Unit-3 Dimensional Analysis

UNIT-III
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Syllabus: Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Similitude: Dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh method,
Buckingham’s Pi method and other methods. Dimensionless groups. Similitude, Model studies, Types of
models. Application of dimensional analysis and model studies to fluid flow problem.
1. What is dimensional analysis?

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used in research work for design and for
conducting model tests, which makes use of the study of the dimensions for soling several engineering
problems. It deals with the dimensions of the physical quantities involved in the phenomenon.
2. Write the uses of dimensional analysis?
❖ Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion
❖ Deriving equation expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to show the relative
significance of each parameter.
3. What do you mean by fundamental units and derived units? Give example
The various of physical quantities used in flied phenomenon can be expressed in terms of
fundamental or primary quantities
E.g.: Mass (M), length (L), time (T)
The quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental or primary quantities are called derived
or secondary quantities
E.g.: Velocity, area, density
Velocity = distance per unit time (L/T2)
4. Explain the term dimensional homogeneity. How is it attained in a fluid equation
Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each term in an equation on both sides are
equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term on the both sides of an equation are the same is known as
dimensionally homogenous equation.
E.g.: v = 2gh
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Dimensions of L.H.S
V=L/T =LT-1
Dimensions of R. H. S
=2GH=L/T2*L
=L2=L=LT-1
Dimensions of R. H. S = Dimensions of R. H. S = LT-1
Equation V=2gh is dimensionally homogeneous so it can be used in any system of units.
5. Enumerate the applications of dimensional homogeneity
Dimensional analysis thus helps to check that equations might be true.
However, it does not prove that they are correct as well.
6. State Buckingham pi-theorem
It states that, if there are n variables (independent and dependent variables) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), the variable are arranged
into (n-m) dimensions terms.
7. What are the advantages and applications of model testing? /dimensional analysis/model analysis.
Advantages:
o The merits of alternative designs can be predicated with the help of model testing.
o Model testing can be used to detect and rectify the defects if an existing structure which is not
functioning properly.
o The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machine can be easily predicted in advance
from its model.
Applications
Civil engineering structures such as dams spillways weirs canals etc
o Turbines pumps and compressors
o Design of harbors ships & submarine
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o Aero planes rockets & missiles
o Flood control investigation of silting and scour in rivers irrigation channels
8. What is meant by model and Prototype?
The model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. The actual structure or
machine is called Prototype.
9. What is model analysis?
o Model analysis is an experimental method of finding solution of complex flow problems

the model is the small scale replace of the actual structure or machine.
o The actual structure or machine is called prototype the study of models of actual machine is called
model analysis
10. What is meant by geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities?
Geometric Similarity:
It is said to exist between the model and the prototype. The ratio of all corresponding linear
dimension in the model and prototype are equal.
Kinematic Similarity:
It means the similarity of motion between the model & prototype. The kinematic similarity is said
to exist between model and the prototype if the ratios of the velocity and acceleration at the corresponding
points in the model and at the corresponding points in the prototype are the same.
Dynamic Similarity:
It means the similarity of forces between the model & prototype. Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist
between the model and the prototype if the ratios of the corresponding forces acting points are equal.
11. Define similitude?
Similitude’s is defined as the similarity between the model & prototype in every respect, which
means that the model and prototype have similar properties or model and prototype completely similar.
12. Define: 1. Reynolds number 2. Euler’s numbers 3. Weber numbers 4. Mach numbers write their
significances for fluid flow problems?
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(1) Reynold’s Number (Re): It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the gravity
force of the fluid.
E.g.: flow through open channels, Flow over matches wires
(2) Euler’s Number (Eu): It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to
pressure force.
E.g.: discharge through orifices sluices and mouth pieces, Flow through pipes and pressure rise due to
sudden closure of values
(3) Weber’s Number (We):
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface
tension force
E.g.: capillary movement of water in soils, Flow of blood in veins & arteries
(4) Mach’s Number (M): It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the elastic force
E.g.: significance Compressible fluid problem at high velocities such as motion of high speed projections
and missiles
13. How are hydraulic models classified?
o Undistorted models
o Distorted models
14. Give the dimensions of the following physical quantities (a) pressure, (b) surface tension, (c)
dynamic viscosity, (d) kinematic viscosity.
o Pressure → ML-1 T-2
o Surface tension → ML-1 T-2
o Dynamic viscosity → ML-1 T-1
o Kinematic viscosity → L2 T-1
15. State the methods of dimensional analysis.
Rayleigh’s method
o Buckingham’s π-theorem
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16. What are the similarities between model and prototypes? List the similitude involved in the
model analysis?
o Geometric similarity
o Kinematic similarity
o Dynamic similarity
17. What is meant by undistorted models?
The undistorted models are those models which are geometrically similar to their prototypes or
other words if the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, the model is
called undistorted model.
18. State three demerits of a distorted model.
o Exit pressure and velocity distribution are not true
o A model wave may differ from that of prototype
o Both extrapolation and interpolation of results are difficult
19. Submarine is tested in the air tunnel identify the model law applicable.
o Reynolds model law
20. Enlist the advantages of dimensional analysis in fluid mechanics.
o To check the dimensional homogeneity of the given equation
o To determine the dimension of a physical variable
o To convert units from one system to another through dimensional homogeneity
o It is a step towards dimensional analysis
21. Give two example of a fluid flow situation where Froude model law is applied.
o Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels
o Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
o Where waves are likely to be formed on surface
o Where fluids of different densities flow over one another
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22. In making dimensionless analysis what rules do you follow for choosing the scaling variable?
Three rule are followed to select variable for dimensionless analysis
1. Geometric property
2. Flow property
3. Fluid property
23. What is meant by the term distorted model?
A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its prototype. For a distorted model
different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted.
o E.g: in case of rivers harbors etc, two different scale ratios one for horizontal dimensions and other
for vertical dimensions are taken
24. What are distorted models?
o Rivers
o Harbours
o Reservoirs
25. Define Reynolds model law.
Reynolds model law is the law in which models are based on Reynolds numbers. Model based on
Reynolds on number includes:
o Pipe flow
o Resistance experienced by sub- marinas air planes fully immersed bodies etc
26. What is meant by repeating variables?

The numbers of repeating variables are equal to the number of fundamental dimensions (m) of the
problem
The choice of repeating variable if governed by the following consideration
o As far as possible the dependent variable should not be select as repeating variable
o The repeating variable should be choose in such a way that one variable contains geometric
property other variable contains flow property and third variable contains fluid property
o The repeating variables selected should not from a dimensionless group
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o The repeating variables should have the same dimensions
o No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions
27. Enlist the advantages of dimensional analysis in fluids mechanics.
Advantages:
The merits of alternative designs can be predicated with the help of model testingModel testing can
be used to detect and rectify the defects if an existing structure which is not functioning properly
The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machine can be easily predicted in advance
from its model
28. Define scale ratio?
It is ratio of linear dimension of prototype to linear dimension of model
29. Write the dimensions of discharge and Torque.
Discharge = Area X Velocity = L2 X L/T =L3/T = L3/T-1
Torque = Force X (D/2) = Mass X Acceleration X L = M X (L/T2) X L = ML2T-2
30. Write the advantages of distorted model?
o The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately
o The cost of the model can be reduced
o Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained
31. What is meant by scale effects?
o It is impossible to product the exact behavior of the prototype by model testing alone
o The two models of same prototype behavior will be different
o Scale ratio will not be same
o So discrepancy between models& prototype will always occur it is known as scale effect
32. What is the significance of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
Reynolds Number: It gives measure of ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces & it is a
dimensionless quantity.
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Physical significance:
1. It signifies the relative predominance of inertia to viscous forces.

2. It is very useful in determining whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Prandtl number is dimensionless number, denoted by Npr.
Npr = Cp (viscosity)/(thermal conductivity)
Cp → specific heat, J per ( Kg Kelvin)
viscosity in poise (gm per( cm sec))
thermal conductivity in Watt per (meter kelvin)

Significance: Prandtl number is important in heat transfer.
33. List the steps in determining the π groups
Each π term = m+1, where m is equal to 3 and also called repeating variables. Out of 6 variables R,
l, V, µ, ρ and K, three variables are to be selected as repeating variable. R is a dependent variable and
should not be selected as a repeating variable.Out of the 5 remaining variables, 1 is geometric property, 2 nd
one variable flow property, 3rd one fluid property.
34. Define Froude’s number and write its expression.
Froude’s Number (Fe): The Froud’s Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the gravitational force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Fi
Fe =
Fg
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹𝑖 ) = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 2
Fg = Force due to gravity = Mass X Acceleration due to gravity = ρ X L3 X g
= ρ X L2 X L X g = ρ X A X L X g
Fi AV 2 V2 V
Fe = = = =
Fg ALg Lg Lg
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35. Examine whether the equation 𝑉 = √2𝑔𝐻 is dimensionally homogeneous?
𝑉 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝐿
Dimension of L.H.S 𝑣 = 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿
Dimension of R.H.S √2𝑔𝐻 = √𝑇 2 × 𝐿 = √𝑇 2 = 𝑇 = 𝐿 𝑇 −1
PART – B
1. Write short note on dimensional analysis. What are the secondary or derived quantities?
o Dimensional analysis is a method of dimensions. It is a mathematical technique used in research

work for design and for conducting model tests.
o It deals with the dimensions of the physical quantities involved in the phenomenon. All physical
quantities are measured by comparison, which is made with respect to an arbitrarily fixed value.
o Length L, mass M and time T are three fixed dimensions which are of importance in Fluid
Mechanics.
o If in any problem of fluid mechanics, heat is involved then temperature is also taken as fixed
dimension. These fixed dimensions are called fundamental dimensions or fundamental quantity.
SECONDARY OR DERIVED QUANTITIES:
 Secondary or derived quantities are those quantities which possess more than one fundamental
dimension.
 For example, velocity is denoted by distance per unit time (L/T), density by mass per unit volume
(M/L 3 )and acceleration by distance per second square (L/T 2 ).
 Then velocity, density and acceleration become as secondary or derived quantities. The
expressions (L/T),(M/L 3 ) and (L/T 2 ) arecalled the dimensions of velocity, density and
acceleration respectively.
 The dimensions of mostly used physical quantities in Fluid Mechanics are given in Table 12.1.
S.No Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions
(a) Fundamental
1 Length L L
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2 Mass M M
3 Time T T
(b) Geometric
4 Area A L2
5 Volume V L3
(c) Kinematic Quantities
6 Velocity V LT-1
7 Angular Velocity Ω T-1
8 Acceleration A LT-2
9 Angular Acceleration Α T-2
10 Discharge Q L3T-1
11 Acceleration due to Gravity G LT-2
12 Kinematic Viscosity Ν L2T-1
(d) Dynamic Quantities
13 Force F MLT-2
14 Weight W MLT-2
15 Density Ρ MT-3
16 Specific Weight W ML-2T-2
17 Dynamic Viscosity µ ML-1T-1
18 Pressure intensity P ML-1T-2
19 Modulus of Elasticity K or E ML-1T-2
20 Surface tension Σ MT-2
21 Shear Stress Τ ML-1T-2
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22 Work, Energy W or E ML2T-2
23 Power P ML2T-3
24 Torque T ML2T-2
25 Momentum M MLT-1
2. Determine the dimensions of the quantities given below : (i) Angular velocity., (ii) Angular
acceleration, (iii) Discharge, (iv) Kinematic viscosity, (v) Force, (vi) Specific weight, and (vii) Dynamic
viscosity.
Solution:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑠 1
(i) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝑇 = 𝑇 −1
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
(𝑖𝑖)𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄ 2 = 2 = 2 = 𝑇 −2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑇 𝑇
𝐿 𝐿3
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐿2 × = = 𝐿3 𝑇 −1
𝑇 𝑇
𝜇
(𝑖𝑣)𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜈) =
𝜌
𝜏 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝛭= 𝜕𝑢 = 𝐿 1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
× 1
𝜕𝑦 𝑇 𝐿
𝑇
𝐿
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀× 2 𝑀𝐿 𝑀
= = 𝑇
1 = 1 = 𝐿𝑇 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ×𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿2 × 𝐿2 𝑇 2 ×
𝑇 𝑇
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
𝜌 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿3 = 𝑀𝐿−3
𝜇 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜈) = 𝜌 = = 𝐿2 𝑇 −1
𝑀𝐿 −3
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑀𝐿
(𝑣) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀 × = 2 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 𝑇
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

