration. The effect multiple strings of casing will
have on the perforation is hard to predict. Perforation performance will depend on the number and
diameter of casing strings as well as the presence and/or quality of any cement. Suffice it to say
extra casing will have a negative effect on perforation depth.
• Perforation of air or gas filled wells. Most specifications for shaped charges are developed
assuming water filled well bores. When guns are fired in air or gas filled wells the performance of
the charges will be somewhat different. Contact the charge manufacturer for more information.
• Liner Construction. In addition to the liner thickness, the material used to construct it will also
have a substantial effect on the quality of the perforation. Older charges used annealed sheet
copper liners that produced coherent copper slugs that would follow the jet into the formation and
foul the newly generated perforation. Newer liners are constructed from powdered metal,
primarily copper, aluminum, and lead, that is pressed into the charge. When the charge is
detonated the portion of liner material that does not form the jet travels into the perforation as
disassociated metallic particles that simply imbed themselves in the rock. Copper liners are still
used in some large hole charges that do not suffer from ‘plugging’ problems but powdered metal
liners are by far the most common.
3.4.2.1 Charge Performance Testing – API RP 19B
Most charge manufacturers follow standard performance testing procedures that are defined by the
American Petroleum Institute (API), in their publication titled ‘Recommended Practices for Evaluation of
Well Perforators: API Recommended Practice 19B’, commonly referred to in the industry as API RP 19B.
This document replaces API RP 43, and establishes common testing procedures and apparatus to evaluate
the performance of perforators under the conditions itemized below.
1. Evaluation of perforating systems under ambient surface conditions (temperature and pressure)
using specified concrete targets.
2. Evaluation of perforating systems using a Berea Sandstone target placed in an engineered pressure
vessel to simulate stressed formations.
3. Evaluation of perforation systems using steel targets placed in thermal chambers to simulate
different formation/well temperatures.
4. Evaluation of fluid flow parameters (permeability and flow rates) for different flow regimes
through sample formation cores into test charge perforations.
In most cases, new charge designs are tested using the above four standard testing procedures, then the
results are registered with the American Petroleum Institute and used by the charge manufactures to market
the capabilities of their products. The standard tests are very useful to oil companies for two reasons, first,
they make it easy to compare the specifications of different charges, and second, there are numerous
software products available that can predict and model the performance of API tested charges opposite any
type of formation, provided key physical formation properties are known.
3.4.2.2 Manufacturer Lot Testing
Instead of performing complex and expensive

API RP 19B tests for each lot, most
manufacturers measure the expected response
of each charge type opposite a simpler media,
such as the cement cylinders shown in the
picture to the right. They will then test lot
samples and compare them to the bench mark
test to ensure their products are performing
well.
The following series of pictures show how

Owen Oil Tools lot tests their charges at their
Fort Worth Manufacturing facility.
The charges are prepared by placing them

overtop of two pieces of steel with ceramic
disks acting as spacers. The steel plate directly
beneath the charge simulates the gun body and
the other steel plate simulates casing. The
spacers below the charge and between the two
plates are used to simulate standoff and
clearance respectively.
The ceramic disk between the two plates is

filled with water to simulate the fluid between
the gun body and casing when the gun is in the
well.
The charge is then placed on top of a test
cylinder, in a blasting chamber, and detonated.
The debris is collected and evaluated to ensure

the charge penetration meets the advertised
specifications.
The picture on the lower right shows a test

cylinder before the charge is detonated and the
picture on the lower right shows the remains of
a test cylinder after detonation.
The remaining cement is split and the total length of the perforation is measured to verify the charge
performed as expected. Note the small size of the entry hole in the ‘casing’ steel plate and the small
diameter of the perforation through the cement. This charge penetrated over 3 feet into the concrete.
The close-up shot of the cement test cylinder
above and the picture of the large scale
concrete test block shown to the right (this test
was performed in accordance with the first
condition specified by API RP 19B discussed
in the previous section) illustrate how narrow,
precise, and deep, shaped charge perforations
are going to be in down hole formations. It
cannot be overstated how much more valuable
this type of deformation is in well completions
when compared to the minor effect a block of
the same type and amount of explosive would
have if detonated in the same place.
3.4.3 Shaped Charge Detonation
The following sequence of pictures graphically shows what happens when a shaped charge is detonated.
The sequence starts when an input shock

from the detonating cord detonates the
explosive in the primer charge.
There are few impurities within the primer

charge and the explosive grains are smaller
than the main charge making it more
sensitive to detonation.
The geometry of the primer charge chamber

is designed to ensure an evenly distributed
wavefront strikes the main charge to create
an axially balance detonation.
As the wavefront progresses through the

main charge it builds in velocity until it
contacts the apex of liner.
When the wavefront contacts the liner it

accelerates the metal particles towards the
center axis of the charge, where they merge
and form either the high velocity jet or the
lower velocity slug.
Since the explosive mass behind the liner is

greatest at the apex the resultant velocity of
the jet that is formed in this part of the charge
is the greatest. As the wavefront propagates
through the rest of the charge, the liner
continues to collapse and form more jet (and
slug) material but the velocity starts to
decrease. This creates a velocity gradient
within the jet – and this gradient is the reason
why shaped charges are able to deeply
penetrate the formation. The next section
covers this in detail.
As the wavefront propagates through the
charge, about 30% of the explosive energy
is used to generate the jet and thus perform
work creating the perforation. The
remaining energy is expended destroying
the charge casing, creating the slug, and
generating heat.
When all is said and done, the charge is

little more then shards of metallic debris,
and the explosive is water vapor, nitrogen
gas, carbon monoxide gas, and carbon
dioxide gas.
3.4.4 Jet Velocity Gradient

The term ‘Jet Velocity Gradient’ derives from the fact that the material forming the jet does not travel at a
uniform velocity. The portion of the jet formed from the apex of the liner will have the highest velocity
because it is acted on by the largest volume of explosive in the charge. As the explosive detonation front
progresses through the charge, the volume of explosive behind the liner continually decreases causing the
corresponding jet velocity to drop. Thus the leading tip of the jet will travel faster then the trailing end, and
since the velocity gradient exists, the length of the jet will increase the further it travels from the charge.
Slower Moving Material

Faster Moving Material
The velocity gradient within the jet is what gives shaped charges their excellent penetrating abilities.
Instead of expending the force of the explosive at the instant of detonation over a relatively large surface
area, shaped charges apply their working force through the jet, and they dish it out in manageable amounts.
The fastest moving material at the tip of the jet is the first to contact the formation, and it works to deform
the surface of the target. The portion of the jet that comes immediately after works on the formation just
beneath the surface and so on until a long narrow perforation is created. The difference between a block
charge and a shaped charge is much like the difference between throwing a pale of water at a pile of dirt as
opposed to shooting a continuous string of water at a single spot from a garden hose. The water from the
pale will simply impact against the surface compared to the water from the garden hose which will create a
deep hole.
When designing perforating programs and selecting charges, care must be taken to ensure that there is
enough space for the jet to separate before it strikes the target formation. Failure to do so will cause the
explosive force to be applied too quickly, resulting in a very poor, shallow penetration.
3.5 Detonating Cord
Detonating cord is a long, slender, three layer cable or ribbon that consists of a protective jacket on the
outside, an explosive containment sheath in the middle (most of the time), and an explosive element in the
center. Cords constructed with a lead protective jacket are two layer cords that do not include the explosive
containment sheath. Detonating cord is designed to explode down its length and deliver enough force to
initiate other secondary explosives that are placed in close proximity.
RDX, HMX, PETN, PYX, and HNS are all used to constitute the explosive element in the core of one or
more types of available detonating cord. There are two specific criteria that must be considered when
choosing which type of explosive to use for a specific application. The first is the maximum expected
temperature, and the second is minimum required detonation velocity. The temperature is solely dependant
on the explosive selected. The detonation velocity is dependant on the type of explosive, as well as how it
is packed and distributed within the core – the higher the grain density the higher the detonation velocity.
The material used to construct the containment sheath and protective jacket is also very important.
Different materials have different temperature ratings, as well as different sensitivities to well bore
exposure. Specifically, some cords can be exposed to well bore fluids and others cannot – and of those that
can be exposed, only a few can be exposed to hostile fluids such as acid.
The ratings for each type of cord are published by all of the cord manufactures and some of the cord
distributors. The specs for each cord must be carefully reviewed before they are used to ensure they are
suitable for the environment to which they will be exposed.
Protective Jacket
Containment
Sheath Explosive Core
3.5.1 Ribbon Cord and Round Cord

Detonating cord comes in two different geometries, round and ribbon. Round cord is by far the most
common type in use by our company. Ribbon cord is less common and it is designed to achieve two
primary goals. First, because of its flat shape it occupies less space within the total diameter of a charge
carrier, leaving extra room that can be occupied by larger charges, and second, the flat surface area of the
cord provides a larger contact area between the cord and the charge, improving ballistic coupling.
Different charges are designed to be ignited by round cord only, ribbon cord only, or in rare cases by either
round or ribbon cord. The charge manufacturer’s specifications must always be reviewed to ensure the
correct type of cord is being used.
3.5.2 Extra High Velocity Cord

Extra High Velocity Cord (often referred to as XHV cord) achieves high detonation velocities by
compacting the core after the cord is formed. This is accomplished by extruding the detonating cord
through a series of rollers that squeeze the cord sequentially on at least two axes. This action increases the
density of the explosive in the core which in turn increases the detonation velocity.
Extra High Velocity Cord is used to fire very high shot density guns to prevent charge interference. Charge
interference occurs when the detonation front of a charge located early in the explosive train reaches an un-
ignited charge located further down the line before the detonation front within the detonating cord does.
Extra high velocity cord is usually deemed to be required when the shot density of hollow steel carrier guns
exceeds 17 shots per meter (SPM) or 6 shots per foot (SPF).
Unfortunately the extrusion action that is used to compact the core of extra high velocity cord also causes
the shape of the cord to become oval instead of round. This shape makes it virtually impossible to create a
fluid proof seal around the cord and any other explosive device such as a booster or a detonator. This
limitation restricts the use of extra high velocity cord to NON-EXPOSED applications only. This is not a
big loss because extra high velocity cord should not be required during exposed operations because (a)
exposed operations should only be conducted in fluid filled wells, and the fluid acts as a barrier between the
charges; and (b) since the well is fluid filled there will be pressure exerted on the detonating cord that will
act to compress the core and thereby increase the detonation velocity anyway.
3.5.3 Shrinkage
Without exception the materials used to construct all types of detonating cord will experience shrinkage
when exposed to high temperatures. The amount of shrinkage, however, is different for different types of
cords and varies between a minimum of about 1% and a maximum of about 7% of the total cord length.
Refer to the manufactures specifications for each individual cord for specific numbers.
The amount of shrinkage is dependant on the temperature of the well. The higher the temperature the more
shrinkage can be expected. Shrinkage ratings for cords are specified for specific exposure times to specific
temperatures.
Shrinkage is the reason why ‘slack’ detonating cord is left in the perforating guns when loading. The idea
is to leave enough extra cord in the gun to prevent the cord from pulling out of the detonator as its overall
length decreases.
3.5.4 Low Shrink Cord

Low shrink (abbreviated LS) cord is simply detonating cord that has been pre-exposed to high temperatures
in order to cause the protective jacket and containment sheath to shrink before they are exposed to high
temperatures in the well. Note, however, that they are called low shrink cords not ‘no’ shrink cords – they
can still be expected to shrink in the well, just not very much.
3.5.5 Cord Load

The cord load, in units of grains/foot, refers to the total mass of explosive material measured in grains per
linear foot of detonating cord length. When expressed in metric units the cord load is measured in grams
per meter.
This specification should not be confused with the explosive density of the cord since it only measures the
amount of explosive per unit length of cord and does not consider the volume one unit length of cord
occupies.
3.5.6 Flexibility
The jacketing material used to construct some types of detonating cord is not very flexible and cannot be
used for applications that require the detonating cord to change directions over short distances. High shot
density guns are a prime example of an application that requires flexible cord.
3.5.7 Exposed Detonating Cord Sealing Instructions

For detonating cords supplied by Owen Oil Tools please refer to their Technical Product Catalog (available
in paper copy from your Owen Oil Tools vendor or online from the Owen Oil Tools web site) for specific
instructions regarding the proper procedure to seal the connection point between the detonator and the
detonating cord for exposed perforating applications. For products supplied by other vendors consult with
their technical experts to ensure the proper sealing procedures are followed.
• Owen Exposed Detonating cord Sealing Instructions
3.5.8 Types of Detonating Cord Commonly Used

3.5.8.1 Ensign Bickford 80 RDX LS XHV
Manufacturer Part Number A570010

Nominal Explosive Core Load 17 grams/m RDX 80 grains/ft RDX
Nominal Detonation Velocity 7850 m/s 25748 ft/s
Dimensions (Diameter) 5.33 mm 0.210 in
Shrinkage (exposed to 162.8ºC [325ºF] for 24 hrs) 1% Maximum
Temperature Rating (1 Atm. Pressure for 1 hr) 163ºC 325ºF
Temperature Rating (1 Atm. Pressure for 100hrs) 116ºC 240ºF
Exposed Perforating No
Applications EHSC and RHSC guns; including guns with high
shot densities.
3.5.8.2 Ensign Bickford 80 RDX LS

Nominal Explosive Core Load 17 grams/m RDX 80 grains/ft RDX
Exposed Perforating Yes
Exposed Temp Rating (15000psi for 1 hr) 135ºC 275ºF
Applications EHSC and RHSC guns with shot densities less then
17SPM
3.5.8.3 Ensign Bickford 80 HMX LS XHV
Nominal Explosive Core Load 17 grams/m HMX 80 grains/ft HMX
Exposed Perforating No
Applications EHSC and RHSC guns; including guns with high
shot densities.
3.5.8.4 Ensign Bickford 40 RDX Ribbon LS

Nominal Explosive Core Load 8.5 grams/m RDX 40 grains/ft RDX
Dimensions (width x height) 5.53 x 3.30 mm 0.218 x 0.130 in
Applications RTG guns
3.5.8.5 Ensign Bickford 40 HMX Ribbon LS

Nominal Explosive Core Load 8.5 grams/m HMX 40 grains/ft HMX
Dimensions (width x height) 5.53 x 3.30 mm 0.218 x 0.130 in
Applications RTG guns / Swingjet II
3.5.8.6 Ensign Bickford 80 HMX High Temp LS

Applications High temperature exposed perforating applications.
Constructed with a chemical resistant jacket. This
cord has limited flexibility.
3.5.8.7 Ensign Bickford 80 PYX
Nominal Explosive Core Load 17 grams/m PYX 80 grains/ft PYX
Shrinkage (exposed to 162.8ºC [325ºF] for 24 hrs) 1.5% Maximum
Exposed Temperature Rating Not Rated
Applications High Temp TCP and exposed perforating
applications. Constructed with a chemical resistant
jacket. This cord has limited flexibility.
3.5.8.8 Dynamit Nobel PT250 HNS

Manufacturer Part Number DN PT250
Nominal Explosive Core Load 17 grams/m HNS 80 grains/ft HNS
Shrinkage (exposed to 162.8ºC [325ºF] for 24 hrs) Unknown
Applications Exposed High Temp TCP applications.
3.5.8.9 Dynamit Nobel PT165 HMX XHV
Nominal Explosive Core Load 17 grams/m HNS 80 grains/ft HNS
Nominal Detonation Velocity
Dimensions (Diameter)
Temperature Rating (1 Atm. Pressure for 100hrs)
3.5.8.10 Dynamit Nobel PT185 HMX XHV
Nominal Detonation Velocity
Dimensions (Diameter)
Temperature Rating (1 Atm. Pressure for 100hrs)
3.5.9 Handling Policy
Detonating cords contain secondary high explosives and must be stored in an approved storage magazines.
Since they contain secondary high explosives they cannot be stored with any type of primary explosive.
Refer to the safety manual for more information regarding the storage of explosive materials.
All scrape pieces of detonating cord must also be stored in a secure magazine until they can be disposed of
in a safe manner that complies with all local regulations.
3.6 Detonators
Detonators are used to generate shock waves that have enough localized energy to start high order
explosive reactions in target explosive materials.
Detonators of all types and configurations have one thing in common – they are much easier to start then
the materials they are being used to ignite. Even though they have a relatively low explosive yield, this
inherent property makes detonators the most dangerous ballistic component used during wireline
operations. This is the reason why detonators are: stored in secure locations, separate from other
explosives; placed in blasting tubes when in close proximity to other explosives; and isolated in blasting
tubes before electrically connecting them to the wireline, in order to prevent initiation of other explosive
materials in the event of an accidental detonation.
All detonators use an energetic energy releasing initiation element that is relatively easy to engage. This
element provides a burst of energy large enough to detonate a small, adjacent, pill of secondary explosive
material. The shock wave from the secondary explosive will then trigger an explosion in other secondary
explosive materials within close proximity, such as detonating cords or shaped charges. In some cases, like
a dump bailer, the energy from the detonator is sufficient to perform the work required independent of any
other explosive material.
Detonators are classified and categorized based on their mode of initiation, features, and use. This section
will start by discussing each classification, and end by listing the detonators used by our company along
with their respective descriptions and applications.
3.6.1 Conventional Resisterized Detonators

