Secondary School Curriculum &

Instruction (PGDT-413)
By : Temesgen Yadeta
(M.A –Assistance Professor)
 Part I: Curriculum Component

Unit One: Introductory Remarks on Curriculum

1.1. The Concept, Scope and Types of Curriculum
Activity ( First try individually and then discuss in pair 7‟)
1/ What is curriculum to you? Define in your own words?
2/ Have you defined curriculum in the same way with your friend? Why?
3/Why do you need to study about curriculum as a teacher?
4/ What do you think is the scope of Curriculum?
5/ Is there relationship between curriculum and instruction? How/why?
6/ Explain the types of Curriculum that you know?
7/ Is there relationship between curriculum and a teacher? How/Why?
 The Concept of Curriculum
Curriculum
 Latin root of the word "currere", which means, "to run" as in to run a race course.
 the course / path that students have to run to finish the "race".
 all the activities which students need to do if they are to finish a program of study and
achieve the intended learning goals.
Broad definitions`
 A plan for action or a written document that includes strategies for achieving desired
goals or ends /Tyler, Taba/.
 A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated /Saylor/.
 An organized set of formal education and/or training intentions/ Pratt/.
 All experiences of the learners have under the guidance of school// Dewey, Caswell/
 On going experiences of children under the guidance of the school/Ragan/
 A program /the school/ offers to its students.
 What is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school.
 Everything that is planned by school personnel.
 A series of experiences undergone by learners in school.
 An individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.

3
 Specific Definitions
Curriculum refers to:

which is
a course of taught in
study. school.
a set of
subjects.
a set of
performanc
e objectives.
Curriculum
content.

a sequence of
courses.
a set of materials. a program of
studies.
 Definition Based on School Role

• Promoting students intellectual capacity.

• The collection of subjects offered to students to train the
Subject
intellectual capacity.
Center

• Means to make students shape a new social order and

lead life in it (Planning to evaluation).
Experience
center

• Enacted between students and teacher, collaboration

and reflection in a community of enquiry.
Constructivist View
 
Thus curriculum:
 in a narrow sense is subjects taught/ an outline
of the course of study/ a sequences of course of
study/ a plan for action.
 broadly all the experiences of learners, both
in and out school, that are directed by the
educational institution towards the
achievement of educational goals.
 a state document utilized to help students
achieve the objectives of the educational
program (acquire knowledge , form attitudes
and develop skills).
 Why we Study about Curriculum?

As a teacher, we need to know what curriculum means in order to:

– Relate education to the socio-economic, technological, political and
environmental demands of the society.
– Relate content or the body of knowledge to local setting.
– Apply the most effective and relevant teaching and learning
methodologies and materials.
– Evaluate teaching and learning processes in education system.
 The Scope of Curriculum

Curriculum scope refers to the knowledge of curriculum

development, planning and design.
Curriculum Development: concerned with how curriculum
evolved, implemented, evaluated and what various people,
process, and procedures are involved in the construction of
the curriculum.
Curriculum Planning: is the process of making the
curriculum materials after identification of objectives,
selection of contents, learning experiences, instructional
materials and evaluation mechanism.
Curriculum Design: the way one conceptualizes a
curriculum arrange its major components to provide
direction and guidance in developing the curriculum.
 Relationship between
Curriculum and Instruction
Curriculum Instruction
Which is taught  means used to teach which
is taught
Conceived as “what”  conceived as the „how”
 A program, plan, content  methods, the teaching act,
learning experience implementation, presentation

In general:
Curriculum and instruction are sub-system of a larger system
called schooling or education.
 Types of Curriculum

Intended/official

Null Operational

Types of
Curriculum Learned
Hidden

Assessed
Supported
 Types of Curriculum……
1. Intended/official curriculum:
 as written and documented in syllabi, curriculum guides,
textbooks and other printed materials.
2. Operational/taught curriculum:
 What the teacher actually teaches and the learning for which
the student is held accountable, or curriculum in use.
3. Learned curriculum:
 What students actually learn.
4. Assessed curriculum
 Which is tested or evaluated.
5. Supported curriculum
 Those resources that support and help with the
implementation of the curriculum.
 Types of curriculum……..
6. The hidden curriculum:
 the unplanned and unrecognized values that are taught and learned
through the process of education.
 lessons that schools teach children about appropriate roles and
behavior for people of different ages and sexes. It is generally non-
academic, but very important.
 is a vital necessity though it is unforeseen occurrence in the school.
E.g. home-economics, hygiene, respect, positive relationship, flag
ceremony, minor games, cultural norms, loyalty, ethics, advisement,
discipline, and school regulations.
7.The Null Curriculum
 subject matter that is not taught, and urged us to consider carefully.
 Subject matters and/or units that are considered important but non-
existent in the current school curricula.
E.g. HIV and AIDS, environmental sanitation, sex education, and gender
issue.
 Curriculum – Teachers Relationship

 Teachers and curriculum are closely related.

 On one hand, curricular documents provides teachers with information for:
• planning lessons,
• organizing students‟ and their activities,
• directing the instructional work and
• employing different instruments to measure the outcomes and
• making sensible decisions.
 On the other hand, teachers :
• translate curriculum into practice.
• investigate specific curricular weaknesses;
• develop plans for particular curriculum purposes;
• conduct curriculum research and experiments;
• evaluate the existing instructional program;
• play a vital role in the deve‟tof a new curriculum or revising the existing one,
etc.
 1.2. Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations of curriculum refers to:
 The “why” of experiences children have in the school.
 The values, traditions, forces and professional understandings which
determines what the school does.
 Basic forces that influence and shape the content and organization of
the curriculum.
 They are often referred to as the sources or determinants of the
curriculum.
 The most commonly accepted foundations of the curriculum are:
Foundations of Curriculum………

Philosophical
Foundations

Sociological Foundations Psychological

foundations of Curriculum foundations

Historical
foundations
 1.2.1. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy is:
• Love of wisdom/ search for truth or the search for knowledge.
• gives meaning to our decisions and actions.
• deals with the larger aspects of life, the problems and prospects for living and
• determines, our educational decisions, choices and alternatives.
 framework or base for organizing schools and classrooms.
 answer what schools are for, what subjects are of value, how students learn, what
method s and materials to use.
• Thus, the three main basic philosophical questions include:
– What is real? Metaphysic
– What is truth? Epistemology
– What is of value? Axiology
 There are different philosophies but, all wants the same thing of education, they wish:
• To improve the educational process
• To enhance learners‟ achievement
• To produce better and more productive citizens, and
• To improve the life of the society.
Major Philosophies Influencing Curriculum

Major Philosophies

Realism/ Pragmatism/ Existentialism

Idealism
Naturalism Experimentalism
 1. Idealism
 One of the oldest.
 Proponent: Plato, Kant, Hegel, Froebel, Butler, etc.
 mind is central element of philosophy;
 Give primacy to idea. The idealist assumes that:
 truth exist separate and apart from individual /society he lives.
 Emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as chief explanation of the
world.
 Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal.
 The world of idea and mind are permanent, regular and orderly and it
represents a perfect order.
 Eternal ideas are unalterable and timeless.
 To know is to rethink the latent ideas that are already present in the
mind.
 The teacher‟s task is to bring the latent knowledge to consciousness.
 Use rationalistic approach-deductive to problem solving.
 Idealism……..
Education:
 Purpose to transmit cultural heritage.
 Eternal process of superior adjustment of the physical and mental
developed human being to God.
Curriculum:
 prefer the order and pattern of subject matter that relates ideas and
concepts to each other.
 Is hierarchal and it constitutes the cultural heritages of humankind.
 At the top of hierarchy the most general and abstract subjects like
philosophy and theology.
 Based on learned disciplines (liberal arts)
 Revolves around ideas drawn from the past.
 2. Realism
 View the world in terms of objects and matter.
 Realism means objects exist in real world separate and apart from
the human mind and perception.
 Proponents; Aristotle T.Aquinas, Pestalozzi, Broudy, etc.
 People come to know the world through their sense and their
reason.
 Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its law.
 Universe is matter in motion.
 The real world is the physical world.
 Reality and truth emanate from both science and art.
 Use inductive method of gathering data.
 Emphasizes cause-effect relationships in the physical world.
 Realism……..
Education:
 To induct the learner into culture.
 Society and its institutions must operate in ways that are
consistent to natural laws.
 School is social agency which transmits natural laws to learners.
Curriculum:
 Consists primarily the physical and social sciences that explain
the natural phenomena.
 Acquiring of subject matter/facts encouraged.
 Consists of organized, separate subject matter, content and
knowledge that classify objects.
 View subject matter experts as a sources of authority.
 3. Pragmatism/Experimentalism

Based on change, process and relativism.

