DR.

BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY,

AURANGABAD.

A
PROJECT REPORT
OF
IOT BASED SOLAR WOOD CUTTER ( HACKSAW)
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

Submitted By

Mr. Pankaj Dhage - 44014 Mr. khushal Jawale- 44019

Mr. Ganesh Chakotkar - 44016 Ms.Jayshree Hiwrale- 44018

Guided By
Prof. – A.B.Humbe

Department of Mechanical Engineering

INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN ENGINEERING
AND MANAGEMENT, AURANGABAD.
2021-22

Dept. of Mechanical EngineeringPage 1

 CERTIFICATE
This to certify that the peoject report entitled

IOT BASED SOLAR WOOD CUTTER ( HACKSAW)

Submitted by
Mr. Pankaj Dhage - 44014 Mr. khushal Jawale- 44019

Mr. Ganesh Chakotkar - 44016 Ms.Jayshree Hiwrale- 44018

Have completed as per the requirement of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University in partial fulfillment of degree

B.E. (Mechanical)

Guide H.O.D Director

Prof. – A.B.Humbe Prof. S.M. Deshmukh Dr.C.S.Padmavat

Department of Mechanical Engineering

INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN ENGINEERING
AND MANAGEMENT,
AURANGABAD.
2021-22

Dept. of Mechanical EngineeringPage 2

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The portion of success is brewed by the efforts put in by individuals. It is the constant

support provided by the people who give me the initiative, who inspire me for each step on

my endeavor that eventually helps me in our goal.

I wish to express my deep gratitude and hearty appreciation for the guidance

throughout the span of this seminar. It is my prior to acknowledge the support received

from the Guide Prof. A.B.Humbe His excellent guidance made me to select this seminar

within a short span of time.

I am also thankful to our H.O.D Prof.S.M.Deshmukh and

Director Dr. C.S.Padmavat for their invaluable and elaborate suggestions. Also I would

like to extend my thanks to the staff of our DEPARTMENT of MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING for the co-operation and the support given to me throughout the semester.

This has helped me to complete this report in time and also has helped me to enjoy the
presentation of this report.

Finally, the most inspiring source, my parents, without their blessings, continuous

motivation, encouragement and moral support, it was not possible to successfully complete

this seminar work.

Thank You!

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 ABSTRACT

This project is on the design and construction of a solar power hacksaw machine for cutting
of metal to different size and length with the help of solar hacksaw. The objective of this
project is to save manpower and time, energy in cutting metals in order to achieve high
productivity. It is a cutting machine with teeth on its blade used specially for cutting
material. The power to the hacksaw is provided by the Solar Energy. The motor drives the
flywheel connected to the shaft of the motor. The flywheel is connected through a link that
transmits the required force for cutting the work piece. Finally connecting rod is connected
to the vertical arm connected to the horizontal arm. Rotary motion of the shaft is converted
into reciprocating motion of the hacksaw with the help of crank and connecting rod. Work
piece of desired length can be cut by feeding it to hacksaw by holding it into bench vice.
The various component of the machine were designed and constructed. Test was carried
out on the machine using different metals. A solar panel connected to power hacksaw is
considered as a solar operated power hacksaw in which sun’s energy is used to drive the
hacksaw in order to cut wood, metal rod etc. A solar connected to the hacksaw converts the
solar energy into electrical energy which is stored in a 12 v battery as a direct current to run
the motor connected to the hacksaw .A DC motor is connected to the hacksaw which is
used to give the rotary motion to the flywheel connected to the shaft of the dc motor .The
energy stored in battery is supplied to the dc motor which rotates the flywheel connected
to the shaft of motor. The rotary motion of the flywheel is converted to reciprocating motion
which gives back-forth motion to blade of the hacksaw by a mechanism known as scotch
yoke mechanism. The reciprocating motion of the hacksaw reciprocates the blade on the
work piece which performs the cutting action. The work piece is clamped in a clamper to
fix it. The clamper is made of cast iron or mild steel. A solar power hacksaw is a cheap and
environmental friendly device that is operated without the consumption of any energy other
than the solar energy .Solar energy is cheap and easily available on the earth. No heavy
machines or devices are required for energy conservation.
Keyword- Solar Panel, DC Motor, Battery, Crank rod, Mild Steel.

