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VoIP network architectures and impacts on costing

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DOI: 10.1108/14636691011040486

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VoIP network architectures and impacts on
costing
Juan Rendon Schneir and Thomas Plückebaum

Juan Rendon Schneir and Abstract

Thomas Plückebaum are Purpose – This paper aims to describe the effect of VoIP network architectures on the cost modelling of
both Senior Consultants termination rates of VoIP services.
with WIK-Consult, Bad Design/methodology/approach – The study investigates and organises the arguments available in the
Honnef, Germany. technical and regulatory field related to VoIP networks and services in order to ascertain the possible
impact of VoIP techniques, the provisioning of voice features in VoIP networks, and network
interconnection issues on the cost of regulated VoIP services.
Findings – The information and analysis reveals how the provision of VoIP services is related to a
number of issues that will have an effect on the cost of VoIP termination rates. In particular, the study
analyses the impact on a cost model of the components of a VoIP network architecture, the usage factor
of network elements, and the traffic volume generated by VoIP applications.
Research limitations/implications – The issues described in the article can be used in elaborating a
cost model for termination rates in VoIP networks. For the present study, no cost model was built, and
therefore no quantitative estimations were made of the specific impact of every cost parameter on the
termination rates.
Practical implications – The findings of this study can be used by policy makers, voice operators, and
researchers.
Originality/value – Most studies of VoIP that are available in the literature address, on the one hand, the
costs of corporate VoIP networks and, on the other, the regulation of VoIP services. This article, however,
presents a comprehensive study of the most relevant features of VoIP network architectures that should
be considered when determining regulated termination rates.
Keywords Telecommunication networks, Internet, Mobile communication systems, Cost estimates
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The use of voice over internet protocol (VoIP) services has seen important growth over
recent years[1]. People have become more aware of the benefits that VoIP offers in terms
of cost and ubiquity, and many corporate and residential users are familiar with this
technology. For example, as of December 2007, VoIP-originated calls in the European
Union represented 8 percent of the traffic in the fixed sector (Commission of the European
Communities, 2009). In The Netherlands and France, this rate was 32 percent and 27
percent, respectively[2]. For voice operators, the provisioning of VoIP services can be
The authors would like to thank
the reviewers for their useful commercially, economically and technically beneficial. In an environment of convergence
comments. of telecommunications networks, data, voice and video signals are transmitted over the
This article represents the same physical link. Network operators can then save costs by employing only one network
opinion of the authors and does for different services. For instance, there can be CAPEX savings by using high-speed
not necessarily represent the
opinion of WIK-Consult. Gigabit Ethernet interfaces of 10 Gbps, instead of the E1 links of 2 Mbps. Moreover, there
can be OPEX savings when using the well-known IP network, which will enable the
Received: 15 October 2009
Revised: 10 December 2009
management of only one network instead of the management of separate voice, video and
Accepted: 18 January 2010 data networks. VoIP, as a consequence, has been or will be implemented by current and

DOI 10.1108/14636691011040486 VOL. 12 NO. 3 2010, pp. 59-72, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1463-6697 j j
info PAGE 59
 prospective telephony operators. In this sense, several circuit-switched telephony
operators have begun plans to migrate to VoIP. In many of these migration plans, VoIP
is used initially in the core network due to the high investment associated with the
deployment of broadband in the access network, which is one of the main prerequisites for
the provisioning of VoIP services. Furthermore, for a number of new voice operators, VoIP is
the underlying technology[3].

In many countries, the fixed and mobile telephony operators follow a calling party’s network
pays (CPNP) rule, which obliges the network operator that initiates the call to pay a
termination fee to the network operators where the call is terminated. Competition and
regulatory authorities consider that there is a form of market power, which is named a
‘‘termination monopoly’’, because a call can only be terminated by the service provider that
controls the addressed telephone number. By regulating the termination fee, regulatory
bodies have a tool to limit the inadequate use of this market power. Therefore, several
National Regulatory Agencies (NRAs), government bodies and telephony operators are
interested in determining the cost of the termination fee. It is foreseeable that the termination
monopoly will continue in VoIP networks, and in any type of broadband network, such as the
Next Generation Network (NGN), where the VoIP service is provided (Marcus and Elixmann,
2008). In this way, the termination fees will remain for a still longer period and, as a
consequence, telecommunications regulators and voice operators will have to determine
the cost of such rates in VoIP networks[4].

