Module-1

Introduction & Energy from Sun

1. ENERGY SOURCES:
nergy is fundamental to daily life. Whether it is providing lights for our
classrooms, refrigeration for our food and medicine, pumps to irrigate
our crops, or electricity to run our commercial and industrial
enterprises, energy provides the means for economic growth and social and political
USAID.
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the
developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever increasing
energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them, broadly the energy sources includes:
Coal
Lignite
Petrol
Diesel
Furnace oil
Kerosene
LPG
Natural gas
LNG
Electricity: Thermal, Hydro, Nuclear, Wind, solar, Biomass etc
The energy is classified into several types based on the following criteria:
Primary and Secondary Energy
Commercial and Non Commercial Energy
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy sources:

The common primary energy sources are fossil fuels like coal, lignite, oil, natural gas, and
biomass such as wood, which are either found or stored in nature. The coal is mined from open and
deep underground coal mines, the oil is found in oil wells and is refined to produce products like
petrol, diesel, furnace oil, kerosene and LPG, the natural gas is also found in well, and the biomass is
procured from forests and agricultural wastes.
The other primary energy sources include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal
energy stored in ea
sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources, for example coal, oil
or gas converted into steam and electricity. It is also used directly. Some primary energy sources have
non-energy uses too, for example, the coal or natural gas is used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.

Fig 1.1 Primary and secondary Energy Sources

1.2 Commercial and non commercial Energy sources:

Commercial Energy sources:
The commercial energy is the lifeline for industrial, agricultural, Transport and commercial
development in the modern world. In the industrially well-developed countries, the commercial energy
is also largely used for many household tasks. By far the most important forms of commercial energy
are electricity, coal, lignite, refined petroleum products and natural gas that are available in the market
for a price.

Non-Commercial Energy sources:

The traditional fuels like firewood, cattle dung and agro wastes that are gathered for use in
rural households, and not bought at a price, are classified as non-commercial energy sources are often
ignored in energy accounting. The other form of non-commercial energy includes renewable sources
of energy like solar and wind as well as animal power. The solar energy is used for electricity
generation, water heating, drying grain, fish and fruits. The wind energy finds use for electricity
generation and water lifting. The animal power is largely used in villages for lifting water for irrigation
and crushing sugarcane, threshing and transportation.

1.3. Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy sources:

Renewable energy is obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. It includes wind
power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric power. Bio-diesel is the latest to
join this list. The most important feature of renewable energy is that it is very clean and does not
pollute the environment.
The non-renewable energy includes the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, and they go
on depleting with time.

Fig-1.3(a) Renewable Fig-1.3 (b) Non Renewable

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy sources

1.4. World energy scenario:

The international Energy outlook 2004 projects strong growth for worldwide energy demand
over the 24 year projection period from 2001 to 2025. Total world consumption of marketed energy is
expected to expand by 54%, from 404 quadrillion Btu in 2001 to 623 quadrillion Btu in 2025. The
major growth in energy demand is developing countries as two billion people lack access to affordable
and reliable energy supplies.
The world coal reserves are likely to last a little over 200 years but the oil and gas reserves are
estimated at just 45 years and 65 years, respectively. Of the three major primary sources of energy-
coal, oil and gas, the coal consumption is heavily concentrated in the electricity generation sector.
icity generation. The power generation accounts for
virtually all the projected growth in coal consumption worldwide. One exception is China, where coal

coal reserves and limited access to other sources of energy.

Despite the rapid strides made in the development and adoption of new sources of energy, particularly
renewable energy, petroleum remains the primary energy source all over the world. Since the first
commercial exploitation of oil in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859, the importance. In 1920, only 95
million tons of oil was produced annually around the world. This rose to 4 billion tones in 2003. The
consumption of petroleum in the world, which started as a few tones per year about 140 years ago, has
now reached to over 3000 million metric Tonnes (MMT) per year.