Proponents: C. Darwin, J. Dewey, W. Kilpatrick, Bode, etc.
truth is based on one‟s experiences; situational experiences
Considers knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly
changing.
Learning occurs as persons engage in problem solving.
Knowledge is considered a transaction between learner and
environment. Basic to this interaction is the notion of change.
Both the learner and environment are constantly changing as
are the experiences/interaction.
Hypothesis is used in seeking knowledge.
Both deductive and inductive methods are used.
 Pragmatism………
Education:
• a process of experiencing on the part of the learner.
• A means for reacting, controlling and directing experience.
• The goal of ed. is to aid the learner to solve his/her problems.
• Not regarded as preparation for life, rather it is considered to be an
integral part of life.
• The role of the teacher is facilitator.
• Is reconstruction and reorganization of experience.
• Learning takes place in an active way as learners, either individually
or in groups solves problems.
Curriculum:
 Emphasizes the interest of the learner than subject matter to organize
curriculum.
 The method is more important than the subject matter.
 Teaching is more exploratory than explanatory.
 4. Existentialism
 Stress individualism and personal self-fulfillment.
 Proponents: M.Greene, G.Kneller, Morris, etc.
 the world of existence, choice, and responsibility is primary.
 Personal choice is central the decision lead to personal self -definition.
Education:
• should stress individual responsibility and choice.
• is a process that originates within the self.
• The student is responsible for his/her own motivation and learning.
• The teacher‟s task is to provide learning experiences that promotes
autonomy, interaction, and choice.
 The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to possess.
Curriculum :
• avoid systematic knowledge or structured disciplines.
 Major Educational Philosophies

Educational
Philosophies

Reconstructi
Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism
onism
 A. Perennialism
 Oldest and rooted in realism.
 Proponent R. Hutchins.
 Relies on past asserted by agreed-upon, universal knowledge and
cherished values of society.
 A plea for the permanency of knowledge.
 A view of the unchanging nature of the universe, human nature,
truth, knowledge, virtue, beauty, etc.
 The goal of education is to develop the natural person and to
uncover universal truth by training the intellect.
Curriculum: Subject centered-liberal arts.
The teacher: is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge
and expertise are unquestionable.
Teaching method: based on Socratic Method.
Student‟s: mind as a sponge for absorbing knowledge.
 B. Essentialism
• Rooted in both idealism and realism.
• Proponents: Bagley, Bestor, Rickover,etc.
• School curriculum should be geared to fundamentals or
essentials.
Curriculum: Subject centered but concerned with the
contemporary scene.
Teacher‟s role: is as an authority in the field.
• The back-to-the basics focus on reading, writing and
Mathematics.
• Stress on increasing time and improving the quality of
instruction, upgrading teachers and schools analyizing
education interms of inputs and outputs.
 C. Progressivism
• Rooted in pragmatism and considered as contemporary.
• Proponents: Follette, Roosevelt, etc.
• The skills and tools of learning include problem solving
and scientific inquiry.
• Emphasize on how to think not on what to think.
Curriculum: was interdisciplinary in nature and focused
on the child as the learner .
Teacher‟s role: is guiding.
Methods: emphasized on activities and experiences rather
than competitive individualized lesson learning.
 D. Reconstructionism
• Rooted in pragmatism.
• Mainly served the individual child.
• Proponents: Fantini,
• Education for change and social reform.
• Emphasis on society centered education.
• Curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism,
• Focus on internationalism and futurisng education.
• Teacher serve as an agent of change and reform.
• Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of many
nations.
• Curriculum has to be changed with the society.
• Learning is active.
 1.2.2.Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Psychological foundations of curriculum:

 are those knowledge and understandings related to the nature of
the learner and learning process .
 strongly influence the content and arrangements of the
experiences provided for learners .
Psychology and curriculum: Psychology
 provides a basis for understanding the teaching and learning
process.
 cements the relationship between teaching and learning.
 Provides the theories and principles that influence student-
teacher behavior within the context of curriculum.
 used as a means for screening objectives.
 Major Theories of Learning as Foundations of Curriculum

1/ Mental discipline
 Known as faculty psychology.
 Mind was made up of series of faculties each of
which was related to a particular function or ability
of the mind.
Learning:
 exercising various faculties(e.g.memory,muscles,etc)
Curriculum:
 content was often chosen on the basis of how well it
will discipline and exercise the mind rather than its
value in the life of the student.
 2. Connectionism

Connectionism:
 is a theory of learning based on the connection of various elements of the
nervous system in causing behavior.
Learning:
 Was the process of formulating the neural passages or connections. Once these
connections have been established, behavior may be repeated under similar
conditions indicating that learning has occurred.
 E.Thorndike three laws
a/ The law of effect:
 Effect either strengthen or weaken connection.
b/The law of readiness:
 The tendency of the physiological neurons to operate.
c/ The law of exercise:
 Repeating or exercise strengthens connection and v-versa.
Curriculum: demand drill and repetitions.
 Experiences are selected on the basis of their securing a satisfying reaction
from the learner.
 3. Behaviorism
• Behavior was dealt with and explained in terms of observable
reactions.
• Most of their experiments dealt with the conditioned response.
Learning:
 explained as a conditioned response. Stimulus-Response
 Occurs when a particular response is desired and a stimulus is
found to produce it.
 There is much concern for reinforcement, association and habit
formation.
Curriculum:
 Drill remained a prominent method of teaching and experiences
selected were such as to produce conditioned responses.
 4. Gestalt
 Pattern which is important.
 Understanding is based upon insight.
Learning:
 is the organization of parts into meaningful whole.
 A learning situation is taken as a problem situation seeking
solutions by which the learner develops insight.
Curriculum:
 Offers the learner an opportunity to discover processes and
relationships.
 Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to
understand the importance of a specific.
 Generalities and principles are emphasized in preference to
isolated facts and meaningless drill.
 3. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum

 refers to concepts and theories of the way that groups

manifest themselves in their culture.
 analyses the relationships of individuals, groups and
institutions and their `contribution to the process and
growth of the educational system as well as established
practices in the school system.
 curriculum designer is actually dealing with cultural
value, societal needs and the learners‟ background.
Thus, cultures affect and shape the schools and their
curricula. Likewise, schools influence the cultures of
the people that the school serve. ``
``
4. Historical Foundations of Curriculum
 refers to those influence on the curriculum that are derived from the
developments in the past influencing the present.
 Form the basis for decision making and systematic growth of the educational
system.
In the prehistoric times:
 the informal type of education focused on transmitting the cultural heritage.
The Egyptians: had a form of writings, drawings and used phonetics.
The Greeks: had schools designed to serve the public good in Athens and Sparta.
The Romans: Upgraded elementary to secondary schools.
The Early Christian education:
 added philosophy and theology to earlier seven Liberal Arts .
During Renaissance:
The curriculum was based on the study of man and scientific thinking refocused.
The Scientific Sprit:
 Had view that if human kind followed reason and used the scientific method
and natural laws continued progress in this planet is possible.
 Unit Two
Curriculum Development Process and Models
2.1.Definition of Curriculum Development, Curriculum
Design and Curriculum Planning
Curriculum Development
 is more comprehensive term.
 It includes planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Curriculum Planning
 is a preliminary phase of curriculum development when the
curriculum workers make discussions and take actions to
establish the plan that teachers and students will carryout.
 It is the thinking and design phase.
Curriculum Design
 Refers to the way we conceptualize the curriculum and arrange
its major components to provide direction and guidance as we
develop the curriculum.
 2.2.Curriculum Development Models:
Types and their Assumptions
1. The objective / Ends-Means / Model
 Also known as rational, classical or technical-scientific model.
 Emphasizes fixed sequence starting from objective.
 Objective serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements.
 The two principal proponents of this model are Ralph Tyler
and Hilda Taba.
a/ The Tyler Model four basic principles:
Suggest those involved in curriculum inquiry must try to define:
1. Purposes of the school (Objectives),
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes,
3.Organiztion of these experiences and
4. Evaluation of the purposes.
 Tyler‟s Model
Setting Objectives
(Sources-Society, Learners & Subject Matter)
Screening (Philosophical &Psychological)