One of the first steps when calculating termination rates is the definition of the network
architecture that will be used in the cost model. Cost modellers have wide experience in
the cost elements that should be taken into account in legacy networks, such as fixed and
mobile circuit-switched telephony networks. Nevertheless, VoIP is a disruptive technology
and there are still several uncertainties about the cost elements typical for a VoIP network.
A few authors have already described the cost elements of corporate VoIP networks
(Hersent et al., 2005; Kaza and Asadullah, 2005). However, a VoIP network operator that
receives a license of public telephony services has to meet different requirements that will
have an impact on the cost of the service, such as calls to emergency services, lawful
interception, data retention or quality of the call. So far, the regulatory implications of VoIP
have been described, but not from a cost modelling perspective (Elixmann et al., 2008;
Graham and Ure, 2005; Meisel and Needles, 2005). As there is a dearth of information on
this subject in the existing literature, this article describes the impacts on costing of VoIP
network architectures that provide public voice services. The information and the analysis
provided in this article can be of interest to policy makers, telephony operators and
researchers.

To carry out the analysis, the article contains a discussion of the importance of different
aspects of VoIP network architectures. In several countries, Long-run incremental cost
(LRIC) models based on an efficient network are used for the assessment of termination
fees[5]. For this reason, it is necessary to identify which VoIP network architecture can be
used as an efficient network. Section 2 explains the most relevant VoIP techniques: VoIP
architectures and protocols, nodes and systems for the provisioning of VoIP services, the
importance of VoIP traffic in shared channels, and quality of service (QoS) in VoIP networks.
The purpose of this section is not to identify the most suitable VoIP technique, but rather to
describe the technological options that are pondered by network operators when designing
a VoIP network. Section describes the implementation of the following features in VoIP
networks and their impact on cost modelling: provisioning of telephony features (e.g. voice
mail and caller identification), number translation, number portability, access to emergency
services, security issues and additional systems such as the network monitoring system.
Section 4 deals with the following two issues related to the interconnection of VoIP networks:
the interconnection interface, which can be a circuit-switched network interface or an
IP-based interface, and the cost implications of the location of the point of interconnection.
Finally, section 5 discusses the conclusions.

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2. VoIP techniques
Unlike in the circuit-switched telephony world, where the technology used for the
transmission and interconnection of telephony services was defined many years ago and is
implemented on a national basis, VoIP operators have several possibilities at the moment of
choosing the VoIP technique that will be implemented in their networks. So far, there is not a
widely accepted standard for the provisioning of VoIP services. Standardization bodies such
as the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) have defined VoIP architectures and protocols that have been deployed during
the last two decades. A specific VoIP system will be used, depending on the business
strategy of the voice operator. The importance of the definition of the VoIP technology that is
implemented lies in the fact that LRIC cost models are based on efficient network
architectures. This chapter describes a few of the most well-known technologies used by
VoIP operators for the provisioning of voice services, as well as the relevance of VoIP traffic
and quality of service in cost modelling of VoIP services.

2.1 VoIP architectures and protocols

The most relevant standardized VoIP network architectures and protocols are explained
below, as well as a few proprietary VoIP systems[6]. The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) was
defined by the IETF for signalling and session management purposes (Internet Engineering
Task Force, 2002). SIP is a peer-to-peer protocol that can be used to establish, maintain, and
terminate calls. Figure 1 shows the basic SIP architecture. In the SIP architecture, a SIP
endpoint can take the role of a User Agent Client (UAC), which is called a SIP client, or of a
User Agent Server (UAS), which is called a SIP server. A SIP client can be a phone or a
gateway: a SIP phone is an end user’s terminal, whereas a gateway is used for translation
functions between SIP terminals and different terminal types and for the interconnection with
circuit-switched devices. Legacy PBXs and Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
switches can be connected to the SIP gateway. Proxy servers, redirect servers and registrar
servers are SIP servers. A proxy server receives SIP messages and forwards them to
another SIP server in the network. Proxy servers can also be used for authentication, routing,
reliable request retransmission, network access control, and security. A redirect server
provides the client with information about the next hop that can be taken by a message, and
the registrar server is used for registration. SIP uses the Real Time Protocol (RTP) and Real
Time Control Protocol (RTCP) for streaming media transmission, and the Session Description
Protocol (SDP) to negotiate the participant capabilities, codification types, etc. SIP works
with an end-to-end-oriented signalling methodology, which entails that the logic of the