1.5. Global Primary energy consumption:

The global primary energy consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to 9741 million
Tonnes of oil equivalent (MTOE). The primary energy consumption in some developed and
developing countries is shown in table 1.5 and world primary energy consumption is projected up to
year 2025 is shown in Bar chart 1.5

Energy consumption in developing countries:

Althou

of living in the developed countries are attributable to high-energy consumption levels. Also, the rapid
population growth in the developing countries has kept the per capita energy consumption low
compared with that of highly industrialized countries. The world average energy consumption per
person is equivalent to 2.2 Tonnes of coal. In industrialized countries, people use four to five times
more than the world average and nine times more than the average for the developing countries. An
American uses 32 times more commercial energy than Indian.
 Country Oil Natural Coal Nuclear Hydro Total
Gas Energy electric

USA 14.3 66.8 73.9 81.9 0.9 297.8

China 275.2 29.5 799.7 9.8 4.0 178.3

Russian
124.7 365.2 111.3 34.0 35.6 670.8
Federation

Japan 48.7 68.9 112.2 2.2 22.8 504.8

India 113.3 27.1 185.3 4.1 15.6 345.3

Canada 96.4 78.7 31.0 16.8 68.6 291.4

France 94.2 39.4 12.4 99.8 14.8 260.6

U.K 76.8 85.5 39.1 20.1 1.3 223.2

Malaysia 3.9 5.6 - - 1.7 54.4

Pakistan 7.0 9.0 7 0.4 5.6 44.8

Singapore 4.1 4.8 - - - 38.9

Total World 636.6 331.9 578.4 98.8 595.4 9741.1

Table1.5 World energy resources overview

Bar chart 1.5 World energy resources overview

1.6. World energy consumption projections:
According to analysts, about two billion people lack access to affordable and reliable energy
supplies in developing countries. Women and children are disproportionately burdened by dependence
on traditional fuels. The international Energy outlook 2004(Ieo2004) Projects strong growth for
worldwide energy demand over the 24-year projection period from 2001 to 2025. Total world
consumption of marketed energy is expected to expand by 54 Percent, from 404 quadrillion Btu
(British thermal units) in 2001 to 623 quadrillion Btu in 2025. In the IEO 2004 mid-term outlook
developing nations of the world are largely expected to account for the increment in the world energy
consummation. In particular, energy demand in the emerging economies of developing Asia, which
include china and India, is projected to more than double over the next quarter century. In the
developing world as a whole, primary energy consummation is projected to grow at an average annual
rate of 2.7 percent between 2001 and 2005. In contrast, in the industrialized world, with its more
mature energy use is expected to grow at a much slower rate 1.2 percent per year over the same period,
and in the transitional economics of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union growth in energy
demand is projected to average 1.5 percent per year.

Outlook for primary energy consumption:

Coal use worldwide is projected to increase by 2.3 billion Tonnes between 2001 and 2025.
Substantial declines in coal use are projected for Western Europe and Eastern Europe, where natural
gas is increasingly being used it fuel new growth in electric power generation and for other uses as in
the industrial building sectors. In the developing world, however, larger increase in coal use are
projected for China and India account for 85 percent of the projected rise in coal use in the developing
world and 70 percent of the total world increment in coal demand over the forecast period.
Oil is expected to remain the dominant energy fuel throughout the forecast period, with its share of
total world energy consumption remaining unchanged at 39 percent through 2025. In the industrialized
world, increase in oil use are projected primarily in the transportation sector, where there are currently
no available fuels to complete significantly with oil product. The IEO2004 reference case projects
declining oil use for electricity generation, with other fuels, especially natural gas, expected to provide
more favorable alternatives to oil-fired generation. Fig-1.6 (a) and (b) illustrates the world primary
energy consumption projection from year 1970 to 2025
 Fig-1.6 (a) World energy consumption projections