Selection of Learning Experiences

Organization of Learning Experiences

Evaluation
 The Taba Model: Grass root Rational
• Suggest those who teach the curriculum should participate in
developing it.
• The users of the program should design the curriculum.
• Advocate inductive and bottom-up approach in curriculum
development.
• Noted the following seven steps to the model:
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of contents
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning` activities
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation
 The Wheeler Model
• Converted Tyler‟s original ideas into cyclic form and evaluation
should take place at every stage.
• The first step is the statement of aims, goals and objectives.
A. Ultimate goals
• Are the expected outcomes expressed as patterns of categories
of behavior over time.
B. Mediate goals
• Expected behavior at given stage over ed. time.
C. Proximate goals
• Goals for shorter periods.
D. Specific objectives
• Goals for specific period.
 The Wheeler Model
1.Aims, goals
& objectives

2.Selection of
5. Evaluation learning
experience

4.Organization
and integration 3.Selection of
of learning content
experiences
 2. The Process /Means-Ends/ Model
• Developed by L. Stenhouse
• Specify content and principles of procedures than
objectives.
• The end product is not specified before hand in terms of
behavior.
• Behavioral objectives are absent.
• More concerned with teaching content.
Steps involved:
 Selection of content
 Selection of principle or procedure (learning strategies)
 Developing teaching methods and materials
 Evaluating by criteria inherent in the field of knowledge
 3.Situation Analysis /Process-Product/
School-Based Model
This model is:
 the latest/recent model of curriculum development.
 shares the idea of process model, but emphasizes meeting standards .
 puts curriculum development firmly within a contextual framework.
 teachers modify and transform learners‟ experiences in the curriculum.
 curriculum development should be based on the context where learning is
taking place including national, societal and institutional.
 Assumes institution-based curriculum development is one of the most effective
ways of promoting genuine change at institutional level .
 both close-ended and open-ended evaluations are very common.
 The stages in this model are:
1. Situation analysis
2. Goal Formulation 4. Interpretation and Implementation
3. Program building 5. Monitoring, Assessment, Feedback and Reconstruction
 4. A Hybrid Model
A hybrid model that features elements of the objective, process and situation
analysis models is made up of the following steps:
1. Diagnosis of needs /Need assessment/Situation analysis/
2. Formulation/Identifications of objectives
3. Selection of curriculum contents
4. The selection of learning experiences
5. Organization of curricular experiences (Contents and learning experiences)
6. Pilot testing
7. Revising and consolidating
8. Approval governing council
9. Use of the approved curriculum
10. Periodic review
 2.3.Curriculum Planning Process
2.3.1. Conducting Need Assessment /Situational Analysis / Diagnosis of Needs/

 Needs are the gaps between the current state and desired changes.
Whose needs to be assessed?
1.The need of the society: refers to assessing the culture, value, attitudes and norms, etc.
2.The needs of the learner: social , cultural , language and perception , cognitive, physical,
3. The needs of the subject matter: knowledge relevant to contemporary life, to the
education of the intended learner and the society.
Basic considerations in needs assessment: should be a continuing activity that takes place:
a) Before specification of curricular goal and objectives.
b) After identification of curricular goals and objectives.
c) After evaluation of instruction, and d) After evaluation of the curriculum.
Instrument of Data Collection for Need Assessment include:
Questionnaires, Interview, Public Hearings, Observation, Document Analysis, etc.
2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and
objectives

Educational Philosophy

Educational Aims

Educational Goals

General Objectives

Specific Objectives
 2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives

1. Educational Aims
• give general direction to education universally throughout the country.
• visionary statements that indicate where to go .
• answer the question “why to educate/train?”
• achieved in long time and can be divided in to several goals.
 Ends striven for education in general.
 Stated at national level. Applied to the system.
 They are of long term. E.g. dev‟t of democratic attitude.
 Very broad statements of purposes of education.
 Equated with ends, functions, and purposes..
2. Educational Goals
 Results from learning over the years.
 Stated at institutional level and across subject matters of schooling.
 of medium terms.
 defined as general program expectations.
3. Formulating educational objectives
 Indicate in more specific terms the outcomes.
 Intended educational consequences of a particular course /unit.
 Statement of intent about anticipated changes in learner at classroom level
 Criteria for setting Objectives
The following points must be kept into consideration for this :-
Matching – objectives should be related to the broad goals of
education from which they are derived.
Worth – it relates to weather attaining an objective has value in the
life of the student in the present or future.
Wording – he statements of the objectives should be worded
properly.
Appropriateness – all objects should be derived from and cater to
the needs and interests of the students.
Logical grouping – the objectives should be properly organized in a
coherent manner.
Revision – the objectives needs periodic revision because the needs,
knowledge change at a fast pace.
 2.3.3. Selection of contents and
Learning Experiences
Curriculum experiences consists of two components: Contents and learning experiences.
Curriculum content are:
 elements of information to be learned by students: concepts, facts, principles, rules, etc.

Criteria for content selection

Utility: Usefulness of the content
Relevance to life : the content should be functional to the life of the learner .
Validity : the authenticity or actual contribution of the content to stated objectives.
Learnability: optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of the
content.
Feasibility: the content in the light of the time and resources available.
Comprehensiveness: Content should have corresponding objectives.
Suitability/Appropriateness: content should be to the level of the learner.
Interest- the content should suit the personality and intellectual capabilities of the students
 Selection of learning experiences

Learning experiences refers to :

• the mental operational of students in the teaching learning
process.
• learning activities which shape the learner‟s orientation to the
content and ultimately their understanding of it.
Principles of selecting learning experiences
 that give an opportunity to the learner practice the kind of
behavior implied by the objectives
 be such that the students obtain satisfaction from carrying out
the kind of behavior implied by the objectives.
 The reactions desired in the experience must be within the range
of the students involved.
 should be as varied as the objectives they represent at
minimum.
 Curriculum Organization

Organization

Horizontal Vertical

Scope Integration Continuity Sequence

 Organization…….
Horizontal organization : describes the scope and integration of
content taught concurrently .
Scope :deals with breadth and depth of the curriculum content.
Integration: refers to the linking of all types of knowledge and
experiences contained within the curriculum plan. It
emphasizes horizontal relations among various content or
topics.
Vertical organization: describes the continuity and sequencing of
content.
Continuity: deals with the vertical repetition of curriculum
components.
Sequence emphasizes the importance of having each successive
experience builds upon the preceding one but to go more broadly
and deeply into the matter involved.
Organizing Elements: Concepts, skills and Values
 2.3.5.Curriculum Change and Implementation
A. Curriculum Change

 Any alteration in the aspect of the curriculum-

educational philosophy, values, objectives,
organizational structure, materials, teaching
strategies, assessment, etc.
 The process of curriculum change has three
phases: initiation, use and assessment.
Initiation: decisions taken in the construction of
a new or revised curriculum.
Use: implementing in relation to the intention.
Assessment: checking the degree of embedeness
or institutionalization.
 Change Typologies
(in nature and process)

• Those involved have equal power and function.

• People identify and follow precise procedure
Planned • Taken to be an ideal one.

• One group determine the goal excluding the other.

• The group in control has the major power and works to
Coercion maintain the unequal power balance.

• Mutual goal setting and fairly equal power

distribution among groups take place.
Interaction • But those involved often lack of
deliberateness.
 Change according to complexities

1.Substitution: one element is substituted for another. E.g. the

substituting a new textbook for an old one.
2.Alteration: minor change and thus be readily adopted. E.g. use
of graphing calculator in mathematics teaching.
3. Perturbations: changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust
to them within a fairly short time. E.g. the assistant principal
changes the timetable .
4. Restructuring: changes that lead to a modification of the whole
school system. E.g. the introduction of an integrated curriculum
requiring team teaching.
5. Value Orientation: shifts in the fundamental value orientations
of school personnel. E.g. if the new teachers who join the school
place more emphasis on personal growth of students than
academic performance, then the value orientations or
fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
Factors Affecting Change or Resistance to Curriculum Change

Their resistance to change can be attributed to various factors.