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. General
Solar wood cutter is a mechanical device which is used to cut materials like PVC pipe,
wood material, etc. The rotary motion is converted in to linear motion by slider crank
arrangement. The size and shape of this setup is similar to cycle. It is like a cycle is added
with a bed for cutting a work piece. As it required very low peddling power it can be
operated by very low power.

A hacksaw is a fine-tooth saw with a blade under tension in a frame, used for cutting
materials such as metal. Hacksaw consists of a metal frame with a handle, and pins for
attaching a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism is used to put the thin
blade under tension.

The solar wood cutter can be moved near the job and can be fitted on the job. This
eliminates the risk of carrying the job to the machine table. This unit is driven by 12V D C
motor. This enables the slide to get the reciprocating motion having a stroke length near
about of 75mm. The cutter (or) blade is welded to the slider at the bottom edge.

In our project, “Solar Operated Wood Cutter” is used to cut the different material for the
different application. The cutter can be used to make cutting in wood work piece without
moving the job to the work table. The blade is used for cutting wooden pieces. both internal
and external, for handling large and awkward work pieces, for cutting internal or external
gears and many other operation which cannot be conveniently machined many other
machine.

1.2. Scope of the Project

 The machine can solve the problem of time consumption.
 Waste of resources in face of labour cost is reduced.

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  The machine can be used in the industry where it is manufactured, at the packaging
sector.
 It is used as hardware in large quantity like in fabrication machine
 It provide alternative for industries aiming toward reducing human effort.
 It generates sustainable and practical solutions for the future industrial
development.

1.3 Objectives of the Project

 To cater to the issue of competition in mechanical industry, the need for solar energy
is assessed by all the industries.
 Identify the key policy avenues considered to be appropriate to meet the challenge
of sustainable manufacturing and packaging industry for the future.
 To provide alternative for industries aiming toward reducing human effort.
 Sustainable and practical solutions for the future industrial environment.

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

After the study of many literatures about design, construction and working of solar power
hacksaw machine, some of them describe the methodology of solar power hacksaw. Lots of
factor have been consider for the design, construction and working of solar power hacksaw
machine such as cutting speed, cutting material, cutting time ,power ,efficiency etc. So, lots of
literatures have been found which gives the relevance information and methodology of
constructing an solar power hacksaw machine.

2.2 Historical Background

The problem of cutting-off material to size is common to practically every industry. Often,
sawing is the first operation carried out on bar stock. Therefore, it is surprising that so little
work has been done to understand the problems of this common operation. Many reasons have
been consider better methods. Often the foreman will assign a new trainee to a sawing task, on
the principle that it is easy to learn and difficult to foul up. Furthermore cut-off machines are
frequently housed in stores away from the main production areas and the operation of the
sewing machines appears to be simple. The fact remains that cutting-off operations can account
for a significant part of the cost per piece (Remmerswaa and Mathysen, 1961).

The reason for carrying out the present work is the growing realization on the part of
manufacturers of both blades and machines, that the factors which control the mechanics and
economics of power hacksaw cutting are complex. Also power hacksaw cutting has been
receiving increased competition from other cutting off processes, such as band and circular
sawing.

Whilst the British Standard BS 1919: 1974 gives specifications for hacksaw blades regarding
dimensions etc. the standard relates to testing of hacksaw blades for hand use only and does not
include power hacksaw blade testing. Thus, both manufacturers of hacksaw blades and users
have experienced considerable difficulty in establishing standard testing procedures and in
obtaining consistency in test data using power hacksaw machines. Preliminary investigations
by the author have revealed that existing blade testing methods were not independent of the
machine characteristics, which could contribute to one of the reasons for the inconsistency in
the test data. Hence, there has been requirement to identify the machine characteristics under

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normal working conditions and to investigate the mechanics of the sawing process and the
variables affecting metal removal rate. Most of the early published work on cutting-off has been
primarily concerned with circular and band sawing and cost comparisons between alternative
processes. Whilst these alternative processes are frequently, quicker than power hacksaw
cutting, their costs are in many applications higher. Whilst the impact of these alternative
processes on the application of power hacksaw cutting cannot be denied there remains a
significant field of application for power hacksaw cutting which is likely to remain
unchallenged. A factor of prime interest to manufacturers is that, if the costs of power hacksaw
cutting can be reduced by developing the blade and the saw machine, the potential field of
application will be widened. During the past fifty years very little attention has been devoted to
developing the geometry of the hacksaw blade or the machine, although, some improvements
in the blade material, together with methods of applying the load and mechanized work
handling, have been achieved (Nelson,1965).