Conventional detonators consist of two or three sections. The first element is the ignition component which
is composed of a pyrotechnic and/or a primary explosive, with an imbedded, exposed resistor (sometimes
called a bridge wire). Electrical current is driven through the resistor –which will release heat– warming
the ignition material that surrounds it to its thermal ignition temperature, resulting in an energy releasing
deflagration reaction (pyrotechnic material) or detonation (primary explosive). The energy from this
reaction will detonate the primary explosive in the second element of the detonator (if it is present), which
in turn detonates the secondary explosive material that occupies the third element of the detonator. Most
detonators used by our company only consist of two elements, the first and the third, and the first element
usually only contains primary explosive materials. The shock wave that results from the detonation of the
third element is the energetic ‘output’ from the detonator used to perform work.
Conventional resistorized detonators are designed to elevate the resistance of the firing circuit to make
them less sensitive to accidental detonation caused by stray voltages. Functionally this is accomplished by
doing one of two things. In some detonators, the exposed resistor is designed to have a relatively high
intrinsic resistance to electrical current flow. In others, the inputs to both sides of the exposed resistor are
equipped with safety resistors to increase the overall resistance of the firing circuit. In both cases the
increased resistance elevates the amount of voltage (electrical force) that must be applied to push the
minimum amount of current (flow of electrical charge – electricity) through the exposed resistor to cause
detonation.
To further understand, consider the case that employs two safety resistors (Rs) in addition to the exposed
resistor (Rexposed) as shown in the picture below. I is the amount of current flowing through the circuit as a
result of an applied voltage, V.
The maximum amount of current that can flow through the bridge wire without igniting the initiation
material is called the no-fire current limit. This value will vary somewhat for different detonators (check
the manufacturer specifications) but it is typically about 0.3Amps. The voltage required to push this
amount of current through the circuit shown above is directly related to the total resistance of the circuit,
which is the sum of both safety resistors (Rs) and the exposed resistor (Rexposed). The values for these
resistors are different for different detonators (again, check the manufacturer specs for more information)
but typical numbers are about 1Ω for the exposed resistor and about 25Ω for each safety resistor. The total
resistance of the circuit, Rt, would then be:
Rt = Rs + Rs + Rbw
Rt = 25 + 25 + 1 = 51Ω
Note: The total resistance of the circuit is one of the values published on the manufacturer specification
sheets. For detonators that do not employ additional safety resistors this published value represents the
resistance of the exposed resistor only.
The formula that relates the amount of voltage required to force a current through a circuit with a known
resistance is called ohms law, which states that the voltage required is equal to the product of the resistance
and the current flow. Written mathematically it looks like this:
V = IR
For the typical numbers identified above, the minimum amount of voltage required to ignite the detonator is
the product of the circuit resistance (51Ω) and the minimum required current (0.3Amps),
V = (51)(0.3) = 15.3volts
which equals 15.3V. When compared to the voltage required to fire the circuit without the safety resistors
present, where Rt would only be 1Ω, and the resulting voltage required would reduce to
V=(1Ω)(0.3Amps)=0.3V, it is easy to see that elevating the resistance of the circuit adds a tremendous
factor of safety.
Conventional resisterized detonators are manufactured in a number of different configurations. The most
common types of detonators used fall into one of the following categories.
3.6.1.1 Crimp on Detonators

Crimp on detonators mate ‘end to end’ with the detonating cord. This is the best possible configuration
because the output shock wave from the secondary high explosive in the detonator is focused directly into
the detonating cord along the axis of propagation, maximizing the ballistic coupling between the two
components and improving the chances of initiating a high order detonation of the explosives within the
cord.
3.6.1.2 SureFire Detonators

SureFire detonators employ a plunger system to make electrical contact with the firing head, eliminating
the need for lead wires. The hot connection is made when the firing head is assembled and the plunger
comes in physical contact with the contact rod on the bottom of the quick change. The ground connection
is made through direct metal to metal contact between the detonator and the detonator block.
SureFire detonators are designed to automatically short the hot and ground connections together until the
detonator is installed inside a firing chamber. The plunger is sprung and forced to contact an exposed
section of the detonator casing at top of the detonator housing. When the plunger is depressed, which
happens when the detonator is installed into a firing head, the short between the hot and ground leads is
removed and the detonator is considered ‘live’. Never allow the plunger to be accidentally depressed when
storing or handling SureFire detonators.
Surefire detonators must be used with surefire equipped firing heads and are restricted to top-fire
applications only.
3.6.1.3 Block Detonators

The side detonation configuration employed by block detonators and butterfly detonators is less reliable
than the ‘end to end’ configuration used by crimp-on and SureFire style detonators, because their resultant
explosive shock wave is directed perpendicular to the axis of explosive propagation in the detonating cord.
This means that a substantial percentage of the explosive force from the detonator is expended beyond the
explosive material contained within the detonating cord; or, even worse, if the detonating cord is not
properly lined up opposite the business end of the detonator, the explosive force might bypass the cord
altogether.
The block detonator shown below incorporates a sleeve to guide the detonating cord past its explosive
output to help improve ballistic coupling.
The direction of explosive propagation is shown by the blue arrow drawn overtop of the detonator in the
picture below. Block detonators contain all of the stages present in crimp-on detonators, as shown in the
detailed drawing in the crimp-on detonator section, including: a resistor section, a bridge wire, an ignition
charge, a primary high explosive, and a secondary high explosive.
This particular detonator is also ‘fluid sensitive’. If the detonator is surrounded by fluid, small amounts
will seep into the detonator through the fluid entry port and render the detonator inert. Refer to the section
covering fluid sensitivity for more information.
Fluid Entry Port
3.6.1.4 Butterfly Detonators
Butterfly detonators are very similar to block detonators. The primary difference between the two is how
they hold the detonating cord in place. Butterfly detonators use flexible metal guide loops to position the
cord directly against the ballistic side of the detonator. Special care must be taken to ensure that the cord is
positioned securely in place, flush with the surface of the detonator, to prevent low order detonations or
complete misfires from occurring.
Butterfly detonators also contain all of the ballistic stages employed by crimp-on detonators. The direction
of explosive propagation is shown by the blue arrow overtop of the picture.
3.6.2 Safe Detonators

Safe detonators are often termed electronic detonators because they require a small electronic cartridge to
help generate the fast rising high current burst (somewhere between 200 and 800amps) required to facilitate
detonation. The circuitry is primarily composed of power capacitors, which store electrical energy
provided by the detonation system (CS400c) and then deliver it in a single large burst to the detonator.
Safe detonators initiate the explosive in the detonator by generating a shock wave as opposed to instigating
a thermal deflagration reaction in an ignition material.
Safe detonators are ‘safe’ for two primary reasons. The first is the mode of detonation. The power
capacitors in the electronics cartridge are designed to build and hold sufficient charge to set off the
detonator only when exposed to consistent DC voltages in excess of 150 volts. DC voltages less then this
value, as well as stray AC voltages applied to or induced in the leg wires by any external sources, will not
charge the capacitors enough to cause detonation. This feature renders these detonators relatively immune
to stray voltages from external sources such as radio frequency (RF) energy, cathodic protection, welding
faults, static discharges, and electrical power transmission lines. Secondly, unlike conventional resisterized
detonators, safe detonators never contain any pyrotechnic materials, and either do not contain primary
explosives at all, or contain primary explosives in a separated, impact proof, section of the detonator that is
isolated from the electrical circuit.
Safe detonators are without a doubt the best option from a safety point of view. The chief drawbacks are
reliability, cost, and geometric size.
3.6.2.1 Exploding Bridgewire Detonators
These safe detonators work by driving a current pulse so massive through a small wire that it essentially
explodes. The output energy from this event (heat, shockwave, and ionization) is large enough to ignite a
small charge of secondary explosive – often PETN, because it is easier to ignite then other secondary
explosives – which in turn ignites a larger charge of secondary explosive that provides the output ballistic
force. In some cases the exploding bridge wire ignites a small charge of primary explosive that in turn
detonates the main secondary explosive load. This configuration is less desirable then the former because
primary explosives are present, but it is still considered ‘safe’ because the primary explosive is isolated
from the firing circuit.
Described in more detail, the current applied to the bridge wire (usually constructed of gold or platinum
alloys) causes it to heat up. The wire heats so much that it melts and then vaporizes. Current continues to
travel through the metal vapor causing it to superheat and ultimately to expand explosively. As the metal
dissipates, the current path ceases to be continuous, and an electrical arc forms through the vapor cloud,
imparting more energy, fueling the explosion further.
The picture below shows a fully assembled bridge wire detonator with a cutaway bridge wire component
below and a detonating cord crimp above. The smaller picture to the right is a close-up picture of the end
of the bridge wire component, showing the actual bridge wire connected to the two poles that become the
electrical leads. When assembled, the bridge wire is placed a short distance from a base charge of
secondary-high explosive (or some cases primary high explosive). The shock front that results from the
detonation crosses the fluid sensitive gap and detonates the main charge of secondary-high RDX explosive,
which in turn will detonate the detonating cord that is fastened to the end using the detonating cord crimp.
Note: never crimp the cord crimp component onto the detonator itself for fear of damaging or igniting the
detonator. Just slide the crimp overtop of the detonator and crimp to the detonating cord.
Fluid Sensitivity Gap Cord Crimp
PETN Base Charge RDX Main Charge
Bridge Wire Component
Bridge Wire
The following is a picture of a PX-1 fire set used to ignite an exploding bridge wire detonator. This is the
electronic component discussed previously that contains the capacitors that store the charge required to
deliver the current to the detonator when it is time to fire. This particular firing circuit is activated when a
certain voltage is achieved, so it is important that the wireline leads are connected with the correct polarity
(the PX-1 fires using a positive polarity so the leads from the wireline must be reversed because our
logging system always fires using a negative polarity). Detailed operating instructions ship with each fire
set and should be thoroughly read and understood before use.
Connect these leads to the Wireline

Connect Detonator
Leads Here
3.6.2.2 Exploding Foil Detonators
Exploding foil detonators are also commercially available, though they have seen limited use by our
company. The applications, advantages, and disadvantages for these devices are almost identical to
exploding bridge wire detonators, with one notable exception, which will be discussed shortly. The
function of these detonators is also very similar to exploding bridge wire devices. In fact, exploding foil
detonators also employ exploding bridge wires, but instead of the force of the explosion directly detonating
a secondary explosive, it is used to ballistically propel a length of metallic foil into a secondary explosive,
causing detonation. These types of detonators are also called ‘slapper’ detonators because of the action of
the foil against the target explosive. The operational advantage this configuration has over exploding
bridge wire detonators is the ability to focus the energy released by the exploding bridge wire over a
smaller surface area. This means exploding foil detonators can more reliably directly detonate secondary
explosives that have higher initiation energies then their exploding bridge wire counterparts, such as HNS
(which has a much higher temperature rating then PETN).
3.6.3 Percussion Detonators

Percussion detonators are similar to conventional resisterized detonators except they are initiated by
applying physical force directly to the primary explosive instead of igniting a pyrotechnic material or
primary explosive by heating an electrical filament. They do not contain any electrical components so they
are not susceptible to external electrical influences, but they do contain primary explosive materials that are
very sensitive to mechanical shock. Percussion detonators are used extensively during Tubing Conveyed
Perforating (TCP) operations.
3.6.4 Detonator Features

3.6.4.1 Fluid Sensitivity
Fluid sensitive detonators are designed to fail when they are exposed to well bore fluids. This is usually
accomplished by separating the initiation and secondary high explosive components of the detonator with
an exposed section that will prevent ballistic coupling between the two when the detonator is invaded by
fluid.
Fluid sensitive detonators are used primarily to bottom fire retrievable hollow steel carriers (RHSC).
RHSC guns use threaded port plugs that are much more likely to leak when they are exposed to wellbore
pressure then their expendable hollow steel carrier (EHSC) counterparts; and if they detonate when they are
full of liquid, they will split and deform making them very difficult to recover from the well.
Fluid Sensitive Gap
3.6.4.2 Intrinsically Safe
The word intrinsic means inherent or belonging naturally. When applied to detonators, the term
intrinsically safe means the detonator in question is safe to handle (relatively speaking) without having to
take any additional precautions. All of the detonators we use are considered intrinsically safe until their
leads are unwound and/or they are electrically connected to the firing circuit.
An example of a detonator that would not be considered intrinsically safe is a non-resisterized electrical
detonator.
3.6.5 Detonators in Common Use

3.6.5.1 Owen 008c
Manufacturer Part Number DET-3050-008c
Main Explosive Load HNS
Dimensions (diameter x height) 12.5 x 51.6 mm 0.490 x 2.03 in
Resistance 51 Ohms
No Fire Current / All Fire Current 0.2 Amps 0.8 Amps
Detonator Type SureFire.
Fluid Sensitive No
Applications SureFire.
3.6.5.2 Owen 006 Mini-Block

Manufacturer Part Number DET-3050-006
Main Explosive Load RDX
Dimensions (width x length x height) 25.4 x 25.4 x 12.7 mm 1 x 1 x 0.5 in
Resistance 51 Ohms
Detonator Type Block detonator.
Fluid Sensitive Yes.
Requires 5min of fluid contact to inhibit detonation.
Applications Bottom fire guns.
3.6.5.3 Owen G-21

Manufacturer Part Number (Option 1) DET-3051-021 (1.5” Leads)
Manufacturer Part Number (Option 2) DET-3051-021L (18” Leads)
Dimensions (diameter x length) 11.1 x 14.3 mm 0.438 x 0.562 in
Resistance 120 Ohms
Detonator Type Butterfly detonator.
Applications Bottom fire and select fire guns.
3.6.5.4 Owen 086 Squib
Main Explosive Load
Pressure Rating 103.4 MPa 15000 psi
Resistance 51 Ohms
Detonator Type Utility Detonator.
Fluid Sensitive No.
Applications Dump bailer detonator.
3.6.5.5 Owen E-12

Main Explosive Load
Resistance 51 Ohms
Detonator Type Crimp-on detonator.
Fluid Sensitive No.
Applications Exposed perforating.
3.6.5.6 Owen Hostile Environment Detonator

Manufacturer Part Number DET-3050-022HE
Resistance 51 Ohms
Detonator Type Crimp-on Detonator.
Fluid Sensitive No.
Applications Hostile environment exposed perforating.
3.6.5.7 Owen E-161

Manufacturer Part Number DET-3050-125S
Main Explosive Load
Resistance 51 Ohms
Applications Bottom fire guns.
3.6.5.8 Ensign-Bickford EB105
Manufacturer Part Number T100105
Main Explosive Load 7.0 Grains RDX
Resistance 51 Ohms
Fluid Sensitive No.
Applications Exposed Perforating.
3.6.5.9 Austin Explosives A140

This detonator will be included later.
3.7 Igniters
Igniters are used to start deflagrating reactions in target explosive devices such as setting tool power
charges. They usually contain low explosives such as black powder to serve as the main load and may
contain some type of pyrotechnic material to serve as an initiation component.
This picture shows a BP-3 igniter, used to

start Baker power charges.
3.8 Initiators
Initiators can be described as ‘detonators’ that do not contain secondary explosive charges. Initiators
contain primary explosives and are often used in combination with boosters to form the equivalent of a
detonator to detonate other secondary explosives. Percussion igniters are commonly used in this
configuration to detonate TCP strings
3.9 Boosters
Conversely, boosters are essentially detonators without an ignition section. Boosters contain either
secondary high explosives, or (uncommonly) a combination of primary high and secondary high
explosives. Boosters are used to improve the ballistic coupling between different explosive components,
such as between a detonator and detonating cord.
Slide Detonating Cord in

