SIZING

Bulletin 1-I
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

HANDBOOK FOR
CONTROL VALVE SIZING

NOMENCLATURE

SIZING AND SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES

0 NORMATIVE REFERENCES

1 PROCESS DATA

2 VALVE SPECIFICATION

3 FLOW COEFFICIENT
3.1 Flow coefficient KV (metric units)
3.2 Flow coefficient CV (imperial units)
3.3 Standard test conditions

4 SIZING EQUATIONS
4.1 Sizing equations for incompressible fluids
(turbulent flow)
4.2 Sizing equations for compressible fluids
(turbulent flow)
4.3 Sizing equations for two-phase flows
4.4 Sizing equations for non-turbulent flow

5 PARAMETERS OF SIZING EQUATIONS

5.1 Liquid pressure recovery factor FL
5.2 Coefficient of incipient cavitation xFZ and
coefficient of constant cavitation Kc
5.3 Piping geometry factor FP
5.4 Combined liquid pressure recovery factor and
piping geometry factor of a control valve with
attached fittings FLP
5.5 Liquid critical pressure ratio factor FF
5.6 Expansion factor Y and specific heat ratio factor
F
5.7 Pressure differential ratio factor xT
5.8 Pressure differential ratio factor for a valve with
attached fittings xTP
5.9 Reynolds number factor FR
5.10 Valve style modifier Fd

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Description Units (notes)

2
A flow passage area at the actual valve stroke mm
Cv flow coefficient U.S. gallons/min
d nominal valve size mm
D internal diameter of piping mm
do equivalent circular flow passage diameter mm
dH hydraulic diameter of a single flow passage mm
Fd valve style modifier dimensionless
FF liquid critical pressure ratio factor dimensionless
FL liquid pressure recovery factor for a control valve without attached fittings dimensionless
combined liquid pressure recovery factor and piping geometry factor of a
FLP dimensionless
control valve with attached fittings
FP piping geometry factor dimensionless
FR Reynolds number factor dimensionless
F specific heat ratio factor = / 1.4 dimensionless
KB1 and KB2 Bernoulli coefficients for inlet and outlet of a valve with attached reducers dimensionless
Kc coefficient of constant cavitation dimensionless
3
Kv flow coefficient m /h
K1 and K2 upstream and downstream resistance coefficients dimensionless
M molecular mass of the flowing fluid kg/kmol
pc absolute thermodynamic critical pressure bar absolute
pv absolute vapour pressure of the liquid at inlet temperature bar absolute
pvc vena contracta absolute pressure bar absolute
p1 inlet absolute pressure measured at upstream pressure tap bar absolute
p2 outlet absolute pressure measured at downstream pressure tap bar absolute
p pressure differential between upstream and downstream pressures bar
maximum allowable pressure differential for control valve sizing purposes
pmax bar
for incompressible fluids
Pw wetted perimeter of flow passage mm
qm mass flow rate kg/h
3
qv volumetric flow rate m /h
qm(max) maximum mass flow rate in choked condition kg/h
3
qv(max) maximum volumetric flow rate in choked condition m /h
Rev valve Reynolds number dimensionless
T1 inlet absolute temperature K
u average fluid velocity m/s
v specific volume m³/kg
x ratio of pressure differential to inlet absolute pressure dimensionless
ratio of pressure differential to inlet absolute pressure in critical
xcr dimensionless
conditions ( p / p1)cr
xFZ coefficient of incipient cavitation dimensionless
pressure differential ratio factor in choked flow condition for a valve
xT dimensionless
without attached fittings
xTP value of xT for valve / fitting assembly dimensionless
Y expansion factor dimensionless
Z compressibility factor (ratio of ideal to actual inlet specific mass) dimensionless
specific heat ratio dimensionless
0 specific mass of water at 15.5 °C i.e. 999 kg/m³ kg/m³
1 specific mass of fluid at p1 and T1 kg/m³
ratio of specific mass of fluid in upstream condition to specific mass of
r dimensionless
water at 15.5 °C ( 1 / 0)
-6
kinematic viscosity ( = / ) centistokes = 10 m²/s
-3
dynamic viscosity centipoises = 10 Pa s

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

SIZING AND SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES

The correct sizing and selection of a control valve must be based on the full knowledge of the process.