Global primary energy consumption Natural gas is projected to be the fastest growing primary energy
source worldwide, maintaining average growth of 2.2 percent annually over the 2001-2025 periods. In
comparison 1.9 percent average annual growth rates are projected for oil and for renewable, 1.6
percent annual growth is projected for coal, and 0.6 percent annual growth is projected for nuclear
power ( on a Btu basis)
Total world natural gas consumption is projected to rise for 90 trillion cubic feet in 2025. In the United
States, the industrial sector is expected to remain the largest end use consumer of natural gas, growing
by 1.4 percent per year on average, from 7.3 trillion cubic feet in 2001 to 10.3 trillion cubic feet in
2025. In the electric power sector, natural gas is projected to increase by 1.9 percent per year, from 5.4
trillion cubic feet to 8.4 trillion cubic feet.
Electricity generation is expected to nearly double between 2001 and 2025, from 13,290 billion
kilowatt-hours to 23,702 billion kilowatt-hours. Strongest growth is projected for the countries of the
developing world, where net electricity consumption rises by 3.5 percent per year in the IE02004
reference case, compared with a projected average increase of 2.3 percent per year worldwide. Robust
economic growth in many of the developing nations is expected to boost demand for electricity to run
newly purchased home appliances for air conditioning, cooking space and water heating, and
refrigeration. For the industrialized world and refrigeration. For the industrialized world and the
transitional economies of the Eastern Europe/former Soviet Union, where electricity markets are more
modest annual growth rates of 1.5 and 2 percent, respectively, are projected.
Over the 2011-2025 forecast horizons, renewable maintain their share of total energy consumption at
8percent. Moreover, despite the high rates of growth projected for renewable energy sources, such as
wind power in Western Europe and the United States, much of the growth is expected to result from
large-scale hydroelectric power projects in the developing countries, particularly among the nations of
developing Asia. China, India, Malaysia, and Vietnam are already constructing or have plans to
construct ambitions hydroelectric projects in the coming decades.
1.7. World energy resources overview:
The main findings of the 2001 Survey of Energy Resources, produced by the World Energy
Council, confirm that conventional commercial fossil fuels encompassing coal, oil and natural gas,
remain in adequate supply with a substantial resource base. Compared to the 1998 Surveys, coal and
natural gas reserves increased somewhat, while those of oil declined slightly, within the total coal
reserves, both sub-bituminous coal and lignite reserves declined from the previously reported levels by
15% and 3% respectively, but bituminous coal reserves increased by 2%
While coal supply in the medium and long term is assured, the future prospects for delivery and use of
coal will largely depend on the impact of deregulation of electricity markets, policies to reduce
greenhouse gases, and technological advances (cleaner use of coal and carbon sequestration i). Coal
could contribute in a sustainable way to satisfying demand for energy from the two billion people n the
world who today. Primary energy consumption by fuel in selected countries of the world 2003In
million tones oil equivalent
In the commentary on oil, the pessimistic and optimistic reserve assessments have been propounded
and appear to incline towards the former, for the following reasons:
Proved recoverable reserves of oil, which are largely concentrated in the Middle East, declined,
while those of gas which are more evenly spread, increased;

deeper offshore waters);

than in the earlier periods;

More recently, the additional discoveries have been less than the oil produced

satisfactorily.
is in 6th place. Other countries contribution can be analyzed by the pie chart given below.
 Pie chart 1.7

1.8. World reserves of primary energy sources:

As per BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2004, the world reserves of the three major
primary energy sources like coal, oil and gas in as follows:

1.8 (i) Coal:

The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9, 84,453 million tones by end of 2003. The USA
alone with 25.4% had the largest share of the global reserve, followed by Russia 15.9%, China 11.6%
and India8.6%
 Fig-1.8(i) Coal
1.8 (ii) Oil:
Despite the rapid strides made in the development and adoption of new sources of energy, particularly
renewable energy, oil remains the primary energy source all over the world. The global proven oil
reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the end of 2003. Saudi Arabia had the largest share
of the reserve with almost 23%. One barrel of oil is approximately 160 liters.

1.8 (iii) Gas:

reserves are falling, the potential gas reserves keep increasing. In fact, much of the new discoveries in
the world, including India, is gas. The global proven gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion cubic
meters by the end of 2003. The Russian Federation had the largest share of the reserve3 with almost
27%.