Figure 1 The SIP architecture

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 communication is stored in the SIP end user’s device. Network operators have implemented
different versions of SIP.
The ITU-T standardized the H.323 architecture, which defines the protocols, procedures and
components of devices for the provisioning of real-time audio, video and data
communications (ITU-T, 2006b). The main elements of the H.323 architecture are the
terminals, the gatekeepers, the gateways and the Multipoint Control Unit (MCU). An H.323
terminal requires the following components for interworking with other H.323 terminals: the
H.245 protocol for the negotiation of channel usage and capabilities; the Q.931 protocol for
call setup and signalling; the Registration/Admission/Status (RAS) protocol for
communication with the gatekeeper; and RTP/RTCP for the delivery of audio and video
packets. Within an H.323 zone, a gatekeeper is the central point of the call and is used to
provide registered H.323 endpoints with call control services. The gatekeeper functions
include address translation, bandwidth control and management, zone management,
call-control signalling, and call authorization and management. The gatekeeper is needed to
control the gateways, which are utilized for the interconnection of H.323 and non-H.323
networks. The MCU enables the provisioning of conferences of three or more H.323
terminals. In the H.323 architecture, the H.323 terminals exchange VoIP packets directly by
using RTP and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), whereas the H.225 and H.245 protocols
are employed for controlling the call.
The Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) is a VoIP signalling and call control protocol
that was defined by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force, 2003b). The components of
the MGCP architecture are the Media Gateway Controller (MGC), the Media Gateway (MG),
and the Signalling Gateway (SG). Megaco is another call control and signalling protocol that
resulted from the cooperation between the ITU (ITU-T, 2006a) and the IETF (Internet
Engineering Task Force, 2003a).
Several VoIP manufacturers have implemented their own VoIP solutions based on
proprietary network architectures and protocols. For example, the basic VoIP network
architecture of the company Skype contains three basic nodes:
1. a Skype login server;
2. a super node; and
3. an ordinary host.
In the peer-to-peer Skype network, the Skype login server is the only central component
(Baset and Schulzrinne, 2006). For cost modelling purposes, the Skype login server is the
relevant cost element to be considered, since the super node and the ordinary host are not
paid by the Skype company, but by the customers.
Another example of a proprietary protocol is the Skinny Call Control Protocol (SCCP), which
is used by Cisco in its VoIP Call Manager solution. SCCP is a network terminal protocol used
as a messaging system between the Cisco Call Manager and a Cisco terminal such as the
Cisco 7900 series IP phone (Cisco, 2009a).
As has been explained, there are several VoIP network architectures and each one has
different hardware and software requirements. For cost modelling purposes, it is necessary
to define an efficient network architecture and calculate the usage factor of all the network
elements involved in a VoIP call[7].

2.2 The role of the softswitch and the IMS in VoIP deployments
For the provisioning of VoIP services, many operators have chosen the softswitch and/or the
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), which are explained below.
The softswitch is a piece of software that switches calls by using software instead of a
hardware device. A softswitch can be used for controlling VoIP calls inside a VoIP
network and also for the interconnection of a circuit-switched telephony network with a
VoIP network. As is depicted in Figure 2, the softswitch architecture is composed of a

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Figure 2 The Softswitch architecture