0. NORMATIVE REFERENCES 2. VALVE SPECIFICATION

- IEC 60534-2-1, Industrial process control valves – On the basis of the above data it is possible to finalise
Flow capacity – Sizing under installed conditions the detailed specification of the valve (data sheet), i.e. to
- IEC 60534-2-3, Industrial process control valves – select:
Flow capacity – Test procedures
- valve rating;
- IEC 60534-7, Industrial process control valves –
- body and valve type;
Control valve data sheet
- body size, after having calculated the maximum flow
- IEC 60534-8-2, Industrial process control valves –
coefficient Cv with the appropriate sizing equations;
Noise considerations – Laboratory measurement of
- type of trim;
noise generated by hydrodynamic flow through control
- materials trim of different trim parts;
valves
- leakage class;
- inherent flow characteristic;
- packing type;
1. PROCESS DATA - type and size of actuator;
- accessories.
The following data should at least be known:

a. Type of fluid and its chemical, physical and

thermodynamic characteristics, such as:
- pressure p;
- temperature T;
- vapour pressure pv;
- thermodynamic critical pressure pc;
- specific mass ;
- kinematic viscosity or dynamic viscosity ;
- specific heat at constant pressure Cp, specific heat
at constant volume Cv or specific heat ratio ;
- molecular mass M;
- compressibility factor Z;
- ratio of vapour to its liquid (quality);
- presence of solid particles;
- flammability;
- toxicity;
- other.
b. Maximum operating range of flow rate related to
pressure and temperature of fluid at valve inlet and
to differential pressure p across the valve.
c. Operating conditions (normal, maximum, minimum,
start-up, emergency, other).
d. Ratio of pressure differential available across the
valve to total head loss along the process line at
various operating conditions.
e. Operational data, such as:
- maximum differential pressure with closed valve;
- stroking time;
- plug position in case of supply failure;
- maximum allowable leakage of valve in closed
position;
- fire resistance;
- maximum outwards leakage;
- noise limitations.
f. Interface information, such as:
- sizing of downstream safety valves;
- accessibility of the valve;
- materials and type of piping connections;
- overall dimensions, including the necessary space
for disassembling and maintenance,
- design pressure and temperature;
- available supplies and their characteristics.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

3. FLOW COEFFICIENT

The flow coefficient is the coefficient used to calculate 3.2 Flow coefficient Cv (imperial units)
the flow rate of a control valve under given conditions.
The flow coefficient Cv is the standard flow rate which
flows through a valve at a given opening, referred to the
3.1 Flow coefficient Kv (metric units) following conditions:
- static pressure drop ( p(Cv)) across the valve of 1 psi
The flow coefficient Kv is the standard flow rate which (6 895 Pa);
flows through a valve at a given opening, referred to the - flowing fluid is water at a temperature from 40 to 100 F
following conditions: (5 to 40° C);
- static pressure drop ( p(Kv)) across the valve of 1 bar - the volumetric flow rate qv is expressed in gpm.
5
(10 Pa); The value of Cv can be determined from tests using the
- flowing fluid is water at a temperature from 5 to 40° C; following formula, valid at standard conditions only (refer
3
- the volumetric flow rate qv is expressed in m /h. to par. 3.3):
The value of Kv can be determined from tests according
to par. 3.3 using the following formula, valid at standard p( Cv ) 1
Cv qv
conditions only (refer to par. 3.3): p 0