Fig-1.8(iii) Gas
World oil and Gas Reserves are estimated at just 45 Years and 65 years respectively and coal is likely
to lost a little over 200 Years

1.9 Indian Energy Scenario:

th
of the world, 1/7th of USA, 1/1.6th
time of Japan but 1.1,1.3,1.5 times that of Canada, France and UK, respectively. The reform measures

have led to some improvements in the Indian economy and aligned it more closely with the major
economics of the world. Today India is one of the fastest growing economies in Asia.
The economic growth of a country is often closely linked to its consumption of energy. As compared
to developed countries, the per capita energy consumption is too low in India. It is just 4% of USA and
20% of the world average Driven by the expanding economy, rising population and a quest for
improved quality of life, energy usage in India is expected to rise to around 450 kg/year by 2010 from
the present over 350 kg/year.

Although, we rank sixth in the world so far as total energy is concerned, but still much more energy
needed to keep pace with our economic development objectives Most of our energy requirement are
met through fossil fuel that is limited and petroleum fuel that leads to dependence on Imports and

R.V.Shahi, Power Secretary, Govt, Of India.

energy mix I n India contributing to 55% of the total primary energy production. Over the year, there
has been a marked decline in oil production from 20% to 17% but during the same period the share of

production is mainly due to it being relatively poor in oil reserves, which amount to 5.9 billion barrels.
It is just 0.5 % of global reserves. India imports 70% of its oil, much of it from West Asia. In the next

up to 85% and by the year 2020, further to about 92%.

1.10 Sector wise Energy Consumption:

The major commercial energy consuming sectors in the country are classified into four major
sectors, namely agriculture, domestic, industry, transport and others as shown in the graph. Among
these, the industry remains the biggest consumer with 49% share in total commercial energy
consumption, followed by transport 22%, domestic 10% agriculture has 5% and other remaining 14%.

Fig-1.10

1.11 Primary Energy Sources:

1.11 (i) Coal:
More than 50 percent of Indian energy demand is met though coal. Power generation alone

International Energy Annual 2002, the coal consumption in India is projected to increase from 369
million Tonnes in the year 2000 to 450 million Tonnes by the year 2010.

production stands at around 290 million Tonnes per year. Presently the major coal production is
concentrated in eight Indian States, namely: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Indian coal is typically of poor quality and such

reserves were estimated at 84,396 million tones. This is almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may
last for about 230 years a
coal reserves are expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio.

1.11 (ii) Lignite:

 Lignite is the second stage of transformation of wood into coal. India is also one of the largest
producers of lignite in the world. The total lignite reserves identified in India are 36,008 million tones
and those about 85 percent are in Tamil Nadu.
The presence of lignite deposits in the Neyveli region was first revealed during well boring operations.
The Government of India with the services of Powell Duffyrin Technical Services, London, developed
a project report for an integrated project to mine and utilize the lignite available in the region. In order
to exploit the deposits of Tamil Nadu Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited was incorporated as a
Central PSU in 1956.

Pie Chart 1.11(ii) energy sources

1.11 (iii) Oil:

India is one of the top ten oil guzzling nations in the world and will soon overtake Korea as

total energy consumption. In sector wise petroleum product consumption transport sector alone
accounts for 42% , industry 24% and domestic 24%.

51 to 112.56
MMT in 2002 03 and it is expected to reach 175 MMT in 2006 07 Future oil consumption is
expected to grow rapidly to 3.2 million barrels / day by 2010, from 2 million barrels / day in 2002.
India has oil reserves of about 504 billion barrels and the majority of them are located in the Bombay
High, upper Assam, Cambay, and Krishna Godavari. Its annual crude oil production is peaked at
about 32 million tones. By the end of the 10th plan period, the domestic production is likely to rise
self-sufficiency in oil production has consistently declined
from 60% in the 50s to 30% currently. Same is expected to go down further to 8% by 2020.
Currently India import 70% of its crude needs, mainly from gulf nations. At the end of 2004, India
l
oil demand has to be met by imports. Figure 1.13 illustrates the oil net imports and domestic
production

Fig-1.11(iii) oil net imports and domestic production

1.11 (iv) Natural Gas:

Natural gas is clean, environment friendly, and the most economical fuel in term of delivered
price of energy. Compared to coal and other liquid hydrocarbons. Therefore, Indian Consumption of
natural gas has raised faster any other fuel in recent years and today it accounts for about 8.9 percent of
energy consumption in the country.
In India, the current demand for natural gas about 96 million cubic meters per day (MCMD) as against
availability of 67 MCMD. By 2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 MCMD. In 2002-03, the
gas production was 86.56 MCMD, which in 2006-07 is likely to rise to 103.08.MCMD.It, is mainly
based on the strength of more than doubling of production by private operators to 38.25 MCMD. The
natural gas reserves in India are estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.
Through currently natural gas accounts f
compared to nearly 25% in the develop world, the share of gas is bound to increase to around 14% in
 by
CCGT plants using dual fuel naphtha or gas. But since naphtha is a relatively expensive fuel, CCGT
plants will switch to gas if it is made available. Gas is also used as feedstock in fertilizer industry.
Nearly 82 percent of annual gas production is consumed by power and fertilizer industries in India.

1.11 (v) LNG:

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is a relatively recent phenomenon. Natural gas is cooled to
extreme low temperatures to liquefy it and the liquid to transport in cryogenic ships to the destination.
In liquid from the gas occupies just about one-six hundredth of its gaseous volume, but at the receiving
end, the liquid has to be degasified through the process of heating. Thus LNG requires substantial
infrastructure both at the shipping point and the destination which adds to its cost. Petro net LNG,

terminal Dahej in Gujarat with an initial capacity of 5 million metric tons per annum (MMTPA),
which amounts to 20 MCM/D. shell, transnational oil major, is in the process of setting up an LNG
terminal at Hazira.
The year 2004 could well go down as the start of a new era for the Indian petroleum sector. The first
consignment of LNG the alternative fuel for gas, landed of Indian shores in January 2004. The gas
-or-
The marketing of the gas is being down by GAIL, Indian Oil Corporation and Bharat Petroleum
Corporation in the ratio of 60:30:10, respectively. During the year, Petro net supplied 10 MCM/D
LNG to consumers along the HBJ pipeline.

1.11 (vi) Electrical Energy:

As on March 31,2005,the all India electric power generating installed capacity under utilities
was 1,18,419MW,consisting of 80,902MW of thermal(69%), 30,936MW of hydro(26%),2770MW of
nuclear(2%) and 2488 MW of wind power (3%). During the year 2004-05, the gross generation was
587.3 billion units.
India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of which only 15% has

decreased and it presently stands at 25% as on May 31, 2004. It is assessed that exploitable hydro
power potential at 60% load factor is 84,000MW. India currently has a peak demand shortage of
around 14% and energy Deficit Of 8.4%. Keeping this view and to maintain a GDP growth of 8% to
10%, the Government of India has very prudently set a target of 215,804MW Power Generation
capacity by March 2012.

1.12 Final energy consumption:

Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This is the difference
between primary energy consumption and the losses that takes place in transportation, transmission
and distribution and refinement. The past and projected
actual final energy consumption is given in the table below:
-1.13(i) to 1.13(vii) and from
Chart-1.13(i) to 1.13(vi) below.
Total Installed Capacity (MOP website as on 30.6.2010)

SECTOR MW PERCENTAGE
State Sector 80,775 52.5
34.0
Central Sector 51,158

Private Sector 30,434 13.5

Total 1,62,367 100
Table-1.13(i)

Indian Power Scenario Total Installed Capacity

(MOP website as on 30.6.2010)

120
100
100
80
60 52.5 PERCENTAGE
34
40
13.5
20
0
80,775 51,158 30,434 1,62,367

State Sector Central Sector Private Sector Total

Chart-1.13(i)
 Total Installed Capacity (fuel-wise)
(MOP website as on 30.6.2010)

Fuel MW Percentage

Thermal 104,424 64.6

Coal 86,003 53.3

Gas 17,221 10.5

Oil 1,200 0.9

Hydro 36,953 24.7

Nuclear 4,560 2.9

Renewable 16,429 7.7

Total 1,62,367

Table-1.13(ii)

Indian Pow er Scenario Total Installed Capacity (fuel-w ise)

(MOP w ebsite as on 30.6.2010)