(𝑣𝑖) 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = = = 3
= 𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐿
(viii) Dynamic viscosity µ is derived in (iv) as µ = ML-1T-1
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3. Check the dimensional homogeneity of the following common equations in the field of hydraulics.
(1) 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 . 𝑎. √2𝑔𝐻
(2) 𝑣 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖
(1) 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 . 𝑎. √2𝑔𝐻
𝐿3
Dimension of L.H.S 𝑄 = = 𝐿3 𝑇 −1
𝑇
𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿
Dimension of R.H.S 𝐶𝑑 . 𝑎. √2𝑔𝐻 = 𝐿2 × √𝑇 2 × 𝐿 = 𝐿2 × √𝑇 2 = 𝐿2 × 𝑇 = 𝐿3 𝑇 −1
(2) 𝑣 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖
𝐿
Dimension of L.H.S 𝑣 = 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
Dimension of R.H.S 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖 = 𝑇 −1 × √𝐿 × 𝐿 = 𝑇 −1 × 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
4. Write short on Rayleigh’s method. (May/June 2013, Apr/May 2015)(May/June 2016)
Rayleigh's Method.
This method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon maximum
three or four variables only.
If the number of independent variables becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find the
expression for the dependent variable.
Let X is a variable, which depends on X1, X2 and X3 variables. Then according to Rayleigh's
method, X is function of X1, X2 and X3 and mathematically it is written as
X =f (X1, X2, X3).
This can also be written as X = K X1a . X2b . X3c
where K is constant and a, b and c are arbitrarily powers.
The values of a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimension on both
sides. Thus the expression is obtained for dependent variable.
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5. The time period (t) of a pendulum depends upon the length (L) of the pendulum and acceleration due to gravity
(g). Derive an expression for the time period.
Solution. Time period t is a function of (i) L and (ii) g
t = KLa . gb, where K is constant → (1)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides T1= KLa . (LT-2)b
Equating the powers of M, L and T on both sides, we have
Power of T, 1 = -2b b = -1/2
Power of L, 0=a+b a = -b = -(-1/2) = ½
Substituting the values of a and b in equation (1)
1⁄ 1 𝐿
𝑡=𝐾𝐿 2 . 𝑔 ⁄2 = 𝐾 √𝑔
The value of K is determined from experiments which is given as
K = 2π
𝐿
𝑡 = 2𝜋√𝑔
6. Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D. moving with a uniform velocity V
in a fluid of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ.
Solution: Drag force F is a function of
(i) Diameter, D (ii) Velocity, V (iii) Density, ρ (iv) Viscosity, µ
𝐹 = 𝐾 𝐷𝑎 . 𝑉 𝑏 . 𝜌𝑐 . 𝜇 𝑑 → (1)
where K is non-dimensional factor.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides
MLT-2 = K La . (LT-1)b . (ML-3)c . (ML-1T-1)d
Equating the powers of M, L and T on both sides,
Power of M, 1=c+d
Power of L, 1 = a + b – 3c – d
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Power of T, -2 = -b – d
There are four unknowns (a, b, c, d) but equations are three. Hence it is not possible to find the values of a, b, c
and d. But three of them can be expressed in terms of fourth variable which is most important. Here viscosity
is having a vital role and hence a, b. c are expressed in terms of d which is the power to viscosity.
c=1–d
b=2–d
a = 1 –b + 3c + d = 1 – 2 + d + 3 (1 - d) + d = 1 – 2 + d + 3 – 3d + d = 2 – d
Substituting these values of a, b and c in equation (1), we get
𝐹 = 𝐾 𝐷2−𝑑 . 𝑉 2−𝑑 . 𝜌1−𝑑 . 𝜇 𝑑

𝜇
= 𝐾 𝐷2 𝑉 2 (𝐷−𝑑 . 𝑉 −𝑑 . 𝜌−𝑑 . 𝜇 𝑑 ) = 𝐾 𝜌 𝐷2 𝑉 2 (𝜌𝑉𝐷)𝑑
𝜇
𝐹 = 𝐾 𝜌 𝐷2 𝑉 2 𝜑 (𝜌𝑉𝐷)
7. Find the expression for the power P. developed by a pump when P depends upon the head H. the
discharge Q and specific weight w of the fluid.
Solution: Power P is a function of
(i) Head, H (ii) Discharge, Q (iii) Specific weight, w
𝑃 = 𝐾 𝐻𝑎 . 𝑄𝑏 . 𝑤 𝑐 → (1)
whereK = Non-dimensional constant.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of equation (i)
ML2T-3 = KLa . (L3T-1)b (ML-2T.-2)c
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides, •
Power of M, 1 = c, c=1
Power of L, 2 = a + 3b - 2c, a = 2 - 3b + 2c = 2 - 3 + 2 = 1
Power of T, - 3 = - b -2c b = 3 - 2c = 3 - 2 = 1
Substituting the values of a, b and c in (i)
𝑃 = 𝐾 𝐻1 . 𝑄1 . 𝑤 1 = 𝐾𝐻𝑄𝑤
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8. The efficiency η of a fan depends on the density p, the dynamic viscosity p of the fluid, the angular
velocity at diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express n in terms of dimensionless
parameters.
Solution: The efficiency η depends on
(i) density, p (ii) viscosity. p (iii) Angular velocity, ω (iv) diameter D (v) discharge, Q
𝜂 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑎 . 𝜇 𝑏 . 𝜔𝑐 . 𝐷𝑑 . 𝑄 𝑒 → (1)
where K = Non-dimensional constant.
M0 L0 T0 = K (ML-3)a . (ML-1T-1)d . (T-1)c . (L)d . (L3T-1)e
Equating powers of M, L. Ton both sides,
Power of M, 0=a+b
Power of L 0 = - 3a - b + d + 3e
Power of T, 0 = - b - c - e.
There are five unknowns but equations are three. Express the three unknowns in terms of the other
two unknowns which are more important. Viscosity and discharge are more important in this problem.
Hence expressing a. c and d in terms of b and e, we get
a=-b
c = - (b + e)
d = + 3a + b - 3e = - 3b - 3e = - 2b - 3e.
Substituting the values in equation (i), we get
𝜂 = 𝐾 𝜌−𝑏 . 𝜇 𝑏 . 𝜔 −(𝑏+𝑒) . 𝐷−2𝑏−3𝑒 . 𝑄 𝑒
𝜂 = 𝐾 𝜌−𝑏 . 𝜇 𝑏 . 𝜔−𝑏 . 𝜔−𝑒 . 𝐷−2𝑏 . 𝐷−3𝑒 𝑄 𝑒

𝜇 𝑄
= (𝜌𝜔𝐷2)𝑏 . (𝜔𝐷3 )𝑒
𝜇 𝑄
𝜂 = 𝜑 [(𝜌𝜔𝐷2 ) . (𝜔𝐷3)]
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9. The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent upon the
length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosity µ, air density ρ and bulk modulus of air K. Express the
functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution: The resisting force R depends upon,
(i) length l, (ii) velocity V, (iii) viscosity µ, (iv) density ρ, (v) Bulk modulus K
𝑅 = 𝐴 𝑙 𝑎 . 𝑉 𝑏 . 𝜇 𝑐 . 𝜌𝑑 . 𝐾 𝑒 → (1)
Where A is non-dimensional constant.
MLT-2 = A La . (LT-1)b . (ML-1T-1)c . (ML-3)d . (ML-1T-2)e
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides, •
Power of M, 1=c+d+e
Power of L, 1 = a + b – c -3d - e
Power of T, - 2 = - b –c – 2e
There are five unknowns but equations are only there. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of two
unknowns (µ and K).
Express the values of a, b and d in terms of c and e. Solving,
d=1–c–e
b = 2 – c - 2e
a = 1 – b + c + 3d + e = 1 – (2 – c - 2e) + c + 3 (1 – c – e) + e
= 1 – 2 + c + 2e + c + 3 – 3c – 3e + e = 2 – c
Substituting these values in (1), we get
𝑅 = 𝐴 𝑙 2−𝑐 . 𝑉 2−𝑐−2𝑒 . 𝜇 𝑐 . 𝜌1−𝑐−𝑒 . 𝐾 𝑒
= 𝐴 𝑙 2 . 𝑉 2 . 𝜌( 𝑙 −𝑐 𝑉 −𝑐 𝜇 𝑐 𝜌−𝑐 ). (𝑉 −2𝑒 . 𝜌−𝑒 . 𝐾 𝑒 )