2.3 Sawing
If all raw stock was delivered in ready-to-machine shapes and sizes, there would be no need for
sawing machines in a metal working shop. Machine operators could merely go over to the stock,
select the suitable work piece, and perform the necessary finishing operations. Such situation
rarely exists, due to the fact that the majority of the stock requires to be cut in some way prior
to starting a machining schedule. The alternative to this primary operation of sawing is to buy-
in prepared lengths and shapes; this however introduces a service which the company has to
pay for and, in the majority of the cases, it is simpler and more economical to carry out the
basic cutting-to-size operation in house. One of the major advantages of sawing over all other
kinds of machining is the narrowness of cut op. Most sawing machines perform the cut-off
operation, where a piece of stock is cut to a workable length prior to subsequent machining
operations. Machines that accomplish this job include hacksaws, band saws and circular saw.
2.4 Power Hacksaw Cutting
The simple back-and-forth motion of the blade made the hacksaw one of the first types of
sawing machines designed for power. The simplicity in the blade motion has kept the price of
the saw machine relatively cheaper than other types of sawing machines. The low initial cost
coupled with the flexibility and adaptability, has enabled the hacksaw to remain popular in

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industry. In hacksaw cutting, a single blade is tensioned in the bow, and reciprocated back and
forth over the work piece. The cutting action is achieved only during half of the cycle of
operation. During the second half of the cycle, the return stroke, the blade is lifted clear of the
work piece, giving a discontinuous cutting action, which is considered to be one of the
drawbacks of the operation. Despite this disadvantage, As compared to the continuous cutting
action of the band saw, hacksaws remain equally or even more popular alternative machines.
As with many other basic processes, hacksaw cutting is a tried and tested method, reliable,
consistently accurate, quick and easy to repair, is less dependent on correct blade tension and
less likely to run-out. Furthermore power hacksaws can be left unattended for long periods
when cutting large diameter bar and require minimum operator skill. Blade replacement is
relatively cheap and simple.

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 3. PROJECT METHODOLOGY

3.1 General

Solar Power Hacksaws are used to cut large sections of metal or plastic shafts and rods. Cutting
of solid shafts or rods of diameters more than fifteen millimeters is a very hard work with a
normal hand held hacksaw. Therefore solar power hacksaw machine is used to carry out the
difficult and time consuming work. This power hacksaw machine is considered as an energy
saving machine because the operator need not be there to provide the reciprocating motion and
downward force on the work-piece in order to cut it. Once the operator has fed the work-piece
till the required length in to the machine and starts the machine, then the machine will cut until
the work-piece has been completely cut in to two pieces. The Solar Power hacksaw machine
though being able to cut the shaft or rod without requiring any human effort to cut, it does
require a human intervention to feed the work-piece many times with measurements being
taken each time before feeding.

3.2 Scotch Yoke Mechanism

This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a reciprocating motion. The inversion
is obtained by fixing either link 1or link 3.in fig link 1 is fixed. In this mechanism when the
link 2 (which correspond to crank) rotates about Bas centre, the link 4 (which correspond to
frame) reciprocates. The fixed link 1 guides the frame.

Fig 3.2 - Scotch yoke mechanism

3.3 Components Used
The different components required are stated below

Nut and Bolt Joint

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An industrial fastener comprises a very wide range of items like nuts and bolts, washers, studs,
nails etc. Nuts and bolts consist of major link in the family of industrial fasteners and are used by
every industry. Bolt is a piece of metal rod, whose one end is up settled and other end is threaded.
Nut is the item which rolls on these threads. Nut and bolts are available in various shapes, designs
and sizes. Nuts and bolts are used for fastening purpose in industries where the replacement of
pieces and the parts is necessary.

The main raw material is mild steel wire coil/rod of required diameter. The composition of
materials controls the quality of the bolts and nuts. The recommended composition for nuts and
bolts raw material is given as under: Carbon 0.22 to 0.23% Phosphorus 0.40% Manganese 0.39 to
0.60% Sulphur 0.50% Nuts and bolts are classified by two ways:
i) Their uses,
ii) Shape of head.