p( Kv ) 1 where:
Kv qv
p 0
- p(Cv) is the static pressure drop of 1 psi [psi];
- p is the static pressure drop from upstream to
where: downstream [psi];
3
5
- p(Kv) is the static pressure drop of 10 Pa [Pa]; - 1 is the specific mass of the flowing fluid [Ib/ft ];
3
- p is the static pressure drop from upstream to - o is the specific mass of the water [Ib/ft ].
downstream [Pa];
3
- 1 is the specific mass of flowing fluid [kg/m ];
3 3.3 Standard test conditions
- o is the specific mass of water [kg/m ].
The standard conditions referred to in definitions of flow
coefficients (Kv, Cv) are the following:
- flow in turbulent condition;
- no cavitation and vaporisation phenomena;
Note: Simple conversion operations among the different - valve diameter equal to pipe diameter;
units give the following relationship: Cv 1.16 Kv. - static pressure drop measured between upstream and
downstream pressure taps located as in Figure 1;
- straight pipe lengths upstream and downstream the
Note: Although the flow coefficients were defined as valve as per Figure 1;
liquid (water) flow rates, nevertheless they are used for - Newtonian fluid.
control valve sizing both for incompressible and
compressible fluids. Refer to par. 5.6 and 5.9 for more
information.

Figure 1 – Standard test set up.

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

4. SIZING EQUATIONS

Sizing equations allow to calculate a value of the flow coefficient starting from different operating conditions (type of fluid,
pressure drop, flow rate, type of flow and installation) and making them mutually comparable as well as with the standard
one.
The equations outlined in this chapter are in accordance with the standards IEC 60534-2-1 and IEC 60534-2-3.

4.1 Sizing equations for incompressible fluids 4.2 Sizing equations for compressible fluids
(turbulent flow) (turbulent flow)

In general actual flow rate qm of a incompressible fluid The Figure 3 shows the flow rate diagram of a
through a valve is plotted in Figure 2 versus the square compressible fluid flowing through a valve when
root of the pressure differential p under constant changing the downstream pressure under constant
upstream conditions. upstream conditions.
The flow rate is no longer proportional to the square root
The curve can be split into three regions: of the pressure differential p as in the case of
- a first normal flow region (not critical), where the flow incompressible fluids.
rate is exactly proportional to p. This not critical flow This deviation from linearity is due to the variation of fluid
condition takes place until pvc > pv. density (expansion) from the valve inlet up to the vena
- a second semi-critical flow region, where the flow rate contracta.
still rises when the pressure drop is increased, but less
than proportionally to p. In this region the capability Due to this density reduction the gas is accelerated up to
of the valve to convert the pressure drop increase into a higher velocity than the one reached by an equivalent
flow rate is reduced, due to the fluid vaporisation and liquid mass flow. Under the same p the mass flow rate
the subsequent cavitation. of a compressible fluid must therefore be lower than the
- In the third limit flow or saturation region the flow rate one of an incompressible fluid.
remains constant, in spite of further increments of p.
Such an effect is taken into account by means of the
This means that the flow conditions in vena contracta expansion coefficient Y (refer to par. 5.6), whose value
have reached the maximum evaporation rate (which can change between 1 and 0.667.
depends on the upstream flow conditions) and the mean
velocity is close to the sound velocity, as in a Refer to Figure 4 for sizing equations in normal and limit
compressible fluid. flow.
The standard sizing equations ignore the hatched area
of the diagram shown in Figure 2, thus neglecting the
semi-critical flow region. This approximation is justified
by simplicity purposes and by the fact that it is not
practically important to predict the exact flow rate in the
hatched area; on the other hand such an area should be
avoided, when possible, as it always involves vibrations
and noise problems as well as mechanical problems due
to cavitation.

Refer to Figure 4 for sizing equations in normal and limit

flow.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

Figure 2 – Flow rate diagram of an incompressible fluid flowing through a valve plotted versus downstream pressure
under constant upstream conditions.

Figure 3 – Flow rate diagram of a compressible fluid flowing through a valve plotted versus differential pressure under
constant upstream conditions.

