(ORGANELLES & CELLULAR STRUCTURES) H1 BIO NOTES

1. Cell types → Eukaryotes & prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

Means ‘True nucleus’, incl all flora & fauna, fungi & Means ‘Before the nucleus’, incl bacteria.

protists. (Algae) Eukaryotic cell posessess true Prokaryotic cell lacks a true nucleus. Genetic

nucleus containing genetic materials enclosed material is a circular DNA molc that’s not

within nuclear envelope. Also has membrane membrane bound but lies freely in cytoplasm in a

bound organelles. region called nucleoid. Doesn’t have membrane

bound organelles.

10 - 100 μm in diameter (Usually) 1 - 10 μm in diameter (Usually)

● Size → Extremely small & ranges from 5 - 500 μm. Size is restricted due to SA:VOL. Vol determines

level of metabolic activity while SA determines rate of exchange of materials with extracellular env.

● SI-derived units for length

● Unicellular organism → Cnsts only of 1 cell. Independent as it can manufacture all necessary

chemicals & perform functions for maintenance of life within 1 cell. E.G, Amoeba & bacteria.

● Hierarchy (Organisation of cells)

Unspecialised cells → Specialised cells → Tissue → Organ → Systems

● Microscopy → Resolution, a term used to refer to the clarity of the viewed object.

● Electron microscope → Provides magnification of over x100 000 & resolution.

● Cell fractionation → Used to separate & isolate (Fractionate) cell components based on size &

density.

- Homogenisation → Intact cells are disrupted in a blender to break them up & resulting mixture

(Homogenate) is centrifuged.

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 - Differential centrifugation → Homogenate is placed into centrifuge. Supernatant (Liquid above

pellet) is poured into another tube & centrifuged at a higher speed for a longer period. The process

is repeated several times.

Centrifuge setting Time/min Organelle to separate out in pellet

(g)

800 - 1000 5 - 10 Nucleus, cell debris

20 000 15 - 20 Chloroplasts, mitochondria, lysosomes

100 000 60 Fragments of ER, C.S.M

150 000 180 Ribosomes

● Importance → Enables researchers to prepare specific cell components in bulk & identify their

functions.

2. Functions of membrane systems & organelles

● Compartmentalization → Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized by single/double membranes.

Organelles in cytoplasm are known as compartments.

● Advantages of being compartmentalized

Mobility Organelles with their contents can be moved around within the cell

pH pH can be maintained at an ideal level for a particular process which may be diff

to levels needed for other processes in a cell

Conc. of E & S [S] & [E] for a particular process in a particular location. (Within organelles) ∴, ↑

rate of rxn

Protection Subst that could cause damage to the cell can be kept inside the membrane of

organelle. Digestive enzymes of lysosome can digest & kill cell if not safely

stored inside lysosome membrane

● Organelles

Organelle Structure Function

C.S.M Made up of phospholipids arranged Acts as a boundary within cytoplasm &

into a lipid bilayer in which proteins extracellular env

are embedded

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 Selectively permeable Regulates movement of molecules into &

out of cell, prevents charged ions & polar

molcs from diffusing across the membrane

Nucleus Has a double membrane called Controls cell activities; DNA replication,

nuclear envelope gene expression, nuclear division etc.

Nucleoplasm, fluid-like space within

DNA contains genes & hereditary info. ∴,
the nucleus contains DNA, RNA &
allows certain traits to be passed to the next
associated proteins & enzymes
gen
needed for DNA replication &

transcription
DNA often occurs as chromosomes. Apart

DNA containing ribosomal RNA from nuclear division, DNA is in the form of

genes clustered together to form chromatin

nucleolus (DNA associates with proteins called

histones to form chromatin)

Euchromatin (Less condensed) is usually

transcribed while heterochromatin (Highly

condensed) is darkly stained & not

transcribed since it’s compact

Chromatin condenses to chromosomes

during nuclear division

Nuclear It’s a double membrane & surrounds Enables compartmentalization of eukaryotic

envelope
the nucleus. Outer membrane is DNA. ∴, DNA can carry out its processes

continuous with RER while inner w/o being affected by other processes

occurring in other parts of the cell

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 membrane is smooth & in contact

with nucleoplasm

Has numerous nuclear pores (40 - Controls transport of large molcs such as

100 nm) mRNA out of the nucleus into cytoplasm for

translation & ribosomal proteins into

nucleus. Also prevents DNA from being

transported out of nucleus

Nucleolus Tiny, rounded & darkly-stained struc Site where rRNA is synthesised via

transcription of rRNA gene & where

ribosomal subunits are assembled by

associating rRNA & ribosomal proteins

● Endomembrane system → System of internal membranes within eukaryotic cells. Membranes are

related through direct physical continuity or by transfer of membrane segments as vesicles . ∴,

involved in protein & lipid synthesis & transport.