120
100
100
80 64.6
60 53.3

40 24.7
20 10.5 7.7
0.9 2.9
0
104,424 86,003 17,221 1,200 36,953 4,560 16,429 1,62,367
Total Thermal Coal Gas Oil Hydro NuclearRenewable Total

Chart-1.13(ii)
Region Coal Gas Nuclear Hydro R.E.S Total

43,188
Northern 21,950 3,563 1,620 13,350 2,690

Western 28,525 8,144 1,840 7,448 4,850 50,824

Southern 18,573 4.558 1,100 11,157 8,330 44,656

Eastern 16,895 190 0 3,882 335 21,321

North
60 766 0 1,116 218 2,303
Eastern

All India 86,003 17,221 4,560 36,953 16,429 162,367

Table-1.13(iii) Installed Capacity in MW (Region wise)

Indian Power Scenario Total Installed Capacity (MW)

(CEA website as on 30.6.2010)

1,000,000
Coal
100,000
Gas
10,000
Nuclear
1,000
Hydro
100
R.E.S
10
Total
1
Northern Western Southern Eastern North All India
Eastern

Chart-1.13(iii)
Power Supply Scenario (April May 2010: CEA)
 Table-1.13(iv)

CEA)

160,000
140,000
120,000
Energy Requirement (MU)
100,000
80,000 Energy Availabilty (MU)
60,000 Energy Deficit(%)
40,000
20,000
0
Northern Westren Southern Eastern NE Total for
Region Region Region Region Region the
Country

Chart-1.13(iv)
Indian Power Scenario
 Power Supply Scenario (April May 2010: CEA)

Table-1.13(v)

CEA)

140,000
120,000
100,000
Peak demand (MW)
80,000
Peak demand (MW)
60,000
Peak Deficit(%)
40,000
20,000
0
Northern Westren Southern Eastern N E Region Total for the
Region Region Region Region Country

Chart-1.13(v)

T&D Losses (2006 2007), (CEA Annual Report)

 Region Losses

Northern Region 20 to 52 (%)

Western Region 21 to 39 (%)

Southern Region 19 to 26 (%)

Eastern Region 24 to 50 (%)

N E Region 34 to 57 (%)

All India 28.65 (%)

Table-1.13(vi)
Installed Power Generating Capacity in Karnataka:
(Approximate figures in some years)
Installed capacity Increase over
Year
(MW) previous decade

Year 1948 83 -

Year 1950 107 -

Year 1960 189 77 %

Year 1970 888 470 %

Year 1980 1310 48 %

Year 1990 2760 210 %

Year 2000 5824 211 %

9250
150 %
Year 2009 (Own capacity + Central
(111 times of 1948)
sector share)

Table-1.13(vii)
 Installed Power Generating Capacity in Karnataka
(Approximate figures in some years)

10000

8000

6000 Installed capacity (MW) 83 107

4000 Increase over previous decade -

2000

0
Year 1960 Year 1970 Year 1980 Year 1990 Year 2000 Year 2009

Chart-1.13(vii)