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

Basic equations (valid for standard test conditions only, par. 3.3)

water water
1/ 0 qv qv 1/ 0 qv
Kv qv Cv
p p 0.865 p 0.865 p

(1 ) (2) (3)
Sizing equations for incompressible fluids Sizing equations for compressible fluids

Critical conditions Critical conditions

2
FLP p1 p2
p p1 p2 pmax p1 FF pv x F xT and/or Y 23 0.667
Fp p1

Normal flow (not critical) Normal flow (not critical)

p pmax x F xT or 2 3 Y 1

qm qm
Turbulent flow regime

Cv Cv
865 FP p r 27.3 FP Y x p1 1

1.16 qv r qv M T1 Z
Cv Cv
FP p 2120 FP p1 Y x

Limit flow (critical or chocked flow) Limit flow (critical or chocked flow)
p pmax x F xT and/or Y 23 0.667

qm(max) qm(max)
Cv Cv
865 FLP p1 FF pv r 18.2 FP F xTP p1 1

1.16 qv (max) r
qv (max) M T1 Z
Cv Cv
FLP p1 FF pv 1414 FP p1 F xTP

3
Kv [m /h] p1 [bar a]
Cv [gpm] p2 [bar a]
qm, qm(max) [kg/h] pc [bar a]
3
qv, qv(max) [m /h] for incompressible fluids pv [bar a]
Units

3 3
[Nm /h] for compressible fluids 0 [kg/m ] refer to Nomenclature
3
T [K] 1 [kg/m ]
M [kg/kmol] r [-]
Δp [bar] Y [-] refer to par. 5.6

1) For valve without reducers: FP = 1 and FLP = FL

2) For valve without reducers: FP = 1 and xTP = xT

Notes

3) Formula with volumetric flow rate qv [Nm3/h] refers to normal conditions (1 013.25 mbar absolute and 273 K).
For use with volumetric flow rate qv [Sm3/h] in standard conditions (1 013.25 mbar absolute and 288.6 K), replace constants
2120 and 1414 with 2250 and 1501 respectively.

Figure 4 – Basic and sizing equations both for incompressible and for compressible fluids for turbulent flow regime
(source: IEC 60534-2-1 and IEC 60534-2-3).

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

4.3 Sizing equations for two-phase flows

No standard formulas presently exist for the calculation (refer to par. 5.6), the sizing equations are:
of two-phase flow rates through orifices or control
valves. normal flow
The following methods are based on THINKTANK qm qm ve
experience Cv
and on the available literature; conservatively, x p1 27.3 Fp p
27.3 Fp
THINKTANK ve
suggest to size the valve using both methods and to
assume the higher flow coefficient resulting from limit flow
calculations.
4.3.1 Liquid/gas mixtures at valve inlet qm ve
Cv
27.3 Fp F xTP p1
In case of valve sizing with liquid/gas mixtures without
mass and energy transfer between the phases, two
physical models can be applied. 4.3.2 Liquid/vapour mixtures at valve inlet
The first model is applicable for low volume fractions of
the gas phase in vena contracta, typically lower than The calculation of the flow rate of a liquid mixed with its
50% (for the evaluation of the volume fractions in vena own vapour through a valve is very complex because of
contracta refer to paragraph 4.3.3). the mass and energy transfer between the two phases.
The method consists in the independent calculation of No formulas are presently available to calculate with
flow coefficients for the gaseous phase and for the liquid sufficient accuracy the flow capacity of a valve in these
phase. Required flow coefficient is assumed as the sum: conditions.
On the basis of the above considerations, it is common
Cv Cv .g Cv .liq practice that:

This model roughly considers separately the flows of the - for low vapour quality at valve inlet, the most suitable
two phases through the valve orifice without mutual equation is the one obtained from the sum of the flow
energy exchange, assuming that the mean velocities of capacities of the two phases (at different flow
the two phases in the vena contracta are considerably velocities):
different.
The second model overcomes the above limitation Cv Cv .liq Cv .vap
assuming that the two phases cross the vena contracta
at the same velocity. It is usually applicable for high - for high vapour quality at valve inlet, the most suitable
volume fractions of the gas phase in vena contracta. equation is the one obtained from the hypothesis of
According to formulas in Figure 4, the mass flow rate of equal velocities of the two phases, i.e. of the
a gas is proportional to the term: equivalent specific volume ve, as shown in par. 4.3.1.