In terms of use, nuts and bolts are of several types: Larger diameter bolts, machine bolts, stand
bolts, joint bolts, foundation bolts and nuts etc. in terms of shape, bolt and nuts are classified by
head shape like hexagonal head, square head, round head, pan head, truss head etc.

Hacksaw Frame

Fig. 3.3.1 - Hacksaw Frame

A hacksaw is a fine-tooth saw with a blade under tension in a frame, used for cutting materials
such as metal. Hand-held hacksaws consist of a metal frame with handle, and pins for attaching

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a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism isused to put the thin blade under
tension.

The hacksaw is specifically designed to cut through metal, it is often used to saw wood and
plastic. And because of the unique frame design, the blade may be inserted both parallel and
perpendicular to the frame. The technique for using a hacksaw is identical to that of a crosscut
saw.

Blade

Fig.3.3.2 - Blade

Blades are available in standardized lengths, and with anywhere from three to thirty-two teeth
per inch (tpi). The blade used is Base framed on the thickness of the material being cut, with a
minimum of three teeth in the material. Hacksaw blades are normally quite brittle, so care needs
to be taken to prevent brittle fracture of the blade. Bimetal blades are meant to minimize this
risk.

The blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or away from the handle, resulting in
cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. On the push stroke, the arch will flex slightly,
decreasing the tension on the blade, often resulting in an increased tendency of the blade to buckle
and crack. Cutting on the pull stroke increases the blade

tension and will result in greater control of the cut and longer blade life. Blades are available in
standardized lengths, usually 10 or 12 inches for a standard hand hacksaw. "Junior" hacksaws are
half this size.

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Weight

An circular shape of heavy object having weight 1 kg each is mounted on hacksaw frame. The
location of this weight is at extreme corner of hacksaw frame. This arrangement is welded on
frame i.e. bolt is welded into which weights are drilled. Due to force applied by weight on
workpiece, cutting rate increases which results less power is required to operator.

Fig. 3.3.3 - Weight

DC Motor
This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field. It experiences a torque and has a tendency to move. This known as
motoring action. If the direction of electric current in wire is reversed, the direction of rotation is
also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce mechanical force, and
based on the working principal of DC motor establish.

The direction of rotation of this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that if the
index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually perpendicular to
each other and if the index finger represent the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicate
the direction of current, then the thumb represent the direc tion in which the force is experienced
by shaft of the DC motor. DC motor consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside
another set of coil or a set of permanent magnet, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coil
produces torque in the armature, resulting in motion.

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Principle Of Operation

The basic principle of motor action lies in a simple sketch. The working principle tells that, when
a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced to move the
conductor away from the magnetic field.
Movement of
Conductor

N S

Magnetic flux Current Carrying

Conductor

The force given by the equation,

F = B I L Newtons
Where,
B = Flux density in WB/sq.m
I = Current through the conductor
L = Length of the conductor

Let us consider a single turn coil. The coil side A will be forced to move downward, where as the
coil side “B” will be forced to move upward. Due to this movement now the coil is made to rotate.
Since the coil is arranged into rotate. Since the coil is arranged in the armature when it rotates in
emf is induced in the coil and that emf which is induced in the coil is in opposite to supply emf.
Therefore we can call the emf induced as back emf (B-emf). Hence when motor runs normally the
supply emf (V) is equal to B-emf.

Therefore V = Vb + Va (or) V = Vb + Ia Ra (Since V= IR)

Multiplying both sides by Ia,

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 Therefore Via = Vb Ia + (Ia x Ia) Ra

Where Via is the electrical equivalent of the mechanical power developed in the motor and (Ia x
Ia) Ra is armature drop.

This process that motor converts electrical energy mechanical energy where (Ia x Ia) Ra is the
copper loss which is to be neglected.

Stator
 The stator is the stationary part outside the motor.
 The stator of permanent magnet Dc motor is composed of two or more permanent magnet
pole pieces.
 The magnetic field can alternatively be created by electromagnet. In this case DC coils
(field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of stator.

Rotor
 The rotor is the inner part which rotates.
 The rotor is composed of winding (called armature winding) which are connected to the
external circuit through a mechanical commutated.
 Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by air
gap.