Here
Explosives Contained Here

Always make sure to insert the detonating cord fully into the booster and also make sure the booster has
been securely crimped onto the end of the cord. Only crimp the booster over the detonating cord – never
over the section that contains the explosive materials.
3.10 Detonation Sequence
The detonator, detonating cord, and the main charges must all be ballistically connected together for the
detonation sequence to work. The following picture simplistically shows the positions of each component
in a bottom fire RHSC gun, and then discusses the how the current travels though the ballistic circuit to
detonate the gun followed by a description of how the detonation front progresses through the detonating
cord and the charges.
Hot Wire
Current Flow: When it is time to

detonate the gun, the surface system
will force current through the
detonator circuit. The current
originates in the surface system
power supply, continues down the
isolated wireline conductor, and is
connected to the hot wire in the gun
Detonating via the quick change assembly. The
Cord current then flows through the
length of the gun via the hot wire
and then on to the detonator through
a connection between the hot wire
and one of the detonator leads.
Current then flows through the
bridge wire, heating it, and out the
other detonator lead to the gun
casing. The current returns to the
surface power panel, first, through
the gun casing, and second, through
the wireline armour.
Detonator: The current heats the

bridge wire which results in the
thermal ignition of the pyrotechnic
material and/or primary high
explosive that surrounds it. The
Detonation output shock from this detonation
Front detonates the detonator’s main load
Detonator
of secondary high explosive, which
then ballistically ignites the
detonating cord.
Detonation Front: The detonation

front now continues along the
length of the detonating cord,
ballistically initiating each charge in
sequence as it passes by.
Current Flow
3.11 Gun Geometry and Charge Selection
The design of specific well completion plans involves many different design criteria, only one of which is
the specification of the perforating system to be used – and there are lots of commercialized options to
choose from.
Some of things completion planners consider include:

• type of completion (gravel pack, through casing, barefoot, to name few);
• charge carrier diameter;
• charge carrier type (exposed vrs contained);
• charge density;
• charge phasing;
• and the charge design (see the ‘Shaped Charge Performance Section).
For detailed completion planning information please refer to the following books itemized in the reference
section of this document: ‘Perforating’, by Bell, Sukrup, and Tariq; and ‘Production Operations, Volumes
one and two’, by Allen and Roberts.
4 Shooting Software and Circuit Design
Precision wireline is committed to handling explosives and delivering explosive services in a safe, efficient
manner, on depth, every time they are used. The shooting software and circuitry in the CS400c are
designed to compliment these goals. When this system is used properly, in conjunction with other safe
operating practices, it becomes virtually impossible to detonate explosives anywhere other than the target
zone. It is therefore very important for all Precision staff delivering ballistic services to thoroughly
understand how the shooting software controls the circuitry during each function performed as part of the
detonation process.
This section will discuss the different CS400 software screens used to configure the system and fire
explosives. Operational familiarity with the CS400 logger task is assumed. If more information is required
please refer to the CS400 Logger Task manual.
4.1 Shooting CCL Instrument

Most of the shooting software is loaded as part of the Shooting CCL instrument, and as such, most of the
interface screens are accessed through the appropriate Alt-F function key. The Shooting CCL instrument
screen is shown below. Screen shots of each individual screen follow with detailed content descriptions
and operational instructions.
4.1.1 Tool Information Screen
The tool information screen does not contain very many options.
The first option is the Tool Serial Number field, which defaults blank unless a serialized Shooting CCL is
selected when the service is loaded. The Shooting CCL tools we use are not typically serialized and it is
common practice to load the default instrument. There is no advantage to selecting a serialized Shooting
CCL.
The second option is the Tool Type field, which defaults to <CGN-XX: Shooting CCL>, the only available
tool type.
The third option is the CCL Offset field. This user selectable positive or negative integer option will apply
an offset to the trace position of the CCL curve. For example, an offset of +1 will cause the CCL curve to
shift one track division in the positive direction (to the left). This offset can also be controlled in the
‘SHOOTING Control’ screen and is commonly applied immediately following the detonation of an
explosive device to act as a depth marker on the log to identify the exact place where the CCL was
positioned at the time detonating took place. This field reports the net shift applied to the CCL curve. The
field will read +2 after two +1 offsets have been applied, and an entered offset of +3 would be required to
shift the curve by an additional scale division.
4.1.2 View/Plot Depth Offsets
This screen is a summary of the data entered in the ‘Depth Offsets’ screen, which is covered in the next
section. Please refer to the ‘Depth Offsets’ section for detailed descriptions of each field.
4.1.3 Depth Offsets (Zero at CCL)
For explosive services, the stack zero is always the center of the CCL instead of the bottom of the string.
This prevents CCL data buffering – all data recorded by devices above the tool zero is stored in a data
buffer until the bottom of the tool passes by at which time it is written to the trace data file – making all of
the collars measured by the CCL prior to the shot point available for depth correlation. However, the
winch operator must remember that the tool depth now represents the depth of the CCL, not the depth of
the bottom of the tool string. This must be considered when calculating where well bottom or other
obstructions will be encountered.
The depth offset fields are pretty straight forward. The first field is labeled ‘Top Shot to Bottom Shot’. For
perforating guns, enter the distance from the center of the top shot to the center of the bottom shot. For
down hole mechanical assemblies enter the total length of the element.
The next field is called ‘CCL to Top Shot’. In this field enter the distance between the center of the CCL
and either the center of the top shot for perforating guns or the center of the element for down hole
mechanical assemblies.
In the ‘Top of Zone’ field enter the top of the perforating interval or the center point of the element for
down hole mechanical assemblies.
The ‘Window Limit’ field specifies the maximum amount of depth error the system will allow before firing
the shot. The shooting software will not function unless the system is within the specified tolerance.
4.1.4 Shooting Power Control
The fields in this screen control how power is applied to the wireline during the shooting sequence. This
screen essentially replaces the TPS (Shift-F8) screen for all explosive services.
The ‘Shoot’ field toggles between the different ‘Supply Mode Names’ entered into the CHIP setup screen
(Shift-F1-3). The CHIP screen allows for 20 different Supply Mode Names, each of which can be
configured to fire different detonators or ignitors. The parameters for each mode are controlled from the
Shooting Power Control screen by toggling through each mode and completing the all of the fields. All of
the modes and their respective parameters save with the service. The two screen shots that follow display
the parameters for the ‘Shoot’ and ‘BP-3’ modes respectively.
The ‘Set’ field contains two different parameters. The first is a toggle field whose only two options are
‘Current’ or ‘Voltage’. This field chooses whether the shooting software is going to ramp power up to a
current or voltage set point. This field should be set to ‘Current’ for all services except for exploding
Bridge Wire Detonators that use the PX-1 fire set, which requires a voltage set point. The field that follows
is where the actual set point is entered. If a current set point is being used, this field will set in the units of
milliamps, and general convention is to enter a value 150mA – 200mA higher than the all fire limit for the
detonator being used. If a voltage set point is being used the units will be volts. Refer to the instruction
sheet that comes with the PX-1 fire set for specific firing instructions.
The ‘Voltage Limit’ and ‘Current Limit’ fields control the maximum values the power supply will output
before shutting down for over-voltage or over-current due to open or short circuits respectively. The
‘Voltage Limit’ set point needs to be high enough to allow the power supply to drive the current down the
line, through the detonator, and back to the surface system. Ohms law comes in handy here; V=IR, and I =
1A (for the example in the previous screen shot), and R equals the resistance of the detonator (say 51Ω)
plus the resistance of the wireline (say 60Ω) for a total of about 111Ω, thus the voltage required would be
V=(1A)(111Ω)=111V. The entered value should always be at least 50V higher then the calculated value.
In practice a fixed value of 200V is usually used (shown) unless a very high resistance detonator is used in
combination with high resistance line, which could require a higher voltage set point. The ‘extra voltage’
(the entered value of 200Ω is a lot higher then the required value of 111Ω) will ensure the gun will fire
even if a ‘small’ leak is present somewhere in the system. The ‘Current Limit’ is somewhat simpler to
calculate; add two hundred milliamps to the set point value and enter it into the field.
The ‘Ramp Up Time’ controls how fast the power supply will attempt to reach the entered set point after it
is engaged. It is set in the units of ‘total seconds’ required to achieve the voltage or current set point
selected in the ‘set’ field discussed above. The ramp time should be between 4s and 8s for most ballistic
services. Refer to the PX-1 instruction sheet for information on the ramp time required for a PX-1 fire set.
The ‘Ramp Down Time’ is no longer selectable. It controls how fast the power supply shuts-off after it has
been disengaged. This field is set to 140µs/mA.
The ‘Polarity’ field is also no longer selectable. It controls the polarity of power required to fire the
detonator or igniter. By convention, Precision Wireline has decided to always fire with a negative polarity
DC Voltage. Any services, such as a PX-1, that are fired with a positive polarity must have the arming
leads in the firing head reversed.
4.1.5 Shooting Control
The shooting control screen is divided into three separate parts.
The upper third of the screen is used by the software to relay operational instructions; such as position the
gun, depress the arm switch, or depress the shoot switch.
The lower right hand half of the screen is used to report the current depth of the CCL, the top shot, and the
bottom shot, as well as the desired depth for the top of the shot interval. The picture below depicts how this
screen would appear for a 5 meter gun, with a CCL offset of 0.8m, positioned to shoot a zone between
500m and 505m. Since the gun is zeroed at the center of the CCL, the CCL depth will match the CS400
depth exactly. The depth of the top shot is calculated by adding the CCL offset to the CCL depth. The
depth of the bottom shot is calculated by adding the CCL offset and the shot length to the CCL depth.
The lower left hand half is used to issue commands to the software and report the status of selected user
controlled parameters. The ‘CCL Offset’ reports the cumulative shift, in scale divisions, that has been
applied to the CCL curve. The ‘Set Point’ reports the target current or voltage setup in the ‘Shooting
Power Control’ screen. The ‘Command’ toggle field selects the next command to execute. Commands
are engaged by selecting them and then pressing the enter key within 30 seconds. If the command is not
executed within the specified time frame the command field will default back to monitor. The available
options are:
• ‘Monitor’ – This is the default value. There are no actions associated with this
command.
• ‘Exit’ – Exits the screen.
• ‘Shoot’ – This command is only available when the tool depth is within the tolerance set
up by the ‘Window Limit’ field in the ‘Depth Offset’ screen. When selected, the
instrument software will start the shooting sequence by prompting the user to press the
shoot and arm buttons to enable the power supply.
• ‘CCL +’ – This command will increment the CCL offset by one positive track division.
• ‘CCL -’ – This command will increment the CCL offset by one negative track division.
The ‘Status’ field at the bottom of the screen reports the actions (if any) that the shooting software is
currently performing.
4.1.6 Test Fire

When the ‘Test Fire’ screen is requested the following warning is displayed before it will load. The
contents of this screen describe the purpose of the check fire sequence and the importance of following all
safety procedures. Please read.
The test fire screen functions much like the shooting control screen, with the primary difference being that
it uses a voltage set point of 35Vdc all the time and the maximum current is limited to 50mA, a value well
below the no-fire limit for all of the detonators used by Precision Wireline.
4.2 Front End Setup
4.2.1 Channel Device Setup

The channel device setup for the Shooting CCL service is pretty straight forward. The only data routed
through the CSP is going directly to the Analog/Digital (AD) board and consists of three curves. The first
two are the voltage and current monitor taps that flow directly from the Chip Power Supply, and are used
by the CS400 software to generate the shot plots. The third curve is the CCL data (CGN CAL Instrument).
Please note that there is no averaging applied to the CCL curve because any averaging would dissolve the
CCL blips into the baseline.
4.2.2 CHIP Setup
The Cased Hole Interface Panel (CHIP) is the hub of the Cased Hole logging system. It is responsible for:
controlling and configuring power from the Sorensen power supply; providing line termination and signal
conditioning; coupling and decoupling signals to and from the wireline; routing signals to the appropriate
signal board in the CSP; and most importantly for ballistic services, controlling all aspects of shooting
operations.
The CHIP screen is divided into four distinct sections. The following paragraphs will discuss how each of
these sections is used to control shooting operations.
The CHIP setup section contains numerous interactive fields, some of which effect shooting operations
and some that do not.
• The ‘Power Supply’ field must be set to ‘Sorensen’, the other two options (‘EXT AC’ and
‘EXT DC’) are not used with the shooting service.
• The ‘CHIP Open/Closed Loop’ option controls how actively the software controls the
Sorensen Power Supply. In open ‘O’ loop mode the software will ramp the power supply up
to the appropriate set points and then leave it alone, in closed ‘C’ loop mode the software will
constantly monitor the supply and issue adjustment commands to maintain the power output
very close to the set points. This field should be set to open ‘O’ for ballistic services.
• The ‘Float 22.5 Supply’ is a vestigial field that does not do anything.
• The text entered in the ‘Upper Display’ field is displayed in the top row of the two, red, LCD
bars on the front of the CHIP panel.
• The ‘Display Intensity’ field controls the intensity of the two LCD displays.
• The ‘Line Load’ and ‘Line Termination’ (including both the capacitance and ohms fields)
settings are not used when shooting. The shooting power and the CCL signal both bypass the
circuitry in the CHIP panel responsible for their application.
• The ‘CCL: Input’ field must be set to ‘Shoot’ in order to source the CCL signal from the
shooting circuitry – which is the only CCL signal available when the key-switch is in the
shoot position. The other available options include ‘Buffered’, which sources the signal from
the signal conditioning circuitry and ‘None’, which disengages the CCL input.
• The ‘Sig Cond’ field is not used for this service. By convention it should be set to ‘Disabled’
but it does not really matter. The ‘Reference’ field is also not used for this service. By
default it should be set to ‘Local’.
• The ‘Gain Step’ field controls a low pass filter / gain circuit used to cleanup and amplify the
CCL signal. The default entry for this field is ‘x1’, but it can be changed to ‘x10’ in an
attempt to increase the deflection of small collar signals.
The Supply Mode Names section contains twenty user entered fields, each of which serves as the name for
a different power configuration. For shooting services these names appear in the ‘Shooting Power Control’
screen of the Shooting CCL Instrument, where they can be configured independently, and then saved with
the service for future recall to quickly configure the system to fire different types of detonators or igniters.
It is entirely optional how many different modes are configured, but it is recommended practice to setup
one mode for each common configuration, such as 51Ω detonators, 111Ω detonators, and BP-3 igniters.
The ‘CHIP Status’ section reports the operating status of selected CHIP functions. Most of these fields
are fairly self explanatory so they will not be covered here. The only ones of real importance to the
Shooting CCL Instrument are the position of the Service Selector Switch, which should be in ‘Shoot’, and
the status of the ‘Shoot’ and ‘Arm’ switches.
The ‘Relay Status’ section reports the status of every relay in the CHIP. The relays are divided into 4
groups titled 0, 1, 2, and 3. Relays in each group are numbered 0 through 7 with the group number making
up the first digit and the relay number making up the second digit in the relay code. For example, relay 25
is relay number 5 in group 2. Relays are reset when a period separates the relay number from the
corresponding description and are set when the period is replaced with an X.
4.2.3 A/D Setup
The A/D Setup screen controls the signal routing and gain specifications for the Magna A/D card in the
CSP. This card is responsible for converting analog measurement signals (voltages) into digital numbers
the software can process. The Magna A/D card contains a 12-bit A/D converter that assigns instantaneous
voltages that fall between minus 10V and 10V a representative digital value between 0 and 4095 – Note: a
12 bit A/D converter means that 212 = 4096 digital values are available to resolve the input signal, but since
digital circuitry starts numbering from 0 (not 1) the measurement range is 0 to 4095.
+10V 4095
0V
-10V 0 Measured Signal
The ‘AGC’ or automatic gain control field, when engaged, enables a feedback circuit on the A/D board to
center the position of the input signal to the middle of the A/D converter range. The term gain is a little
misleading here. Functionally, the AGC circuitry reduces the signal amplitude by applying gain to a digital
filter network. As more gain is applied, more signal attenuation occurs, which is the reverse of what one
would expect when talking about traditional gain in a circuit. There are two reasons why reducing the
amplitude of a signal is a good thing to do before it is measured. First, it drops signals that exceed 10V
(positive or negative) into the operational range of the A/D converter so they can be measured; and second,
it drops the amplitude of the measured signal (positive or negative) closer the center of the A/D’s
measurement range, which is where the accuracy of A/D converters is best. When the ‘AGC’ field is
engaged, the A/D board will measure the amplitude of the signal and then add the amount of signal that
was lost as a result of the ‘applied gain’ to calculate the measured digital output.
Please refer to the CS400 System Flow Diagram 1000.3068, Magna A/D (MAD-AB) Block Diagram for
more information.
The ‘AGC’ must not be enabled (set it to <N>) for the CGN (CCL) instrument. The AGC circuit is not
designed to react to rapidly changing curves and the CCL signal, when passing a collar, is a rapidly
changing curve. If enabled, the AGC circuit will seriously degrade the quality of the CCL curve. The
Voltage (PWRV) and Current (PWRI) curves do not change rapidly and should have the AGC enabled
<Y>.
The ‘Gain’ field only applies if the ‘AGC’ option is set to <N>, and it allows the user to enter a fixed gain
value. For the CGN instrument this field should be left at <1>, which is the default.
The ‘Max Gain’ field controls the maximum amount of amplitude attenuation the AGC circuit is allowed
to apply to the input signal. The higher the value, the more attenuation allowed. The PWRI and PWRV
curves should be set to the maximum for this field, which is <32>. This field does not apply to the CCL
because the AGC is not activated.
Calibrating the AGC is an important step if automatic gain control is going to be used. When a cal is
performed, circuitry in the A/D chip nulls the input for each channel and then measures the resulting signal.
Ideally this signal should be zero volts, and since zero volts is the center of the A/D converter, the signal
should fall right in the middle of the A/D measurement range. If it is does not, the firmware in the card will
calibrate the zero point to the null signal value, then use the new null zero as the target when applying
automatic gain control, and also when calculating measured output values. The AGC’s should be
calibrated every time a service is loaded or modified and must be calibrated whenever a new service is
built.
4.3 Shot Plots
Shot plots are used to graphically display the power supply voltage and current output during the
detonation sequence. They serve as very good record and should be recorded and displayed on the log for
each shot.
Shot plots display three curves including the voltage and current output from the power supply as well as a
resistance value for the shot circuit. The resistance is calculated from ohms law(R=V/I) using the voltage
and current numbers from the power supply. The three curves are graphed on the ordinate with respect to
increasing time (time zero is the start of the shot sequence) on the abscissa. The scale for each curve is set
by the software with the goal of fitting the data onto the plot while maintaining the highest possible
resolution.
The following examples show ‘typical’ responses for different shot types. However, it is important to
understand that no two shot plots will look exactly the same. Detonation is a very violent process and the
resultant electrical integrity of the system will be different every time.
The example plots will be added before the document is released.
4.3.1 Open Circuit
4.3.2 Short Circuit
4.3.3 51 Ohm Resistorized Detonator
4.3.4 120 Ohm Resitorized Detonator
4.4 Signal Flow
Please refer to the CS400c system flow diagram number 1000.3811, CS400c System Flow for Shooting, for
signal flow information.
5 Wireline Conveyed Gun Systems
5.1 Depth Control