● Organelles that are part of the endomembrane system → ER, G.A, vesicles, lysosomes, C.S.M,

Outer membrane of nuclear envelope.

● ER → Extensive network of folded membranes formed into sheets, tubes or sacs that are

interconnected. Its membrane is enclosed to form cisternae of ER. Originates from the outer

membrane of the nuclear envelope & continuous with it.

Organelle Structure Function

RER Cisternae usually flattened & have Membrane-bound ribosomes are the

ribosomes bounds to its membrane site of synthesis of proteins used for

transport to other parts of cell via

vesicles

Presence of various proteins Channel proteins provide binding sites

embedded for ribosomes to dock & synthesise

polypeptides directly into cisternae

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 Chaperon proteins in cisternae helps in

the correct folding of newly synthesised

polypeptides

Enzymes involved in glycosylation of

proteins to form glycoproteins

SER Cisternae is more tubular & no Synthesises & transports membrane

ribosomes bound to its membrane phospholipids, cellular lipids & steroid

hormones (Oestrogen & testosterone)

Detoxification of drugs in liver cells via

chem modification

(By addition of OH grps)

Storage of Ca²⁺ in muscle cells that are

needed for muscular contraction

Helps liver to carry out metabolism of

carbs

G.A Cnsts of flattened membrane bound Identification tags such as PO₄³⁻ grps &

sacs called cisternae which are stacked oligosaccharides are chemically added

to proteins & lipids. ∴, can be sorted &

Cnst of cis face (Nearest to nucleus & directed to appropriate parts of cell,

ER) → Vesicles from ER fuse with G.A @ forming glycoproteins & glycolipids

cis face to add to its membrane & (Glycolsylation & phosphorylation)

deposit contents

Forms lysosomes (Vesicles containing

Cnst of trans face (Nearest to C.S.M) hydrolytic enzymes)

Replace C.S.M lost via endocytosis &

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 → Vesicles bud off from trans face of exocytosis

G.A which may move to C.S.M to

secrete contents out of cell Synthesis of plant polysaccharides

(Pectins, used for cell wall synthesis etc.)

Lysosomes TIny spherical vesicles bound by a Carry out intracellular hydrolysis of

single membrane (0.2 μm to 0.5μm) biomolecules via action of hydrolytic

enzymes which catalyse hydrolysis of

Contain a conc mixture of hydrolytic proteins, nucleic acids, lipids & carbs

enzymes (Produced by RER & G.A)

Fuse with old or damaged organelles to

Interior env is acidic. Necessary for break them down. ∴, recycle the

enzymes to function components (Autophagy)

Involved in the breakdown of materials

brought into cell by phagocytosis

● Autophagy

- Vesicle encapsulates organelle, forming autophagosome.

- Lysosome fuse with autophagosome, releasing its hydrolytic enzyme into it.

- Hydrolytic enzymes hydrolyse content of the autophagosome to recycle the components.

● Relationship of ER with G.A

- ER, G.A, C.S.M, ER transport vesicles & Golgi secretory vesicles are involved in the secretory

pathway.

- Ribosomes translate mRNA to form a short signal peptide that binds to signal recognition particles.

(SRP) SRP is a class of protein that’s complementary to the signal peptide.

- Complementary binding of SRP to SRP receptor on ER membrane allows ribosomes to dock onto

ER membrane.

- Ribosome continues with translation & polypeptide is synthesised into cisternae of ER.

- Polypeptide is folded into its specific 3D config with the help of chaperon proteins.

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- Proteins are packaged into ER vesicles & buds off from the ER membrane.

- ER vesicles transport proteins to G.A & fuses with its cis face to release protein into cisternae of G.A.

- Proteins continue to move to the opp side. (Trans face) During this transition, identification tags such

as phosphate grps are chemically added to the protein so that they can be sorted & directed to the

appropriate parts of the cell, forming glycoproteins via process of glycosylation.

- Modified proteins reach the trans face & are packaged into Golgi secretory vesicles for export via

exocytosis at C.S.M to the external cellular fluid

- Golgi secretory vesicles bud off from the trans face & enclose & transport modified proteins along

the cytoskeleton towards the C.S.M to be inserted in it. (Can be lipids too)

- Hydrolytic enzymes are packaged into primary lysosomes which remain in the cell. It will fuse with a

food vacuole or damaged organelle to form a secondary lysosome. Waste products of autophagy

are exported out of the cell via exocytosis while useful materials will be absorbed into the cell.

Organelle Structure Function

Mitochondrion Rod-shaped or cylindrical Involved in reactions such as link

reaction, Krebs cycle & oxidative

Large organelles (0.5 - 1.5 μm wide &
phosphorylation involve production of
3.0 - 10.0 μm long)
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during

Have their own DNA, circular cellular respiration

chromosome & 70S ribosomes. ∴,

gives mitochondrion independence

within cell.