Winding
 A winding is made up of series and parallel connection
 Armature winding- the winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
 Field winding- the winding through which the current is passed to produced current (for
the electromagnet).
 Winding are usually made of copper

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Solar Panel

A solar panel designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy for generating electricity. A
photovoltaic (in short PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6×10 solar cells.
Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of a photovoltaic system that generates and
supplies solar electricity to store in battery and run motor. Each module is rated by its DC output
power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts. The efficiency
of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230
watt module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few solar
panels available that are exceeding 19% efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a
limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system
typically includes a panel or an array of solar modules, a solar inverter, and sometimes a battery
and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring. Solar modules use light energy (photons) from
the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use
waterbased crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The
structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells
must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but
semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made in series
to achieve a desired output voltage. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case
of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module Sections still illuminated.

Components of Photovoltaic Cells

1. Photovoltaic Effect: PV cells are able to create electricity at the atomic level using the
photovoltaic effect. Often the photovoltaic effect is confused with the photoelectric effect. One is
related to the other as both begin with the basic understanding that the universe is created of two
core entities: matter and energy. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. In physics
energy is defined as a source providing the ability to do work (e.g. light, heat, sound, electricity).
In the photoelectric effect, there are two components photons (energy) and electrons (matter).
Photons are light “packets”. Each one carries a specific quantity (quanta) of energy revealed in
different frequencies of light (higher energy photons are found in higher frequencies of light
waves). Using the correct light frequency (photons) focused on a material (usually metal), it is
possible to knock off or release electrons. So, the photoelectric effect uses light to eject electrons.
Similarly, in the photovoltaic effect photons are used to eject the electrons, but these electrons are
harnessed to produce an electric current or electricity.

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2. Semi-Conductor: The flow of electrons or an electric current is possible within the
photovoltaic effect if a conductor is present. Electricity is conducted through a material by moving
electrons through orbitals at varying energy levels in atoms. Electrons move
28 from lower energy levels (valance band) to higher energy levels (conduction band). The energy
difference between these levels is known as the band gap. Semi-conductors have an intermediate
band gap. Meaning they require more energy to move electrons than a conductor, but less than an
insulator. Once electrons are moved they create electron “holes” or unoccupied orbital’s in the
valance band and easily released electrons in the conduction band.
3. P-N Junction (Photodiode): The photovoltaic effect within a PV cell is able to produce an
electric current by using a P-N junction. The P-N Junction is made of two kinds of semi-
conductors. The N-type (N for Negative or electron-rich) is doped to have a high density of
electrons and few holes, while the P-type (P for Positive or electron-poor) is doped to be the
opposite. Electrons flow from areas of high to low concentration. The difference between these
concentrated areas is known as voltage. A P-N junction regulates the voltage, so current only flows
in one direction resulting in an electric current.

Operation of Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)

PV Cells are able to convert light into electricity by first allowing radiant energy from the sun to
pass through a transparent layer (glass). A small portion of the light frequencies (10 – 17% with
technology commercially available in 2011) (photons) are absorbed ejecting electrons from the
doped N-type semiconductor layer. The amount depends on intensity and angle of light sent and
the continuing development of the manufacturing technology. These electrons are passed to a
conductor, which completes a circuit back to the P-type semiconducting layer. After transporting
electrical energy utilized by electrical devices or stored in batteries, the electrons will fill “holes”
in the P -type semiconducting layer. Due to electrons being deposited in P-type semiconductor
layer the voltage increases forcing the electrons to move across the junction into the N-type
semiconductor allowing the process to repeat it. As technology advances, improvements in
conversion efficiencies demonstrated in the laboratory (some approaching 40%) ma become
commercially available, subsequently lowering costs.

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 Rechargeable Batteries

Nearly all large rechargeable batteries in common use are Lead-Acid type, although there are
three variations, flooded, gelled electrolyte (“Gel Cells”) and absorbed glass matt (“AGM”).
Flooded is the oldest and cheapest technology used but can be dangerous, in case of a malfunction
acid can spill. Gel Cells contain acid that has been "gelled" by the addition of Silica Gel, turning
the acid into a solid mass, therefore even if the battery where cracked open, no acid would spill.
Gel batteries need to be charged at a slower rate (capacity / 20) but this is not a concern in the PV
setup as the panels will not be outputting nearly this much current. AGM batteries are the newest
technology and have all the advantages of Gel Cells without the charging limitations. All deep
cycle batteries are rated in amp-hours. An amp-hour (Amps x Hours) is one amp for one hour, or
10 amps for 1/10 of an hour and so forth. The accepted AH rating time period for batteries used
in solar electric and backup power systems is the "20 hour rate". This means that it is discharged
down to 10.5 volts over a 20 hour period while the total amp-hours it supplies is measured (Wind
sun). A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical
battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, while a non-
rechargeable or primary battery is supplied fully charged, and discarded once discharged. It is
composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates
and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are
produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems
connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of
electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead– acid, nickel cadmium (Ni-Cad),
nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion
polymer).Rechargeable batteries initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much
lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively
many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same
sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeable with them.