Depth control is arguably the most important service Precision Wireline supplies to its customers. Ballistic
services delivered off depth are a worse occurrence then services that fail to function at all. Extreme care
must be taken to ensure ballistic services are correctly positioned before they are engaged.
The shooting software in the CS400 logger task is designed to serve as a very useful tool to position
equipment in the well during ballistic operations. Proper use of this software will significantly reduce the
chances of shooting off depth. However, the software does not help correlate to open hole logs, which
serve as the primary depth reference for almost all wells that employ ballistic services. Correlating cased
hole to open hole logs is a vital skill for anybody performing ballistic services, and it forms the primary
focus for the rest of this section.
Open hole services include many different types of measurements, but the one common curve that is
included as part of virtually all open hole logs is the natural gamma ray. Usually, the first run in a cased
hole well (included with or logged after the junk basket) will include a cased hole gamma ray tool and a
CCL. The data from the gamma ray is used to correlate to the open hole log, then the data from the now
on-depth CCL is used to correlate future cased hole logs. This sequence is followed simply because it is
impossible to correlate CCL data directly to an open hole log, and it is impractical to run cased hole gamma
ray tools in combination with ballistic services under most circumstances because; (a) they are either fragile
(shooting gamma ray tools equipped with scintillation crystals are commercially available but they are still
susceptible to damage), or (b) they have very poor count rates (shooting gammas equipped with Geiger
Muller detectors are rugged but frankly they are not very good); and (c) both types require power to
operate, and sending power to a tool connected to explosive materials is not recommended. Some markets
require gamma ray correlation for all ballistic services and shooting gamma ray tools equipped with
scintillation detectors are the best available option. They function well and provide good correlation data,
but they have still proven to be a high maintenance item.
Correlating a cased hole gamma ray to an open hole gamma ray is fairly straight forward. Both logs are
measuring the natural radiation of the well, a property that takes millions of years to change (except for rare
cases when producing wells introduce radioactive salts into the near wellbore formations). When
correlating the logs, make sure the overall character of the gamma ray curves are compared, don’t get
fixated on the peaks alone. Sometimes it is difficult to correlate over zones that have very little gamma ray
activity, such as large intervals of low porosity limestones, dolostones, or evaporates. This is not often a
problem because these formations are not prolific hydrocarbon producers and thus it is rare to perform a
ballistic service opposite these types of rock. However, if this problem is encountered, look for more
radioactive zones above or below that could be used to correlate, and regardless, remember it is possible to
correlate a log by comparing the character of the entire curve even if there are no real discernable peaks and
valleys.
Casing Collar Locators are also fairly simple to correlate, provided the casing joints are of non-uniform
lengths. Ideally a ‘short joint’ also called a ‘marker joint’ will be present in or near the zone of interest to
make correlation very simple indeed. Casing joints are typically about 12-14m (39-45ft) in length and
short joints are some length measurably less then the others. If all of the collars are the same length, things
get more difficult. Sometimes it is possible to correlate to an anomaly on the CCL log caused by a non-
uniform casing response or an auxiliary piece of casing equipment, such as a centralizer. In the worst case
scenario, casing collars can be counted from the surface of the casing string to the zone of interest or from
PBTD (Plug Back TD) to match the corresponding collar responses when correlating.
Ballistic services must always be delivered while recording an on-depth logging pass. It is not acceptable
to correlate a log, then calculate how much depth adjustment is required and ‘adjust’ the shooting
parameters to ‘compensate’. Once ballistic services have been delivered there is no going back. There is
no room for error and no shortcuts are allowed.
5.2 Firing Heads
Firing heads are used to ballistically connect detonators to perforating guns and electrically connect
detonators to the wireline. Precision Wireline currently uses three different firing heads, including: Top
Fire, Bottom Fire, and SureFire. This section identifies the advantages and disadvantages of using each
type of firing head, and communicates the work processes established to connect them to perforating guns.
5.2.1 Top Fire

Top Fire firing heads are used with expendable hollow steel carrier guns (EHSC). They are located in the
gun string directly above the perforating gun and below the Main Body (CCL). The detonator is located
inside the firing head and is electrically connected to the Main Body via the Quick Change, and ballistically
connected to the detonator cord inside the Top Fire sub.
The Top Fire system is relatively easy to arm and presents a safety advantage when compared to bottom
fire guns because the perforating charges can be safely lowered into the ground (or at least below the floor
of the rig) before the gun is armed.
The main disadvantage Top Fire guns present are the increased likelihood of detonating a fluid filled gun.
Guns flood from the bottom to the top, which means bottom fire guns equipped with fluid sensitive
detonators will not detonate if fluid invasion has occurred. Top fire guns on the other hand, will.
Detonating fluid filled guns is not a good thing because the gas formed when the explosives combust
cannot escape from the gun fast enough, causing pressure to build inside the carrier which in turn causes it
to burst.
This picture depicts a burst hollow steel
carrier. Notice how the carrier diameter is
substantially increased. This increased size
can make it very difficult to retrieve hollow
steel carriers, especially through small well
restrictions. In this case the crew was lucky
because the only restriction the gun could not
penetrate was the flange – at the top of the
well.
Top Fire systems are not recommended for use when firing Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers (RHSC)
because of the relatively high probability of fluid invasion. RHSC guns rely on O-ring seals not only on
the top and bottom subs (like Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers [EHSC]) but also on the O-ring seals under
all of the port plugs threaded into the gun above each charge.
When Top Fire systems are being used to fire EHSC guns, an extra effort should be made to inspect the
gun, gun subs, O-rings, O-ring sealing surfaces, and firing head in an effort to prevent using equipment that
could cause fluid invasion.
5.2.1.1 Configuring the Gun
The gun shown in the picture above is

configured for top fire detonation using a top
fire sub (also called a capping chamber).
The most notable evidence of this fact is the
‘extra’ detonating cord sticking out the top of
the gun.
5.2.1.2 Preparing the Top Fire Sub

The standard top fire sub used company wide is shown in the picture below. The left hand side of the sub
screws onto the top-sub of the gun shown above. The ‘extra’ detonating cord is fed into the central
chamber of the top fire sub where it will be ballistically coupled with the detonator when the gun is armed.
The detonator is electrically coupled to the firing circuit by a pigtail that is threaded through the right hand
side of the sub into the central chamber (not shown) and the ground line (shown). The rest of this section
describes how to arm a gun using a top fire sub and details how to service top fire subs before use.
All top fire systems used by Precision Wireline are supplied by Prime Perforating Systems. If your district
is not currently using Prime Top Fire equipment please refer to ops-letter 12-517 for direction.
Replace Both 232 O-rings. Replace both pairs of 230 O-rings.
Shoulder Inner Chamber Sleeve

Before using a top fire sub the following checks and inspections must be completed:
• Thoroughly clean the sub inside and out. Remove all old O-rings and discard – never reuse.
Ensure all of the threads are clean and all of the O-ring surfaces are smooth so they provide a good
pressure seal.
• Thread the sleeve completely onto the sub. Ensure it seats snuggly against the shoulder.
• Unthread the sleeve and replace the O-rings on either side of the inner chamber. Slide the sleeve
back on and replace the two remaining O-rings on the up-hole side of the sub.
• Lubricate all of the O-rings and threads on the sub.
• Ensure that (1) the bottom hole side of the sub will thread onto a top sub; and (2) the quick change
assembly will thread overtop the up-hole side of the sub. After repeated uses these subs will loose
their round shape and assume a slight elliptical or egg shape. When this happens the sub is no
longer serviceable and needs to be discarded.
• Install the grounding wire as shown in the picture using an 8-32 NCx3/8 screw.
5.2.1.3 Pigtail Installation
After the top fire sub has been cleaned, the

next step is the installation of the pigtail,
detonator block and quick change.
The Pigtail is shown here.
Before the pigtail is installed the integrity of

the solder joint that connects the spring to the
wire must be checked.
Also ensure the spring is elongated enough to

make good contact with the quick change
when the assembly is constructed.
Seat the spring into the boot.
Thread the pigtail lead through the uphole
side of the top fire gun sub. The rubber boot
should seat into the end of the sub as shown
in the picture to the left.
5.2.1.4 Quick Change Assembly Quick Change
Detonator Block
Quick Change
Sleeve
Next, install the detonator block and the quick change assembly. First, thread the detonator block onto
the quick change assembly. Then, guide the pigtail spring into the detonator block until the block is
flush with the surface of the top fire gun sub and the pigtail spring is making contact with the electrical
connection on the quick change.
Thread the quick change sleeve over top of the detonator block and onto the top of the top fire sub.
The picture above shows a fully assembled top fire sub / quick change assembly. Alone, these two
components are not very useful. They comprise only part of the perforating gun string. The other required
components include: the perforating gun which goes on the bottom of the stack; the main body which is
located directly above the quick change and houses the CCL – which is responsible for depth control; and
the cable head located at the top of the stack whose sole purpose is to connect the stack to the wireline. The
entire string is shown in the picture below.
Note: In the assembly picture below the perforating gun is not yet connected.
Main Body (CCL) Cable Head
5.2.1.5 Check Fire – Open and Closed
The next step is the check fire. This step verifies the electrical integrity of the conductors between the
perforating system in the surface unit and the leads in the top fire sub, as well as the function of the surface
unit itself.
Because electrical current is used to perform this test it is very important for the perforating gun to be
isolated (not connected) from the rest of the system and for the detonator to be stored safely in the truck
magazine to prevent the check fire from causing an accidental surface detonation.
Check Fire – Continuity. The first check fire step

verifies the continuity of the firing circuit by
applying a voltage between the isolated wireline
conductor and armour, with the surface system, to
ensure current will flow down the conductor,
through the cable head and quick change, through
the pigtail, across the shorted leads, through the
ground wire and tool body to armour, and finally
through the armour back to the surface system.
Check Fire – Leaks. The second check fire step

verifies the isolation of the ‘hotwire’ between the
surface system and the end of the pigtail lead in the
top fire sub. In other words, it ensures that current
can only return to the tool body or armour by
flowing out the lead at the end of the pigtail.
After the check fire sequence has been completed

the leads should be shorted together again to ensure
that any residual charge that may be stored in the
wireline is shorted out before the detonator is
attached.
Leave the lines shorted together until the detonator

is connected.
5.2.1.6 Connect and Arm the Perforating Gun
Connect the Perforating Gun. Feed the detonating cord through the bottom of the top fire sub into the
inner chamber.
Thread the top fire sub onto the top of the gun.
Prepare the Detonator. Transport the detonator

from the truck magazine to the perforating gun in
a safety tube.
Close the safety tube lid and hand tighten the

sealing bolt before transporting the safety tube.
Note how the leads are separated when they exit

the safety tube. Also note how the ends of the
leads are wrapped together. Detonator leads are
always stored like this to reduce their ability to
convert RF energy to voltage which could cause
an accidental detonation.
Trim the Detonating Cord. Always use an
approved tool – the most important
characteristic of which is the use of only one
metal cutting edge.
Trim the Leads. Trim all four leads – one at

a time.
Do not strip the wires. The scotch locks used

in the next step make electrical contact
through the insulation.
Connect the Detonator Electrically. Slide
one lead from the detonator and one lead
from the top fire sub into a scotch lock. It
does not matter which lead from the
detonator is connected to the ground or hot
wire in the top fire gun sub.
Using a pair of pliers squeeze the scotch lock

until the lower piston is flush with the bottom
of the scotch lock body.
Note: Always connect the detonator

electrically while it is safely ensconced in the
safety tube. Because the detonator is not
ballistically connected to the gun, if enough
stray charge is present when the electrical
connection is made to ignite the detonator, it
will explode in the safety tube rather then on
the detonating cord, which would result in
the catastrophic surface detonation of the
entire gun.
Connect the other pair of wires in the same

fashion.
Stuff the connected wires into top fire sub
inner chamber.
Connect the Detonator Ballistically.

Remove the detonator from the safety tub
and slide it onto the detonating cord.
Slide the detonator toward the lower end

(down hole side) of the top fire sub inner
chamber. Lay the detonating cord flat in the
chamber. If the cord does not fit in the
chamber without ‘looping back’ there is too
much slack cord. Extra cord in the inner
chamber will increase the explosive force
applied to the top fire sub and thus reduce
it’s service life. Extra cord should be
avoided.
Slide the top fire sub sleeve over the inner

chamber and thread it onto the sub. Tighten
until the sleeve makes contact with the
shoulder.
The gun is now ready to run in the well.
5.2.1.7 Misfire Procedures
Misfire Procedures for Top Fire Guns. If
the gun does not detonate in the well it must
be disarmed before it can be stored. Guns
are disarmed by following the arming
sequence in reverse.
Ballistically Disconnect the Detonator.

Procedurally, the detonator is first removed
from the detonating cord and secured in a
safety tube as shown in the pictures to the
left and below.
Electrically Disconnect the Detonator.