• Inertia: Wanting to keep things as they are is often mixed with believing that
things do not need to be changed or that change being suggested is unwise and
will thus be unproductive in meeting the objectives of the school.
• Insecurity: People feel insecure about the uncertainty of things to happen.
Those who are comfortable with the present are resistant to change .
• Rapidity of change: people resist change anticipating another change in
curriculum soon.
• Lack of knowledge: sometime people resist innovation and change either they
do not know about the innovation at all or they have little information about it.
• Lack of support: Lack of financial or time support is given to the effort. A
project for which no monies are budgeted is rarely designed to be
implemented.
Mechanisms for Improving/Increasing Receptivity to Change

• Curriculum activity must be cooperative:

 Creating sense of ownership is achieved by involving people directly and
indirectly with the major aspect of change.
• Considering the feelings, worries and concerns of people:
 Resistance to any new idea is often natural.
 Curriculum leaders should anticipate it, and should prepare procedures for
dealing with it.
• Making the people recognize that innovations are subject to change:
 A new curriculum is presented as a response to a particular time and context.
 Change is a constant, and people need to realize that all programs will be
constantly reviewed to determine if they should be continued.
• Proper timing is a key to increasing peoples‟ receptivity to an innovation:
 program addressing the need is likely to meet with success and acceptance.
 B. Curriculum implementation

 is a process of putting the developed/planned curriculum into

practice.
 is actual use of the curriculum.
 deals with the means accomplishing desired educational
objectives.
 The process is developmental and occurs at different levels.
 Focus on the extent to which actual change in practice occurs
and which influence the extent of change.
 to consider the following dimensions.
• Planning (people, program & organization) in advance,
• Communication-establishing effectively,
• Cooperation-of various individuals and groups and
• Support- financial and material.
Approaches to Curriculum of Implementation

Implementation

Mutual
Fidelity Enactment
adaptation
 Curriculum Implementation Approaches…

• determine the degree of implementation of

curricular change in relation to the planned.
• determine factors which facilitate or inhibit
implementation.
• focus on measuring the degree of curricular
change is implemented as planned.
• curricular knowledge is created by experts
1.Fidelity outside classroom.
• teachers implement the curricular change
Perspective created elsewhere as designed.
• change is conceived as rational, systematic,
and linear process.
 Curriculum Implementation Approaches…

• Curriculum knowledge is created by outside

experts but there is a room for teachers to adapt to
school or classroom context.
• Negotiation and flexibility exist b/n designers and
practitioners.
• Both the external sources of knowledge from the
teacher is also respected.
2. Mutual • Curriculum change is viewed as more unpredictable
less linear process as more active consumer at end.
Adaptation • The role of the teacher becomes more active in
shaping the curriculum to meet the demands of the
local context.
Curriculum Implementation Approaches…

• Curriculum is viewed as educational experiences

jointly created by students and teachers.
• The externally created curriculum is seen as a tool to
be used by students and teachers in creating their own
curriculum.
• Curriculum knowledge is seen as something
constructed by individual learner
Curriculum • Change is seen as a personal dev‟t process both for
teachers and students.
enactment • The role of the teacher is a curriculum developer who
together with the student create knowledge and
continuous growth for both
 2.3.6. Curriculum Evaluation
 evaluation is the process of determining the significance
or worth of programmes or procedures.
 is the process of collecting data on a programme to
determine its value or worth with the aim of deciding
whether to adopt, reject, or revise the programme.
 is a systematic process of determining whether the
curriculum as designed and implemented has produced
or is producing the intended and desired results.
Purposes of curriculum evaluation:
• to identify the weaknesses and strengths of the program.
• to improve the curriculum development process;
• to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the
returns on finance allocated.
 Types of Curriculum Evaluation
Formative evaluation:
 include those activities under taken to improve an intended program.
 data gathered informally during the development stage of the
program to modify it.
 Provides an ongoing data about learning ,methods, materials, etc.
 Uses the process of feed-back and adjustment and thus keeps the
curriculum development process open.
Summative Evaluation
 aims at getting the total picture of the quality of the produced
curriculum.
 data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum
programme using formal data gathering tools.
 enables the concerned body to make decision or draw conclusions
about how well the curriculum has worked.
 a means to certify/promote/ place students.
 Unit Three
The Ethiopian Secondary School Curriculum
3.1. Historical Overview of Education in Ethiopia
3.1.1.Traditional Education in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia has had its own long and rich educational traditions.
 The educational traditions might be viewed as indigenous and religious ones.
a. Indigenous education is :
• essentially a part of life of the society and community oriented .
• has been offered by all ethnic and linguistic groups and remains an important
transmitter of cultural identities from one generation to the next.
• aims at inculcating in children the attitudes and skills appropriate for male
and female social roles.
• emphasized the duties and privileges derived from cultural values.
• responds to the concrete problems of local communities.
• used methods such as oral instruction, symbols, stories, proverbs, singing,
imitation, dramatizing, observing, repeating, memorizing and participation.
 In general, indigenous education has played invaluable roles in preparing the
young generation for their future role in Ethiopian society.
 Religious Education in Ethiopia
1.The Ethiopian Church Education

 traced it back to the 4th century, when Christianity was introduced into the
country.
• The main purpose was to preserve all aspects of Christian values and culture.
• aimed to prepare young men for the service of church such as priests, monks,
deacons etc.
• had served as the main sources of civil servants such as judges, governors,
scribes, treasures and general administrators.
• has four stages or levels. These levels/ stages are:
 The school of reading (”Fidel/Nebab Bet”/
 The school of church Music (“Zema Bet”)
 The school of poetry (“Kene Bet”)
 The school of books (“Metshaf Bet”).
 Stage 1. The School of Reading /”Nebab/ Fidel Bet”/

 aims at enabling the learner master the Geez /Amharic letters, read different religious
texts and serve the church as “deacons”.
 the content of education include the Geez /Amharic alphabet/, and letters.
• Learning by heart or memorization is a typical method of learning.
Stage 2.The School of Church Music /”Zema Bet”/
 aims at producing persons who are well versed and specialized in the church music and
who can serve the church.
 the content includes religious songs, the arts of church dancing, drum-beating, etc.
 Rote memorization is the dominant method of learning at this level.
3. The School of Poetry /”Kene Bet”/
• aims at preparing persons who are well specialized in “kene” and serve the church.
• students are introduced to “Geez” vocabularies, grammar, and structure of language
and critics of the “kene” composition of others.
• Method of learning through discussion and argument become dominant.
Stage 4: The School of Books /”Metshaf Bet”/

• aimed at producing highly educated religious persons

who are able to teach at higher level of church educat.
• the content includes specialization in one, two, three or
four of the following areas. These are the:
Old Testament, the New Testament, Church Dogma,
Philosophy and Astronomy.
• Dogmatist method is encouraged in which reading and
translating without adding or dropping any thing to it.
• Generally speaking, Ethiopian Orthodox Church
education had a virtual monopoly on education up to
the end of 19th century.
• It had been strongly opposed the introduction of
modern education and scientific thinking of the
learners.
 2. Islamic Education in Ethiopia

1.The Mejilis /Tehaji Quran School: known as the school of reading the Quran.
• aims at enabling the learners master the Arabic letters and read the Quran.
• The contents of education comprise mastering Arabic letters / memorize prayers, etc.
• Learning by heart or rote memorization is the main method of learning.
2. The Fiqh School
• aimed at familiarizing the students with the basic principles of Muslim religion.
• The contents of education consists of learning about Muslim laws, the belief in Allah
and Quran, prayers, fasting, going to Mecca or Medina and giving alms to the poor.
3. The Nahwi School: known as the school of Arabic Grammar.
• students learn the Arabic vocabularies, grammar or structure.
• Thus, students can understand what they learn.
4. The Quran Tasfir School: students translate the Quran into vernaculars, comment on
what they have read like their teachers without adding or dropping any idea to it.
• aim to prepare persons who are highly educated and can preach the Muslim religion on
the basis of the Quran.
• Generally speaking, it has also negative influence on modern education and scientific
thinking of the learners.
 3.2: Modern Education in Ethiopia

The objective conditions that necessitated modern education in Ethiopia:

1.The formation of centralized government with its capital at Addis Ababa
2. The diplomatic relation established between Ethiopia and western countries,
3. The construction of Franco-Ethiopian railway, that linked the country with outside world.
4. The development of modern means of communication such as telephone and postal
services and
5. The arrival of foreign missionaries.
 Thus, modern education was officially commenced in 1908 with the opening of Menelik
II School in Addis Ababa.
 The historical dev‟t of modern education can be divided it into six periods. These were:
– The Period between 1908 – 1935
– The Period between 1936 – 1941
– The Period between 1942 – 1950
– The period between 1951-1974
– The Period between 1975 – 1991 and
– The Period from 1991- to date.
 History of Modern Education………..
1. The Period between 1908 – 1935
/ The Foundation Period/
 The first gov‟t school Menelik II School was opened in 1908.
 Its existence was justified on purely political grounds.
 the first teachers were from Egypt.
 Menelik II School was resembled a language institute rather than a proper school, for
French, English, Italian and Arabic were the main subjects taught in this school.
 There was no age limit for admission, but a prior knowledge of Amharic was needed.
 The second modern government school, Teferi Mekonnen School was opened in 1925.
 It was a French-Oriented school because:
• There were successions of French school directors.
• The teachers were from French and French speaking Lebanon.
• The medium of instruction was mainly French.
• The final examination for those students who completed the elementary school was from
France. For further education the students used to go France.
• The curriculum and text books were imported from France.
• in 1930 the ministry of Education and Fine Arts was established.
• in 1931 the first Girls‟ School i.e.; the “Menen” Girls‟ School was opened .
• in 1934, a teacher training school was founded in Addis Ababa.
 II. The Period Between 1936 – 1941