Points to be Remember
Demand for energy will continue to grow even if governments adopt strict vigorous policies to
conserve energy.
Coal has the potential to contribute substantially to future energy supplies, but its reserves are
limited.
The supply of oil will fail to meet increasing demand.
Natural gas reserves are large enough to meet projected demand provided the incentives are
sufficient enough to encourage the development of extensive and costly inter-continental gas
transportation system.
Electricity from nuclear power is capable of making an important contribution to the global energy
supply. However, its acceptance is yet to be established globally.
Other than hydropower, renewable energy sources are likely to become increasingly important in
21st century.
Energy efficiency improvements and Energy conservation techniques will play a major role in
reducing the gap between energy demand and energy supply.
 SOLAR ENERGY BASICS
Introduction:
1. Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly in to other forms of energy.
2. In-exhaustible source of useful energy.
3. Major drawbacks to the extensive application of S.E
1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the surface
and
2. The large area required to collect the energy at useful rate.
4. Experiments are under way to use this energy.
5. Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave lengths in the
range of 0.2 to 4.0 µm
6. Solar energy reaches the top of the earth atmosphere consists of about
1. 8% Ultraviolet radiation (short wave length, less than 0.39µm )
2. 46% visible light (0.39 to 0.78µm) and 46% Infrared radiation (long wave
length more than 0.78µm
Solar Constant:
1. The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heating being generated by various kinds of
fusion reactions.
2. Sun diameter is 1.39X106 km, while earth is 1.27X104 km.
3. Mean distance between sun and earth is 1.50X108 km
4. The beam of radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.
5. The brightness of the sun varies from its center to its edge. For calculations, it is customary to
assume that the brightness all over the solar disc is uniform.
6. Radiation coming from the sun approximately-57620 K.
7. The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar constant
ISC. This is the amount energy receive
direction at mean distance of the earth from the sun. The rate of arrival of solar radiation varies
throughout the year.
8. Solar constant is an average from which actual values vary up to about 3% in either direction.
9. NASA has expressed solar constant in three common units
1. 1.353KW/ m2 or 1353 W/m2
 2. 116.5 langleys (calories/cm2) per hour, or
1165/kcal/m2/hr (1 langley=1cal/cm2) solar radiation received in one day.
3. 429.2 Btu/ square feet/hr.
10. The distance b/w the earth and sun varies a little through the year. Because of this variation, the
extra-terrestrial (outside the atmosphere) flux also varies. The earth is closest to the sun in the
summer and farthest away in the winter.
11. The variation in the distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar

I/Isc = 1+0.033 COS (360(n-2))/365 (or)

= 1+ 0.033 COS (360 x n)/365

The
amount and character from radiation at the top of the atmosphere. The radiation entering the
atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules, and a part of the radiation is reflected back into the space
by clouds. Part of the solar radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules and
dust particles. Oxygen and ozone absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation whereas CO2 and H2O
vapour absorb some energy from infrared range.
 1. Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds.
2. Oxygen and ozone absorbs nearly all the ultraviolet radiation and water vapour and CO2
absorb some of the energy in the infrared range.
3. Some part of the solar energy radiation is scatted by droplets in the clouds by atmospheric
molecules, and by dust particles.

Beam radiation:
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from the
direct
It is the radiation which produces a shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.

Diffusion radiation:
Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been
changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere

and diffuse radiation. This referred to in a general sense as the insolation at that point.
2. The insolation is defined as the total solar radiation energy received on a horizontal surface
of unit area on ground in unit time.
3. The insolation at a given location on the earth surface depends on the altitude of the sun in
ion and the horizontal)

latitude at which the observations are made, the rate of arrival of solar radiation on the ground
is variable quantity even in the time.

SOME DEFINITIONS
1. Sun at zenith: It is the position of the sun directly overhead.
2. Air mass: It is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere to the length of path and
when the sun is at the zenith. Air mass = cos (altitude angle) except for very low solar altitude
angles.
 3.
surface.
Latitude, l
It is the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the center of earth with the projection of
the line on the equatorial plane, denoted by l. It is also given by the angular distance north or south of
the equator measured from the center of the earth.

Latitude,
1. If l is given by the
angle between the line OP and projection of OP on the equatorial plane. As a method of
convention, the latitude will be measured as +ve for the northern hemisphere.
2.
3.
line extending from the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth and the projection of this line
 December 22.

4. T
a. = 23.45 sin 360/365(284+n) where n is the day of the year
b. e.g.: March 22 is the 31 + 29 + 22 = 82nd day n = 82
5.
It is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point directly in line
hour angle is equivalent to 15o per hour.
6. It is measured from noon based on the solar local time (LST) or local apparent time, being

equatorial plane, between the projection of OP and the projection of O line from the centre of
the sun to the centre of the earth
7.
horizontal plane and
8.
ndicular to the horizontal plane
through the point P. i.e., the angle between the beam from the sun and the vertical. Zenith
angle is complimentary
-
 9.
It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon cost or west of north or it is the horizontal

when measured west wise.