Once the detonator is in the safety tube it can
then be disconnected electrically. All four
wires need to be cut – one at a time.
Once all four wires are cut, the two leads

from the detonator must be shunted together.
The easiest way to do this is to use a scotch
lock as shown.
Once the leads are shorted and wrapped
together the detonator must be transported
back to the shop in the truck magazine.
Before storing the gun, cover the end of the

detonating cord with black tape and secure
the top fire sub sleeve over the inner chamber
to prevent any debris from entering.
5.2.2 Bottom Fire
Bottom fire guns offer one substantial advantage over top fire guns; specifically, they can be detonated
using fluid sensitive detonators that will be inhibited if well fluid leaks into the gun, preventing the ‘burst
gun’ problem discussed in the previous section. The chief disadvantage of bottom fire guns is the need to
arm the gun while the charges are still exposed on the surface.
Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers (RHSC) should always be detonated using the bottom fire system since
they are prone to leak. Properly serviced Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers (EHSC) do not require bottom
fire detonating, but in the absence of SureFire equipment, the bottom fire system is considered the best
alternative.
5.2.2.1 Connect the Hot and Ground Wires
Before a bottom fire gun can be armed it must first be configured with a ground wire and a feed through hot
wire. The hot wire is an isolated line that runs from the firing head at the top of the gun to the detonator at
the bottom. The ground, or current return, is the gun chassis – as is always the case – so the ground line
simply needs to be securely connected to the gun body.
The following picture shows the insert from an expendable hollow retrievable carrier (EHSC). The gun
was originally configured to top fire detonate using the SureFire system, but the gun builder wisely left an
extra length of detonating cord at the bottom of the gun which allows for a quick conversion to a bottom
fire system in the event that the SureFire system malfunctioned or was unavailable.
Å Bottom Top Æ
Extra Detonating Cord Thread the Hot Wire. Thread a length of

gun wire from the top of the charge carrier to
the bottom. Wrap the wire beside the
detonating cord and tape it securely.
Always protect the gun wire from sharp

edges by covering them with tape.
Leave at least 60cm (2 feet) of extra wire at

the top and bottom of the carrier to connect
to the quick change and the detonator
respectively.
Thread the gun wire back in
to the bottom of the carrier.
Secure the ground line to the bottom of the charge carrier. Ideally a ground screw is machined into the
bottom of the charge carrier to connect the ground line. In the event a ground screw is not present (as in this
example) the wire can be stripped and tightly tied down.
Remember that gun wire is cheap – tie a length at least 60cm (2 feet) long.
After the ground line is secured, thread it

inside the charge carrier and tape the
connection point to ensure the ground line
remains connected.
Coil the hot wire and the ground line together

and stuff them in the bottom of the gun
carrier with the detonating cord.
Re-insert the charge carrier into the gun

barrel.
Install the Top Sub. Thread the hot wire

through the top sub and screw the top sub into
the gun barrel. Keep the line taught whilst
threading the sub onto the gun to avoid
pinching the line.
Install the Rubber Boot and Pigtail
Spring.
Trim the length of the hot wire and thread the

rubber boot over top.
Leave about 10cm (4 in) of slack hot wire

inside the top sub incase you need to redo the
connection to the pigtail spring.
Strip about 2.5cm (1in) of insulation from the

wire. Be careful not to damage any of the
conductors. If you do, clip the wire, pull out
some of the slack line and start again.
Wrap the bare wire around the pigtail spring

and tie it tightly.
Seat the pigtail spring into the rubber boot.
Seat the pigtail assembly into the top sub.
Check the hot wire for leaks.
Note: The only type of meters that can be

used to check wires that run through – or are
connected too – a device that contains
explosives are approved blasters meters.
First, as with all meters, verify the meter is

functioning by shorting the two poles
together to verify the meter reads zero ohms
(within one tenth of an ohm is acceptable).
Next, strip the hot wire and the ground wire

leads at the bottom the gun barrel.
Then connect them to the blasters

galvanometer.
The meter should read an ‘open circuit’

because the hot wire should be isolated as it
runs the length of the gun between the
exposed end at the bottom and the other end
ensconced in the rubber pigtail boot at the
top. The rubber pigtail boot prevents the hot
wire conductor from contacting the tool body
(which is connected to the ground line),
opening the circuit and preventing current
from flowing back to the meter. The
resultant output on the meter should be
‘infinite resistance’, which shows on the
display for the blaster’s ohmmeter used in
this example as a blank reading.
If the meter reads any resistance value, it

implies that the hot line is connected to the
tool body somewhere along its length which
means the insulation around the wire – or the
pigtail – is damaged. If this is the case the
problem must be solved before the gun is
used. If it is not, the bulk of the current
intended to fire the gun will not reach the
detonator because it will travel though the
break in the wire to the tool body (this
happens because this ‘short’ path will most
likely offer less resistance then the detonator)
instead of through the detonator, resulting in
a misfire.
Check the hot wire and the ground line for
continuity.
First, short the leads together at the bottom of the

gun sub.
Then, connect one pole of the blasters galvanometer

to the pigtail, and connect the other to the gun body.
The meter should read the resistance of the system,

which should be less then about 1 ohm. The
reading will vary depending on the length of the
gun because the amount of gun wire required will
change. The longer the gun wire the greater the
resistance will be.
This test is measuring the continuity of the circuit.

If the resistance is low it means current is allowed
to flow from the meter, to the pig-tail, down the hot
wire through the gun, over to the ground line
(because the leads are shorted together), to the tool
body (because the ground line is shorted to the tool
body) and back to the meter.
When finished, leave the wires at the bottom of the

gun shorted together to prevent any voltage from
building between them that could be released
through the detonator when arming.
5.2.2.2 Check Fire – Open and Closed

After the gun is wired and checked, the next step is assembly of the cable-head, main body (CCL), and
quick change, followed by a check fire open and a check fire closed to ensure that the electrical circuit
connecting the surface system to the quick change is free of leaks and is continuous respectively.
The first thing that needs to be communicated with regards to performing check fires is that they can only
be performed on equipment that do not contain – and are not connected to any other device that may
contain – any type of explosive material. The only device that can be used to check the electrical integrity
of a device containing explosive materials is an approved blasters meter.
Check-Fire – Open.
First, assemble the quick change, main body,

and then connect the cable head. Ensure that
the ‘button’ is clean, free of debris, and dry,
so that it is in no way electrically connected
to the quick change body.
Next, using the surface shooting software,

perform a check-fire. Because the button and
the tool body are not connected, the system should respond only to the CCL. In other words, when voltage is
applied between the isolated conductor and armour, current will flow down the conductor, through the CCL coil,
to armour, and back to the surface system. The amount of current that should flow can be easily calculated using
ohms law because we know the magnitude of the voltage the system applies during the check-fire sequence
(35V), and we know the resistance of the entire system is equal to the resistance of the conductor (5/16” line has
a resistance of about 9.5Ω/1000m, so 4000m of line would have a resistance of 38Ω) plus the resistance of the
CCL coil (about 1550Ω) plus the resistance of the armour (negligible). Using ohms law to solve for the expected
current flow:
V 35V
I= = = 0.022 A = 22mA
R 1550Ω + 38Ω
The purpose of the check-fire open step is to ensure that the isolated conductor is indeed insular. If the current
flow is higher then expected then the conductor must be shorted to ground somewhere in the system. The
problem must be found before continuing.
It should be noted that this test is much like checking for leaks except that now some current flow is expected…
just not very much.
Check-Fire – Closed.
The setup for this check fire is the same as

for the open version except that now the
Button button is shorted to the tool body. The short
can be accomplished with any metal object –
a screwdriver was used in this example
picture.
Now, when the surface software completes

the check-fire it should read a virtual short.
Current will travel from the surface system,
down the isolated conductor, and then to
ground through both the CCL coil and the
screwdriver. The majority of the current will travel through the screwdriver path because the only resistance it
offers comes from the line (estimate about 38Ω again).
V V 35V 35V
I (total ) = I (CCL ) + I ( Short ) = + = + = 0.022 A + 0.921A = 0.94 A
R(CCL +line ) R(line ) 1588Ω 38Ω
The purpose of the check-fire closed step is to verify the continuity of the circuit that connects the quick change
to the surface system. If the system is not intact then current will not flow when the firing circuit attempts to
ignite the detonator. Any problems must be addressed before continuing.
5.2.2.3 Connect the Gun to the Quick Change
Thread the detonator block onto the quick change.
Slide the quick change / detonator block assembly overtop of the pigtail spring. Ensure
that the spring and the quick change button are making contact.
Thread the quick change sleeve overtop of the detonator block and
thread it onto the top gun sub.
Fully assembled the gun looks like the picture below.
Cable Head Main Body Quick Perforating Gun

(CCL) Change
5.2.2.4 Arm the Gun
Transfer the detonator from the truck

magazine to the blasting tube.
Notice how the leads are separated and

threaded through the machined slots on either
side of the blasting tube to prevent them from
being pinched when the cover is closed.
Close the cover and secure the cover bolt.
Check the electrical integrity of the

detonator using a blasters galvanometer.
Most – but not all – detonators we use will

read a resistance of 51Ω; check the
manufactures specifications if the proper
reading is unknown.
If the detonator does not read the correct

resistance, treat it like a misfire. Connect
and coil the leads then return it to the
appropriate section of the shop detonator
magazine.
Remove the end-plug from the bottom of the

perforating gun.
Remove the hot-wire and ground-wire leads.

They should be shorted together – if they are
not, twist them together before proceeding to
remove any potential difference that might
exist between them.
Visually inspect the lines to make sure they

do not appear damaged.
Gently tug the ground line to make sure it is

still connected to the gun carrier.
Using a pair of side cutters, clip the hot-wire
and ground-wire leads coming from the gun,
then clip the two leads coming from the
detonator. Only clip one wire at a time.
Trim the leads to minimize the amount of

slack wire in the bottom of the gun after it is
armed.
Use scotch locks to connect the ground-wire

from the gun to one of the detonator leads
and the hot-wire from the gun to the other
detonator lead.
Note: Always arm guns electrically before

ballistically. Detonators can only be
connected to the electrical firing circuit (1)
before they are in contact with any other
explosive materials, and (2) when they are
safely secured inside a blasting chamber.
This ensures that an accidental detonation
caused by stray voltage in the firing circuit
would be contained by the blasting tube and
isolated from the main explosive load of the
gun.
Once the detonator is armed electrically it

can now be ballistically connected to the
detonating cord. Remove it from the blasting
tube and attached it to the detonating cord.

When a block detonator (as in this example)
or a butterfly detonator is used, slide it along
the detonating cord until it is safely
ensconced inside the charge carrier. Trim the
detonating cord so that it will fit inside the
bottom sub when it is threaded on. Wrap the
wires together and wrap them in heat
resistant tape so that they will not get
pinched when the bottom sub is threaded
onto the tool.
When an inline detonator is used it must be

mated to the end of the cord. Ideally it will
be mated ‘in line’ with the detonating cord
such that the cord does not have a kink in it
(this gives the best possible ballistic
coupling). To accomplish this, trim the cord
such that just enough extends past the bottom
of the gun to slide into the end of the
detonator. Crimp the detonator and then
slide the bottom sub overtop and thread into
the gun.
Check the O-rings on

the bottom sub and
replace if required.
Thread the bottom sub

into the gun body and
tighten.

The procedure for disarming a gun after a misfire is exactly the

reverse of the procedure used to arm the gun.
First, ballistically disarm the gun. Remove the bottom sub and
extract and secure the detonator inside the blasting tube.
Second, electrically disarm the detonator. Clip both detonator

leads, one at a time.
Third, shunt the detonator leads together (a scotch lock works

well), coil them, and then return the detonator to the misfire
section of the shop magazine.

5.2.3 SureFire
The SureFire system is a Precision Wireline technologies proprietary top-fire system that is designed to
improve perforating reliability and safety. Reliability is improved by eliminating all of the wire
connections usually associated with arming a gun. Safety is improved by removing the need to handle un-
shunted and/or live detonators. The configuration of the components required to use the SureFire system is
shown in the picture below.
Cable Main Body Quick Change, Firing Head, Top Gun

Head (CCL) and Blasting Chamber Sub
5.2.3.1 Cable Head and Main Body
Thread the cable head and the main body

together.
Check Fire. The SureFire system check fire

does not include the quick change because it
has been modified to include the detonator
and has become a ballistic component.
Check Fire – Open.
Check Fire – Closed.
The check fire open and closed steps are used

to verify the electrical integrity and
continuity, respectively, of the circuit
between the surface system and the bottom
of the main body only. However, the
response expected is exactly the same as for
the top fire and bottom fire systems; please
refer to these sections for more detailed
response information.

5.2.3.2 Top Sub
The positioning and configuration of the
detonating cord in the top sub is critical to
success when using the SureFire system. If
the cord is not flush with the surface of the
top sub, or if it is not centered, the force from
the detonator may not be enough to create a
high order detonation in the cord.
Ensure that the cord port in the top sub is not

blown out. If it is the sub needs to be
replaced because it will be very difficult to
center the detonating cord.
Use an approved detonating cord cutter to

trim the detonating cord almost flush to the
top sub with a clean straight cut. Leave just
enough to crimp an end cap or a booster –
boosters are required for wells deeper then
1500m (5000ft) – onto the end of the cord,
then slide it down into the top sub until it is
flush with the surface and secure it in place
with a grommet or a clip.
5.2.3.3 Quick Change
Spinning Collar
End
Cap
Shunt Cap Detonator

Block
Contact Sub
The quick change has an expanded role with the SureFire perforating system. In addition to providing the
mechanical and electrical connections between the wireline and perforating gun, it now also contains the
detonator – which makes it the firing head as well as the blasting chamber. In order for the surefire quick
change to function in its new and expanded role a few design modifications were made. First, the detonator
block has been changed to hold the sure-fire detonator and expel the explosive gasses that result when it is
ignited. Second, a new end cap and a new shunt cap are now used to enclose the blasting chamber and
electrically shunt the detonator respectively.
The following picture depicts a fully assembled quick change configured to function as a blasting chamber
– note the shunt cap and the end cap; both must be threaded all the way on in order for them to function
properly.

The steps below outline the SureFire quick change pre-check and arming procedures. The steps must be
fully understood and followed carefully to eliminate unwanted misfires.
Check the contact sub for leaks and

continuity.
Leaks. Use the megohmeter (preferred) or

the simpson meter to verify electrical
isolation between the isolated conductor and
the housing. Perform this test by placing one
lead on the end of the contact rod and the
other on the quick change housing. The
meter must read infinite ohms. If it does not
it means current will flow to ground through
the contact sub – instead of through the
detonator – resulting in a misfire. Any
problems must be solved before the quick
change can be used.
Continuity. Use a simpson meter to verify

that the isolated conductor is continuous
through the contact sub. Place one lead on
the contact pin and the other on the bottom
end of the contact rod. Since the conductor
is continuous, the meter should read zero
ohms. If it does not it means that current
will not be able to flow through the quick
change to the detonator – resulting in a
misfire. Again, any problems must be solved
before the quick change can be used.
Note: The simpson meter and the

megohmeter can be used because the
detonator is not present. Never use either of
these meters when the quick change is
connected to the detonator.

Check the function of the contact pin /
spring assembly. Ensure that the pin moves
freely in and out of the contact sub and verify
that the spring exerts a reasonable amount of
force on the pin to force it into the cable head
or against the shunt cap.
Use a wire brush to clean the threads on the

spinning collar.
Inspect the spinning collar and the contact

sub to ensure they are clean.
Inspect the O-ring seating surface inside the

top of the spinning collar to ensure it is not
creased or pitted.
Replace all five ‘exposed’ O-rings on the

contact sub if they have not already been
replaced since the last run in the well.
Slide the spinning collar overtop of the

contact sub.
O-rings (4), 222, 90-

Duro viton.
O-ring, 224, 90-
Duro, Viton

Thread the shut-cap onto the contact sub.
The only shunt-cap approved for use is
shunt-cap part number SF-ADP-1625. This
cap must be used to ensure proper electrical
contact between the contact pin and the
contact sub body (ground).
This is very important when the detonator is

installed because the shunt cap is responsible
for shorting the detonator to ground as soon
as the detonator button is depressed.
Use a simpson meter to verify the short

between the contact pin and the contact sub
body by measuring the resistance (must read
zero ohms) between the button on the end of
the contact rod and the tool body.
Install the Rubber Isolator Seal. Inspect

the seal (part number A-4516) to ensure it is
in good condition with no noticeable damage
or wear. Coat the seal with a light film of
grease and slide it onto the end of the contact
rod button.
The three recommended types of grease are:

• DC-111;
• Parker Super Lube;
• A-3161 Novagard.
These three grease types have temperature
ratings of at least 400ºF and will not liquefy
at high temperatures.
Inspect the button to ensure it is clean, free of

debris or residual grease, and damage. Note:
top fire systems often damage the button so
ensure they are carefully inspected before
they are used.

Clean the Detonator Block. Concentrate on
the ‘detonator seat’ toward the bottom of the
block. This area must be free of any debris
that could prevent the SureFire detonator
casing from making good electrical contact
with the block.
This contact is very important because it is

the part of the firing circuit that allows
current to flow from the detonator back to
ground.
Insert the Detonator. Remove the detonator from the

detonator magazine and slide it into the detonator block.
Ensure the detonator fits snuggly into the block with very little
free play.
Never depress the pin on the top of the detonator. When the
pin is up it shorts the live wire inside the detonator to ground –
this is the same as twisting the two leads of a conventional
detonator together. When the pin is depressed the detonator is
‘live’ and much more susceptible to accidental detonation.