qm Y x 1
4.3.3 Evaluation of volume fractions in vena contracta
Defining the actual specific volume of the gas veg as:
The selection of proper sizing method between those
listed in par. 4.3.1 depends by the ratio between the
v g1 volume fractions in vena contracta of gas and liquid,
v eg
Y2 respectively qvol_gas and qvol_liq.
The volume fractions are evaluated as follows:
the above relation can be rewritten as:
p1
qvol _ gas qm fg v liq1
x x pvc
qm Y
v g1 v eg
qvol _ liq qm fliq v liq1

In other terms, this means to assume that the mass flow

of a gas with specific volume vg1 is equivalent to the The pressure in vena contracta pvc, can be estimated
mass flow of a liquid with specific volume veg under the from the definition of the liquid pressure recovery factor
same operating conditions. FL (refer to par. 5.1).
Assuming:

v g1
ve fg fliq v liq1
Y2

where fg and fliq are respectively the gaseous and the

liquid mass fraction of the mixture, and keeping in mind
that when Y reaches the value of 0.667 the flow is limit

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

4.4 Sizing equations for non-turbulent flow

Sizing equations of par. 4.1 and 4.2 are applicable in Due to that above, factor FR becomes a fundamental
turbulent flow conditions, i.e. when the Reynolds number parameter to properly size the low flow control valves i.e.
calculated inside the valve is higher than about 10 000 the valves having flow coefficients Cv from approximately
(refer to par. 5.9). 1.0 gpm down to the micro-flows range.
The well-known Reynolds number: In such valves non-turbulent flow conditions do
commonly exist with conventional fluids too (air, water,
u d steam etc.) and standard sizing equations become
Re unsuitable if proper coefficients are not used.
The equations for non-turbulent flow are derived from
those outlined in Figure 4 for non limit flow conditions
is the dimensionless ratio between mass forces and and modified with the correction factors F R and YR,
viscous forces. When the first prevails the flow is respectively the Reynolds number factor and the
turbulent; otherwise it is laminar. expansion factor in non-turbulent conditions.
The sizing equations for non-turbulent flow are listed in
Should the fluid be very viscous or the flow rate very low, Figure 5.
or the valve very small, or a combination of the above
conditions, a laminar type flow (or transitional flow) takes The choked flow condition was ignored not being
place in the valve and the Cv coefficient calculated in consistent with laminar flow.
turbulent flow condition must be corrected by FR Note the absence of piping factor Fp defined for turbulent
coefficient. flow. This because the effect of fittings attached to the
valve is probably negligible in laminar flow condition and
it is actually unknown.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

(1)
Sizing equations for incompressible fluids Sizing equations for compressible fluids

qm qm T1
Cv Cv
865 FR p r 67 FR YR p p1 p2 M

1.16 qv r qv M T1
Cv Cv
FR p 1500 FR YR p p1 p2
Non-turbulent flow regime (laminar and transitional flow)

Expansion factor YR

Rev 1000 1000 Rev 10000

x Rev 1000 x x x
YR 1 YR 1 1 1
2 9000 3 F xT 2 2

Reynolds number factor FR

laminar flow Rev 10 transitional flow 10 Rev 10000

1
0.33 FL 2 Rev
0.026 1 1
log
n Re v n 4 10000
FL
FR min FR min 0.026
n Rev
FL
1.00
1.00

Trim style constant n

full size trim Cv 467.3
0.016 n
d2 Cv
2
2
d
reduced trim Cv 2
3

d 2 0.016 n 1 127 Cv 2
d

Cv [gpm] p1 [bar a]
qm [kg/h] p2 [bar a]
3
qv [m /h] for incompressible fluids r [-]
Units

3
[Nm /h] for compressible fluids FR [-] refer to par. 5.9
T [K] YR [-] refer to par. 5.9
M [kg/kmol] ReV [-] refer to par. 5.9
Δp [bar] d [mm]

1) Formula with volumetric flow rate qv [Nm3/h] refers to normal conditions (1 013.25 mbar absolute and 273 K).
Notes

For use with volumetric flow rate qv [Sm3/h] in standard conditions (1 013.25 mbar absolute and 288.6 K), replace constant
1500 with 1590.

Figure 5 – Sizing equations both for incompressible and for compressible fluids for non-turbulent flow regime (source:
IEC 60534-2-1).