In terms of basic angles, cos = cos
cos -

If north latitudes are considered positive and south latitudes negative, the declination will be
positive for summer period between the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox and negative at
other times
10. The slope (s)
It is the angle made by the plane surfaces with the horizontal. It is considered positive for
surfaces slopping towards the south and negative for surface slopping towards the north.
11.
It is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from the local meridian, the zero point
being south, east positive and west negative.
Fig. Surface azimuth angle and slope defined
12.
It is the angle being measured from a plane and is equal to the angle between the beam of rays and
normal to the plane. It is expressed as
s)
+ cos s- s )
s) ----------------------------------------- (1)
Where l = Latitude (North positive)

Hour angle is mathematically expressed as,

- LST) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
Note:
ositive and afternoon negative
For vertical surfaces s = 90o in equation 1 above
cos -cos ------------- (3)
For horizontal surfaces s

= sin ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

cos s)
= cos s- )
( - ( -s)--------------------------------------- (5)

-cos ------------------------------------------------------ (6)

13) Day Length

by,
-tan
-1) (-tan
At 15o of the hour angle = 1hour, day length
-1) (-tan ------------------------------------------------------- (7)
Note:

-1) (-tan ( -s)tan

Hence day length
td= 2/15 cos^(-1) (-tan ( - -------------------------------------------------------------- (8)
14) Local Solar Time
It is also known as local apparent time which is the time used for calculating the hour angle. The local
solar time is obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by making two corrections.
The first correction takes into account the difference in longitude between a location and a meridian on
which the standard time is based. For every degree difference in longitude this difference is 4 minutes.

orbit and rate of rotation.

LST = Standard time ±4(Standard time longitude Longitude of location) + Equation of time
correction.
Note:- The ve sign is applied for eastern hemisphere.
General points:
1.
solar radiation must pass and reach the ground.
2. As a result of absorption and scattering, the insolation is less when sun is low in the sky
than when it is higher.
3. Scattering occurs diffuse radiation constitutes a larger fraction of the total received.
4. On a clear, cloudless day, about 10 to 20% of the insolation is from diffuse radiation,
proportion increases upto 100% when the sun is completely obscured by clouds.
5. When the humidity is high, insolation as high as 50% of the insolation on a clear day at
same time and place.
6. Insolation is not isotropic (from the observer point of view)
Solar Radiation Data:
1. Solar radiation data are available in several forms and should include the following
information.
1. Whether they are instantaneous measurements or values integrated over some
period of time
2. The time or time period of the measurements
3. Whether the measurements are of beam, diffuse or total radiation and the
instrument used.
4. The receiving surface orientation
5. If averaged, the period over which they averaged.
2. Solar radiation received on the surface of the earth are measured by solarimeter, which give
readings for instantaneous measurement at rate throughout the day for total radiation on a
horizontal surface.
3. 1 langley =1 cal/cm2
4. In Calcutta =680 langleys = 680 cal/cm2/day
Solar Radiation measurement Data:
1. India lies between latitude 70 and 370N , and receives an annual average intensity of solar
radiation between 16700-29260 kj/m2/day (400-700 cal/cm2/day)
2. Peak values are measured in April or May
 3. Peak values in Rajasthan and Gujarat are 25100 kj/m2/day (600 cal/cm2/day)
4. During monsoon and winter daily solar radiation decreases to about 16700 KJ/m 2/day (400
cal/cm2/day)
5. The annual daily diffuse radiation received over the whole country is observed to be about
7300 kj/m2/day (175 cal/cm2/day)
6. The Minimum values of diffuse radiation, measured over many parts of the country during
November and December are between 3135-4180 Kj/m2/day (75-100 cal/cm2/day)
7. Maximum values in july are 12550 kj/m2/day (300 cal/cm2/day) (in Gujarat)
Estimation of average solar radiation
Monthly average horizontal solar radiation was given by angstrom is Hav = Ho

Thermoelectric Pyranometer

Measures solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm

Sensor: Blackened copper constantan thermopile covered with two concentric glass domes
which are transparent to radiation from 300-4000 nm.
Generated emf by thermopile is proportional to incident radiation. The typical value is
approximately 5 micro Volts/watt/sq. metre
Used for instantaneous measurement and continuous recording of Global, Diffused, Reflected
Solar irradiance.

Pyranometer (Installation View)