Screw the detonator block onto the contact sub. Thread the detonator block until it makes physical
contact with the bottom of the contact sub. Hand tight is all that is required. Always keep your hands
away from the ‘line of fire’ – which is the bottom of the detonator block.
The system is designed to slightly compress the little rubber protector ring on the top of the detonator
against the bottom of the contact rod. For this reason it is normal for it to become slightly harder to
thread the detonator block when it is almost touching the contact sub.
Note: The pin on the top of the detonator is depressed when it is pushed against the contact rod as the
detonator block is threaded onto the contact sub but the detonator will not be live because it is still
shunted to ground by the shunt cap on the top of the contact sub. The fact that un-shunted detonators
never need to be handled is a major safety advantage of the surefire system.
Check the Detonator. Ensure that

the detonator is centered in the
detonator block. Also check to
make sure that the detonator is
secure in the block with no ‘free
play’.

Thread the Protector Cap into the
Spinning Collar. Slide the spinning collar
overtop of the detonator block. Thread the
protector cap into the spinning collar.
Note: This protector cap is designed to

absorb the force of an accidental detonator
detonation. Only use protector cap part
number SF-ADP-2750.
The following picture shows a fully assembled sure-fire quick change assembly. When the protector
cap is fully threaded into the spinning collar the detonator is considered to be contained within an
approved blasting chamber.

Check Detonator Resistance. Since the detonator is safely contained within a blasting chamber it is now
safe to remove the top shunt cap. Use a galvanometer to check the resistance of the detonator by
measuring between the contact pin and the quick change body. The Owen 3050-008C SureFire detonator
reads an ideal resistance of 51Ω, but any reading between 50Ω and 55Ω is acceptable. If the reading falls
outside this range, remove the detonator from the assembly and verify the electrical integrity of the quick
change (leaks and continuity). If the quick change is good, install a new detonator and repeat the testing
procedure.
Always remember that when the detonator is in the assembly, the shunt cap or the protector cap
(preferably both) must be threaded into the quick change.
Replace the shunt cap and transport the quick change to the gun assembly.
The quick change is placed above the gun and below the main
body (CCL).
As with any other detonator, sure-fire detonators must be

connected electrically first and ballistically second.
Inspect O-ring surfaces. Remember to inspect the sealing

surfaces on the inside of the main body (CCL), and the inside of
the spinning collar – both top (connection sub seal surface) and
bottom (top gun sub sealing surface).

Connect Electrically. Remove the shut cap from the top of the quick change. Thread the quick
change into the bottom of the main body (CCL) / cable-head assembly. This connects the detonator hot
wire (isolated conductor) and the ground (tool body) to the firing circuit.
Note: This process is equivalent to connecting the leads of a conventional detonator to the lead wires
from a firing head when arming top or bottom fire guns. All relevant safety precautions must still be
taken.
Connect Ballistically. Remove the protector cap from the bottom of

the spinning collar.
Pull the spinning collar back and ensure the detonator and the
detonating cord line up (the detonator used in the picture to the right
has a hole in it because it is an inert detonator). Thread the spinning
collar overtop of the detonator block and onto the top sub. Lightly
torque the collar with a 24 inch pipe wrench.

The procedures for disarming a misfired SureFire gun are simply the reverse of arming it. The two most
important rules that must be followed are (1), always disconnect the gun ballistically before electrically,
and (2), always ensure at least either (preferably both) the shunt cap or the protector cap are on the quick
change at all times until the detonator is removed.
Disconnect the Gun Ballistically. Disconnect the quick change from the perforating gun. Thread the
protector cap into the spinning collar to create a secure blasting chamber for the detonator.
Disconnect the Gun Electrically. Unthread the quick change from the main body (CCL). Screw the
shunt cap onto the top of the quick change to short the detonator circuit.
Remove the quick change / blasting chamber

a safe distance from the gun.
Remove the protector cap and unthread the

detonator block. Extract the detonator from
the detonator block and store it in the truck
detonator magazine until it can be transferred
to the misfire box in the shop magazine.
Note: The electrical integrity of the

detonator can be tested before it is removed
from the quick change by removing the shunt
cap instead of the protector cap and
connecting the galvanometer between the
connector pin and the tool body.

5.2.3.5 Post Job Maintenance
After the gun has been fired and removed from the
well the quick change must be cleaned and serviced
before it can be used again.
Clean the Spinning Collar. Start by removing the

spinning collar from the conductor sub and thoroughly
cleaning it with a wire brush and a soft rag. Use the
wire brush to clean the threads only. Be careful not to
score the O-ring sealing surfaces on the inside of the
top and bottom of the spinning collar.

Clean the Contact Sub.
Remove the detonator block.
Remove the rubber isolator seal and discard

if any damage is present. If it appears
serviceable, clean it and set aside for future
use.
Clean the entire sub. Ensure the contact rod

button is free of any debris and inspect for
any damage.
Replace all 5 exposed O-rings.
Use a megohmeter to check the sub for leaks.
Use a simpson meter to check the sub for

4 O-rings, 222, 90 continuity.
DuroViton.
1 O-ring, 224, 90
Duro Viton

Extract the spent detonator casing.
Place a ½” by 4” bolt into the top of the

detonator block then push it through using a
vice as shown in the picture below.

Remove the bolt and any remaining casing
parts and thoroughly clean the entire
detonator block.
Make sure the detonator seat is completely

free of debris and damage. This inspection is
important to ensure the detonator casing and
the block contact each other well enough to
conduct electricity on future runs to complete
the ground portion of the firing circuit.

5.2.4 Slim SureFire – RTG Guns
5.2.4.1 Detonating Cord Placement
The loading procedures for guns that employ the slim SureFire system are slightly different then for those
that use regular surefire hardware. The greatest deviation arises from the fact that the slim SureFire system
does not use a conventional top sub to hold the detonating cord in place; instead the cord is positioned and
held securely inside the top of the charge carrier. The detonating cord must be secured before the charges
are loaded into the gun, thus the procedures that follow must be completed before any of the steps
discussed in the gun loading section are completed.
Thread and Prepare the Detonating Cord.
This is the primary deviation from standard

loading procedures. When configuring slim
SureFire guns the cord must be placed and
secured at the top of the gun before it is
threaded through any charges. This
eliminates the need for any slack cord at the
top of the carrier, which is important because
the charge carrier is too narrow to contain
any additional material.
Start by threading the detonating cord from

the reel, into the top most port, and out of the
top of the charge carrier. Leave the cord
attached to reel.
Using approved cord cutters make a straight

cut on the end of the detonating cord.
Slide a booster over the end of the cord.

Make sure the end of the cord is all the way
inside the booster and then crimp it using an
approved crimping tool. Always remember
to crimp twice, with the second crimp 90º
offset from the first. Also, remember not to
crimp the explosive component of the
booster.

Position the Rubber Cylinder Over the
Detonating Cord. Slide the rubber cylinder
onto the detonating cord until it is 3mm (1/8”)
from the end of the booster.
Tape the Booster and Detonating Cord.

Wrap the end of the booster and the start of the
detonating cord with heat resistant tape. This
step increases the diameter of the first 2.5cm
(1”) of detonating cord behind the rubber
cylinder to prevent the detonating cord from
sliding into the charge carrier.
2.5 cm

Position the detonating cord inside the
charge carrier. Gently tug on the
detonating cord to pull the end into the
charge carrier. The tape prevents the cord
from pulling all the way through the charge
carrier and the rubber cylinder serves to
center the booster.
Properly configured, the rubber cylinder

should be positioned flush with the surface of
the charge carrier and the booster should
protrude by about 3mm.
Finish loading the gun. Load the charges

into the gun and thread the detonating cord
through each of them. The only difference
here compared to standard loading
procedures is the fact that the detonating cord
is threaded from the top of the gun to the
bottom instead of the other way around.
Once complete, cut the cord, tape the loose
end, and secure it inside the bottom of the
charge carrier.
Slide the charge carrier into the gun body.

Remember to line the orientation key on the
charge carrier up with corresponding key
built into the gun body. Slide the charge
carrier in and secure it with the snap ring that
is included with the gun assembly.
Note: When the gun is fully assembled the

detonator will not directly contact the end of
the booster. Because this gap exists it is
imperative that a booster is used in order to
create good ballistic coupling between the
detonator and detonating cord. If an end cap
is used instead the probability of a low-order
detonation or a complete misfire is very high.

5.2.4.2 Arming Procedures
Blast Tube
High
Pressure
Contact
Sub
Bullnose
Top Sub /
Plug
Shunt Detonator Holder
Cap
Detonator
The slim surefire system uses different components then the regular surefire system. In place of the quick
change assembly the slim surefire system uses the components shown above. The high pressure contact
sub connects the system to the wireline, both electrically and mechanically. The top sub / detonator holder
holds the detonator, physically connects the gun and electrically connects the detonator to the contact sub,
and ballistically connects the detonator to the detonating cord in top of the gun body. The blast tube and
bullnose plug are used to replace the spinning collar and protector cap of the regular surefire system
respectively. Fully assembled with the other components they collectively constitute the blast chamber.
The actual components used will change depending on the diameter of gun being fired, which is chiefly
determined by the minimum well restriction diameter through which the gun must travel. Ensure approved
parts are being used before proceeding.

Check the Contact Sub for Leaks and
Continuity.

other on the contact sub housing. The meter
must read infinite ohms. If it does not it
means current will flow to ground through
problems must be solved before the contact
sub can be used.

will not be able to flow through the contact
sub to the detonator – resulting in a misfire.
Again, any problems must be solved before
the contact sub can be used.

these meters when the contact sub is

Thread the shut-cap onto the contact sub.
This cap is used to ensure create electrical

contact between the contact pin and the
contact sub body (ground).
This is very important when the detonator is

installed because the shunt cap is responsible
for shorting the detonator to ground as soon
as the detonator button is depressed.
Use a simpson meter to verify the short

between the contact pin and the contact sub
body by measuring the resistance (must read
zero ohms) between the button on the end of
the contact rod and the tool body.
Thoroughly clean the top sub / detonator

holder. Concentrate on the area inside that
will contact the detonator when it is inserted.
This area must be free of any debris to ensure
that proper electrical contact is established
between the detonator and the sub because
this constitutes the detonator ground
connection in the firing circuit.

Insert the Detonator. Place the detonator
into the top sub (detonator holder) with the
explosive element facing the bottom of the
sub (the part that screws into the gun).
Ensure it fits snuggly inside the sub to
establish a good electrical connection
between the two devices.
Thread the Top Sub / Detonator Holder

onto the Shunted Connector Sub.
Visually inspect the makeup point between
the two subs to make sure they make
shoulder to shoulder contact.
Test the detonator by pushing on it

laterally to ensure it is held securely in
place. The position of the detonator is
important because the blast must be
directed toward the booster on the end of
the detonating cord in order to cause
detonation of the gun. If it is misdirected a
misfire may result.

Thread the Blast Tube and the Bullnose plug onto the bottom of the top sub. This step creates an isolated
blasting chamber that seals the detonator inside.
Remove the Shunt Plug. It is safe to remove the shunt plug as long as the blasting chamber is intact.
Note: From a safety point of view, either the shunt plug or the blasting chamber (preferably both) must be
installed at any given time after installing the detonator up to the point when the gun is ballistically armed.
Test the electrical integrity of the detonator. Using an approved blasting meter test the resistance of the
detonator firing circuit by attaching one lead to the isolated conductor (the pin) and the other to the current
return (tool body). The Owen 3050-008C detonator that is used for surefire applications should read 51Ω,
however a reading between 50Ω and 55Ω is considered acceptable.
Replace the Shunt Plug. After testing the detonator, thread the shunt plug back into the connector sub.

Check-Fire Open and Closed. Attach the cablehead to the main body (CCL) and check-fire open then
check-fire closed.
Refer to the standard SureFire, top fire, and bottom fire sections for more information regarding the check-
fire sequence.
Remember – all standard blasting safety procedures must be followed.
Connect Electrically. The arming sequence for the slim surefire sequence is the same as all the other
configurations. The detonator must be connected electrically first, while it is contained in a blasting
chamber, so any accidental detonation will be contained (and isolated from the main explosive load).
First, remove the shunt plug from the top of the connection sub.
Second, thread the assembled blasting chamber / connection sub into the main body (CCL) / cable head
assembly.

Connect Ballistically. Unthread the blast tube from the top sub (detonator holder). This will expose
the business end of the detonator – always remember to stay clear of the line of fire. Thread the gun
onto the top sub because it is free to spin whereas the top sub is not because it is physically attached to
the wireline.
Torque the Top Sub to the Gun. Use 24” pipe wrenches to torque the top sub onto the gun.
Remember to place the backup torque wrench on the gun so the other wrench – and you – are not
directly in front of the blast surface of the gun in the event of an accidental surface detonation.

5.2.5 Slim SureFire – Strip Guns
5.2.5.1 Components
Detonating Cord Sealing Kit. Contains
[left to right]:
• End Cap PN: 7232-4017
Detonator: Owen • Sealing Boot PN: 7232-4018
PN: DET-3050- Detonator Holder. • Compression Ring PN: 7232-4016
Exposed Shooting PN: 7232-4013
Adapter. 008C • Compression Nut PN: 7232-4015
PN: 7232-4010
Shunt Cap. Contact Sub. Strip Gun Head. PN: 7232-4012

PN: 7232-4014 Owen PN: AES-AS80004
5.2.5.2 Leak and Continuity Checks

other on the quick change housing. The
meter must read infinite ohms. If it does not
it means current will flow to ground through
problems must be solved before the contact
sub can be used.

will not be able to flow through the contact
sub to the detonator – resulting in a misfire.
Again, any problems must be solved before
the contact sub can be used.

these meters when the contact sub is
5.2.5.3 Assembly
Thread the shunt-cap onto

the contact sub.
This cap is used to ensure

proper electrical contact
between the contact pin and the
contact sub body (ground). If a shunt is not available, the
isolated conductor that runs
This is very important when the through the center of the
detonator is installed because contact sub can be shorted to
the shunt cap is responsible for the tool body using a jumper
shorting the detonator to cable as shown in the picture
ground as soon as the detonator above.
button is depressed.
Verify the short using a
Use a simpson meter to verify simpson meter by following the
the short between the contact procedure described in the text
pin and the contact sub body by box to the left.
measuring the resistance (must
read zero ohms) between the
button on the end of the contact
rod and the tool body.

Clean the Exposed Shooting Adapter.
Thoroughly clean the entire adapter, inside
and out.
Polish the surface of the hole machined into

the bottom of the adapter using a fine grained
sand paper to make sure it is clean and free
of corrosion. This step is important because
the contact between this surface and the
detonator serves as the ground connection
point in the firing circuit.
Insert the Detonator. Insert the SureFire

detonator into the Exposed Shooting Adapter
as shown in the picture. Take care not to
depress the plunger on the detonator when
performing this step, since the detonator will
not be shunted to ground if the plunger is
pushed down.
Install the Blast Tube. Thread the blast

tube onto the end of the exposed shooting
adapter.
Note: When this document was published

the design of the blast tube was not finalized.
The blast tube you employ may not look the
same but it will perform the same function.
Ensure the blast tube you use does not
employ an O-ring seal, so it can vent gas
(and thus not explode) in the event of an
accidental detonation.
Thread the Shunted Contact Sub into the Exposed Shooting Adapter. Before connecting these two
components check and replace the O-rings (214, 90 duro, Viton) on the Contact sub if required.

Test Detonator Placement. With the shunt cap installed, remove the blast tube and push laterally on the
detonator (do not touch or damage the silver button on the end) to ensure it is held securely in place.
Reinstall the Blast Tube. Always remember to have either the shunt cap or the blast tube installed, up to
the point when the firing assembly is attached to the gun.
Install the Connection Sub. (Choice of

5.2.5.4 Check-Fire – Open and Closed Applied Electronics [Owen] PN: AS50025;
or Titan 3933-000-000)
Inspect and replace the connection sub O-

rings if required (Titan and Applied
Electronics both require 211, 90 duro, Viton
O-rings).
Check the connection sub for leaks and

continuity.
Grease the O-rings (DC 111 grease is

recommended). Thread the connection sub
into the bottom of the CCL.
Connect the CCL to the wireline and proceed

to check fire.
Check Fire – Open. With the firing circuit

open perform the check fire open step to
verify the electrical isolation of the circuit
of the connection sub.
Check Fire – Closed. With the firing circuit

shorted (connect the isolated conductor pin to
the tool body) perform the check fire closed
step to verify the conductivity of the circuit
of the connection sub.

5.2.5.5 Electrically Connect the Detonator
Check the Detonator Electrical
Connection. Using a blasters galvanometer
check the resistance of the detonator circuit
between the plunger and the tool body. The
Owen DET-3050-008C should read 51 ohms.
Thread the CCL/Connection Sub

Assembly into the Exposed Shooting
Adapter. Remove the shunt cap from the
top of the exposed shooting adapter. Grease
the O-rings (DC 111) and thread the two
components together.
5.2.5.6 Ballistically Connect the Gun
Insert the Detonating Cord Retainer Rods

into the Strip Gun Head. Tap three 0.125”
diameter brass rods through the machined
holes in the strip gun head. File the ends
flush if they protrude.
Remove the Blast Tube.