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

5. PARAMETERS OF SIZING EQUATIONS 5.1 Liquid pressure recovery factor FL

In addition to the flow coefficient some other parameters The recovery factor of a valve only depends on the
occur in sizing equations with the purpose to identify the shape of the body and the trim. It shows the valve
different flow types (normal, semi-critical, critical, limit); capability to transform the kinetic energy of the fluid in
such parameters only depend on the flow pattern inside the vena contracta into pressure energy. It is defined as
the valve body. In many cases such parameters are of follows:
primary importance for the selection of the right valve for
a given service. It is therefore necessary to know the p1 p2
values of such parameters for the different valve types at FL
full opening as well as at other stroke percentages. p1 pvc
Such parameters are:
- FL liquid pressure recovery factor (for incompressible Since the pressure in vena contracta pvc is always lower
fluids); than p2, it is always FL 1. Moreover it is important to
- xFZ coefficient of incipient cavitation; remark that the lower is this coefficient the higher is the
- Kc coefficient of constant cavitation; valve capability to transform the kinetic energy into
- FP piping geometry factor; pressure energy (high recovery valve).
- FLP combined coefficient of FL with FP; The higher this coefficient is (close to 1) the higher is the
- FF liquid critical pressure ratio factor; valve attitude to dissipate energy by friction rather than
- Y expansion factor (for compressible fluids); in vortices, with consequently lower reconversion of
- xT pressure differential ratio factor in choked condition; kinetic energy into pressure energy (low recovery valve).
- xTP combined coefficient of FP with xT; In practice, the sizing equations simply refer to the pres-
- FR Reynolds number factor; sure drop (p1 – p2) between valve inlet and outlet and
- Fd valve style modifier. until the pressure pvc in vena contracta is higher than the
saturation pressure pv of the fluid at valve inlet, then the
influence of the recovery factor is practically negligible
and it does not matter whether the valve dissipates
pressures energy by friction rather than in whirlpools.
The FL coefficient is crucial when approaching to
cavitation, which can be avoided selecting a lower
recovery valve.

a. Determination of FL
Since it is not easy to measure the pressure in the vena
contracta with the necessary accuracy, the recovery
factor is determined in critical conditions:

1.16 qv (max)
FL
Cv p1 0.96 pv

The above formula is valid using water as test fluid.

Critical conditions are reached with a relatively high inlet
pressure and reducing the outlet pres-sure p2 until the
flow rate does not increase any longer and this flow rate
is assumed as qv(max). FL can be determined measuring
only the pressure p1 and qv(max).

b. Accuracy in determination of FL
It is relatively easier determining the critical flow rate
qv(max) for high recovery valves (low FL) than for low
recovery valves (high FL). The accuracy in the
determination of FL for values higher than 0.9 is not so
important for the calculation of the flow capacity as to
enable to correctly predict the cavitation phenomenon for
services with high differential pressure.

c. Variation of FL versus valve opening and flow

direction
The recovery factor depends on the profile of velocities
which takes place inside the valve body. Since this last
changes with the valve opening, the FL coefficient
considerably varies along the stroke and, for the same
reason, is often strongly affected by the flow direction.
The Figure 6 shows the values of the recovery factor
versus the plug stroke for different valve types and the
Figure 6 – Typical FL values versus Cv % and flow two flow directions.
direction for different THINKTANK valve types.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

Figure 7 – Comparison
between two valves with
equal flow coefficient but
with different recovery
factor, under the same inlet
fluid condition.
When varying the
downstream pressure, at
the same values of Cv, p1
and p2, valves with higher
FL can accept higher flow
rates of fluid.

Figure 8 – Pressure drop

comparison between
single stage (venturi
nozzle) and
multistage multipath
TM
(Limiphon trim)
on liquid service
using CFD analysis.