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 Lead-Acid Battery

The battery used in every internal combustion engine (ICE) car on the road is 12V lead-acid
battery. This single battery is responsible for powering the alternator, or the engine starter. It also
supplies the power to accessories that the car may have, such as the air-conditioning, radio, and
power windows and locks etc.

Chemical Action
Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell discharges, lead
peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to form water and with sulfate
ions to form lead sulfate.

Combining lead on the negative plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the
net result of discharge is to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead
sulfate on the plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding circulation of acid in
the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the outside terminals of old batteries.
When the combination of weak electrolyte and sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the
battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The reversed direction of
ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical reactions. Now the lead sulfates
on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric
acid. This action reforms the positive plates and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric
acid. At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react with
hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative plate to react
with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full output, with lead peroxide
on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and the required concentration of sulfuric
acid in the electrolyte.

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 The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge
Pb + PbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
Discharge

On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of the equation to form
lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cells, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are connected in series
to get a voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in series, to get a 24 V battery.
They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.

Caring For Lead-Acid Batteries

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear gloves, goggles and
old clothes. “Battery acid” will burn skin and eyes and destroy cotton and wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave them stand
“dead” for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a chemical change in the
positive plates of the battery. They change from lead oxide when charge out lead sulfate when
discharged. If they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a few days, some part of the plate dose not
returns to lead oxide when the battery is recharged. If the battery remains discharge longer, a
greater amount of the positive plate will remain lead sulfate. The parts of the plates that become
“sulfate” no longer store energy. Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially
on a regular basis can fail in less then one year.

Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are getting charged. Use a hydrometer to
check the specific gravity of your lead acid batteries. If batteries are cycled very deeply and then
recharged quickly, the specific gravity reading will be lower than it should because the electrolyte
at the top of the battery may not have mixed with the “charged” electrolyte. Check the electrolyte
level in the wet-cell batteries at the least four times a year and top each cell of with distilled water.
Do not add water to discharged batteries. Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are very
discharged. If you add water at this time, and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow
and make a mess.

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Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten or remove
cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a hydrogen explosion
inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is reversed. Then the
pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form the lead and lead peroxide
electrodes. Also the SO₄ ions combine with H₂ ions from the water to produce more sulfuric acid
at the left side of the equation.

Current Ratings
Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents they can supply
for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained above a minimum level,
which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours (A.h.) based on a specific
discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical values for automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

As an example, a 200 mah battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used on 8h discharge.
The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for a shorter time.

Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking power”, which is related to the job of starting
the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200 A.h. corresponds
to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs. One ampere-second is equal to
one coulomb. Then the charge equals 720,000 or 7.2*10^5ºC. To put this much charge back into
the battery would require 20 hours with a charging current of 10A.

The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80ºF. Higher
temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF shortens the battery life.
Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-hour capacity is
reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F below normal temperature rating. At 0ºF
the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour battery rating. In cold weather, therefore, it

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is very important to have an automobile battery unto full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes
more easily when diluted by water in the discharged condition.

Charging the Lead-Acid Battery

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is necessary to produce
current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more than the battery e.m.f.
Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so that the charging voltage can
produce current opposite to the direction of discharge current.

Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and charging source
VG with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is reversed because the battery
effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher than VB. In this example, the net
voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-12=3V.

A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply, rectifying input
from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always connected to
each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides current for the load and
the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The battery here is an auxiliary source for
D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating charge circuit. The battery
charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver by a belt from the engine.
When you start the car, the battery supplies the cranking power. Once the engine is running, the
alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is
used in this system to maintain the output at approximately 13 to 15 V.

The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge controller so for
storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are connected in series.

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It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a variation of 0.05 specific
gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge, bringing the battery to a gassing or
bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very well in almost
any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment leadacid battery life will be very short.