Media Gateway Controller, which is the softswitch itself, and Media Gateways and
Signalling Gateways. A Media Gateway helps convert circuit-switched voice calls into
VoIP packets and vice versa, whereas the Signalling Gateway adapts the Signalling
System 7 (SS7) circuit-switched signalling protocol to a VoIP signalling protocol. Several
signalling protocols can be used by the softswitch, e.g. H.323, SIP or MGCP. However, as
SIP is being adopted by a number of voice operators, the manufacturers tend to
implement SIP in the softswitches.
The IMS is a network architecture designed for the provisioning of services in a converged
multimedia environment. It is a platform that manages multimedia services, among which
voice is just another service that can be provided. SIP is one of the key protocols in the IMS
network architecture. In the horizontal architecture of the IMS, the application, control and
access/transport layers are clearly separated and they do not necessarily belong to the
same operator. The IMS network architecture is shown in Figure 3. The fundamental nodes of
the IMS architecture are the Home Subscription Server (HSS) and the Call Session Control
Function (CSCF). The HSS contains the user profile database for authentication and
authorization purposes (Poikselka and Mayer, 2009). The CSCF node controls the signalling
by using the SIP protocol. The Serving-, Interrogating- and Pro-Call Session Control
Functions (S-CSCF, I-CSCF and P-CSCF) are the roles of the CSCF node. For the
interconnection with the General Switched Telephony Network (GSTN), two nodes are
employed:
1. the Media Gateway Control Function (MGCF); and
2. the Media Gateway (MGW).
The MGCF manages signalling information and controls the Media Gateway. The Media
Gateway translates RTP/UDP/IP packets into TDM signal streams. The Breakout Gateway
Control Function (BGCF) chooses the route of the telephony session and the Session Border
Controller (SBC) is an IP-to-IP gateway.
The difference between the capabilities of the softswitch and the IMS lies in the type of
service that will be provided. If an operator is interested in providing end-customers with a
voice service with few related applications, then probably the softswitch is the better
alternative. The IMS is an architecture that helps create and deliver different types of
services in an easy way. If an operator is planning to offer multimedia services, then the IMS
could be the best alternative. Current cost models of VoIP networks could consider the SIP
softswitch as the relevant node for the management of VoIP communications. However, as it
is expected that operators will provide customers with multimedia or advanced services in

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 Figure 3 The IMS network architecture

the future, and as fixed and mobile networks will converge, the IMS could be regarded as the
future call control node in cost models.

2.3 VoIP traffic in shared channels

An important variable of cost models is the user-generated traffic volume that is delivered
into the network. A traffic model uses as inputs the traffic rate and the generated packets’
size. The size of a VoIP payload packet depends on the codec used for digitizing the
analogue voice and on the headers that are added to the payload information necessary to
deliver the packet. It would be a mistake to ignore the importance of the size of VoIP
packets’ headers because they could be the major component of the VoIP payload
packet[8].
Before network convergence, every network was designed to deliver one type of service:
television, telephony or data. Currently, however, networks carry several types of traffic. For
that reason, one of the issues that should be included in VoIP cost models is the proportion of
cost that corresponds to the VoIP service. In a Next Generation Access (NGA) network, the
access line (fiber, cable or copper with xDSL) is shared among different services such as
voice, internet data, video, etc. For example, in a Fibre to the Curb/Very High Speed Digital
Subscriber Line 2 (FTTC/VDSL2) access network, the copper line will be used exclusively by
every user (see Figure 4). In the fibre segment, all the traffic generated by the applications
used by all the customers will be rivals for the common bandwidth. Thus, a cost model of a
VoIP service should estimate the appropriate share of the voice service in order to allocate
the costs properly.

2.4 Quality of service in VoIP networks

Another important technical issue is the assurance of Quality of Service in VoIP networks[9].
A real-time service like VoIP requires strict levels of packet loss, delay and jitter in an
end-to-end communication. The values of these parameters have been specified in a few
studies (ITU-T, 2002; Szigeti and Hattingh, 2004). In best-effort IP networks that do not have
QoS techniques, sometimes it is not possible to meet these requirements. However, quality
of service techniques improve the quality of experience (QoE) of the end user. There are
three basic QoS mechanisms in IP and VoIP networks:

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Figure 4 FTTC/VDSL2 access network

1. prioritisation;
2. capacity reservation; and
3. over-dimensioning.

For the prioritisation of data, the Differentiated Services (DiffServ) technique can be used
(Internet Engineering Task Force, 1998). Packets with the DiffServ feature have
information in the packet header about the type of service the packets belong to,
which will be used by routers to give packets a corresponding priority at the moment of
forwarding them to one of the links attached to the router. For the reservation of traffic
capacity, the Integrated Services (IntServ) technique can be used. One of the most
important techniques used in the Integrated Services architecture is the Resource
ReserVation Protocol (RSVP) (Internet Engineering Task Force, 1997). This protocol
reserves capacity along the path between the sender and the receiver before a
transmission takes place. However, Integrated Services techniques have major problems
of scalability in large networks[10]. The trend in the industry is to use DiffServ instead of
IntServ. For the over-dimensioning of transmission capacity, the operator deploys more
capacity in terms of additional links and nodes.