𝜇 𝐾
= 𝐴 𝑙 2 . 𝑉 2 . 𝜌(𝜌𝑉𝐿)𝑐 (𝜌𝑉 2 )𝑒
16
𝜇 𝐾
𝑅 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑙 2 𝑉 2 𝜑 [(𝜌𝑉𝐿) (𝜌𝑉 2 )]
10. A partially sub-merged body is towed in water. The resistance R to its motion depends on the
density ρ, the viscosity µ of the water, length l of the body, velocity V of the body and the acceleration
due to gravity g. Show that the resistance to the motion can be expressed in the form
𝜇 𝑙𝑔
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝜑 [(𝜌𝑉𝐿) (𝑉 2 )]
Solution: The resistance R depends on
(i) density ρ, (ii) viscosity µ, (iii) length l, (iv) velocity V, (v) acceleration g
𝑅 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑎 . µ𝑏 . 𝑙 𝑐 . 𝑉 𝑑 . 𝑔𝑒 → (1)
MLT-2 = K (ML-3)a . (ML-1T-1)b Lc . (LT-1)d . (LT-2)e
There are five unknowns but equations are only there. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of two
unknowns (µ and g). Hence express a, c and d in terms of b and e. Solving, we get
a=1-b
d = 2 – b – 2e
c = 1 + 3a + b – d – e = 1 + 3(1-b) + b – (2 – b – 2e) – e
= 1 + 3 – 3b + b – 2 + b + 2e – e = 2 – b + e
Substituting these values in (1), we get
𝑅 = 𝐾 𝜌1−𝑏 . 𝜇 𝑏 . 𝑙 2−𝑏+𝑒 . 𝑉 2−𝑏−2𝑒 . 𝑔𝑒
= 𝐾 𝜌 𝑙 2 . 𝑉 2 . (𝜌−𝑏 𝜇 𝑏 𝑙 −𝑏 𝑉 −𝑏 ). (𝑙 𝑒 𝑉 −2𝑒 𝑔𝑒 )
𝜇 𝑙𝑔
𝑅 = 𝐾 𝜌 𝑙 2 𝑉 2 . (𝜌𝑉𝑙)𝑏 . (𝑉 2 )2
𝜇 𝑙𝑔
𝑅 = 𝐾 𝜌 𝑙 2 𝑉 2 𝜑 [(𝜌𝑉𝑙) . (𝑉 2 )]
11. State and explain in detail about Buckingham’s π-theorem.
The Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis becomes more laborious if the variables are more
than the number of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T).
17
This difficulty is overcame by using Buckingham's π-theorem, which states, "If there are n variables
(independent and dependent variables) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain in fundamental
dimensions (M, L, T) then the variables are arranged into (n - m) dimensionless terms. Each term is called π-
term".
Let X1, X2. X3. ..., Xn, are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let Xt be the dependent
variable and X2, X3, …, Xn, are the independent variables on which XI depends.
Then X1 is a functionof X2, X3, …, Xn and mathematically it is expressed as
X1 = f X2, X3, …, Xn) → (1)
Equation (1) can also be written as
fl (X2, X3, …, Xn)= 0 → (2)
Equation (2) is a dimensionally homogeneous equation. It contains n variables. If there are m fundamental
dimensions then according to Buckingham's π-theorem, equation (2) can be written in terms of number of
dimensionless groups or π-terms in which number of π-terms is equal to (n - m). Hence equation (2)
becomes as
f (π1, π2, …, πn-m) = 0 → (3)
Each of π-terms is dimensionless and is independent of the system. Division or multiplication by a constant does
not change the character of the π-term. Each π-term contains m + 1 variables, where m is the number of
fundamental dimensions and is also called repeating variables. Let in the above case X2, X3 and X4 are
repeating variables if the fundamental dimension m (M, L, T) = 3. Then each π-term is written as.
π1= X2a1 . X3b1 . X4c1. X1
π2 = X2a2 . X3b2 . X4c2. X2 (4)
πn-m = X2an-m . X3bn-m . X4cn-m. Xn
Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and values of al, bp el etc., are obtained.
These values are substituted in equation (12.4) and values of a l, rc2, In are obtained. These values of is are
substituted in equation (12.3). The final equation for the phenomenon is obtained by expressing any one of the
rt-terms as a function of others as
18
π1 = φ [ π2, π3, …, πn-m ]
π2 = φ1 [ π1, π3, …, πn-m ]
12. How are repeating variables selected for dimensional analysis using Buckingham’s π-theorem.
Method of Selecting Repeating Variables:
The number of repeating variables is equal to the number of fundamental dimensions of the
problem. The choice of repeating variables if governed by the following considerations:
1. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
2. The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains geometric property,
other variable contains flow property and third variable contains fluid property.
Variables with Geometric Property are
(i) Length, 1 (ii) d (iii) Height, H etc.
Variables with flow property are .
(i) Velocity, V
(ii) (ii) Acceleration etc.
Variables with fluid property :
(i) µ, (ii) ρ (iii) ω etc.
(i) The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
(ii) The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental dimensions.
(iii) No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be
(i) d. v, ρ (ii) l, v, ρ (iii) l, v, µ or (iv) d, v, µ
13. Write the procedure for solving problems by Buckingham’s π-theorem for following problem.
The procedure for solving problems by Buckingham's n-theorem is explained by considering the problem,
which is also solved by the Rayleigh's method. The problem is :
19
The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent upon the
length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosity µ, air density ρ and bulk modulus of air K. Express the
functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution:
Step 1: The resisting force R depends upon (i) l, (ii) V, (iii) µ, (iv) ρ and (v) K. Hence R is a function of 1, V.
p, p and K. Mathematically.
R = f (1, V, µ, ρ, K) → (1)
orit can be written as f1 (R, 1, V, µ, ρ, K) = 0 → (2)
Total number of variables, n = 6.
Number of fundamental dimensions, in = 3.
[m is obtained by writing dimensions of each variables as R = MLT-2, V = LT-1, µ= ML-1T-1, ρ = ML-3, K=

MLT. Thus as fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T and hence m = 3.]
Number of dimensionless π-terms = n - m = 6 — 3 = 3.
Thus three π-terms say π1, π2 and π3 are formed. Hence equation (ii) is written as
f1 (π1, π2, π3 ) = 0 → (3)
Step 2:
✓ Each it term = m + I variables, where m is equal to 3 and also called repeating variables. Out of six
variables R, 1, V, µ, ρ and K,three variables are to be selected as repeating variable.
✓ R is adependent variable and should not be selected as a repeating variable. Out of the five remaining
variables, one variable should have geometric property, the second variable should have flow
property and third one fluid property.
✓ These requirements are fulfilled by selecting l, V and ρ as repeating variables.
✓ The repeating variables themselves should not form a dimensionless term and should have
themselves fundamental dimensions equal to m,, i.e., 3 here.
✓ Dimensions of l, V and ρ are L, LT-1, ML-3 and hence the three fundamental dimensions exist in l, V
and ρ and they themselves do not form dimensionless group.
20
Step 3: Each π-terms is written as according to
π1= la1 . Vb1 . ρc1. R
π2= la2 . Vb2 . ρc2. µ → (4)
π3= la3 . Vb3 . ρc3. K
Step 4: Each π-terms is solved by the principle of dimensionless homogeneity. For the first π-tem, we have
π1= M0 L0 T0 = La1 . (LT-1)b1 . (ML-3)c1. MLT-2
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, we get
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 1
Power of L, 0 = a1 + b1 – 3c1 + 1 a1 = -b1 + 3c1 – 1 = 2 – 3 – 1 = -2
Power of T, 0 = -b1 – 2
Sub. the values of a1, b1 and c1 in π1 of equation (4)
π1 = l-2 . V-2 . ρ-1. R

𝑅 𝑅
𝜋1 = 𝑙2 𝑉 2 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑙2 𝑉 2
Similarly for the 2nd π-term,
π2= la2 . Vb2 . ρc2. µ
π2 = M0 L0 T0 = La2 . (LT-1)b2 . (ML-3)c2. ML-1T-1
Power of M, 0 = c2 + 1 c2 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a2 + b2 – 3c2 – 1 a2 = -b2 + 3c2 + 1 = 1 – 3 + 1 = -1
Power of T, 0 = -b2 – 1 b2 = -1
Sub. the values of a2, b2 and c2 in π2 of equation (4)
π2 = l-1 . V-1 . ρ-1. µ

µ
𝜋2 = 𝑙 𝑉 𝜌
21
3rd π-term
π3= la3 . Vb3 . ρc3. K
M0 L0 T0 = La3 . (LT-1)b3 . (ML-3)c3. ML-1T-2
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1 c3 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a3 + b3 – 3c3 – 1 a3 = -b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 2 – 3 + 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = -b3 – 2 b3 = -2
Sub. the values of a3, b3 and c3 in equation (4)
π3= l0 . V-2 . ρ-1. K

𝐾
𝜋3 = 𝑉 2 𝜌
Step 5: Sub. the values of π1, π2, and π3 in equation (3), we get
𝑅 µ 𝐾 𝑅 µ 𝐾
𝑓1 (𝜌 𝑙2𝑉 2 , 𝑙 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝑉 2 𝜌) = 0 or = 𝜑 [𝑙 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝑉 2 𝜌 ]
𝜌 𝑙2𝑉 2
µ 𝐾
𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑙 2 𝑉 2 𝜑 [𝑙 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝑉 2 𝜌 ]
14. The efficiency η of a fan depends on density, dynamic viscosity of the fluid, angular velocity (ω),
diameter of the rotor and the discharge (Q). Express η in terms of dimensionless parameters.
Solution:
η is a function of ρ, µ, ω, D and Q
η = f (ρ, µ, ω, D,Q)
(or)
f1 (η, ρ, µ, ω, D,Q) = 0 → (1)
Hence total number of variables, n= 6.
The values of m that is, number of fundamental dimensions for the problem is obtained by writing
dimensions of each variable. Dimensions of each variable are
η =Dimensionless ρ = Ml –3 µ = ML– 1 T – 1 ω = T – 1
22
D = L Q = L3 T – 1 m=3
Number of π – terms = n – m = 6-3 = 3
Equation is written as f1 (π1, π2, π3) = 0. → (2)
Each π – terms contains m + 1 variable, where m is equal to three and is also repeating variable.
Choosing ω, D, ρ as repeating variables, we have,
1 = Da1 .b1 .c1 .

2 = Da 2 .b2 .c2 .
3 = Da 3 .b3 .c3 .Q
First π – terms:
1 = Da1 .b1 .c1 .
Substituting dimensions on both sides of π1,
M0 L0 T0 = L a1 (T-1) b1 (M L– 3) c1 ( M0 L0 T0)
Equating the power of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 0
Power of L, 0 = a1 + 0
Power of T, 0 = – b1 + 0
Substitute the values of a1, b1, c1 and a1 in π1, we get
π1 = D0 ω0 ρ0 η = η
If the variable is dimensionless, it itself is a π – term. Here the variable η is a – term. As it exists in first π –
term and hence π1 = η. Then there is no need of equating the powers directly the value can obtained.
Second π – term:
2 = Da2 .b2 .c2 .
Sub the dimensions on both sides,

a2
M0 L0 T0 = L (T-1) b2 (M L– 3) c2 ( M L – 1 T– 1)
23
Power of M, 0 = c2 + 1 c2 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 – 3c2 – 1 a2 = – 3 + 1 = 2
Power of T, 0 = – b2 – 1 b2 = 1
Sub the values of a2, b2, c2 in π2
π2 = D – 2 ω – 1 ρ – 1 µ
µ
𝜋2 =
𝐷 2 𝜔𝜌
Third π – term:
3 = Da3 .b3 .c3 .Q
M0 L0 T0 = L a3 (T-1) b3 (M L– 3) c3 ( L 3 T– 1)
Power of M, 0 = C3
Power of L, 0 = a3 – 3c3 + 3 a3 = –3
Power of T, 0 = – b3 – 1 b3 = – 1
Sub the values of a3, b3, c3 in π3 in the equation,
π3 = D – 3 ω – 1 ρ 0 Q
𝑄
𝜋3 = 𝐷2𝜔
Sub the values of π1, π2, and π3 in equation (ii)

µ 𝑄 µ 𝑄
𝑓1 (𝜂 , 𝐷2𝜔𝜌 , 𝐷2 𝜔) = 0 (or) 𝜂 = 𝜑 [𝐷2𝜔𝜌 , 𝐷2 𝜔]
24
15. Using Buckingham's a-theorem, show that the velocity through a circular orifice isgiven by 𝑉 =
𝐷 𝜇
√2𝑔𝐻 𝜑 [𝐻 , 𝜌𝑉𝐻], where H is the head causing flow, D is the diameter of the orifice, µ is co-efficient
of viscosity, ρ is the mass density and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Solution:
V is a function of H, D, µ, ρ and g
V = f (H, D, µ, ρ, g) or f1 (H, D, µ, ρ, g) = 0 → (1)
Total number of variable, n = 6
Writing dimension of each variable, we have
V = LT-1, H = L, D = L, µ = ML-1T-1, ρ = ML-3, g = LT-2
Thus number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of π-terms = n - m = 6 - 3 = 3.
Equation (1) can be written as f1 ( π1, π2, π3) = 0 → (2)
Each π-term contains m +1 variables, where m = 3 and is also equal to repeating variables. Here V is a
dependent variable and hence should not be selected as repeating variable. Choosing H, g, ρ as repeating
variable, we get three π-terms as
π1= Ha1 . gb1 . ρc1. V
π2= Ha2 . gb2 . ρc2. D
π3= Ha3 . gb3 . ρc3. µ
First π-term
π1= Ha1 . gb1 . ρc1. V
Substituting dimensions on both sides
π1= M0 L0 T0 = La1 . (LT-2)b1 . (ML-3)c1. LT-1
Power of M, 0 = c1 c1 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a1 + b1 – 3c1 + 1 a1 = -b1 + 3c1 – 1 = 2 – 3 – 1 = ½ -1 = -1/2
25
Power of T, 0 = -2b1 – 1 b1 = -1/2
π1= H -1/2 . g -1/2 . ρ0. V