Install the Detonator Holder. Apply a
small amount of grease to the O-ring (016,
90 duro, Viton) on the detonator holder and
thread it into the end of the exposed shooting
adapter, overtop of the protruding end of the
detonator.
Gently tighten with a pair of pliers.
Thread the Strip Gun Head onto the Exposed Shooting Adapter.
Note: Thread the strip gun head onto the

exposed shooting adapter, not the other way
around, to avoid twisting the wireline. Also,
connect the strip gun head to the firing
assembly before connecting it to the gun to
avoid the need to spin the gun when making
the connection.

Connect the Gun.
When building the gun, ensure enough

slack detonating cord is left to reach the
‘cut line’ marked on the strip gun head.
Bolt the gun to the strip gun head and

tighten securely.
Thread the Detonating Cord Under the

Three Retainer Rods. Leave a small
amount of slack between the first charge in
the gun and the retaining rods to
accommodate any detonating cord shrinkage
that may occur in the well.

Install the Compression Nut, Compression
Ring, and the Sealing Boot onto the
Detonating Cord.
Slide the nut on first followed by the ring.

Then apply a small amount of DC 111 grease
and slide the sealing boot onto the cord.
Note: Install these three components onto

the cord before the cord is cut to the proper
length. This prevents contaminating grease
(among other things) from contacting the
explosive inside the exposed end of the cord.
Cut the Detonating Cord to Length. Line

the detonating cord up to the ‘Cut Line’
machined into the top of the strip gun head
and cut the cord with approved detonating
cord cutters. Make sure the cut is straight
(perpendicular to the axis of the cord) and
clean.
Slide the end cap overtop of the detonating

cord.
Note that this end cap is specially designed

for use with the detonating cord sealing kit
and cannot be replaced with a generic end
cap.

Double Crimp the End Cap onto
the Cord.
Slide the Sealing Boot overtop of

the End Cap. The sealing boot will
bottom out leaving just the end of
the end cap protruding.
Notice how the end of the

detonating cord assembly lines up
with the ‘Cut Line’ machined into
the strip gun head. The cut line
marks the end of the detonator so
this means the detonator and the
detonating cord will be in intimate
contact inside the detonator holder.
Insert the Detonating Cord into the

Detonator Holder.
Slide the Compression Nut into the

end of the Detonator Holder.
Tug the Detonating Cord to Ensure it

is Seated Against the Detonator.

Thread the Compression Nut onto the
Detonator Holder. Tighten until the
compression nut bottoms out on the
detonator holder. Use a small wrench
(9/16”) to gently torque the compression
nut into place.
Make sure the threads are clean and free

of any explosive material before the
compression nut is threaded onto the
detonator holder.
Tie the Detonating Cord to the

Bottom of the Strip Gun Head using
Wax String or Wire. Always tie the
cord twice.
Leave a small amount of slack between

the tie point and the detonator holder, as
well as between the tie point and the first
charge in the gun to allow for detonating
cord shrinkage in the well.

5.3 Auxiliary Equipment
5.3.1 Centralizers
Centralizers are used to center the gun in the well to ensure uniform clearance for all shots. They are
usually employed when small diameter guns are used in large diameter wells.
Contact your local vendor for information regarding available centralizer systems.
5.3.2 Decentralizers
Decentralizers are used to magnetically orient guns in a well. Specifically, they are usually used to ensure
that zero degree phased guns are aligned such that the charges are directly facing the side of the well to
control the ‘clearance’ between the charges and the target. Without decentralizers, the gun could very
easily be aligned in such way that the force resulting from the detonation of the charges would have to
travel through the well bore fluid before contacting the casing, which could seriously degrade the size and
quality of the perforations.
Decentralizers come in multiple sizes and configurations. The decentralizer shown in the picture below
uses multiple button magnets. Other configurations employ large bar magnets. Consult your local
suppliers for more specific information.
5.3.3 Orientation Subs

Orientation subs are used to align the magnets on decentralizers to the correct phase of the charges being
oriented.
To use an orientation sub simply thread it fully into one of the two components being aligned, then thread it
into the other, adjusting the position of the alignment backup nut such that the two components are
correctly aligned when they are fully threaded together.
Alignment Nut
5.3.4 Swivels
Swivels are used to allow the gun to spin freely in the well with respect to the wireline. They should be
used whenever the gun is restricted from spinning in the well, such as when centralizers are used.

5.4 Reusable Guns
5.4.1 Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers (RHSC)

Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers have been largely replaced by throw away guns in most markets world
wide. When compared to their expendable cousins, retrievable hollow steel carriers do not stack up very
well because:
• they are very labour intensive to load and maintain,
• they are restricted by design considerations to shot densities less then 19 SPM (6 SPF),
• they are only available in outside diameters between 3⅛” and 5”,
• they sustain damage each time they are used,
• and they are prone to leak borehole fluids.
Since the risk of flooding is so high for retrievable hollow steel carriers they must always be bottom fired.
The only markets that still use retrievable hollow steel carriers are typically very price driven. The
‘expendable’ cost of firing retrievable guns is still less then their throw away counterparts, but the cost
savings are largely offset by the extra labour costs required to load and maintain them and the percentage of
misruns.
5.4.1.1 Loading Procedures
Inspect the Carrier Thoroughly. Inspect

for any visible stress cracks. If any cracks
are present, discard the gun.
Inspect the Carrier for ‘Bulging’. Slide a

‘go - no go’ sleeve over the length of the
carrier to make sure the diameter has not
increased beyond the maximum run tolerance
specified by the gun vendor.
Tap the Port Threads to make sure the port

plugs will thread properly into all of the gun
ports.
Thread the Detonating Cord

Through the Gun. To prevent
the cord from popping out one of
the ports when threading it
through the gun, wrap the cord
around itself a few times and slide
the loop in first.

Leave at least 30cm (1 ft) of extra detonating
Cord at the bottom of the gun.
Port Plugs, Alignment Sleeves, and Charges.

Make sure the port plug matches the gun, and the
alignment sleeve matches the gun and charge.
Contact the gun and charge vendor(s) to ensure
the correct parts are being used.
Charge
Port Plug
Alignment
Sleeve
Cut the Detonating Cord from the Reel. Make

sure enough cord is left at the top of the gun to hold
it taught while using the loading rod to slide the
charge into the gun.

Slide the Charges Down the Cord.
Place a small amount of grease onto the end

of the detonating cord.
Thread the charge onto the cord and slide it

down the cord until it is just inside the gun
body.
Grasp the charge with the loading tongs

using one hand, and hold the detonating cord
taught using the other, then slide the charge
down the detonating cord until it is lined up
with the bottom most charge port.

Line the Charge up with the Charge Port.
Once the charge is opposite the desired
charge port, use a brass alignment rod to seat
the charge in the orientation groove
machined into the bottom of the charge
carrier – located exactly opposite the charge
port opening.
Orientation Groove

Insert the Alignment Sleeve.
Alignment sleeves are keyed to fit the charge

and the port plug differently. Ensure the
tapered side faces up toward the port plug.
Slide the sleeve down the alignment rod until

it seats on top of the charge.
Inspect and Grease the Sealing Surface.

Inspect the rubber gasket sealing surface on
top of the port and apply a coat of grease.

Install the Port Plug. Thread the port plug
into the port. Tighten with an air powered
drill – remember, no electrical tools are
allowed.
Verify Charge Position. Give the charge a

small tug with the loading tongs to verify it is
properly secured in place.
Remove the tongs and proceed to load the

rest of the charges.
Stow the Detonating Cord – Top of the

Gun.
Since all RHSC guns are bottom fired the

detonating cord at the top of the gun simply
needs to have an end cap installed (crimped
twice) and then be pushed back, around the
top charge, so it is free of the threads when
the top sub is installed.

Thread the Gun Wire. Insert a fish tape
through the length of the gun, attach the gun
wire, and pull it back through.
Leave at least 30cm (1ft) of slack wire at the

bottom of the gun to facilitate gun arming.
Install the Pig Tail and the

Top Sub.
Thread the pig tail through

the top sub.
Trim the pigtail lead such

that only about 3cm (1”)
extends from the bottom of
the top sub (this prevents the
scotch lock from getting
caught in the threads when
the top sub is screwed into
the gun).
Connect the gun wire from

the pigtail lead using a scotch
lock.
Inspect and grease the O-

rings and inspect the O-ring
sealing surface inside the top
of the gun.
Thread the top sub into the

gun.

Stow the Detonating Cord – Bottom of
Gun. Slide the slack detonating cord into the
gun, past the bottom charge and away from
the threads.
Install the Bottom Sub for Pressure

Testing. Remember to inspect and grease
the O-rings on the bottom sub and to inspect
the O-ring sealing surface inside the bottom
of the gun.
Pressure Test the Gun.

Connect the pressure
testing assembly to the top
sub of the gun.
Using shop air, apply

pressure to the interior of
the gun. Spray the gun
ports with soapy water and
inspect for evidence of
leaking air.
If the gun is leaking,

release the pressure and
either solve the problem or
download the gun and
discard it.
After pressure testing is

complete, remove the
bottom sub and replace it
with a vented end cap for
storage and transport.
Prior to using the gun in
the well, reinstall the same
end cap (since it has been
tested to fit).

5.4.1.2 Post Job Maintenance
Post Job Maintenance. After the gun has

been fired, remove the port plugs with an
air powered drill. If the port plugs are
stuck use an easy out instead.
Empty the charge debris from the gun,

wash it thoroughly inside and out, inspect
the gun for stress cracks or other damage,
tap the port plugs, and return the gun to the
storage rack for reuse.
5.4.1.3 Storing Retrievable Hollow Steel Carriers

Refer to the section titled ‘Storing Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers’ for information regarding storage
policies.

5.5 Throw Away Guns (TAG)
5.5.1 Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers (EHSC)

5.5.1.1 Loading Procedures
Precision Wireline Technologies purchases expendable hollow steel carriers from a number of different
vendors. In all examples they consist of two primary parts: the gun body and the charge carrier. Products
might vary slightly in appearance and function between suppliers but the overall operation remains the
same. For this reason the steps described in this section should not be taken as an absolute but should
rather serve as a flexible guide that can be adjusted to accommodate different types of equipment. That
said it is still very important to hold true to the intent of the procedural policy this section is discussing.
The gun body is designed to perform two primary functions, first, to hold the charge carrier and second, to
withstand well pressure in order to isolate the explosives from well bore fluids. The gun body is machined
to match the charge carrier that shipped with it from the factory. When loaded and properly inserted into
the gun body the charge carrier will line the explosives up directly behind the scallop holes in the gun. This
is very important because the scallops in the gun are designed to provide less resistance to the explosive jet
then the other parts of the gun body. Failure to properly line the charges up will cause the gun to fire off
scallop which will seriously degrade the perforating performance of the gun. It is also very important to
use compatible top and bottom subs with proper O-rings to complete the pressure seal between the well
bore and the inside of the gun. Always ensure matching equipment is being used.
All guns ship with an instruction and spec sheet. Refer to this sheet for information specific to the gun
being loaded.
Gun Body Scallop
End Caps
Charge Carrier
Instructions and Specs

Extract the charge carrier. Remove the
end caps from the gun body and pull the
charge carrier out of the gun.
The blue sheet shown in the gun below is the

instruction and spec sheet. Remove this
sheet and read it. Verify that this gun meets
the specifications set by the well operator.
Place the charge carrier on an approved

loading platform.
Remove the correct charges from the

explosives magazine and bring them to the
loading area. The charge specifications will
be written on the side of the shipping box.

Load the Charge Carrier. Remove the charges one at a time from the shipping box and install them into
the charge carrier. Never remove and install more than one charge at a time.
In this example the charges are secured by bending two metal clips overtop of the edge of each charge.
Different charge carriers secure charges in different ways. Always ensure the proper procedure for the
gun being loaded is followed – no short cuts. Refer to vendor documentation for gun specific
information.
When securing the charge make sure it is

held securely in place but still allowed to
spin in order to orient the back of the charge
to allow the detonating cord to pass through.

Thread the Detonating Cord. Once all of the charges are loaded, remove the detonating cord from the
shop magazine and thread it through all of the charges. Ensure the detonating cord being used is rated for
the appropriate temperature.
The amount of slack cord required at the top and the bottom of the gun will change if it is configured to
detonate top-fire, sure-fire, or bottom fire. Something to keep in mind is the fact that once loaded the gun
can be reversed end for end because the threads at the top and bottom of the gun are identical. For this
reason it is advisable to leave extra detonating cord (about 30cm or 12in) at the bottom of the gun even if
it is not planned to bottom fire.
In this example the gun is going to be configured to use the sure-fire system – with extra detonating cord
left at the bottom. If sure-fire is not available, or in the event of a miss-run, the gun can be bottom fired,
or it could be reversed and configured to top-fire.
Align the charges and thread the detonating cord through slot on the back of each charge.

Attach the Cord Clip. Using your finger,
x
attach the cord clip. Ensure the clip is in
place on both sides of the charge.
Never use a tool to force the clip in place.

Remember, impact friction can ignite the
explosive in the cord or the charge.
x Do not use a tool to align the charge.

Damage to the charge casing can affect the
ballistic properties of the charge or
potentially cause accidental detonation. If
the charge will not turn, loosen the metal
clips holding the charge in place and try
again.

Thread the detonating cord through all of the charges
until the top of the gun is reached.
Once at the top of the gun measure out about 30cm

(12in) of additional cord, then cut the cord from the
cord reel using an approved tool. Remember to tape
the loose end of the cord on the reel.
For SureFire it is very important that this cut is clean

and straight. If it is not, the chances of a misfire
increase substantially.
Thread the lose end of the detonating cord from the

outside of the charge carrier into the inside of the
charge carrier. Be very careful not to kink the cord
when performing this step.

Coil the spare detonating cord at the bottom of the gun into the charge carrier and tape the bottom
securely to prevent the cord from slipping out when the charge carrier is inserted into the gun barrel.
Insert the charge carrier into the gun barrel.
Line the Key on the charge carrier up with the slot in the gun
barrel and slide the charge carrier inside. The key on the
charge carrier ensures the charges will line up properly with
the scallops machined into the gun.
In the picture above the alignment pin is already oriented with the slot in the gun. Notice how the top
shot is properly aligned with the top scallop on the gun as a result. This alignment should be checked
before the charge carrier is fully inside the gun barrel.
Always ensure the charge carrier is inserted all the way into the gun barrel.
Also, inspect the O-ring sealing surfaces just inside the top and the bottom of the gun to ensure they are
smooth and free of damage.

Select a top sub that is compatible with the
threads and size of the gun body. Inspect and
install all four O-rings onto the sub. Two O-
Good Hole rings will provide the pressure seal for the
gun body and the other two will provide the
pressure seal for the quick change assembly.
Failure to install these O-rings will cause the
gun to leak – which is a very bad thing.
After installing the O-rings, lubricate them
with a small amount of grease to help them
slide when making up the assembly.
Inspect the detonating cord feed through hole

in the top sub to ensure it is free of debris. If
the detonating cord does not slide through
without restriction, ream the hole with a wire
brush and try again.
For SureFire applications also inspect the top

of the feed through hole to ensure it is not
Bad Hole blown out. If the hole is too large it will be
very difficult to center the detonating cord
increasing the possibility of a misfire.

For top fire, simply feed the cord through
the top sub, screw the sub onto the gun body,
and tape the end of the cord to prevent the
explosive grains from leaking out.
For SureFire, use the top sub as a guide and

cut the cord such that about 2.5cm (1in) will
stick out of the end of the top sub after it has
been screwed all the way into the gun body.
This slack cord is important for two reasons.
First, it allows the cord to shrink in hot wells
without retracting the cord into the top-sub.
Second, it leaves enough slack in the cord for
a clip to be installed to align the cord in the
center and hold it flush with the surface of
the top sub.
Slide an end-cap or a booster onto the end of

the detonating cord – boosters are required
for wells over 2000m (6400ft) deep – and
crimp it in place using an approved crimping
tool
Always crimp twice, with the second crimp

ninety degrees offset from the first. If a
booster is being used, make sure the
explosive compartment is not crimped.