In many IP networks, it will take some time until VoIP catches up with the quality of voice of
current circuit-switched networks. Probably, this enhancement of the VoIP quality will be
achieved by deploying broadband networks with more capacity and by using QoS
mechanisms. If the VoIP provider is the owner of the VoIP network, then it can manage the
Quality of Service inside the VoIP network. The different characteristics of the services that
are provided are detailed in the Service Level Agreement (SLA) that is signed by the VoIP
provider and the end-customer[11]. To meet the strict time delay requirements required by
VoIP connections, the VoIP operator could deploy routers or switches that support QoS
mechanisms. The capacity of the links or systems could also be expanded. In any case, the
deployment of QoS mechanisms, which could entail hardware and software acquisitions, will
have an impact on the cost of the service and, therefore, cost models should calculate this
additional cost. A few of the issues that should be addressed in cost models are the
following:
B What is the cost (CAPEX and OPEX) of a high-quality voice service that uses QoS
mechanisms?
B What is the cost of a VoIP service that is not reliable all the time and that is provided over a
best-effort IP network?

The degree to which the implementation of QoS mechanisms affects the usage factor of
network equipment should also be analysed.

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 3. Features of VoIP networks
A telephony operator needs to offer a set of services and meet a few legal requirements to be
able to provide the telephony service. As will be explained, the provisioning of these
services and features entails the deployment of additional equipment. The services and
features described in this chapter need to be considered when calculating the costs of
telephony services in IP networks.

3.1 Services provided

Besides the provisioning of the basic voice service, VoIP operators try to offer the same type
of services that are available in circuit-switched telephony networks. Examples of these
services are voice mail, caller identification, call waiting, call forwarding, call blocking, and
three-party conferences. Moreover, IP networks enable the provisioning of advanced
telephony services such as video telephony, which is a service that demands more
bandwidth than the basic VoIP service. To provide these services, in some cases, additional
hardware or software will be deployed, which will have an impact on costs. Another aspect
that should be considered is the fact that each service requires a specific level of QoS, which
will have an effect on the cost.

3.2 Telephone number translation

For the addressing inside the VoIP network, every VoIP operator can use the addressing
system of the VoIP technology that was deployed. However, for the interconnection with a
circuit-switched telephony network, it is necessary to translate the internal number or name
of the VoIP user into a valid E.164 telephone number[12]. E.164 Number Mapping (ENUM) is
an IETF standard that can be used to transform PSTN E.164 numbers into corresponding
VoIP addresses, and vice versa (Internet Engineering Task Force, 2009c). The mapping
function of ENUM enables calls from an IP phone to a PSTN phone. ENUM uses Domain
Name System (DNS) servers for setting up the call. The usage of these servers, which is
reflected in the usage factor, should be taken into account in cost models. Moreover, as more
database queries are necessary, an increase in the signalling traffic volume is generated.
This increase should also be considered in the cost model.

3.3 Number portability

Number portability is a feature that enables telephony subscribers to maintain the telephone
number when changing the telephone provider or when moving to a new location. In
circuit-switched networks, number portability is provided by using databases that belong to
the intelligent network (IN) of an operator. When it is detected that a destination number is not
in the operator’s own network and that the number has been ported, a query is sent to the
Number Portability Database (NPDB). This database knows the current location, i.e. the
current network operator, of the destination number. In VoIP networks there is also a
consultation with a server or a database. As there are different VoIP technologies and
network architectures, operators can implement the number portability function in different
ways. However, the ENUM number translation is gaining support in the industry and it could
be used in LRIC cost models as a state-of-the-art number portability system. The mapping of
telephone numbers and the provisioning of number portability then entails the deployment of
servers that support these features. The usage factor of a few network elements and the
possible increase in signalling traffic should be considered in the cost model.