𝑉
𝜋1 =
√𝑔𝐻
Second π-term
π2= Ha2 . gb2 . ρc2. D
π2 = M0 L0 T0 = La2 . (LT-2)b2 . (ML-3)c2. L
Power of L, 0 = a2 + b2 – 3c2 + 1 a2 = -b2 + 3c2 – 1 = -1
Power of T, 0 = -2b2 b2 = 0
π2 = H -1 . g 0 . ρ0. D
𝐷
𝜋2 = 𝐻
Third π-term
π3 = Ha3 . gb3 . ρc3. µ
π3 = M0 L0 T0 = La3 . (LT-2)b3 . (ML-3)c3. ML-1T-1
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1 c3 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a3 + b3 – 3c3 – 1 a3 = -b3 + 3c3 + 1 = - ½ -3 + 1 = - 3/2
Power of T, 0 = -2b3 - 1 b3 = - ½
26
π3 = H -3/2 . g - ½ . ρ-1. µ
µ
𝜋3 = 3
⁄2 𝜌 √𝑔
𝐻
Multiply and Divide by V

µ µ𝑉
𝜋3 = 3 =
⁄2 𝜌 √𝑔 𝐻 𝜌 𝑉 √𝑔𝐻
𝐻
µ 𝑉
𝜋3 = 𝐻 𝜌 𝑉 𝜋1 𝜋1 =
√𝑔𝐻
Sub the values of π1, π2, and π3 in equation (ii)
𝑉 𝐷 µ 𝑉 𝐷 µ
𝑓1 ( , 𝐻 , 𝐻 𝜌 𝑉 ) = 0or = 𝜑 [𝐻 , 𝐻 𝜌 𝑉 ]
√𝑔𝐻 √𝑔𝐻
𝐷 µ
𝑉 = √2𝑔𝐻 𝜑 [𝐻 , 𝐻 𝜌 𝑉 ]
16. The pressure difference ΔP in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to viscous flow depends on
the velocity V, viscosity (µ) and density (ρ) using Buckingham’s π – theorem. Obtain an expression
for ΔP.
Solution:
The only difference is that ΔP is to be calculated for viscous flow. Then in the repeating variable
instead of ρ, the fluid property µ is to be chosen.
Now ΔP is a function of D, l, µ, ρ or
ΔP = f (D, l, v, µ, ρ)
f1 (ΔP, D, l, v, µ, ρ) = 0 → (1)
Total number of variable n = 6
Number of fundamental dimensions m = 3
Number of π – terms = n –m = 3
Hence the equation is written as
f1 (π1, π2, π3) = 0 → (2)
27
Each π – terms contains m + 1 variable, that are 3 + 1 = 4 variable out of 4 variable 3 are repeating
variables.
Choosing D, v, µ as repeating variables, we have π – terms as
1 = Da1 .v b1 .c1 .P

2 = Da 2 .v b2 .c2 .l
3 = Da3 .v b3 .c3 .
First π – terms:
1 = Da1 .vb1 .c1 .P
M0 L0 T0 = L a1 (LT-1) b1 (M L– 3 T-1) c1 ( M L – 1 T– 2)
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a1 + b1 – c1 – 1 a1 = 1
Power of T, 0 = –b1 – c1 –2 b1 = –1
1 = D1.v −1. −1.P

1 = DP
v
Second π – term:
2 = Da 2 .vb2 .c2 .l
M0 L0 T0 = L a2 (LT-1) b2 (M L– 1 T-1) c2 L
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c2
28
Power of L, 0 = a2 + b2 – c2 + 1 a2 = 1
Power of T, 0 = – b2 – c2 b2 = 0
2 = D−1.v0 .0 .l
2 = l
D
Third π – term:
3 = Da3 .vb3 .c3 .
M0 L0 T0 = L a3 (LT-1) b3 (M L– 1 T-1) c3 M L– 3
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1 C3 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a3 + b3 – c3 – 3 a3 = 1
Power of T, 0 = – b3 – c3 b3 = 1
π3 = D1 v1 µ– 1 ρ
𝜌𝐷𝑉
𝜋3 = 𝜇
Sub the values of π1, π2, π3 in the equation

𝐷 ∆𝑝 𝑙 𝜌𝐷𝑉 𝐷 ∆𝑝 𝑙 𝜌𝐷𝑉 𝜇𝑉 𝑙 𝜌𝐷𝑉
𝑓1 ( 𝜇 𝑉 , 𝐷 , ) = 0(or) = 𝜑 [𝐷 , ](or)∆𝑝 = 𝜑 [𝐷 , ]
𝜇 𝜇𝑉 𝜇 𝐷 𝜇
Experiments show that the pressure difference Δp is a linear function (l / D). Hence (l / D) can be taken out
of the functional as
𝜇𝑉 𝑙 𝜌𝐷𝑉
∆𝑝 = × 𝜑[ ]
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇
Expression for difference of pressure head for viscous flow,
29
∆𝑝 𝜇𝑉 𝑙 1 𝜌𝐷𝑉
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔 = × × 𝜌𝑔 𝜑[𝑅𝑒 ] = 𝑅𝑒
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇
𝜇𝑉𝑙
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑤 𝐷2 𝜑 [𝑅𝑒 ]
17. The pressure difference ΔP in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to turbulent flow depends on
the velocity V, viscosity (µ), density (ρ) and roughness k. Using Buckingham’s π – theorem. Obtain
an expression for ΔP.
Solution:
Δp is a function of D, 1, V. µ, ρ, k
Δp = f (D, l, V, µ, ρ, k) or f1 (Δp, D, l, V, µ, ρ, k) = 0 → (1)
Total number of variables, n = 7
Writing dimensions of each variable,
Dimension of Δp = Dimension of pressure = ML-1T-2
D = L, l = L, V = LT-1, µ = ML-1T-1, ρ = ML-3, k=L
Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of π-terms = n - m = 7 - 3 = 4.
Now equation (1) can be grouped in 4 π-terms as
f1 (π1, π2, π3, π4) → (2)
Each π-terms contains m + 1 or 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, there are repeating variables.
Choosing D, V, ρ as the repeating variables, we have the four π-terms as
1 = Da1 .v b1 .c1 .P

2 = Da 2 .v b2 .c2 .l
3 = Da 3 .v b3 .c3 .
4 = Da 4 .v b4 .c4 .k
First π – terms:
1 = Da1 .vb1 .c1 .P
30
M0 L0 T0 = L a1 (LT-1) b1 (M L– 3 T-1) c1 ( M L – 1 T– 2)
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a1 + b1 – 3c1 – 1 a1 = -b1 + 3c1 + 1 = 2 – 3 + 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = –b1 – 2 b1 = –2
1 = D0 .v −2 .−1.P
p
1 =
v 2
Second π – term:
2 = Da 2 .vb2 .c2 .l
M0 L0 T0 = L a2 (LT-1) b2 (M L– 3) c2 L
Power of L, 0 = a2 - b2 – 3c2 + 1 a2 = b2 + 3c2 – 1 = -1
Power of T, 0 = – b2 b2 = 0
l
2 = D −1.v0 .0 .l =
D
Third π – term:
3 = Da3 .vb3 .c3 .
31
M0 L0 T0 = L a3 (LT-1) b3 ( M L– 3) c3 ML-1T-1
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1 c3 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a3 + b3 – 3c3 – 1 a3 = -b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 1 – 3 + 1 = -1
Power of T, 0 = – b3 – 1 b3 = -1
3 = D−1.v −1.−1.

3 =
DV
Fourth π-term
4 = Da4 .vb4 .c4 .k
M0 L0 T0 = L a3 (LT-1) b3 ( M L– 3) c3 ML-1T-1
Power of L, 0 = a4 - b4 – 3c4 + 1 a4 = b4 + 3c4 - 1 = -1
Power of T, 0 = – b4 b4 = 0
4 = D −1.v 0 .0 .k
k
4 =
D
Sub the values of π1, π2, π3 and π4 in the equation (2)
∆𝑝 𝑙 𝜇 𝑘 ∆𝑝 𝑙 𝜇 𝑘
𝑓1 (𝜌 𝑉 2 , 𝐷 , 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝐷) = 0 or = 𝜑 [𝐷 , 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝐷 ]
𝜌 𝑉2
32
Expression for hf (Difference of pressure head). From experiments, it was observed that pressure
difference. Δp is a linear function of (l/D) and hence it is taken out of function
∆𝑝 𝑙 𝜇 𝑘
= 𝐷 𝜑 [𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝐷 ]
𝜌 𝑉2
∆𝑝 𝑙 𝜇 𝑘
= 𝑉2 . 𝜑 [𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝐷 ]
𝜌 𝐷
∆𝑝 𝑉2𝑙 𝜇 𝑘
Dividing by g to both sides, we have 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑔 𝐷 𝜑 [𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝐷]
𝜇 𝑘 𝜇 1 1
Now 𝜑 [ , ]contains two terms, First one is which is 𝑜𝑟 andsecond is
𝐷𝑉𝜌 𝐷 𝐷𝑉𝜌 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑅𝑒
𝑘 1 𝑘
which is called roughness factor. Now 𝜑 [𝑅 , 𝐷]is put equal to f, where f is the co-efficient of friction
𝐷 𝑒
which is a function of Reynolds number and roughness factor.
∆𝑝 4𝑓 𝑉 2 𝑙 𝜇 𝑘
= .𝑔𝐷 𝑓 = 𝜑 [𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝐷 ]
𝜌𝑔 2
Multiplying or dividing by any constant does not change the character of π-terms
∆𝑝 4𝑓 . 𝐿𝑉 2
= ℎ𝑓 =
𝜌𝑔 𝐷×2𝑔
18. Derive on the basis of dimensional analysis suitable parameters to present the thrust developed
by a propeller. Assume that the thrust P depends upon the angular velocity ω, speed of advance V,
diameter D, dynamic viscosity µ, mass density ρ, elasticity of the fluid medium which can be denoted
by the speed of sound in the medium C.
Solution:
Thrust P is a function of ω, V, D, µ, ρ, C
P = f (ω, V, D, µ, ρ, C)
f1 = (P, ω, V, D, µ, ρ, C) → (1)
Total number of variables. n = 7
Writing dimensions of each variable, we have
P = MLT-2, ω = T-1, V = LT-1, µ = MLT-1, ρ = ML-3, C = LT-1
:. Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
33
Number of π-terms = n - m= 7 - 3= 4
Hence equation (1) can be written as f1 (π1, π2, π3, π4) → (2)
Choosing D, V, ρ as the repeating variables, we have the four π-terms as
1 = Da1 .v b1 .c1 .P
2 = D a 2 .v b2 .c2 .
3 = D a 3 .v b3 .c3 .
4 = D a 4 .v b4 .c4 .C
First π – terms:
1 = Da1 .vb1 .c1 .P
M0 L0 T0 = L a1 (LT-1) b1 (M L– 3) c1 ( M LT– 2)
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a1 + b1 – 3c1 + 1 a1 = -b1 + 3c1 - 1 = 2 – 3 - 1 = -2
Power of T, 0 = –b1 – 2 b1 = –2
1 = D−2 .v−2 .−1.P

p
1 =
D 2 v 2
Second π – term:
2 = Da2 .vb2 .c2 .
M0 L0 T0 = L a2 (LT-1) b2 (ML– 3) c2 T-1
34
Power of L, 0 = a2 + b2 – 3c2 a2 = b2 + 3c2 = 1 + 0 = 1
Power of T, 0 = – b2 - 1 b2 = -1
2 = D −1.v −1.0 .
D
2 =
V
Third π – term:
3 = Da3 .vb3 .c3 .
M0 L0 T0 = L a3 (LT-1) b3 ( M L– 3) c3 ML-1T-1
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1 c3 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a3 + b3 – 3c3 – 1 a3 = -b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 1 – 3 + 1 = -1
Power of T, 0 = – b3 – 1 b3 = -1
3 = D−1.v −1.−1.