During this period:

 Italian occupation (1936 – 41) seriously disrupted the educational system that
had just begun to emerge.
 Government schools were either closed down or were requisitioned for military
purposes, training centers and medical centers.
 Teachers and students were dispersed.
 A high percentage of pre-war educated Ethiopians were killed.
 But after 1936, for political indoctrination, Teferi Mekonnen School and other
Italian oriented schools (1 – 4 grades) were opened.
 In these schools the Italian language (using an interpreter) and the main local
nationality languages such as Amharic, Oromigna, Tigirigna, Harari, Sidama,
Somali, Arabic (in Muslim areas), etc were used as medium of instruction.
 But eventually after five years of struggle the Italian left Ethiopia in 1941.
 III. The Period Between 1942-1950
In this period:
The ministry of Education and Fine Arts reopened.
The first Post-War school was opened in 1942. Then:
Grant was obtained to construct school from Britain.
Several British teachers come to Ethiopia.
Teaching materials including textbooks and curriculum were imported from
Britain.
The medium of instruction became English.
The London Matriculation or GCE was introduced.
The Ethiopian students were sent to Britain for further education.
The structure of the educational system was a hybrid derived from Great
Britain, a three tire system 4-4-4 (four years primary, four years of Junior
secondary and four years of senior secondary education).
• Therefore, the number of elementary, secondary and Teacher training schools
and the number of students attending schools increased until 1950.
 IV. The Period Between 1951-1974

• The American began to shape edu. through Long Term Planning Committee in 1951.
• Point Four Program and Agency for Inte Deve. and Field Service Program given.
• Higher education was introduced to Ethiopia with the foundation of the University College of
Addis Ababa in 1951, Jimma and Ambo Agricultural Colleges.
• In 1952, Alemaya Agriculture College and public health college at Gondar.
• In 1961 these institutions of higher learning together formed the Haile Sellasie I Univ.
• Grade structure was changed from 4+4+4 to 6+2+4 (6 years primary, 2 years of Junior
secondary and four years of senior secondary education).
• Reform of curriculum at the primary level (1-6) was made.
• Amharic became the medium of instruction at this level.
• For the primary schools textbooks were prepared in Amharic and
• At the primary level of education all expatriate teachers were replaced by Ethiopian teachers.
Thus, this was the first step towards the Ethiopianization of Education in the country.
• School supervision began. Self-contained classroom was piloted.
• The Education Sector Review (ESR) was officially constituted in October 1971.
• ESR made the rural population the target of educational policy. This dissatisfied the urban
population. ESR failed and the crisis of the education sector aggravated the strikes until the
overthrow of the Imperial system in September 1974 .
 V. The Period Between 1975 – 1991

Ethiopia adopted the doctrine of Marxist-Leninism philosophy.

the educational system was restructured and organized along the ideology of
the communist Government.
Thus, the government issued three aims of education. These aims were:
1. Education for production,
2. Education for socialist consciousness and
3. Education for scientific Research.
This period was noted for the following:
1.The establishment of a teachers education committee to coordinate the
curriculum of the school at various levels.
2. Curriculum development was highly favored to expand socialist ideology
3. Well known with literacy campaign conducted established in 1979.
4. Attention given to kindergarten education
 Finally, the government was overthrown in May 1991 by Front (EPRDF).
The Ethiopian Education and Training Policy (1994- to date)

Relevance
Equity

Efficiency Key Problems of

Education
System

Access Quality
 Implementation Strategies
(Based on 5 general and 15 specific objectives)

Curriculum
Educational
finance Educational
structure

Edu.organ. Key
and man‟t Strategies
Educational
measurement
and
Language examination
and Teachers
education
 Part Two: General Methods of Teaching
Unit Four: The Teaching and Learning Process: Components
and Interaction

4.1: The Teaching and Learning Process

Activity 1
1. Meaning and purposes of teaching (Individual for 7‟)
What is meant by teaching to you? Define in your own words.

What do you think is/are the purpose/s of teaching ?

2. The r/p b/n teaching and Learning ( first individual and then share your idea with
your partners (10‟)

What is your conception of learning?

Is there learning without teaching? Why/not?

Can teaching necessarily result in students‟ learning?

 The Concept of Teaching

Teaching can be defined as:

 the action of a person imparting knowledge, or skill or giving instruction, the
job of a person who teaches (Moore, 2001).
 an attempt to assist students in acquiring or changing some skill, knowledge,
attitude or appreciation (Clark & Starr, 1988).
 the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning (Burton,
1963 cited in Aggarwal 1998).
 the activities that are designed and performed to produce change in student
behavior (Clark, 1970 ).
Implications
• the involvement of both the teacher and students.
• an attempt made to help the learner acquire some knowledge, attitudes, beliefs,
skills, convictions, etc.
• Therefore, a broad definition of teaching might be:
 A purposeful, planned and organized action of someone who assists others to
reach their fullest (maximum) potential in all aspects of their development-
physical, social, emotional and cognitive.
 The purpose of teaching

To:
create the potential for improvement in the life of the learner.
help students learn, think and act rationally for themselves-critically
and reflectively.
shape generations.
Learning
 is defined as a relatively permanent change or modification in the
behaviour of the learner as a result of practice or experience.
Learning is :
 the results of individual‟s interaction in an environment.
 the process of constructing knowledge, attitudes and skills with a
resultant change in behaviour.
 the ability to be aware of, work with, and change or modify our
patterns of thinking, feeling and action.
 4.2. Teaching and Learning and their Relationship

 There is an on-going interaction between teaching and learning.

 The teacher acts as a facilitator in students learning.
 Teaching is a vital to:
 make learning productive, more focused, relevant and
applicable.
• Learning is the goal of teaching. Teaching, therefore, can be
thought of as a process that facilitates learning.
• In this process, the teacher is who will widen, deepen and
contextualize the learning in the process.
• Hence, teaching and learning are closely interlinked.
• Teaching-learning process is a planned interaction between the
teacher and the learner so as to promote behavioural change.
 Teaching -Learning Process

Teacher

Subject Learner
 4.4. The Requirement of Effective Teaching /
Qualities of an Effective Teacher

Subject
matter Pedagogical
Personality skills related

Effective
Systematic and
Teacher Student-
continuous centred
assessment teaching
Communication
skills
Qualities of an Effective Teacher Related to:

Subject matter related qualities

• possesses thorough knowledge of subject matter;
• goes further than the standard textbook materials ,
• researches and develops important and original
thoughts ,
• thinks about the discipline, and evaluating its
quality;
• follows regularly intellectual developments in the
discipline ,
• takes strong interest in broader issues, and is
intellectually ,
Qualities of an Effective Teacher..........

Pedagogical skills related qualities

• carefully plans the lesson by considering the nature of SM,L
• sets appropriate learning objectives and communicates them
• select appropriate, content, methods, materials, assess. etc.
• demonstrates a positive attitude toward and trust in students
• evaluates and grades student work fairly and promptly;
• encourages students to think and enhance creativity;
• guides students successfully through exploration, critical
thinking, and problem solving and promote self-discovery;
• pursues teaching and learning as scholarly activities;
• exhibits a strong sense of commitment to the academic
community in addition to personal success in the classroom;
• provides, on a regular basis, constructive and objective
feedback to students;
• finds unique and creative ways to strengthen students‟
relationship.
Qualities of an Effective Teacher..........

Student-centred teaching related qualities

• makes student learning the highest priority;
• experiments willingly to affect student learning;
• strives to stimulate each student to learn through a
variety of methods and encourages and invites active
student participation;
• helps students connect learning experiences and
facilitates development of self-knowledge;
understanding and application of concepts;
• instils a desire in students for life-long learning;
• inspires them to higher intellectual levels and does not
give up on students;
• connects with the life of students easily and is
understanding and personable.
• kind, sympathetic, co-operative and democratic. etc.
Qualities of an Effective Teacher..........