(Undergoes DNA replication on its

own & express genes to produce

proteins that are unique to it)

Have a double membrane. Smooth Highly folded cristae provides a huge

outer membrane while inner SA:VOL for oxidative phosphorylation →

membrane is folded into cristae Many respiratory proteins & enzymes

are embedded in the inner membrane.

Intermembrane space lies between

the 2 membranes & inner membrane

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 encloses semi-fluid substance Contains enzymes required for linked

called matrix rxn & Krebs cycle

Chloroplasts Large organelles & biconvex in Site of photosynthesis

shape

(4 - 10 μm long & 2 - 3 μm wide)

Enclosed by a double membrane

(Both inner & outer are smooth)

Interior of organelle contains a 3rd

membrane system called the

thylakoid membrane which fold &

stack onto each other to form

granum (Singular)

Each granum is connected to

another granum by intergranal

lamella (SIngular)

Photosynthetic pigments & proteins Pigments & proteins are involved in the

are embedded into the thylakoid light-dependent stages of

membrane. Thylakoid system is photosynthesis

suspended in fluid substance called

stroma Stroma contains many enzymes &

cmpds that are necessary for Calvin

Contains its own circular DNA & 70S
cycle (Light-independent reactions)
ribosomes. (∴, can undergo DNA

replication on its own & express

proteins unique to it)

● Origins of mitochondrion & chloroplasts (Endosymbiotic theory)

- ~ 2 billion yrs ago, prokaryotic cells capable of aerobic respiration & photosynthesis were engulfed

by another larger ancestral eukaryotic cell .

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- Large ancestral eukaryotic cell, aerobic prokaryotic cell & photosynthetic prokaryotic cell formed a

symbiotic relationship.

- Aerobic prokaryotic cell & photosynthetic prokaryotic cell then went through a series of evolution to

become mitochondrion & chloroplast.

Organelle Structure Function

Ribosomes ~ 25 nm & has 2 subunits. Each subunit Site of protein synthesis.

is made up of ribosomal protein &

rRNA & doesn’t have membranes Membrane-bound ribosomes synthesise

proteins that are incorporated into

Eukaryotes: 80S ribosome, 20nm.
membranes or secreted out of cell
Large 60S subunit & small 40S

subunit
Free ribosomes synthesise proteins for

internal use
Produced & partially assembled in

nucleolus. Fully assembled in

cytoplasm

Prokaryotes: 70S ribosome Site of protein synthesis

Large 50S subunit & small 30S subunit

Centrioles Pair of hollow cylinders at right angle Act as microtubule organising centre

to each other (MTOC)

Each centriole cnsts of a pair of 9 sets

Centrioles replicate at the start of
of triple microtubules arranged in a
nuclear division & each pair of centrioles
ring
move to opp poles of nucleus

Located in the centrosome. (Distinctly

stained region of cytoplasm) It’s Centrioles help to organise spindle

usually located beside the nucleus fibres are which is made up of

microtubules to help guide the

movement of chromosomes

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 Only present in animal cells & lower Centrioles are not compulsory in the

plant cells formation of spindles as higher plant

cells (Lack centrioles) can still form

spindles

Cytoskeleton Network of fibres extending Organises the structure & activities

throughout cytoplasm within the cell

3 main types of fibre present →

Microtubules, microfilaments &

intermediate filaments

Microtubules Thickest class of cytoskeletal fibres. Movement of chromosomes during

nuclear division is facilitated by

Hollow, unbranched & cylindrical lengthening & shortening of

fibres & made up of a helically microtubules

arranged globular protein called

tubulin Provides mechanical support &

maintains shape of cell → Also dynamic,

Can be lengthened & shortened by can be quickly dismantled &

polymerisation & depolymerisation of reassembled at another part of cell,

tubulin changing the shape of cell.

Have a certain degree of stiffness & Movement of organelles is facilitated by

run a straight course in cytoplasm motor proteins carrying organelles

through microtubules → E.G,

microtubules guide secretory vesicles

from trans face of G.A to C.S.M

● Structure of a typical bacterial cell (Prokaryotes)

- Its cell wall protects & maintains the shape of the cell. Its cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan.

(Carb-protein complex)

- Circular DNA: Found in the nucleoid region of bacterial cell & non-compartmentalized.

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- Contain plasmids → Which are small, circular DNA molcs that’s not connected to the main bacterial

chromosome, replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA. + Not required by cell under

normal conditions but may help the cell adapt to unusual circumstances.

- 70S ribosomes → Occur in all prokaryotic cells & site of protein synthesis.

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