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

5.2 Coefficient of incipient cavitation xFZ and

coefficient of constant cavitation Kc

When in the vena contracta a pressure lower than the In order to detect the beginning of the constant bubble
saturation pressure is reached then the liquid formation, i.e. the constant cavitation, the coefficient Kc
evaporates, forming vapour bubbles. is defined as:
If, due to pressure recovery, the downstream pressure
(which only depends on the downstream piping layout) is p
KC
higher than the critical pressure in the vena contracta, p1 pv
then vapour bubbles totally or partially implode, instantly
collapsing.
It identifies where the cavitation begins to appear in a
This phenomenon is called cavitation and causes well
water flow through the valve with such an intensity that,
know damages due to high local pressures generated by
under constant upstream conditions, the flow rate
the vapour bubbly implosion. Metal surface damaged by
deviation from the linearity versus p exceeds 2%.
the cavitation show a typical pitted look with many micro
A simple calculation rule uses the formula:
and macro pits. The higher is the number of imploding
bubbles the higher are damaging speed and magnitude;
these depend on the elasticity of the media where the KC 0.80 FL2
implosion takes place (i.e. on the fluid temperature) as
well ad on the hardness of the metal surface (see table Such a simplification is however only acceptable when
in Figure 9). the diagram of the actual flow rate versus p , under
Critical conditions are obviously reached gradually. constant upstream conditions, shows a sharp break
Moreover the velocity profile in the vena contracta is not point between the linear/proportional zone and the
completely uniform, hence may be that a part only of the horizontal one.
flow reaches the vaporization pressure. The F L recovery If, on the contrary, the break point radius is larger (i.e. if
factor is determined in proximity of fully critical the p at which the deviation from the linearity takes
conditions, so it is not suitable to predict an absolute place is different from the p at which the limit flow rate
absence of vaporization. is reached), then the coefficient of proportionality
between Kc and FL² can come down to 0.65.
Usually the beginning of cavitation is identified by the
coefficient of incipient cavitation xFZ: Since the coefficient of constant cavitation changes with
the valve opening, it is usually referred to a 75%
ptr opening.
x FZ
p1 pv

where Δptr is the value of differential pressure where

transition takes place from non cavitating to cavitating
flow.

The xFZ coefficient can be determined by test using

sound level meters or accelerometers connected to the
pipe and relating noise and vibration increase with the
beginning of bubble formation.
Some information on this regard are given by standard
IEC 60534-8-2 “Laboratory measurement of the noise
generated by a liquid flow through a control valve”, which
the Figure 10 was drawn from.

Index of resistance to cavitation

stellite gr.6 20
chrome plating (5)
17-4 PH H900 2
AISI 316/304 1
monel 400 (0.8)
gray cast iron 0.75
chrome-molybdenum alloyed steels (5% chrome) 0.67
carbon steels (WCB) 0.38
bronze (B16) 0.08
nickel plating (0.07)
pure aluminium 0.006

Figure 9 – Cavitation resistance of some metallic Figure 10 – Determination of the coefficient of incipient
materials referred to stainless steels AISI 304/316. cavitation by means of phonometric analysis (source:
Values between brackets are listed for qualitative IEC 60534-8-2).
comparison only.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