3 =
DV
Fourth π-term
4 = Da4 .vb4 .c4 .C
M0 L0 T0 = L 4 (LT-1) 4 ( M L– 3) 4 LT-1
a b c
35
Power of L, 0 = a4 + b4 – 3c4 + 1 a4 = - b4 + 3c4 - 1 = 1 + 0 – 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = – b4 - 1 b4 = -1
4 = D0 .v −1.0 .C
C
4 =
V
𝑃 𝐷𝜔 𝜇 𝐶 𝑃 𝐷𝜔 𝜇 𝐶
𝑓1 (𝐷2𝑉 2 𝜌 , , 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝑉) = 0 or = 𝜑[ , 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝑉]
𝑉 𝐷2𝑉 2 𝜌 𝑉
𝐷𝜔 𝜇 𝐶
𝑃 = 𝐷2 𝑉 2 𝜌 𝜑 [ , 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 , 𝑉]
𝑉
19. The frictional torque T of a disc of diameter D rotating at a speed N in a fluid of viscosity µ and
𝜇
density ρ in a turbulent flow is given by 𝑇 = 𝐷5 𝑁 5 𝜌 𝜑 [ ] Prove this by the method of
𝐷 2 𝑁𝜌
dimensions.
Solution:
T = f (D, N, µ, ρ) or f1 (D, N, µ, ρ) = 0 → (1)
:. Total number of variable, n = 5
Dimensions of each variable are expressed as
T = ML2T-3, D = L, N = T-1, µ = ML-1T-1 ρ = ML-3
:. Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of π-terms = n - m= 5 - 3= 2
Hence equation (1) can be written as fl (π1, π2) = 0 → (2)
36
Each π – terms contains m + 1 variable, i.e. 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Three variables are repeating variable.
Choosing D, N, ρ as repeating variables, we have,
1 = Da1 .N b1 .c1 .T
2 = Da 2 .N b2 .c2 .
Dimensional analysis π1
1 = Da1 .Nb1 .c1 .T
Substituting dimensions on both sides of π1,
M0 L0 T0 = L a1 (T-1) b1 (M L– 3) c1 ( M0 L0 T0)
Power of M, 0 = c1 – 1 c1 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a1 – 3c1 + 2 a1 = 3c1 – 2 = -3 – 2 = -5
Power of T, 0 = – b1 – 2 b1 = -2
π1 = D-5 N-2 ρ-1 T

𝑇
𝜋1 = 𝐷5 𝑁2 𝜌
Dimensional analysis π2
2 = Da2 .Nb2 .c2 .

a2
M0 L0 T0 = L (T-1) b2 (ML– 3) c2 ( M L – 1 T– 1)
Power of M, 0 = c2 + 1 c2 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 – 3c2 – 1 a2 = 3c2 + 1 = – 3 + 1 = 2
Power of T, 0 = – b2 – 1 b2 = 1
37
π2 = D – 2 N – 1 ρ – 1 µ
µ
𝜋2 = 𝐷2𝑁 𝜌
Sub the values of π1 and π2 in equation (ii)

𝑇 µ 𝑇 µ
𝑓1 (𝐷5 𝑁2 𝜌 , 𝐷2𝑁 𝜌) = 0 (or) = 𝜑 [𝐷 2 𝑁 𝜌 ]
𝐷5 𝑁2 𝜌
µ
𝑇 = 𝐷 5 𝑁 2 𝜌 𝜑 [𝐷 2 𝑁 𝜌 ]
20. Using Buckingham's π-theorem, shown that the discharge Q consumed by an oil ring is given by
𝜇 𝜎 𝑤
𝑄 = 𝑁𝑑 3 𝜑 [𝜌 𝑁 𝑑2 , 𝜌 𝑁2𝑑3 , 𝜌 𝑁2𝑑]
Where d is the internal diameter of the ring, N is rotational speed, ρ is density, µ is viscosity, σ is
surface tension and w is the specific weight of oil.
Solution.
Q = f (d, N, ρ, µ, σ, w) or f1 (Q, d, N, ρ, µ, σ, w) = 0 → (1)
Total number of variables, n = 7
Dimensions of each variables are
Q = L3T-1, d = L, N = T-1, ρ = ML-3, µ = ML-1T-1, σ = MT-2 w= ML-2T-2
Total number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Total number of π-terms = n - m = 7 - 3 = 4
Hence equation (1) can be written as f1 (π1, π2, π3, π4) → (2)
Choosing d, N, ρ as the repeating variables, we have the four π-terms as
1 = d a1 .N b1 .c1 .Q
2 = d a 2 .N b2 .c2 .
3 = d a 3 .N b3 .c3 .
4 = d a 4 .N b4 .c4 .w
38
First π – terms:
1 = da1 .Nb1 .c1 .Q
M0 L0 T0 = L a1 (T-1) b1 (ML– 3) c1 ( L3T-1)
Power of L, 0 = a1 - 3c1 + 3 a1 = 3c1 - 3 = -3
Power of T, 0 = –b1 – 1 b1 = –1
1 = d −3 .N −1.0 .Q
Q
1 =
d3 N
Second π – term:
2 = da2 .Nb2 .c2 .
M0 L0 T0 = L a2 (T-1) b2 (ML– 3) c2 ML-1T-1
Power of M, 0 = c2 + 1 c2 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a2 – 3c2 - 1 a2 = 3c2 + 1 = -3 + 1 = -2
Power of T, 0 = – b2 - 1 b2 = -1
2 = d −2 .N −1.−1.
 
2 = =
d 2 N Nd 2
39
Third π – term:
3 = da3 .Nb3 .c3 .
M0 L0 T0 = L a3 (T-1) b3 ( ML– 3) c3 MT-2
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1 c3 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a3 - 3c3 a3 = 3c3 = – 3
Power of T, 0 = – b3 – 2 b3 = -2
3 = d −3 .N −2 .−1.

3 =
d N 2
3
Fourth π-term
4 = da4 .Nb4 .c4 .w
M0 L0 T0 = L 4 (T-1) 4 ( ML– 3) 4 ML-2T-2

a b c
Power of M, 0 = c4 + 1 c4 = -1
Power of L, 0 = a4 – 3c4 -2 a4 = 3c4 +2 = -3 + 2 = -1
Power of T, 0 = – b4 - 2 b4 = -2
4 = d −1.N −2 .−1.w
w
4 =
dN 2
40
𝑄 𝜇 𝜎 𝑤 𝑄 𝜇 𝜎 𝑤
𝑓1 (𝑑3 𝑁 , , 𝑑3 𝑁 2 𝜌 , 𝑑 𝑁 2 𝜌) = 0 or = 𝑓1 [𝜌 𝑁 𝑑2 , 𝑑3 𝑁2 𝜌 , 𝑑 𝑁2 𝜌]
𝜌 𝑁 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑁
𝜇 𝜎 𝑤
𝑄 = 𝑑 3 𝑁 𝜑 [ 𝜌 𝑁 𝑑 2 , 𝑑 3 𝑁 2 𝜌 , 𝑑 𝑁 2 𝜌]
21. Define model analysis and write the advantages of model analysis.
 For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures (such as dams, spill ways etc.) or
hydraulic machines (such as turbines, pumps etc.), before actually constructing or models of the
structures or machines are made and tests are performed on them to obtain the desired information.
 The model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. The actual structure or
machine is called Prototype.
 It is not necessary that the models should be smaller than the prototypes (though in most of cases it
is), they may be larger than the prototype.
 The study of models of actual machines is called Model analysis. Model analysis is actually an
experimental method of finding solutions of complex flow problems.
 Exact analytical solutions are possible only for a limited number of flow problems.
The followings are the advantages of the dimensional and model analysis :
1. The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machine can be easily predicted, in advance,
from its model.
2. With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow problem
in terms of dimensionless parameters is obtained. This relationship helps in conducting tests on the model.
3. The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help•of model testing. The most economical
and safe design may be. finally, adopted.
4. The tests performed on the models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful information about the
performance of the prototypes only if a complete similarity exists between the model and the prototype.
22. Write short notes on Similitude. Explain different types of similarities.
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every respect, which
means that the model and prototype are completely similar. Three types of similarities must exit between
the model and prototype. They are
41
1. Geometric Similarity 2. Kinematic Similarity 3. Dynamic Similarity
1. Geometric Similarity:
The geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratio of all
corresponding linear dimension in the model and prototype are equal.
Lm= Length of model , bm= Breadth of model
Dm= Dismeter of model Am= area of model
V m= Volume of model
And Lp, Bp, Dp, Ap, Vp = Corresponding values of the prototype.
For geometric similarity between model and prototype, we must have the relation,
Lp bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm bm Dm
Lr is called the scale ratio.
For area’s ratio and volume’s ratio the relation should be as given below.
Ap Lp  bp
= = Lr  Lr = Lr 2
Am Lm  bm
3 3 3
Vp L  b  D 
= p  = p  = p 
Vm  Lm   b m   Dm 
2. Kinematic Similarity:
o Kinematic similarity means the similarity of motion between model and prototype.
o Thus kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios of the
velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model and at the corresponding points
in the prototype are the same.
o Since the velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence not only the ratio of magnitude of
velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model and prototype should be same,
but the directions of velocity and accelerations at the corresponding points in the model and
prototype also should be parallel.
42
Vp1 = velocity of fluid at point 1 in prototype,
Vp2= velocity of fluid at point 2 in prototype,
ap1= Acceleration of fluid at point 1 in prototype,
ap2= Acceleration of fluid at point 2 in prototype,
Vm1, Vm2, am1, am2 = Corresponding values at the corresponding points of fluid velocity and
acceleration in the model.
For kinematic similarity, we have
Vp1 Vp2
= = Vr
Vm1 Vm2
where Vr is the velocity ratio.
a p1 a p2
For acceleration, we have = = ar
a m1 a m2
where ar is the acceleration ratio. Also the directions of the velocities in the model and prototype should be
same.
3. Dynamic Similarity:
 Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and prototype.
 Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and prototype if the ratios of the
corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are equal.
 Also the directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points should be same.
(Fi)p= Inertia force at a point in prototype,
(Fv)p= Viscous force at the point in prototype,
(Fg)p= Gravity force at the point in prototype,
(Fi)p, (Fv)p, (Fg)p = Corresponding values of forces at the corresponding point in model.
Then for dynamic similarity, we have
43
( Fi )p ( Fv )p ( Fg )p
= = =F
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m r
where Fr is the force ratio. Also the directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points in
the model and prototype should be same.
23. Explain the physical significance of the Dimensionless numbers
Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by
viscous force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force.
As this is a ratio of one force to the other force, it will be a dimensionless number. These
dimensionless numbers are also called non-dimensional parameters.
The following are the important dimensionless numbers:
1. Reynold’s number 2. Froud’s number
3. Euler’s number 4. Weber’s number 5. Mach’s number
1. Reynold’s number: It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the viscous force of
the fluid. The expression for Reynold’s number is obtained as
Inertia force (Fi) = Mass X Acceleration of flowing fluid