Feed the detonating cord into the top sub and thread it into
the gun body.
Slide the grommet (clip) overtop of the end-cap (or

booster). If required use the crimping tool to hold the end-
cap in place whilst pushing the clip on.
Push the end-cap (or

booster) into the top of
the top sub and ensure
that it is properly
centered.

5.5.1.2 Storing Expendable Hollow Steel Carriers
Thread an ‘explosives’ cap onto the top sub.

Note the vent in the center of the cap – this is
what makes it an ‘explosives’ cap. Only
explosives caps and plugs can be used on
contained perforating guns because they will
vent any gasses created inside the gun in the
event it is exposed to an external heat source
such as fire. When heated, most explosive
substances will ‘burn’, producing gasses that
will pressurize an un-vented magazine – if
enough pressure is generated it could cause
auto detonation of any remaining explosive
materials. Vented caps prevent this from
happening.
Select an appropriate bottom sub and thread

it into the bottom of the gun body to make
sure that it fits properly. Remove the bottom
sub and store it separate from the gun – but
remember to ship it with the gun so it can be
used in the well.
Thread a vented bottom cap into the tool for

storage and transport.

Wrap the gun with
explosives tape. Once
loaded, the gun is essentially
now an approved storage and
transport magazine and it
must be identified as such.
Make sure the explosive
markings on the tape reflect
the contents and location of
the gun.
Label the Gun. Mark the gun with the following information: Shots per meter (or foot), 17 in this
example; type of charges loaded, 3375-411 NT3 in this example; total number of shots loaded, 17 in this
example; and the portion of the gun that is loaded, in this example the words ‘full load’ appear on the gun
indicating that all of the charge ports are loaded – if only a portion of the gun was loaded the gun body
must be clearly marked to identify the top and bottom shots.
Mark the Top Shot. Regardless if the gun

is fully loaded, the top shot must always be
clearly marked.

Tag the Gun and Enter it into Inventory.
Before storing the gun on the rack it must
first be entered into the shop loaded gun
inventory book. Tag the gun (number 23 in
the picture above) and enter the relevant data,
including: date loaded; gun size and
manufacturer; gun type, shots per meter (or
foot), and phasing; charge part number and
gram weight; length of loaded interval;
employee number and initials of person that
loaded it; and the tag number.
Secure the Gun on the Loaded Gun

Rack. Chain and lock the gun to the
loaded gun rack in the shop.

Clean the Workspace. Remove all debris
from the workspace and return all tools and
explosives to their correct location.
Dispose of all waste explosives properly.

Extra detonating cord must be placed in the
‘waste detonating cord’ magazine.
Empty charge boxes must checked to verify

they are empty, crumpled, and stripped of
any explosives identification labels before
they are discarded.
Partially empty charge boxes must be

resealed with a label that states how many
charges are left in the box before they are
returned to the explosives magazine.

5.5.2 Retrievable Tubing Guns (RTG)
Retrievable tubing guns are small diameter expendable hollow steel carriers (EHSC), even though they are
commonly marketed independently. The loading and storage procedures for these guns are very similar to
those covered in the main EHSC section and will not be covered here. As with all guns, for specific
loading and operational information refer to the manuals supplied by the gun manufacturer.
Retrievable tubing guns are used to perforate through narrow diameter well restrictions such as tubing,
packers, or flow nipples. Their main competition is semi-expendable strip guns discussed in the next
section. The main advantages retrievable tubing guns offer over semi-expendables revolve around the fact
that the gun is entirely self contained; itemized, the advantages include: the fact that no charge debris is left
in the well, unwanted casing damage is limited because the non-focused portion of the explosion is
contained within the steel carrier, and the explosives are not exposed to hostile well bore conditions.
5.5.3 Semi-Expendables – Strip Guns

5.5.3.1 Components
Semi-Expendable guns, also known as strip guns, or shoguns (Owen

trade name), are also used to perforate wells through narrow diameter
restrictions. The only advantage they offer over retrievable tubing guns
is the ability to run larger diameter charges through the same hole
restrictions because the space occupied by the hollow steel carrier in
retrievable tubing guns is not present. Semi-expendable guns will leave
charge debris in the well, but the charge strip is usually recovered back
to the surface. Well operators will often run acid in the well after semi-
expendable guns are detonated to dissolve the residual charge debris.
Semi-expendable guns are also more likely to cause casing damage
because the force of the entire detonation is exposed to the well instead
of partly contained within a steel carrier.
Semi-expendable guns are built by threading self-contained charges into

a machined carrier strip. The carrier strips are available in two
geometric configurations, flat or spiral, for zero degree or multi-degree
shot phasing respectively. The strip shown to the right is a spiral strip
configured to deliver 20 SPM (6 SPF) with a phasing of 40º. The only
other spiral phasing option is 13 SPM (4 SPF) with a phasing of 60º.
Exposed perforating charges are manufactured to be self contained

pressure resistant units. They are split into two distinct parts: the
charge, and the charge cap. The charge is installed inside the charge cap
and the joint is sealed with an O-ring. The charge is free to turn inside
the charge cap – which comes in handy when the time comes to line up
the detonating cord slot on the back of the charge.
Charge Cap Charge

5.5.3.2 Charge Installation
Chase the Threads. Using an appropriate

tap (match the thread type and diameter),
chase the threads of each charge hole that is
going to be used.
Thread the Charges into the Strip. Thread

all of the charges into the strip – hand tight.
Leave at least 4 shot holes empty at the top

of the strip to prevent damage to the firing
head assembly and the CCL.
Thread detonating cord retainer bolts into the

charge holes directly above the top shot and
directly below the bottom shot.
Make sure the threads from the retainer bolt

do not protrude past the back of the charge
strip. If they do, back the retainer bolt out
until the bottom is flush with the strip.
Note: detonating cord retainer bolts are a

very effective way to secure the detonating
cord to the charge strip. However, if they are
not available, wax string can also be used to
secure the detonating cord to the strip.

Align the Detonating Cord Slots. Using a
brass rod or tool, align the detonating cord
slots on the back of the charges so they each
line up parallel with the axis of the strip
directly in front of them. Always turn the
charges clockwise to prevent them from
backing out of the charge strip.
5.5.3.3 Detonator Cord Installation

Thread the Detonating Cord. Place the
detonating cord reel at the top of the strip,
pull the cord past the bottom shot, then
thread it through the detonating cord retainer
bolt.
Note: Do not use XHV detonating cord for

exposed applications because the cord has an
oblong shape that makes it very difficult to
achieve a fluid proof seal inside the end cap.
Leave at least 8” of spare detonating cord

past the bottom charge. This spare cord will
accommodate shrinkage and it will reduce
the chance of fluid invasion from the bottom
of the cord from progressing past the bottom
charge before the gun is detonated.
Seal the Detonating Cord. The following

steps describe how to seal the detonating
cord to prevent fluid invasion. They follow
the procedure outlined in the Owen
Technical Product Catalog.
Slide an end cap overtop of the detonating

cord and Crimp.
Wrap the end cap / detonating cord joint with

4 wraps of temperature tape (Owen PN:
PUR-6100-006), make sure the tape extends
1/4” onto the end cap and the exposed
detonating cord.
Wrap the joint with 4 layers of Mocap tape

(Owen PN: PUR-6100-011), make sure the
tape extends ¾” onto the end cap and the
exposed detonating cord. The blue line on
the tape should face in.

Wrap the Mocap tape with two layers of
temperature tape. Make sure the tape
extends to the end of the end cap and
1½” over the exposed detonator cord.
Secure the end of the detonating cord

onto the strip using wax string. Tie the
cord at least two times.
Thread the cord through all of the charges

from the bottom of the strip to the top. Use
the appropriate charge clips to secure the
detonating cord to each charge while
progressing to the top of the gun.
Push the charge clips down first on one side

of the detonating cord, then the other. Do
not push directly on top and do not hammer
on the cord clips with a tool.
Once the cord is secured to all of the

charges, measure out enough slack cord
(use the ‘cut’ line on the strip gun firing
head as a guide) and cut the cord from the
reel. Leave about 5cm (2”) of extra cord to
accommodate shrinkage.

Secure the Slack Cord to the Strip.
Thread the cord through the detonating
cord retainer bolt previously installed
above the top charge.
Tape the end of the detonator cord and coil

the slack detonator cord at the top of the
gun, then tape it to the strip for storage.
The published outside diameter of the charge strip assumes that nothing is protruding past the outside edge
of the strip. This includes charges, detonating cord retainer bolts, and bailer wire. In some districts it is
common practice to use bailer wire to secure the detonating cord and the detonating cord end cap to the strip
using bailer wire. This practice is not recommended and should be discontinued unless the diameter of the
smallest restriction in the well is substantially higher then the ‘new’ diameter of the charge strip.
5.5.3.4 Strip Gun Storage
Strip guns must be stored and transported

inside a secure tube to prevent the charges
and detonating cord from coming in
incidental contact with other objects. This
policy is in place for two primary reasons:
first, to prevent the gun from becoming
damaged – potentially causing a misrun; and
second, to avoid an accidental detonation.
Storage of strip guns in this fashion is not

only company policy, it is also a regulatory
requirement in most jurisdictions where we
work.
Production tubing is commonly used to store

Strip guns. To store, simply select a length
of tubing long enough, and of large enough
diameter, to accommodate the strip gun.
Place an end plug in the bottom of the tubing
and slide the strip gun inside.

Thread a Cap on the Top of the Gun. Notice
that the cap is vented to the atmosphere. Just
like hollow steel carriers, strip guns must be
exposed to the atmosphere to prevent the
inside of the storage tube from pressuring up
if charges are thermally ignited as a result of
an external fire heating the gun.
Catalog the gun and log it into inventory.
Update the inventory of the charge storage

magazine and clean the work area. Discard
all scrap lengths of detonating cord in a
secure secondary explosives magazine.
Remove or deface any explosives markings
from empty charge boxes, flatten, and
discard in accordance with local regulations.
Place the gun in a designated and approved

storage location and properly secure it.
Note the tape on the top of the tubing

identifying it as a storage magazine.
5.5.3.5 Auxiliary Equipment

Strip guns are often run with guide noses to
help them find their way through small
restrictions in the well. The two strips shown
to the right serve this purpose. Notice how
the end of the strips are tapered to a point and
polished. The top guide nose is used with
spiral strip guns and the bottom is used with
flat (zero degree) strips.
The other common component is called a

tandem joint and is used to connect two strips
together if a longer gun is needed. Refer to
the manufacturers specifications for the
maximum operational lengths of different
strip guns assemblies.

5.5.4 Fully Expendable Guns
Fully expendable guns are commercially available alternatives to semi-expendable guns. They offer the
same advantages but they also present one significantly larger disadvantage, they leave much more debris
in the well. Specifically, in addition to the charge debris left behind they also leave the entire carrier
assembly in the well. The only real advantage fully expendable guns have over semi-expendable guns is
cost, and the differential is not very large. Fully expendable guns are not used very often and will not be
covered in this manual. For more operational and gun loading information please contact the gun vendor
directly.
Fully expendable guns include: link guns (the charges actually connect together without and external
carrier) and Bi-wire guns.

6 References
Allen, T.O., and A.P. Roberts. Production Operations: Well Completions, Workover, and Stimulation. 2
vols. 2nd ed. Tulsa, OK: OGCI, 1993.
American Petroleum Institute. Recommended Practices for Evaluation of Well Perforators, API
Recommended Practice 19B (RP 19B). Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, 2000.
American Petroleum Institute. Recommended Practices for Oilfield Explosives Safety, API Recommended
Practice 67 (RP 67). Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, 1994.
American Petroleum Institute. Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment, API
Specification 6A. 17th ed. 1999. Reprint, contains errata, errata 2, and supplement 1 material.
Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, 2002.
Bell, W.T., R.A. Sukup, and S.M. Tariq. SPE Monograph Series. Vol. 16, Perforating. Richardson, TX:
Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1995.
Cooper, P.W. Explosives Engineering. New York, NY: Wiley-VCH, 1996.
Davis, T.L. The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives. San Pedro, CA: GSG & Associates, [1943?].
Hanson Research Limited. PM205 Potential Monitor: Instructional Manual. 4th ed. Oxford, United
Kingdom: Hanson Research Limited, 2000.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 1. Construction Guide for Storage
Magazines. Washington D.C: Institute of Makers of Explosives, 1993.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 2. The American Table of Distances.
Washington D.C: Institute of Makers of Explosives, 1991.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 3. Suggested Code of Regulations for
the Manufacture, Transportation, Storage, Sale, Possession, and use of Explosive Materials. Washington
D.C: Institute of Makers of Explosives, 2003.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 4. Warnings and Instructions for
Consumers in Transporting, Storing, Handling, and using Explosive Materials.. Washington D.C: Institute
of Makers of Explosives, 2000.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 12. Glossary of Commercial

Explosives Industry Terms. Washington D.C: Institute of Makers of Explosives, 2002.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 14. Handbook for the Transportation
and Distribution of Explosive Materials. Washington D.C: Institute of Makers of Explosives, 1998.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 17. Safety in the Transportation,
Storage, Handling, and use of Explosive Materials. Washington D.C: Institute of Makers of Explosives,
2002.
Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 20. Safety Guide for the Prevention of
Radio Frequency Radiation Hazards in the Use of Commercial Electric Detonators. Washington D.C:
Institute of Makers of Explosives, 2000.

Institute of Makers of Explosives. Safety Library Publications. No 22. Recommendations for the Safe
Transportation of Detonators in a Vehicle with Certain Other Explosive Materials. Washington D.C:
Institute of Makers of Explosives, 1993.
International Society of Explosives Engineers. Blaster’s Handbook. 17th ed. 1998. Third Reprint.
Cleveland, OH: International Society of Explosives Engineers, 2003.
Meyer, R., J. Kohler, and A. Homburg. Explosives. 2nd ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2002.
Owen Oil Tools. Owen Oil Tools: Technical Product Catalog (2003). Fort Worth, TX: Owen Oil Tools,
2002.
Walters, W. P., and J. A. Zukas. Fundamentals of Shaped Charges. Baltimore, MD: CMCPress, 1998.

7 Internet Resources
American Petroleum Institute: www.api.org.
Vendor for API documents: www.ihs.com.
Baker Oil Tools website: www.bakerhughes.com/bot.
Institute of Makers of Explosives website: www.ime.org.
Innicor company website: www.innicor.com.
Owen Oil Tools company website: www.corelab.com/owen.
Owen Oil Tools technical catalog: www.corelab.com/owen/TechCatalog2003/index.htm.
Owen Compliance Services (MSDS sheets): www.ocsresponds.com.
Society of Petroleum Engineers: www.spe.org.
Titan Group website: www.titancompletion.com.

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BALLISTICS MANUAL

Copyright, 2004, Precision Drilling Technology Service Group Inc.

Revision Date Notes

Notice of Proprietary Information

7 INTERNET RESOURCES.............................................................................................................. 171

2.1 Explosives Storage – Shop

2.2 Shop Work Environment

2.3 Transport Regulations

2.4 Field Work Environment

2.4.1 Safety Meetings

2.4.2 Disposal of Explosive Waste and Packaging

2.4.3 Clearing the Line of Fire

Short Jumper Cable

2.4.4.2 Voltage Monitor

Truck Chassis Lead

2.7 Explosive Fires

Read the Safety Manual!

3.1 Chemical Composition

3.1.1 Organic Explosives

3.1.2 Inorganic Explosives

3.2.1 Oxygen Balance

For RDX (C3H6N6O6), the reaction products are:

3.2.2 Energy of Formation

3.2.3 Enthalpy of Formation

3.2.4 Explosion Heat

3.2.6 Detonation Velocity

3.2.8 Deflagration Point

3.2.10 Impact Sensitivity

3.2.12 Grain of Explosive

3.2.13 Volume of Explosion Gases

3.2.14 Specific Energy

3.2.15 Nitrogen Content

3.3.2 Primary High Explosives

Color Orange-yellow to dark brown crystals

Color Colorless crystals

Color Colorless crystals

Color Colorless crystals

Color Colorless crystals

Color Yellow crystals

Color Deep Yellow

The power charge explosive reaction is relatively difficult to start with an

Powdered Metal Liner Construction. The

The liners are constructed by placing a precise

The cone is removed, weighed, and the

Completed liners are stored, and

Each component of the charge is added to the

Both the primer charge and the main charge are

A small bead of paint is placed around the rim

The charge is then inventoried by lot number

Instead of performing complex and expensive

The following series of pictures show how

The charges are prepared by placing them

The ceramic disk between the two plates is

The debris is collected and evaluated to ensure

The picture on the lower right shows a test

The sequence starts when an input shock

There are few impurities within the primer

The geometry of the primer charge chamber

As the wavefront progresses through the