Communication skills related qualities

• demonstrates effective oral and written
communication;
• demonstrates good organizational abilities and
planning skills;
• helps students learn to use effective communication
skills;
• listens attentively and is available and approachable;
• utilizes teaching tools appropriately and effectively;
• simplifies and clarifies complex contents that result
in provocative insights;
• clear while presenting the lesson using clear and
understandable vocabulary.
Qualities of an Effective Teacher..........

Systematic and continuous assessment related qualities

• uses appropriate assessments to continuously improve
student learning experiences ;
• employs a systematic approach to assess teaching, and
sets clear objectives ;
• creates an environment that invites constructive student
feedback to the instructor;
• adapts teaching style to accomplish the objectives of
successful student learning;
• recognizes own limitations and shortcomings, confronts
and learns from them;
• advocates learning over testing, etc.
 Qualities of an Effective Teacher..........

Good physical health and personal hygiene,

Emotional stability and self control,
Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness
Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, sincerity
Sympathy, kindness helpfulness, patience,
and diligence,
Fairness, impartiality, tolerance, patience,
Sociability, friendliness , cooperativeness
 4.5. Responsibilities of the Teacher
Responsibilities are obligations or duties to be performed by an individual in a
socially acceptable way.

Acquainting oneself Participate in Directing the

with the rules and curriculum classroom
regulation of the school development instructional
and working activities
accordingly

Participating Participate in
in community curriculum
affairs Teacher development

Using research Leading extra-

finding and curricular
local resources activities
Providing
guidance
services
4.6: Ethical Qualities of Teachers in the Ethiopian Context
Professional codes of ethics are defined as the moral responsibility and obligation by
professionals to follow a code of conduct that ensures the safety, integrity and
honesty of services provided to the population.

Students

Community
Association
Teachers
Professional
Ethics
Profession Parents

Colleagues
 Unit Five: Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching
5.1. Principles of Teaching: Definition, Characteristics &
Major Principles

• Principles of teaching are generalized statements that serve as

regulations or guides for the instructional activities of the teacher
Meaning

• investigates the general regularities of teaching and learning.

• elaborates objectives, contents, principles, organizational forms and
methods of instruction.
Purposes • produces a reliable scientific basis for instructional work of the teacher.
• contributes to the elaboration of syllabi and educational programmes.
• Universal: applicable and valid in teaching all subjects at all
levels of school system.
• Essential: applicable in all aspects of instructional process.
Characteristics • Compulsory: help to attain the instructional objectives
effectively and efficiently.
• Socially determined: results of long years of life activities.
Major Basic Principles of Teaching

1. Planning lessons in line with curriculum

• study the curriculum material thoroughly,
• plan and carry out instruction according to the syllabus,
• define clearly the objectives of the lesson,
• make clear arrangements of ‟ activities,
• identify necessary teaching materials, evaluation techniques,
• be aware of the time allocated.

2. Defining objectives of the lesson

• objectives of the instruction must be clearly told to
students.
• it keeps the teacher and the students on truck.
• It also makes them motivated and exerts all their
energy to attain objectives.
Principles of Teaching…….

3. Making the lessons understandable; to proceed

from:
• known to the unknown.
• simple to complex.
• easy to difficult.
• concrete to abstract.
• immediate to the remote.
4. Integration of learning experiences in d/f subject
areas
• related to the horizontal r/ps among different subjects
included at a certain grade level.
• show the close r/ps b/n d/f subjects and try to exploit the
students‟ experiences, developed through other subject (s).
• facilities understanding in depth, association, transfer and
application of what is learned.
Principles of Teaching…….

5. Connecting school learning activities to social life

• relating school activities to actual life outside of the school.
• enable students productive economically, responsible
socially, stable emotionally, active politically and culturally.
• lessons need to unite the theoretical to the practical activitis.
• lessons should enable the students to be independent.
• connect the lesson to d/f areas of social life, and students‟
individual experiences in everyday life in the family, at
school, in the community .

6. Verbalization in instruction
• stating of what is learned in one‟s own words.
• students must be encouraged to talk on the issue.
• it gives a chance to retain what is learned for a longer period.
• encourage students to define, explain, or elaborate in their
own words .
• to think logically, draw generalization & conclusion.
 Principles of Teaching…….

7. Utilization of material that appeals to the different senses

 the beginning of knowledge is sense perception ( gateway of knowledge and skills).
 teachers need to combine the verbal and visual (audio-visual) and those ways that can be
learned through other sense organs.
 Thus, the more the teacher uses different teaching aids, which appeal to different senses
the better is the opportunity to the learners to acquire knowledge, develop skills and
values with a minimum of time and energy.
8. The principle of inter dependence/co-operation
 knowledge is essentially a social product (outcome of collective effort).
 Sharing and an exchange of learning experiences, skills and outlooks are possible
through interdependence or co-operation.
 to promote interdependence, participation in group work, classroom discussion and
teaching learning process are recommended.
 The application of this principle is by the use of different grouping methods. These are:
 Arbitrary (random) grouping: ( without considering their interest, talent and ability).
• Compatibility grouping: groupings who like working (enjoying) together are grouped.
• Ability grouping: (on the base of performance. It enables to learn in their own pace.)
• Mixed ability grouping or group dynamics: consists of student‟s from each ability level.
 5.2.Methods of Teaching:
Definition,ClassificationandCriterea of Selection

Teaching methods are:

• are educational means or ways by which the teacher attempts to
bring about the desired learning.
• “how” of the lesson delivery. The way teachers organize and use
subject matter and teaching materials to meet the intended
objectives.
• a means by which the teacher assists the learner to acquire
knowledge, develop skills, form attitudes, values, etc.
• denote the way teachers organize and use subject matter and
teaching materials to meet the intended objectives.

Importance : Teaching methods provide opportunities for:

• both the teacher and students to work on the content so as to
achieve the intended educational objectives
• students‟ participation in learning activities
• students‟ to apply practically the knowledge and skills acquired
• stimulate students‟ interest in learning in an efficient manner
• students‟ learning by doing, observation, experimentation and
cooperation;
 Classification of Teaching Methods

Teaching
Methods

Teacher Centered Student Centered

discussion, Project,
Lecture, Demonstration, etc role playing, problem
solving, etc
 Teacher vs Student Centered Method

Teacher Control

Student Autonomy

Lecture Independent Study

(Teacher Centred) (Student Centred)
 Teacher Vs Learner Centered…..

Contrasting ideas Teacher-centered Learner-centered

Approach Traditional approach . Progressive approach.
Assumption knowledgeable expert. Science and art of teaching
Emphasis on the teacher. on the students.
size of material covered, meaningfulness of the material.
Source of teacher. combined efforts of both.
knowledge
Assessment by the teacher alone Students participate.
Assessment product oriented process oriented.
functions
Assessment criteria norm referenced. criterion referenced
Communication one- way communication two-way process
Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic
 Nature and characteristics of Teacher Centered Methods
• the most traditional types of teaching methods
• teacher is the centre of most of classroom activities.
• teacher is assumed to be primary source of all knowledge.
• the teacher „chalk and talk‟ dominates.
Nature • teaching is taken as “filling in the minds” of the learner with knowledge.
• students are passive listeners and observers.
• It is possible to transfer a lot of information in short period of time.
• It is effective for teaching those aspects of any subject in which the
information is well-structured and can be taught in a step-by-step fashion.
Merit • It is effective when teaching new concepts for large group of students.
• It is well known among most teachers.

• The approach is teacher oriented. Thus, students remain passive.

• It is not appropriate for teaching higher level of cognitive and affective
learning outcomes.
Demerit • Not suitable to enhance creativity, problem solving and learning by doing.
• The effective utilization of the methods highly dependent on the skill and
ability of the teacher.
 Nature and characteristics of learner-centered
teaching methods
• Involve students actively.
• It enhances democratic teacher-students relationships.
• Knowledge is the combined efforts of the teacher and the students.
• Under the guidance of the teacher, the students engage in problem solving, critical thinking,
Nature and inquiry skills.
• The learning environment is open, dynamic, trusting, respectful, and promote students‟
learning styles
• Students learn how to learn.
• Takes into account diverse learning needs of students.
• Connecting the lesson with students‟ lives.
• Strengthens student motivation.
• Promotes peer communication.
Merit • Promotes discovery/active learning.
• Increases responsibility for one‟s own learning.
• Enhances recognition of interdisciplinary knowledge.
• Promote lifelong learning.
• Requires very high students‟ commitment.
Demerit • It is challenging for less experienced teachers.
• In those subjects of practical nature, the availability of materials and equipment may limit
the effective application of the methods.
Examples of Learner Centered Methods

problem
solving
etc discovery

Field Learner
trip Project
Centered

Role
playing Discussion
independent
study
 5.3. Major Active Methods
Active learning refers to :
 any teaching methods that engage students in the learning process; to do
meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing.
 an investment of a significant amount of mental energy and a high level of
psychological involvement in the learning process.
 techniques where students do more than simply listen to a lecture. Students
are doing something including discovering, processing, applying, or problem
solving that promotes analysis, synthesis evaluation of the content.
 the active involvement of the learner on different learning tasks with in and
out of the classroom such as group work, role play and drama, projects
discussion, field visit problem solving etc.
 a social process that emphasizes on the process of collaborating and the
exchanging of ideas, knowledge, experiences, skills, values and attitudes.