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹𝑖 ) = 𝜌 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × =𝜌× × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝑒
= 𝜌 × 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉 Volume per sec = Area X Velocity = A X V
Viscous force (Fv) = Shear stress X Area
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹𝑣 ) = 𝜏 × 𝐴

𝑑𝑢 𝑉 𝑑𝑢 𝑉
= (𝜇 𝑑𝑦) × 𝐴 = 𝜇. 𝐿 × 𝐴 =
𝑑𝑦 𝐿
By definition, Reynold’s number
𝐹 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉2 𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉×𝐿 𝑉×𝐿 𝜇

𝑅𝑒 = 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑉 = = 𝜇 = ⁄𝜌 = 𝜈
𝑣 𝜇. ×𝐴 𝜇 ( ⁄𝜌) 𝜈
𝐿
In case of pipe flow, the linear dimension L is taken as diameter, d. Hence Reynold’s number for pipe flow,
44
V d Vd
Re = or
 
2. Froude’s Number (Fe):
The Froud’s Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to
the gravitational force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Fi
Fe =
Fg
Fg = Force due to gravity = Mass X Acceleration due to gravity = ρ X L3 X g
= ρ X L2 X L X g = ρ X A X L X g
Fi AV 2 V2 V
Fe = = = =
Fg ALg Lg Lg
3. Euler’s number (Eu):
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface tension
force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Fi
Euler's number (E u ) =
Fp
Fp = Intensity of pressure X Area = ρ X A
Fi AV 2 V2 V
Eu = = = =
Fp pA p/ p/
4. Weber’s number (We):
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface tension
force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
45
Fi
Weber's number (We ) =
Fg
Fs = Surface tension force = Surface tension per unit length X Length = σ X L
Fi AV 2   L2 V 2
We = = =
Fg  L  L
L  V 2 V2 V2
We = = =
   L   L
5. Mach number (M):
Mach number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the
elastic force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Inertia force F
Mach number (M) = = i
Elastic force Fe
𝐹𝑖 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 2
Fe = Elastic force = Elastic stress X Area = K X A = K X L2
AV 2  L2 V 2 V2 V
M= = = =
KL 2
KL 2
K/ K/
V
√ = 𝐶 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 M =
𝐾
𝑃
.
C
24. Write short note on Model laws or Similarity laws.
▪ For the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the ratio of the corresponding
forces acting at the corresponding points in the model and prototype should be equal.
▪ The ratio of the forces are dimensionless numbers. It means for dynamic similarity between the
model and the prototype, the dimensionless numbers should be same for model and prototype.
46
▪ But it is quite difficult to satisfy the condition that all the dimensionless number (i.e., Re, Fe, We,
We and M) are the same for the model and prototype.
▪ Hence models are designed on the basis of ratio of the force, which is dominating in the
phenomenon.
▪ The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are model laws or laws of
similarity. The followings are the model laws:
1. Reynold’s model law 2. Froud’s model law
3. Euler’s model law 4. Weber’s model law 5. Mach’s model law
25. Explain the different laws on which models are designed for dynamic similarity. What are they
used?
1. Reynold’s model law:
Reynold’s model law is the law in which models are based on Reynold’s number. Model based on
Reynold’s number includes:
(i) Pipe flow
(ii) Resistance experienced by sub-marines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies etc.
As defined earlier that Reynold number is the ratio of inertia force and viscous force, and hence
fluid flow problems where viscous forces alone are predominent, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity on Reynolds law, which states that the Reynold number for the model must be equal to the
Reynold number for the prototype.
Vm= Velocity of fluid in model,

ρm = Density of fluid in model,
Lm = Length or linear dimension of the model,

μm = Viscosity or fluid in model,
andVm, ρm, Lm and μm are the corresponding values of velocity, density, linear dimension and viscosity of
fluid in prototype. Then according to Reynold's model law,
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
[𝑅𝑒 ]𝑚 = [𝑅𝑒 ]𝑝 (𝑜𝑟) =
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝
47
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 1 𝜌𝑟 𝑉𝑟 𝐿𝑟
× 𝜇𝑝 = 1 (𝑜𝑟) =1
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝜇𝑟
𝜇𝑚
𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝜌𝑟 = 𝜌 , 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 , 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
And also ρr, Vr, Lr, and μr, are called the scale ratios for density, velocity, linear dimension and
viscosity.
The scale ratios for time, acceleration, force and discharge for Reynold's model law are obtained as
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑡, 𝑡 =𝑉
𝑟
𝑉𝑟
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟
𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)𝑟
= 𝑚𝑟 × 𝑎𝑟 = 𝜌𝑟 𝐴𝑟 𝑉𝑟 × 𝑎𝑟 {Ar = Area ratio}
= 𝜌𝑟 . 𝐿2𝑟 . 𝑉𝑟 × 𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑟
𝑄𝑟 = 𝜌𝑟 𝐴𝑟 𝑉𝑟 = 𝜌𝑟 . 𝐿2𝑟 . 𝑉𝑟
2. Froude Model law:
▪ Froude model law is the law in which the models are based on Froude number which means for
dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Froude number for both of them should be
equal.
▪ Froude model law is applicable when the gravity force is only predominant force which controls the
flow in addition to the force of inertia.
▪ Froude model law is applied in the following fluid flow problems:
1. Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc.,
2. Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle,
3. Where waves are likely to be formed on surface,
4. Where fluids of different densities flow over one another.
Vm = Velocity of fluid in model,
Lm = linear dimension of the model,
gm = Viscosity or fluid in model,
48
andVp, Lp and gp are the corresponding values of the velocity, length and acceleration due to gravity for the
prototype. Then according to Froude model law,
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
(𝐹𝑒 )𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝐹𝑒 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 (𝑜𝑟) = → (1)
√𝑔𝑚 𝐿𝑚 √𝑔𝑝 𝐿𝑝
If the tests on the model are performed on the same place where prototype is to operate, then gm =
gp and equation (1) becomes as
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
= → (2)
√𝐿𝑚 √𝐿 𝑝
𝑉𝑚 1
× 𝐿𝑚
=1
𝑉𝑝
√𝐿
𝑝
𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑝
= √ 𝐿 = √𝐿𝑟 { 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑟 }
𝑉𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝐿𝑟 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑝
= 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑝
= 𝑉𝑟 = √𝐿𝑟 → (3)
𝑉𝑚
Scale ratios for various physical quantities based on Froude model law are:
(a) Scale ratio for time

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
then ratio of time for prototype and model is

𝐿𝑝
𝐿
𝑇𝑝 ( )𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑚 1 𝑉𝑝
𝑉
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇 = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑚 =𝐿 × = 𝐿𝑟 × = √𝐿𝑟 = √𝐿𝑟
𝑚 ( )𝑚 𝑚 𝑉𝑝 √𝐿𝑟 𝑉𝑚
𝑉 𝑉𝑚
(b) Scale ratio for acceleration

𝑉
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇
𝑉
𝑎𝑝 ( )𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑇 𝑉𝑝 𝑇𝑚 1
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 = 𝑉
𝑇
= 𝑇 × 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉 × = √𝐿𝑟 × =1
𝑚 ( )𝑚 𝑝 𝑚 𝑚 𝑇𝑝 √𝐿𝑟
𝑇
49
𝑉𝑝 𝑇𝑝
= √𝐿𝑟 , = √𝐿𝑟
𝑉𝑚 𝑇𝑚
(c) Scale ratio for discharge
𝐿 𝐿3
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 = 𝐿2 × 𝑇 = 𝑇
𝐿3
𝑄𝑃 ( ) 𝐿𝑝 𝑇 1
𝑇 𝑝
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑄 = 𝐿3
= (𝐿 )3 × ( 𝑇𝑚) =× = 𝐿2.5
𝑟
𝑚 ( )𝑚 𝑚 𝑝 √𝐿𝑟
𝑇
(d) Scale ratio for force

𝑉 𝐿
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑋 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌 𝐿3 × 𝑇 = 𝜌 𝐿2 × 𝑇 . 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐿2 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝐿2𝑝 𝑉𝑝2 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝
Ratio for force, 𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹 = 𝜌 2 2 = 𝜌 × ( 𝐿 )2 × (𝑉 )2
𝑚 𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
If the fluid used in model and prototype is same, then

𝛲𝑝
= 1 (𝑜𝑟)𝜌𝑝 = 𝜌𝑚 𝐿3𝑟
𝜌𝑚
𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝐹𝑟 = (𝐿 )2 × (𝑉 )2 = 𝐿2𝑟 × (√𝐿𝑟 )2 = 𝐿2𝑟 . 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿3𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
(e) Scale ratio for pressure intensity
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌 𝐿2 𝑉 2
𝑝= = = 𝜌 𝑉2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿2
𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝2
Pressure ratio, 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑝 = 𝜌 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑉𝑚
If fluid is same, then 𝜌𝑝 = 𝜌𝑚
𝑉𝑝2 𝑉𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑉 2 = (𝑉 )2 = 𝐿𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
(f) Scale ratio for work, energy, torque, moment etc.
Torque = Force X Distance = F X L

𝑇𝑝∗ (𝐹×𝐿)𝑝
Torque ratio, 𝑇𝑟∗ = 𝑇 ∗ = (𝐹×𝐿) = 𝐹𝑟 × 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿3𝑟 × 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿4𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
(g) Scale ratio for power
Power = Work per unit time
50
𝐹×𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇
𝐹𝑝 ×𝐿𝑝
𝑃𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝐹𝑝 𝐿𝑝 1
Power ratio, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑚 ×𝐿𝑚 =𝐹 ×𝐿 × 𝑇𝑝
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑇𝑚 𝑇𝑚
1 1
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟 . 𝐿𝑟 . 𝑇 = 𝐿3𝑟 × 𝐿𝑟 × = 𝐿3.5
𝑟
𝑟 √𝐿𝑟
3. Euler's Model Law: (Nov/Dec 2009)(Nov/Dec 2016)
Euler's model law is the law in which the models are designed on Euler's number which means for
dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Euler
number for model and prototype should be equal. Euler's model law is applicable when the pressure forces
are alone predominant in addition to the inertia force. According to this law:
(𝐸𝑢 )𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝐸𝑢 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 →(1)

pm = Pressure of fluid in model,
Vmpm, ρm = Corresponding values in prototype, then
Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
= 𝑝𝑝
→(2)
𝑝
√ 𝑚⁄𝜌𝑚 √ ⁄𝜌𝑝
If fluid is same in model and prototype, then equation (2) becomes as