3.4 Access to emergency services

In many countries there is a number assigned to emergency services calls. In Europe, for
example, the Universal Service Directive of the European Union (EU) defines the number
112 as the single European emergency call number (The European Parliament and the
Council of the European Union, 2002b). The VoIP service can belong in the EU to one of the
following two classes: Publicly Available Telephony Service (PATS) or Electronic
Communication Service (ECS). Among other requirements, a PATS service must provide
access to emergency services. The ECS category targets a wide range of services, as it

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‘‘consists wholly or mainly in the conveyance of signals on Electronic Communications
Networks’’ (The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2002a). A
member state of the EU can define whether the VoIP service belongs to the PATS or ECS
category.
The difficulty in providing access to emergency numbers lies in the fact that it might be
technically complex to determine the location of the VoIP user (Elixmann et al., 2008;
European Regulators Group, 2007). When a customer contracts a VoIP telephony service,
usually the VoIP user gives his/her address during the registration process. If the VoIP user is
non-nomadic and generates an emergency call from the address that was registered with
the VoIP operator, then it is technically feasible to route the call properly to the next Public
Safety Answering Point (PSAP). Conversely, an emergency call generated by a nomadic
user from a location different to the address provided to the VoIP operator may have
technical difficulties in being routed properly. There are ongoing efforts that propose
solutions to overcome this inconvenience. For instance, the IETF ECRIT Working Group has
proposed mechanisms for the routing of emergency calls with Internet technologies (Internet
Engineering Task Force, 2009a). However, for the moment, this matter remains an open
issue and time will pass before a standard can be widely accepted by internet service
providers (ISPs) and VoIP providers. For cost calculation issues, it should be considered that
the network nodes that provide the VoIP service, such as the switches, routers and servers,
have to be able to route emergency calls to the proper PSAP. The usage factor of these
network elements, a possible increase in signalling traffic volume and the possible effect of
QoS mechanisms will have an impact on costs[13].

3.5 Security issues

Two services related to the provisioning of call information to authorized security forces are
lawful interception and data retention. Lawful interception entails the obligation of providing
access to telephony calls to intelligence services and law enforcement agencies, whereas
data retention is the obligation of network operators of storing call detail records of telephony
traffic for a period of time.
One of the aspects that should be taken into account by lawful interception mechanisms is
the fact that usually VoIP signalling and data take different paths. There are technical
solutions to this matter, as long as the security forces have access to the network that carries
the signalling and data traffic. Nevertheless, if a nomadic user makes a VoIP call from or to
an IP network that is not under the coverage of the security forces, it might be difficult to
intercept the call.
The Directive about Data Retention of the European Union requires member states to keep
the following information for a period of time of between six months and two years (The
European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2006). To:
B trace and identify the source of a communication;
B trace and identity the destination of a communication;
B identify the date, time and duration of a communication;
B identify the type of a communication;
B identify the communication device; and
B identify the location of mobile communication equipment.
In VoIP networks it is possible to obtain this type of signalling information in the softswitch.
However, for nomadic users who are located outside the home network, it is possible to keep
track of the current IP address, but it could be difficult to identify the precise location of the
nomadic user.
In several European countries the governments make a refund of the necessary investment
to provide lawful interception and data retention services, i.e. for the use of routers, switches,

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 servers and databases[14]. If these costs are refunded, then they should not be taken into
account in the calculation of termination rates.

3.6 Additional systems

Typical systems of any telephony network should also be taken into account when
calculating the costs of the termination rates. The network monitoring system, for example,
requires equipment and personnel. The databases of the billing systems and the cost of
personnel and equipment for the customer care system may not be considered in the
calculation of wholesale termination rates because they concern retail services costs.

4. Interconnection of VoIP networks

The interconnection of IP-based networks has profound technical, economical and
regulatory implications, as has been explained in (Marcus and Elixmann, 2008). This section
describes two issues that have implications for the cost of the VoIP service:
1. the definition of the interface for the interconnection; and
2. the location of the point of interconnection.