 Active learning encompasses all strategies promoting activities that involve

students directly and actively in the learning process itself; in doing things and
thinking about what, why, how, they are doing.
 Elements of ALM

Input Process Out put

(from many (making
sources (interacting
through the with people students
senses and produce a
(seeing , materials, response
hearing, stimulating
feeling, brain or
smell, taste, activity). solution).
etc).
 Importance of Active Learning
Active learning:
encourage higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) and provides a
means for the learner to assimilate, apply, and retain learning.
promotes the development of students‟ skills in thinking and writing.
empower students to take primary responsibility and accountability for their L.
enhance learning by doing, ability to think, to apply and to discover.
give the learner feedback on their incomplete understandings and encourage.
give the teacher feedback on which learners understand, and who needs help.
develop thinking skills such as analysis, discovery, problem solving, and
evaluation.
allows room for all students‟ voices to be heard through discussions and
presentations.
provides a template for learning, and learning to learn.
enables students to be resources for each other through paired and group activity,
etc.
 Types of Active Learning Methods

Pair
Reflection works Pyramiding
Ice breaker or
warmer Crossover
energizer group
Evaluation
of lesson Cooperative

ALM learning

Peer Case
assessment study

Ranking
Self assessment tasks
Story Drama
telling
 Selecting teaching Methods ……

Objectives
Conditions intended
The nature of
(facilities) of the specific subject
school and matter content
concrete (discipline)
classroom
situation
Criteria
Nature of the
Teacher‟s learner
personality (interests, needs,
abilities, etc.)
Unit Six: Planning Lessons, Organization and
Management of Classrooms
6.1. The Need for Instructional Planning
Meaning
• Instructional planning is a process of putting and
organizing the objectives, contents, methods,
materials, assessment techniques and time into
some sort of order for future use.
 Importance of Instructional Planning

• a) Benefits of instructional planning to the teacher to:

– think clearly and specifically about the objectives of a particular lesson;
– encourages more deliberate instructional decision-making;
– produce well – organized activities and a purposeful class atmosphere ;
– delimit the activities of the teacher and learners ;
– reduce wastage of time, money, material and energy by making lessons
systematic, orderly, purposeful, direct and economical;
– organize and systematize the teaching and learning process;
– avoid unnecessary repetition and restlessness of the learners;
– think out new ways and means of making the lesson interesting;
– select appropriate methods of teaching and instructional materials;
– use as future references, to reinforce strengths and improve the
weaknesses,
– think about the structure and content of the lesson.
 b) Benefits of instructional planning to the school administrator

obtain evidence of teacher‟s ability to prepare and guided by teaching plan, for the teacher‟s
decisions should be reflected in his/her plans.
evaluate how well a teacher can prepare and implement a plan in actual teaching situations,
use a plan as a guide for substitute when teachers are absent.
serves as evidence to be documented to evaluate teacher‟s teaching performances, etc.
c) Benefits of instructional planning to the students
• provides an opportunity to interact with the material to be learned;
• provides a systematic or structured learning environment
• provides an idea of what they are expected to learn and retain;
• makes students feel confident by what they do and what their teachers do;
• promotes learning for it entails the teacher to take into account the diverse background,
interests, abilities, etc of students while planning;
• helps to attract and maintain students attention and facilitate learning and satisfaction;
• serves as a communication tool between the teacher and the students.
• keeps the class purposely focused, thereby making efficient use of the available time.
• As a whole, instructional plans are the guides for instructional work of all teachers. Teachers
use these guides to make use of the contents, methods, materials, time and assessment
strategies to achieve the intended instructional objectives. Plans are not self - achieving. They
are always guides for actions to attain the intended objectives. Teachers are planners and
practitioners.
Basic Questions in Instructional Planning

Why to
How to assess teach? Whom to
the change? teach?

How much
Basic
Questions What to
to teach? teach?
in Lesson
Planning

When to How to
teach? teach?
Where to
teach?
 Sources of Instructional Planning

Compulsory Materials Recommended but not obligatory

materials
Curriculum Subject related literature
Syllabus Notes taken from personal experience in
teaching
Teacher’s guide Experiences of Colleagues / Fellow
Teachers
Students’ textbooks
Academic calendar of the year
Declarations of education
Directives given for the academic year
Working plan and timetable of the school
6.2. The Lesson Planning Activities at Different Levels

Hierarchal organizational structure of instructional planning

Policy Planning

Curriculum Planning

Syllabus Planning

Annual / Yearly Instructional Planning

Unit Instructional Planning

Daily Lesson /Instructional Planning

 I) Course/Subject/Annual / Instructional Plan

indicates what the teacher is going to do in that academic year.

helps to get a survey of objectives, contents, methods, materials, evaluation mechanism
and time allocated for a given subject in that academic year.
shows the two semesters within an academic year of the school.
is the framework for the unit and daily lesson plans.
helps to make decisions about where to focus resources and energy.
II. Unit /Monthly Instructional Plan
• A unit is a series of intended learning activities and experience unified around the topic,
theme, or major concepts.
• further breaks down the annual instructional plan
• The contents are drawn from the basic guidelines and the annual plan by considering the
specific conditions of the concrete class.
• links the long term (yearly) plan to the more functional daily lesson plan.
• a well-constructed unit should include the following sections
1. A topic 2. objectives 3. Content outline 4. Learning activities 5. Resource and materials
6. Evaluation
 III. Lesson Plan/ Daily Instructional Plan

A lesson plan is:

a short, specific, detailed, carefully developed and, usually written outline
which contains information on the teaching objectives, contents, activities,
materials, and assessment for each period.
shows what a teacher does within a single period.
A lesson is a short period of instruction devoted to specific topic, skill or idea.
As a rule a lesson lasts between 10 to 60 minutes.
The teacher draws the contents of the lesson plan from the unit plan.
It is designed to help the teacher achieve the objectives of a specific lesson.
An extremely useful tool that serves as a combination of guide, resource and
document for the instructional work of the teacher.
Lesson plan is the end point of many other stages of planning that culminate in
a daily lesson. Thus, it should be carefully prepared.
 Characteristics of a good lesson plan

It should be written
It should have clear objectives.
It should be linked with the previously knowledge.
It should show technique of teaching.
It should show the illustrative aids.
It should contain suitably organized subject matter.
It should take into consideration the participation of students.
It should show time of implementation.
It should be flexible.
It should include the summary/ stablization.
It should include assignments for students
It should contain list of reference materials.
Major Components of Instructional Planning

Objectives
Time
Contents

Instructional
Planning

Evaluation Methods

Materials
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
1. Cognitive Domain
Evaluation
Make qualitative
and quantitative
decision or
judgment using
specific criteria or
Synthesis
rational
Combine elements to form
new entity from the
original one
Analysis
Breaking down materials into its
component parts.
Application
Independently apply the knowledge or skills
learned or use information in new situation

Comprehension
Translate or interpret, summarizes prior learning.
Knowledge
Recall or recognize information, usually in the same way it was
learned.
 Taxonomy....
2. Affective Domain
Characterization
Integrating consistent behaviour
as a naturalized value. The value
is recognized as a part of the
person‟s character.

Organizing
Committed to a set of values as
displayed by behaviour

Valuing
Recognizing value and displaying this through
involvement or commitment.

Responding
Exhibiting a reaction or change as a result of exposure to
an attitude, behaviour, or value.