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
= →(3)
√𝑝𝑚 √𝑝𝑝
Euler's model law is applied for fluid flow problems where flow is taking place in a closed pipe in which
case turbulence is fully developed so that viscous forces are negligible and gravity force and surface
tension force is absent. This law is also used where the phenomenon of cavitations takes place.
4. Weber Model Law:
▪ Weber model law is the law in which models are based on Weber's number, which is the ratio of the
square root of inertia force to surface tension force.
51
▪ Hence where surface tension effects predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity
between the model and prototype is obtained by equating the Weber number of the model and its
prototype. Hence according to this law
𝑉
(𝑊𝑒 )𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝑊𝑒 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑊𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
√𝜎⁄𝜌 𝐿
σm = Surface tensile force in model,
Lm = linear dimension of the model,
Vp, σp, ρp, Lp = Corresponding values of fluid in prototype.
Then according to Weber law, we have

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
𝜎
= 𝜎𝑝
√ 𝑚⁄𝜌 𝐿 √ ⁄𝜌 𝐿
𝑚 𝑚 𝑝 𝑝
Weber model law is applied in following cases:
1. Capillary rise in narrow passages,
2. Capillary movement of water in soil,
3. Capillary waves in channels,
4. Flow over weirs for small heads.
5. Mach Model Law:
Mach model law is the law in which models are designed on Mach number, which is the ratio of the
square root of inertia force to elastic force of a fluid) Hence where the forces due to elastic compression
predominate in addition to inertia force, the-dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype is
obtained by equating the Mach number of the model and its prototype. Hence according to this law:
(𝑀)𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝑀)𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
52
𝑉
𝑀=
√𝐾⁄𝜌
Km = Elastic stress for model,,
Vp, Kp and ρp = Corresponding values for prototype. Then according to Mach law.
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
= 𝐾
√𝐾𝑚⁄𝜌 √ 𝑝⁄𝜌
𝑚 𝑝
Mach model law is applied in the following cases:
1. Flow of aeroplane and projectile through air at supersonic speed, i.e., at a velocity more than the
velocity of sound,
2. Aerodynamic testing,
3. Under water testing of torpedoes,
4. Water-hammer problems.
26. A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of sp.gr. 0.90 and viscosity 3X10 -2 poise at
the rate of 3000 litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using water at 20°C. Find the
velocity and rate of flow in the model. Viscosity of water at 20°C = 0.01 poise.
Solution: Given
Dia. of prototype, Dp = 1.5 m
Viscosity of fluid, µp = 3 X 10-2 poise
Q for prototype, Qp = 3000 litre/s = 3.0 m3/s
Sp. Gr. of oil, Sp = 0.9
Density of oil ρp = Sp X 1000 = 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Dia. of the model, Dm = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Viscosity of water at 20°C = 0.01 poise = 1 X 10-2 poise or µm = 1 X 10-2 poise
Density of water ρm = 1000 kg/m3
53
For the pipe flow, the dynamic similarity will be obtained if the Reynold’s number in the model and
prototype are equal
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝑉𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝜇𝑚
= =𝜌 . .
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝜇𝑝
𝑉𝑚 900 1.5 1×10−2

= 1000 × 0.15 × 3×10−2 = 3.0
𝑉𝑝
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 3.0 3.0

𝑉𝑝 = =𝜋 =𝜋 = 1.697 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 ×(𝐷𝑝 )2 ×(1.5)2
4 4
𝑉𝑚 = 3.0 × 𝑉𝑝 = 3.0 × 1.697 = 5.091 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 𝜋
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙, 𝑄𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚 × 𝑉𝑚 = × (𝐷𝑚 )2 × 𝑉𝑚 = × (0.15)2 × 5.091
4 4
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑄𝑚 = 0.0899 𝑚3 / 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.0899 × 1000 = 89.9
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
27. A ship 300 m long moves in sea-water, whose density is 1030 kg/m3. A 1:100 model of this ship is
to be tested in a wind tunnel. The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the model is 30 m/s and
the resistance of the model is 60 N. Determine the velocity of ship in sea-water and also the resistance
of the ship in sea-water. The density of air in given as 1.24 kg/m3. Take the kinematic viscosity of sea-
water and air as 0.012 stokes and 0.018 stokes respectively.
Solution: Given:
For prototype
Length, Lp = 300 m Fluid = sea-water
Density of water = 1030 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity νp = 0.012 stokes = 0.012 X 10-4 m2/sec
Let velocity of ship = Vp
Resistance = Fp
For model
Length, Lm = (1/100) X 300 m = 3 m
Velocity, Vm = 30 m/sec
54
Density of air, ρm = 1.24 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity of air, νm = 0.018 stokes = 0.018 X 10-4 m2/sec
For dynamic similarity between the prototype and its model, the Reynold’s number for the both of them
should be equal.
𝑉𝑝 ×𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑚 ×𝐿𝑚 𝜈𝑝 𝐿𝑚
= or 𝑉𝑝 = 𝜈 × × 𝑉𝑚
𝜈𝑝 𝜈𝑚 𝑚 𝐿𝑝
0.012 𝑋 10−4 3
𝑉𝑝 = × 300 × 30 = 0.2 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.018×10−4
Resistance = Mass X Acceleration

𝑉 𝑉 𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌 𝐿3 × 𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐿2 × 1 × 𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐿2 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑝 (𝜌 𝐿2 𝑉 2 )𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝
= (𝜌 𝐿2𝑉 2) = 𝜌 × (𝐿 )2 × (𝑉 )2
𝐹𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝐹𝑝 1030 3000 2 0.2

= ×( ) × ( 30 )2 = 369.17
𝐹𝑚 1.24 3
𝐹𝑝 = 369.17 × 𝐹𝑚 = 369.17 × 60 = 22150.2 𝑁
28. A spill way model built up to a scale of (1/10) is discharged water with a velocity of 1 m/sec, under
a head of 100 mm. Find the velocity of water of the prototype, if the head of water over the prototype
is 5.5 meters.
Solution:
Linear scale ratio, Lr = 10
Height of spill way in the prototype, hp = 5.5 m
Velocity of model Vm = 1 m/sec
Height of spillway in the model, hm = 100 mm = 0.1 m

𝑉𝑝
= √𝐿𝑟 = √10
𝑉𝑚
𝑚
𝑉𝑝 = √10 × 𝑉𝑚 = √10 × 1 = 3.162 𝑠
29. A spillway model is to be built to a geometrically similar scale of (1/50) across a flume of 600 mm
width. The prototype is 15 m high and maximum head on it is expected to be 1.5 m. (i) What height
55
of model and what head on the model should be used? (ii) If the flow over the model at a particular
head is 12 litres per second, what flow per metre length of the prototype is expected? (iii) If the
negative pressure in the model is 200 mm, 'what is the negative pressure in prototype? Is it
practicable?
Solution. Given:
Scale ratio for length, Lr = 50
Width of model, Bm = 600 mm = 0.6 m
Flow over model, Qm = 12 litres/sec
Pressure in model, hm = -200 mm of water
Height of prototype Hp = 15 m
Head on prototype, Hp* = 1.5 m
(i) Let the height of model = Hm
and head on model = Hm*

𝐻𝑝 𝐻𝑝∗
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐻 = 𝐻 = 50
𝑚 𝑚∗
𝐻𝑝 15
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙, 𝐻𝑚 = = 50 = 0.3
50
𝐻𝑝∗ 1.50
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙, 𝐻𝑚∗ = = = 0.03
50 50
Width of prototype, Bp = Lr X Bm = 50 X 0.6 = 30 m
(ii) Discharge ratio is given by

𝑄𝑝
= 𝐿2.5
𝑟 = (50)
2.5
= 17677.67
𝑄𝑚
𝑄𝑝 = 𝑄𝑚 × 17677.67 = 12 × 17677.67 = 212132.04 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄𝑝 212132.04
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 = =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
56
212132.04
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 = = 7071.078 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
30
(iii) Negative pressure head in prototype, hP = Lr X hm = 50 X (-0.2) = -10.0 m
This negative pressure is not practicable. Maximum practicable negative pressure head is – 7.50m
30. A 7.2 m height and 15 m long spillway discharges 94 m3/s discharge under a head of 2.0 m. If a
1: 9 scale model of this spillway is to be constructed, determine model dimensions, head over spillway
model and the model discharge. If model experiences a force of 7500 N (764.53kgf), determine force
on the prototype.
Solution. Given:
For prototype : Height hp = 7.2 m
Length, Lp = 15 m
Discharge, Qp = 94 m3/sec
Head, Hp = 2.0 m
Size of model = (1/9) of the size of prototype
Force experienced by model, Fp = 7500 N
Find: (i) Model dimensions i.e., height and length of model (hm and Lm)
(ii) Head over model i.e., Hm
(iii) Discharge through model i.e., Qm

(iv) Force on prototype (i.e., Fp)
(i) Model dimensions (hm and Lm)

ℎ𝑝 𝐿𝑝
= 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑟 = 9
ℎ𝑚 𝑚
ℎ𝑝 7.2
ℎ𝑚 = = = 0.8 𝑚
9 9
𝐿𝑝 15
𝐿𝑚 = = = 1.67 𝑚
9 9
(ii) Head over model (Hm)
57
𝐻𝑝
𝐿𝑟 = 𝐻 = 9
𝑚
𝐻𝑝
𝐻𝑚 = = 0.222 𝑚
9
(iii) Discharge through model (Qm)

𝑄𝑝
= 𝐿2.5
𝑟
𝑄𝑚
𝑄 94 3
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐿2.5 = 92.5 = 0.387 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
𝑝
(iv) Force on prototype (Fp)

𝐹𝑝
𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹 = 𝐿3𝑟
𝑚
𝐹𝑝 = 𝐹𝑚 × 𝐿3𝑟 = 7500 × 93 = 5467500 𝑁
31. The pressure drop in an aeroplane model of size (1/10) of its prototype is 80 N/cm2. The model is
tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in the prototype. Take density of air = 1.24
kg/m3. The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.
Solution. Given:
Pressure drop in model, pm = 80 N/cm2 = 80 X 104 N/m2
Fluid in model = Water, while in prototype = Air
Viscosity of water, µm = 0.01 poise
Density of water, ρm = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of air, µp = 0.00018 poise
Density of air, ρp = 1.24 kg/m3
Let the corresponding pressure drop in prototype = pp.
As the problem involves pressure force and viscous force and hence for dynamic similarity between the
model and prototype, Euler's number and Reynold's number should be considered. Making first of all,
Reynold's number equal, we get from equation
58
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 µ𝑚
= (or) =𝜌 ×𝐿 ×
µ𝑚 µ𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑚 𝑚 µ𝑝
𝜌𝑝 1.24
= 1000
𝜌𝑚
𝐿𝑝
= 𝐿𝑟 = 40
𝐿𝑚
µ𝑚 0.01
= 0.00018
µ𝑝
𝑉𝑚 1.24 0.01
= 1000 × 40 × 0.00018 = 2.755
𝑉𝑝
Now making Euler's number equal, we get from equation
𝑝𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑚 √𝜌 𝑝 𝜌𝑝
𝑚
𝑝𝑚
= 𝑝𝑝 (or) = 𝑝𝑝 = √ 𝑝𝑚 × √𝜌
𝑉𝑝 𝑝 𝑚
√𝜌 √𝜌 √𝜌
𝑚 𝑝 𝑝
𝑉𝑚 𝜌𝑝 1.24
= 2.755 (or) = 1000
𝑉𝑝 𝜌𝑚
𝑝 1.24 𝑝
2.755 = √ 𝑝𝑚 × √1000 = √ 𝑝𝑚 × 0.0352
𝑝 𝑝
𝑃𝑚 2.755
√ 𝑝 = 0.0352 = 78.267
𝑝
𝑃𝑚 𝑃 80
= (78.267)2 (or) 𝑚
𝑝𝑝 = (78.267)2 = (78.267)2
𝑝𝑝
pp = 0.01306 N/cm2
32. State and explain the conditions under which prototype behavior can be predicted from model
test.
MODEL TESTING OF PARTIALLY SUB-MERGED BODIES: Let us consider the testing of a ship
model (ship is a partially sub-merged body) in a water-tunnel in order to find the drag force F or resistance
experienced by a ship. The drag experienced by a ship consists of :
1. The wave resistance, which is the resistance offered by the waves on the free sea-surface, and
2. The frictional or viscous resistance, which is offered by the water on the surface of contact of
the ship with water.
59
Thus in this case three forces namely inertia, gravity and viscous forces are present. Then for
dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype, the Reynold's number (which is ratio of inertia
force to viscous force) and the Froude number (which is the ratio of inertia force to gravity force) should be
taken into account. This means that in this case, the Reynold model law and Froude model law should be
applied.
But for Reynold model law, the condition is
Reynold number of model= Reynold number of prototype

𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
=
µ𝑚 µ𝑝
If fluid is same for the model and prototype, then ρm = ρp and µm = µp
Vm Lm = Vp Lp
𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝑉𝑚 = = 𝐿𝑟 𝑉𝑝 { = 𝐿𝑟 }→(1)
𝐿𝑚 𝐿𝑚
For Froude model law, have from equation as

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
If fluid is same for model and prototype and test is conducted at the same place where prototype is to
operate, then gm = gp
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝐿𝑚 √ 𝐿𝑝
𝐿 1 1 𝐿𝑝
𝑉𝑚 = √ 𝐿𝑚 × 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑝 × 𝐿𝑝
= 𝑉𝑝 × { = 𝐿𝑟 }→(2)
𝑝 √𝐿𝑟 𝐿𝑚
√
𝐿𝑚
From equations (1) and (2), we observe that the velocity of fluid in model for Reynold model law
and Froude model law is different.
Thus it is quite impossible to satisfy both the laws together, which means the dynamic similarity
between the model and its prototype will not exist.
To overcome this difficulty, the method suggested by William Froude is adopted for testing the
ship model (or partially sub-merged bodies) as:
60
Step 1. The total resistance experienced by a ship is equal to the wave resistance plus frictional or viscous
resistance.
Let (R)p = Total resistance experienced by prototype,
(Rw)p = Wave resistance experienced by prototype,
(Rf)p = Frictional resistance experienced by prototype, and
(R)w (Rw)w (Rf)m = Corresponding values for model.
Then, we have for prototype, (R)p = (Rw)p + (Rf)p→(3)
and for model, (R)m = (Rw)m + (Rf)m→(4)
Step 2. The frictional resistances for the model and the ship [i.e., (Rf)m and (Rf)p] are calculated
from the expressions given below:
(Rf)p = fp Ap Vpn→(5)
(Rf)m = fm Am Vmn→(6)
fp = Frictional resistance per unit area per unit velocity of prototype,
Ap = Wetted surface area of the prototype,
Vp = Velocity of prototype,
n = Constant, and
fm, Am, Vm = Corresponding values of frictional resistance, wetted area and velocity of model.
The values of fp and fm are determined from experiments.
Step 3. The model is tested by towing it in water contained in a towing tank such that the dynamic
similarity for Froude number is satisfied i.e., (Fe)m = (Fe)P The total resistance of the model (Rm) is
measured for this condition.
Step 4. The total resistance (Rm) for the model is known from step 3 and frictional resistance of the model
(Rf)m is calculated from equation (5). Then the wave resistance for the model is known from equation (4)
as
(Rw)m = Rm - (Rf)m→(7)
61
Step 5. The resistance experienced by a ship of length L, flowing with velocity V in fluid of viscosity µ,
density ρ depends upon g, the acceleration due to gravity. By dimensional analysis, the expression for
resistance is given by
𝑅 𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉2
= 𝜑[ , ] = 𝜑[𝑅𝑒 , 𝐹𝑒2 ]
𝜌 𝑙2𝑉 2 µ 𝑔𝐿
Thus resistance is a function of Reynold number (Re) and Froude number (Fe). For dynamic similarity for
model and prototype for wave resistance only, we have
(𝑅𝑤 )𝑃 (𝑅𝑤 )𝑚
=𝜌
𝜌𝑝 𝐿2 𝑉2 𝑚 𝐿2 2
𝑝 𝑝 𝑚 𝑉𝑚
or wave resistance for prototype is given as
𝜌𝑝 𝐿2𝑝 𝑉𝑝2
(𝑅𝑤 )𝑃 = 𝜌 × 𝐿2 × 𝑉 2 × (𝑅𝑤 )𝑚 →(8)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
But from Step 3,

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
(Fe)m = (Fe)P (or) =
Explain distorted and undistorted models.
CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS
The hydraulic models are classified as :
1. Undistorted models, and
2. Distorted models)
1. Undistorted Models:
Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically

similar to their prototypes or in other words if the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype is same, the model is called undistorted models.
The behaviour of the prototype can be easily predicted from the results of undistorted model.
2. Distorted Models
62
▪ A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to
its prototype. For a distorted model different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted.
▪ For example, in case of rivers, harbours, reservoirs etc., two different scale ratios, one for horizontal
dimensions and other for vertical dimensions are taken.
▪ Thus the models of rivers, harbours and reservoirs will become as distorted models.
▪ If for the river, the horizontal and vertical scale ratios are taken to be same so that the model is
undistorted, then the depth of water in the model of the river will be very-very small which may not
be measured accurately.
The following are the advantage of distorted models:
1. The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately.
2. The cost of the model can be reduced.
3. Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.
Though there are some advantages of the distorted model, yet the results of the distorted model
cannot be directly transferred to its prototype.
But sometimes from the distorted models very useful information can be obtained.
35. Obtain the scale ratios for velocity and discharge of distorted models.
Scale Ratios for Distorted Models:
As mentioned above, two different scale ratios, one for horizontal dimensions and other for vertical
dimensions, are taken for distorted models.
Let (Lr)H = Scale ratio for horizontal dimension

𝐿𝑝 𝐵𝑝 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
(𝐿𝑟 )𝐻 = 𝐿 = 𝐵 =
𝑚 𝑚 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙
(Lr)V = Scale ratio for vertical dimension

ℎ𝑝 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
(𝐿𝑟 )𝑉 = ℎ =
𝑚 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙
Then the scale ratios of velocity, area of flow, discharge etc., in terms of (Lr)H and (Lr)V can be
obtained for distorted models as given below:
63
1. Scale ratio for velocity
Vp = Velocity in prototype
Vm = Velocity in model
𝑉𝑝 √2𝑔ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑝
= = √ℎ = √(𝐿𝑟 )𝑉 = (𝐿𝑟 )𝑉
𝑉𝑚 √2𝑔ℎ𝑚 𝑚 ℎ𝑚
2. Scale ratio for area of flow
Ap = Area of flow in prototype = Bp X hp

Am = Area of flow in model = Bm X hm
𝐴𝑝 𝐵𝑝 ×ℎ𝑝 𝐵𝑝 ℎ𝑝
=𝐵 = 𝐵 × ℎ = (𝐿𝑟 )𝐻 × (𝐿𝑟 )𝑉
𝐴𝑚 𝑚 ×ℎ𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
3. Scale ratio for discharge
Qp = Discharge through prototype = Ap X Vp

Qm = Discharge through model = Am X Vm
36. Discuss briefly the types of forces acting in moving fluid. (Nov/Dec 2014)
For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on a fluid mass may be anyone, or a combination of
the several of the following forces :
1. Inertia force, Fi 2. Viscous force, Fv
3. Gravity force, Fg 4. Pressure force, Fp
5. Surface tension force, Fs 6. Elastic force, Fe
1. Inertia Force (Fi):
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and acts in the direction
opposite to the direction of acceleration. It is always existing in the fluid flow problems.
2. Viscous Force (Fv):
It is equal to the product of shear stress (τ) due to viscosity and surface area of the flow. It is
present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role to play.
3. Gravity Force (Fg):
64
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid. It is present in
case of open surface flow.
4. Pressure Force (Fp):
It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross-sectional area of the flowing fluid. It is
present in case of pipe-flow.
5. Surface Tension Force (Fs):
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.
6. Elastic Force (Fe):
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid. For a flowing fluid, the
above-mentioned forces may not always be present.
And also the forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal magnitude. There is
always one force which dominates the other forces. These dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.
65

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UNIT-III

1. What is dimensional analysis?

2. Write the uses of dimensional analysis?

❖ Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion

E.g.: Mass (M), length (L), time (T)

E.g.: Velocity, area, density

Velocity = distance per unit time (L/T2)

4. Explain the term dimensional homogeneity. How is it attained in a fluid equation

Dimensions of R. H. S = Dimensions of R. H. S = LT-1

Equation V=2gh is dimensionally homogeneous so it can be used in any system of units.

5. Enumerate the applications of dimensional homogeneity

Dimensional analysis thus helps to check that equations might be true.

However, it does not prove that they are correct as well.

6. State Buckingham pi-theorem

Civil engineering structures such as dams spillways weirs canals etc

o Turbines pumps and compressors

o Design of harbors ships & submarine

o Flood control investigation of silting and scour in rivers irrigation channels

8. What is meant by model and Prototype?

9. What is model analysis?

o Model analysis is an experimental method of finding solution of complex flow problems

10. What is meant by geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities?

11. Define similitude?

E.g.: flow through open channels, Flow over matches wires

(3) Weber’s Number (We):

13. How are hydraulic models classified?

o Pressure → ML-1 T-2

o Surface tension → ML-1 T-2

o Dynamic viscosity → ML-1 T-1

o Kinematic viscosity → L2 T-1

15. State the methods of dimensional analysis.

17. What is meant by undistorted models?

18. State three demerits of a distorted model.

o Exit pressure and velocity distribution are not true

o A model wave may differ from that of prototype

o Both extrapolation and interpolation of results are difficult

o Reynolds model law

20. Enlist the advantages of dimensional analysis in fluid mechanics.

o To check the dimensional homogeneity of the given equation

o To determine the dimension of a physical variable

o To convert units from one system to another through dimensional homogeneity

o It is a step towards dimensional analysis

o Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle

o Where waves are likely to be formed on surface

o Where fluids of different densities flow over one another

Three rule are followed to select variable for dimensionless analysis

23. What is meant by the term distorted model?

24. What are distorted models?

25. Define Reynolds model law.

26. What is meant by repeating variables?

The choice of repeating variable if governed by the following consideration

27. Enlist the advantages of dimensional analysis in fluids mechanics.

28. Define scale ratio?

It is ratio of linear dimension of prototype to linear dimension of model

29. Write the dimensions of discharge and Torque.

Discharge = Area X Velocity = L2 X L/T =L3/T = L3/T-1

Torque = Force X (D/2) = Mass X Acceleration X L = M X (L/T2) X L = ML2T-2

30. Write the advantages of distorted model?

o The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately

o The cost of the model can be reduced