4.1 Interface for the interconnection

Nowadays, voice operators have two possibilities for the exchange of payload and
signalling information: either they use a circuit-switched interface or an IP-based interface.
The network interfaces adapt the voice codecs and the signalling system of one operator
into the codecs and signalling protocols employed by the other operator. The voice signals
exchanged through the circuit-switched interfaces do, in many cases, work with the same
version of the voice codec that is used (PCM64, ADPCM, etc.). Most public circuit-switched
telephone calls use the Signalling System 7 for signalling. There can be a few differences
between the national variants of the SS7 protocols implemented around the world. A VoIP
operator that interconnects with a circuit-switched voice operator, or with any operator that is
obliged to interconnect through SS7 interfaces, needs to adapt its VoIP protocols[15].
Therefore, it will be necessary to use a Media Gateway to convert IP packets into
circuit-switched packets; Signalling Gateways are also required to convert circuit-switched
SS7 signalling protocols into VoIP signalling protocols. Figure 2 shows the gateways of the
softswitch architecture used for the interconnection with a circuit-switched network. For the
interconnection through an IP-based interface, it is necessary to adapt the different VoIP
signalling protocols. Therefore, signalling gateways will also be necessary.
From the point of view of cost calculation, the question that arises is the definition of the
network elements needed to adapt the different VoIP payload and signalling variants. For
example, if according to the country-specific regulation it is mandatory to exchange voice
traffic through SS7 interfaces, then VoIP operators will need to deploy the corresponding
media and signalling gateways. This will have an effect on the costs of the termination
rates[16].

4.2 Location of the point of interconnection

Another aspect that has an effect on the cost of the termination rates is the location of the
point of interconnection (PoI). Normally, a point of interconnection that is located far away
from the VoIP network will entail an additional cost for the VoIP operator, because the VoIP
operator will have to assume the cost of the transit service from its network to the point of
interconnection of the destination network. It is up to the operators and/or to the regulatory
authorities to define the most appropriate interconnection mechanism.

5. Conclusions
The deployment of VoIP networks raises a number of technological, economic and
regulatory issues that affect the determination of voice termination rates. This article

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provides an overview of the features of VoIP network architectures that will have an impact on
the cost modelling of termination rates. The analysis covers three aspects:
1. VoIP techniques;
2. features of telephony services in VoIP networks; and
3. interconnection of VoIP networks.
First, one of the aspects to be considered by network cost modellers is the definition of
the network architecture. Unlike circuit-switched telephony networks, where there are a
limited number of standards that are adopted by most operators, VoIP operators have
several possibilities when selecting the VoIP systems and protocols (e.g. H.323, SIP, and
MGCP). Even though there is no precise answer about which is the best VoIP technology,
the SIP softswitch seems to be the current state-of-the-art architecture and it could be
considered as an efficient reference model architecture. The usage factor of the network
elements involved in a VoIP call should be calculated. The traffic volume generated by
VoIP users should also be considered appropriately in cost models. As the VoIP service
requires strict levels of loss, delay and jitter delay, Quality of Service techniques could be
implemented. If this is the case, the implementation of QoS could lead to costs that
should be taken into account.
Second, the features of a telephony service provided by a VoIP operator require the
deployment of appropriate servers and databases. Examples of cost elements that should
be considered are typical telephony services such as voice mail, caller identification, call
waiting, etc.; telephone number translation; number portability; access to emergency
services; security systems; and network monitoring systems. The provisioning of these
features will have an effect on the usage factor of a few network elements and on the traffic
volume, especially the signalling traffic, that will be generated.
Third, the definition of the point of interconnection is an issue that can entail costs for the VoIP
provider. Depending on the regulatory framework of every country and on the agreements
signed between telephony operators, it would be possible to use an IP-based or/and a
circuit-switched SS7 interface for the interconnection. If SS7 is mandatory, then a VoIP
operator will probably have to assume the costs of the corresponding signalling and media
gateways. The location of the point of interconnection has implications for the costs because
it could be necessary to consider the cost of the transit service from the point of
interconnection of the originating network to the closest point of interconnection to the
addressee.
In sum, the findings of this study could help cost modellers to reflect on the particularities of
VoIP networks. A future study could entail the elaboration of a cost model that includes the
cost elements described in this article.

Notes
1. In this article VoIP is considered a service that has to meet a few specific technical and regulatory
requirements and that needs a license to operate in a country. Some authors prefer to use the term
‘‘telephony over IP’’ when they refer to the same type of service. In this study the terms ‘‘telephony
over IP’’ and ‘‘voice over IP’’ refer to the same service.
2. Peer-to-peer (P2P) VoIP traffic was not considered in the VoIP statistics published in Commission of
the European Communities (2009). Therefore, the figures of total VoIP traffic generated might have
been higher.

3. For example, Skype with its SkypeIn and SkypeOut services.

4. An alternative to the CPNP rule is the bill & keep pricing principle. In a bill & keep arrangement, an
operator does not have to pay another operator the wholesale termination charges. Each operator
bills its own customers for the inbound and outbound traffic. In this case, it would not be necessary
to calculate the interconnection fees.
5. Many countries in Europe have adopted the LRIC cost model for the calculation of termination rates.