Receiving
Become aware of an attitude, behaviour, or value
 Taxonomy....
3. Psychomotor Domain
Naturalization
Complete one or
more skills with easy
and automatic
Articulation
Combine one or more skills
in sequence in harmony
and consistency

Precision
Reproduce skill with accuracy and
exactness

Manipulation
Perform skill according to instruction rather than
observation

Imitation
Observe skill and tries to repeat it
 Implications of the taxonomy of educational objectives to
lesson plans

• Objectives serve as the key tool for evaluating the teacher himself/herself and students‟
success on a daily basis. In instructional planning:
• Seeking the right balance in the objectives of the three domains is the key for students‟
overall personality development.
• General objectives are broad concepts, skills, and attitudes usually used n the yearly
instructional plan (know, understand, recognize, appreciate, etc).
• Specific objectives are specific, observable and measurable and commonly used in the
daily lesson plans (name, define, explain, list, distinguish, identify, describe, mention etc.).
• Both general and specific objectives are used in unit planning.
• As the students have already demonstrated a certain level of proficiency in lower levels
of each domain, keep moving them up to higher level in the taxonomy.
• Consider the age/developmental level of the students when you frame learning
objectives.
• At all levels of planning, clearly indicate the performance, a product, the conditions and
appropriate verbs and criterion of judgement to be used in relation to the plan to be
developed.
 Objectives……..
A well stated instructional objective clearly indicates the performance, a product, the
conditions and appropriate verbs to be used in relation to the plan to be developed.
a) The performance: what students are expected to do, not what the teacher is to do
Example: At the end of the year / Up on completion of the course students will be able to:
b) The product: is what students will produce by their action. It is this product which will be
evaluated to determine whether the objective has been achieved.
Example: At the end of the year students will be able to understand the importance of
instructional planning.
c) The conditions/Time: under which the students perform the intended action.
Example: Up on completion of the course students will be able to:
d) The verbs to be used: in annual : know, understand, recognize, etc. which are open,
broad and general.
 In the daily lesson plan verbs are specific, measurable and observable (name, define,
explain, list, distinguish, etc.).
Example: At the end of the course students will be able to understand the importance of
instructional planning.
 Different Formats of Lesson Planning
1. Annual Lesson Planning
• Annual/Yearly Instructional Plan Format
• Name of the School_______________Total number of school
days in the academic year_______
• Academic Year__________________ Periods allotted to the
subject in the week____________
• Name of the teacher______________ Periods allotted to the
subject in the year ______________
• Subject____________________
• Grade______________________
Main Remark
Semes Month Week General Contents Teaching Teaching Evalu.
ter Objective and Sub- Methods Materials Techn.
contents
 2. Unit Instructional Plan Format

Name of the school________________________________

Subject__________________________________
Grade___________________________________
Name of the teacher________________________________
Unit title__________________________________
Period allotted____________________________________
General objectives: __________________________________
Specific objectives: __________________________________
Content outline: ____________________________________
Learner‟s activities: ____________________________________
Teacher‟s activities:_______________________________________
Instructional resources:____________________________________
Assessment strategies: ______________________________________
Teacher‟s signature_________________________Date___________________
Department head‟s comment_________________Name___________Signature______Date___
Vice Director‟s comment_________________ Name______________Signature____Date___
 3. Daily Instructional Plan Format (1)

Name of the school __ No. of students per section __

• Subject__________________________ Date _______________.
• Teacher‟s Name ____________ Length of period _____ minutes.
• Grade and section__________________ Topic of the lesson____________
• Specific Objectives: ______________________________________________
________________________________________________

Time Major Teacher‟s Students‟ Teaching Remark

Contents activity activity materials
5’ Introduction Listening Globe
20’ Presentation Participation Map
10’ Consolidation Asking
5’ Evaluation Answering
 3. Daily Instructional Plan Format (2)

• Subject: ________________ Date of lesson: _____________

• Students: male ____ female____ total ___ Grade and section ______
• Title of lesson__________________________
• Specific Learning Objectives ____________________

Teacher.s activity Time Student activity

Resources
Assessment to be used
Reflections on the lesson
Reflections on assessment
 6.3: Classroom Organization

Classroom organization:
 refers to the arrangements of classroom seats, the grouping of students for the different
activities, the preparation of different materials and equipments etc, for instruction.
 is the creation of a conducive classroom environment for instruction and making
learning easier.
 is a deliberate creation of the learning environments by considering the instructional
objectives and the specific activities to be done in the classroom to achieve the desired
end results.
 differ from time to time, lesson-to-lesson situation to situation, methods to be used,
instructional objectives, etc.
 In general it is conscious arrangements of the classroom in its totality to achieve the
intended instructional objectives that can be seen in terms of:
– patterns of arranging participants such as small group or whole class participation.
– the kinds of resources to be used.
– the roles and responsibilities for carrying out immediate actions and events.
– rules of appropriateness.
 6.4. Classroom management

Classroom management is :
 refers to the combined attributes such as discipline, instructional efficiency, and
organizational skills.
 a process of organizing and conducting a class so as to make instruction effective and efficient.
 managing the teaching – learning activities to get maximum students learning.
 an act of a teacher taken as preventive or curative activity to achieve the intended objectives
of instruction.
 the issue of establishing and maintaining order in the classroom. Thus, effective classroom
management requires:
i) Careful planning: helpful to provide students with pleasant and supportive climate .
ii) Conducting the class: so as to enhance students‟ desires and interests to learn and achieve.
iii) Monitoring: establishing control and avoiding disciplinary disturbances and promoting
effective students‟ learning.
• Thus, the essence of classroom management is establishing an effective co-
operative classroom system and successful handling of the human behavior
problems during instructional process. Its major goal is to enable students self
management and control so as to optimize their learning.
•
 Causes of Students‟ Misbehavior

Misbehaviors / inappropriate behaviors is :

 behavior that do not confirm to norms of acceptable social conduct.
 an act of a student that violates the established rules or that disrupts the
normal teaching and learning process.
 causes physical or psychological harm to other students, violate established
rules of order, or are disruptive of the learning process of other students.
 Misbehavior is an act of a student that violates the established rules or any act
of a student that disrupts the normal teaching and learning process.
• The major causes of student‟s misbehavior might be related to one or more of
the following.
 Major causes of student‟s misbehavior

A. Teacher related
– Poor teaching:
– Failure to set the right task
– Failure to enforce the rules set
B. Student related
– lack of interest in learning & in a particular subject,
– dislike to teachers,
– attention seeking,
– ignorance of the classroom rules,
– unpleasant peer relations,
– emotional upset, and
– bad physical condition
 Causes of student‟s misbehavior…………

C. Home related
– Unsettled or disruptive family affairs
– broken families,
– Child upbringing style
D. School related
• lack of resources,
• class size,
• conflicting rules
 6.5. Classroom management approaches

a) The Authoritarian classroom management approach

This is an approach in which students behaviors are totally controlled by the teacher placing
his/ her greater roles on the students by the following strategies.
• Establishing and enforcing rules and issuing commands, directives and orders;
• Utilizing mild desists and utilizing proximity control and
• Utilizing isolation and exclusion and establishing and enforcing rules.
b) The permissive classroom management approach
• This approach maximizes students‟ freedom.
• The teacher allows students to do what they want whenever and whatever they want.
• The role of the teachers is to promote the freedom of students and thereby foster their
natural development.
• It helps students develop self- directions, self-discipline and self- responsibility if
students are made free physically and psychologically.
 Classroom management approaches………

c) The Cookbook classroom management approach

• It provides descriptions of lists of things a teacher should or should not.
• There will be lists of “do‟s and “don‟ts.
• For example always reprimand student in private, be firm and fair, etc.
d) The Instructional classroom management approach
• carefully designed and implemented instruction will prevent problem.
• It argues that effective management is the result of high quality instructional planning.
Therefore, a teacher needs to plan his/ her lesson by considering the needs, interests, etc. of
students. It plays both preventing and solving managerial problem.
e) Creating a positive social - emotional environment in the classroom
It is an approach which assumes:
• learning is maximized in a positive classroom climate, which, in turn, stems from positive
interpersonal relationship.
• Thus, both teacher-student and need to create friendly classroom atmosphere.
• instruction takes place within a group context.
• the nature and behavior of the classroom group are viewed as having significant effects on
learning.
• the role of the teacher is to foster the development and operation of an effective classroom
group.
 6.6. Classroom Management Techniques

The Preventative Techniques Curative Techniques

measures to be taken before taken on the spot or after the
misbehaviors occur in a classroom misbehaviors are observed.
Based on prevention is better than cure. to minimize the disruptive effects of
inappropriate behavior and save time.
Some of the techniques include Some of the techniques include:
a) The provision of freedom: a). Closing- in or proximity physically
b) Sharing responsibilities b) Touch and signal
c) Discipline/ reasonable controls c) Humor
d) The prevision of incentive: d) Ignoring
e) Establishing classroom rules e) Eye- contact
f) Explaining procedures: f) Out of sight techniques
g) Making teaching effective: g) Separating misbehaving students
h) Establishing and maintaining good h) Open discussion
interpersonal relationship i) i) Restructuring
 THE
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