Battery Voltage
A 6V battery consists of 3 cells of 2V each. A 12V battery consists of 6 cells of 2V each. The cells
are all similar in internal construction and operation

Wire Sizing and Connections

Another important consideration for the system is the electrical wiring. All wiring needs to safely
accommodate the amount of current draw of the system with an acceptable amount of losses. In a
DC system losses quickly become an issue. This is especially a concern PV systems as they can
only handle a small voltage drop as there must be enough potential to charge the battery array,
and of course it is good practice to keep energy loss sourced from the sun to a minimum. Generally
a 3% drop between PV array and batteries is acceptable. Also, “any type of connection bigger than
AWG 10 should have a proper compression connector, with appropriate joint compound and
preparation. This does require special tools and dies. Otherwise you are running the risk of burning
up your connections if you get any kind of heavy current flowing (Solar Forum)” Losses
associated with transmission of DC power:

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3.4 Fabrication

Fabrication means providing a physical shape to the prepared model. Fabrication was mostly done
using the metal parts. The base and the support structures were made using the parts. The
fabrication of each part and mechanism are described in the following section.

Construction of base table:

It was made using wood.
Mounting of motor and flywheel
Motor of 30 RPM was placed on the base table. Crank rod of 10 cm diameter was fixed to the
shaft of motor and then flywheel connected with rod.
Mounting of hacksaw to the horizontal arm and mounting of bench vice to the base table:
Hacksaw was mounted to the crank rod by bolts. After mounting hacksaw to the horizontal arm,
bench vice was mounted to the base table by fixing it with nut and bolt of length 2 inch and
diameter 8 mm.

3.5 Working Principle

The aim of our project is to run the machine both DC as well as AC power. First of all we gain
the energy from the solar power. This gained energy is stored in battery. The n we actuate the
motor with the help of this battery power. This project is work under the scotch yoke mechanism.
The scotch-yoke mechanism converts the rotating motion in the reciprocating motion. The
machine has a prime mover at the bottom of machine. The crank rod is connected to motor shaft.
The clamp is fixed with crank rod. The clamp is fixed with the shaft at one end this shaft is act as
reciprocating motion through the crank. The hacksaw is connected to the shaft at the end. If the
motor is turn-on the flywheel getting rotating motion that rotation motion convert into
reciprocating motion under the scotch-yoke mechanism.

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 4. Cost Estimation

Theory
Cost estimation may be defined as the process of forecasting the expenses that must be incurred
to manufacture a product. These expenses taken into consideration all expenditure involved in a
design and manufacturing with all related service facilities such as pattern making, tool making,
as well as apportion of the general administrative and selling costs.

Purpose of Cost Estimation

1. To determine the selling price of the product for a quotation or contract so as to ensure a
reasonable profit to the company.
2. Check the quotation supplied by vendors.
3. Determine the most economical process or material to manufacture the product.
4. To determine standards of production performance that may be use to control the cost.
Basically the cost estimation is of two type :
 Material cost
 Machining cost
 Man Cost (Labour Cost)

Cost Estimation

Labour Cost
Lathe, Drilling, Welding, Grinding, Power Hacksaw, Gas Cutting = Rs. 1200

Overhead Charges
The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost” Manufacturing Cost
= Rs. (Material Cost + Labour cost) = Rs. (5430+1200) = Rs. (6630)

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost = Rs. 1326/-

Miscellaneous cost
Colouring = Rs 140

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Total Cost
Total cost = Rs (Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges +Miscellaneous cost )
= Rs (5430+1200+1326+140)
= Rs. 8096/-

5. CONCLUSION

Due to this project we have gained a lot of knowledge about fabrication of various parts, the
allowances, the tolerances, limits and fits, sequence of operation to be performed. We are able to
think about best method of performing the work and about “How a high degree of precision work
is done”.

The cutting is one of the important applications in industrial as well as domestic appliances. On
the basis of this reason we select Hacksaw machine and we modify it by means of various tools of
different operation

We can do operation on our project such as cutting of different material like wood, and metal
pipe .We can cut hard material by changing high speed steel blade (HSS).
The project made our mind to do any type of work. We are also familiarized with the
industrial work culture.

The management we learnt during our project fabrication will help us throughout our life.
Moreover, decision making was also what we got.

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