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 6. VoIP open standards such as the Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocol version 2 (IAX2) (Internet
Engineering Task Force, 2009b), which works with the Asterisk open source Private Branch
eXchange (PBX) server, are not described in this section. The reason is that IAX2 is suited to private
VoIP networks with low-budget limitations, and it is not expected to be used by major VoIP service
providers.

7. The usage factor (or the routing factor) measures the intensity of use of a network element by a
specific service.

8. For example, a voice codec could generate a VoIP payload of 6 Kbps, but with the corresponding
IP/UDP/RTP headers, the packet could require in practice a bandwidth of 50 Kbps or more, even if
compression mechanisms are used.

9. Frederiksen (2006) studies the case of VoIP suppliers with and without QoS and concludes that ‘‘it is
an unanswered question how important it is for the customers to have a guarantee for QoS’’. Later,
Constantiou and Kautz (2008) in an analysis of IP telephony in the Danish market find evidence that
price would be more important than quality of service. However, both studies do not neglect the
importance of QoS for the improvement of VoIP service provisioning.

10. Even though there are proposals that help alleviate the scalability problem in IntServ architectures,
they have not been widely deployed.

11. A VoIP service provider can also negotiate with network operators a service level agreement for the
provisioning of voice services with specific levels of quality.

12. In this case, it is assumed that the interconnection is done through circuit-switched SS7 interfaces.
Section 4.1 sheds light on the technologies used in the interconnection interfaces.

13. The calls to emergency services will probably be treated as a higher priority and, as a
consequence, they could belong to the highest QoS class.

14. The storage systems that keep information about customers’ communications are mostly
databases.

15. In many countries it is mandatory to use SS7 signalling for the interconnection between voice
operators.

16. Small VoIP operators could probably prefer to interconnect by means of IP-based protocols and
hence avoid the investment on circuit-switched interfaces.

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 About the authors
Juan Rendon Schneir is Senior Consultant in the Cost Modeling and Internet Economics
Department at WIK-Consult, a regulatory research institute located on the outskirts of Bonn,
Germany. He obtained a PhD degree in Telecommunications Engineering from the
Polytechnic University of Catalonia in Spain in 2001. From 2001 to 2008 he worked initially as
Lecturer and then as Assistant Professor in the Department of Information and
Communication Technologies at Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona, Spain. From 2005
to 2007 he was a Visiting Professor at ITAM University in Mexico, and in 2002 he was a
Visiting Researcher at Karlstad University in Sweden. He previously worked for the
telecommunications companies Telefónica and Italtel. He has worked in the field of the
optimisation of transport protocols for GPRS, UMTS and 4G. As part of his activities at
WIK-Consult, he has advised telecommunications regulatory bodies in Europe, Latin
America and Oceania on issues related to NGN/VoIP interconnection and cost modeling.
Currently, his research interests include telecommunications policy regulation (NGN, VoIP,
etc.), technology adoption and business cases for telecommunications systems (4G,
WiMAX). Juan Rendon Schneir is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
jrendons@gmail.com
Thomas Plückebaum has worked for WIK-Consult since 2007 and leads the Department of
Cost Modelling and Internet Economics. He studied Electrical Engineering and Economic
Engineering at the RWTH Aachen. In 1982 he joined the Institute for Electro Technology and
Data Processing Systems as an Assistant Professor and finished his studies with a doctorate
in Electrical Engineering. Before joining WIK-Consult, he was director of technology for Arcor
Region West and until the finalisation of its merger with ISIS Multimedia Net in 2005, he was
CEO of ISIS, one of the German regional competitive access providers (‘‘City Carriers’’).
Between 2000 and 2005, he was executive director and responsible for the network
technology and the network roll-out of the regional carrier ISIS in the administrative district of
Düsseldorf. From 1995 to 2000, Dr Plückebaum held several responsibilities as an executive
director of o.tel.o communications and its predecessor, RWE Telliance. From 1988 to 1995,
he worked in the EDP department of Westdeutsche Landesbank, being responsible for
designing and realizing the worldwide data/voice corporate network. He has published
many major articles and has written a variety of studies and comments on regulatory
developments in Germany and the EU.

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