5.3 Piping geometry factor Fp 5.4 Combined liquid pressure recovery factor and
piping geometry factor of a control valve with
attached fittings FLP
According to par. 3.3, the flow coefficients of a given
valve type are determined under standard conditions of
installation. Reducers, expanders, fittings and, generally speaking,
The actual piping geometry will obviously differ from the any installation not according to the standard test
standard one. manifold not only affect the standard coefficient
The coefficient FP takes into account the way that a (changing the actual inlet and outlet pressures), but also
reducer, an expander, a Y or T branch, a bend or a shut- modify the transition point between normal and choked
off valve affect the value of Cv of a control valve. flow, so that pmax is no longer equal to FL² (p1 - FF pv),
A calculation can only be carried out for pressure and but it becomes:
velocity changes caused by reducers and expanders
directly connected to the valve. Other effects, such as 2
the ones caused by a change in velocity profile at valve FLP
pmax p1 FF pv
inlet due to reducers or other fittings like a short radius Fp
bend close to the valve, can only be evaluated by
specific tests. Moreover such perturbations could involve
undesired effects, such as plug instability due to As for the recovery factor FL, the coefficient FLP is
asymmetrical and unbalancing fluid dynamic forces. determined by test (refer to par. 5.1.a):
When the flow coefficient must be determined within
± 5 % tolerance the FP coefficient must be determined by 1.16 qv (max) LP
test. FLP
When estimated values are permissible the following Cv p1 0.96 pv
equation may be used:
The above formula is valid using water as test fluid.
1 When FL is known, it can also be determined by the
Fp following relationship:
2
K Cv
1 FL
0.00214 d2 FLP
2
FL 2 Cv
where: 1 K 1
0.00214 d2
- Cv is the selected flow coefficient [gpm];
- d is the nominal valve size [mm];
- K is defined as K K1 K 2 K B1 K B 2 , with: where K 1 K1 K B1 is the velocity head loss
 K1 and K2 are resistance coefficient which take into coefficient of the fitting upstream the valve, as measured
account head losses due to turbulences and frictions between the upstream pressure tap and the control
respectively at valve inlet and outlet (see Figure 11); valve body inlet. For detail of terms refer to par. 5.3 and
 KB1 and KB2 are the so called Bernoulli coefficients, Figure 11.
which account for the pressure changes due to
velocity changes due to reducers or expanders,
respectively at valve inlet and outlet (see Figure 11);
in case of the same ratio d/D for reducer and
expander, their sum is null;
- D is the internal diameter of the piping [mm].

2
2
d
Inlet reducer: K1 0.5 1
D1
2
2
d
Outlet expander: K2 1 .0 1
D2
2
In case of the same 2
d
ratio d/D for reducer K1 K2 1.5 1
and expander: D
4
d
K B1 1
In case of different D1
ratio d/D for reducer 4
and expander: d
KB2 1
D2

Figure 11 – Resistance and Bernoulli coefficients.

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

5.5 Liquid critical pressure ratio factor FF

The coefficient FF is the ratio between the apparent The following equation is obtained:
pressure in vena contracta in choked condition and the
vapour pressure of the liquid at inlet temperature:
p1 pvc
qv FL Cv
pvc r
FF
pv
Expressing the differential pressure in vena contracta pvc
as function of the vapour pressure (pvc = FF pv), the flow
When the flow is at limit conditions (saturation) the flow
rate can be calculated as:
rate equation must no longer be expressed as a function
of the differential pressure across the valve ( p = p1 –
p2), but as function of the differential pressure in vena p1 FF pv
qv FL Cv
contracta ( pvc = p1 – pvc). pc
Starting from the basic equation (refer to par. 4.1):
Supposing that at saturation conditions the fluid is a
p1 p2 homogeneous mixture of liquid and its vapour with the
qv Cv two phases at the same velocity and in thermodynamic
r
equilibrium, the following equation may be used:
And from:
pv
FF 0.96 0.28
p1 p2 pc
FL
p1 pvc
where pc is the fluid critical thermodynamic pressure.
Refer to Figure 13 for plotted curves of generic liquid
and for water.

Figure 12 – Effect of reducers on the diagram of q versus p when varying the downstream pressure at constant
upstream pressure.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

5.6 Expansion factor Y and specific heat ratio

factor F

The expansion factor Y allows to use for compressible

fluids the same equation structure valid for 1 2
incompressible fluids. i.e.: Y 1 a
3 a 3
It has the same nature of the expansion factor utilized in
the equations of the throttling type devices (orifices,
nozzles or Venturi) for the measure of the flow rate. As Y = 1 when x = 0 and Y = 2 / 3 = 0.667, when the
The Y’s equation is obtained from the theory on the flow rate is maximum (i.e. x = xT) the equation of Y
basis of the following hypothesis (experimentally becomes the following:
confirmed):
1. Y is a linear function of x = p/p1; x
Y 1
2. Y is function of the geometry (i.e. type) of the valve; 3 xT
3. Y is a function of the fluid type, namely the exponent
of the adiabatic transformation = cp/cv. thus taking into account also the second hypothesis. In
fact, xT is an experimental value to be determined for
From the first hypothesis: each valve type.
Y 1 a x Finally the third hypothesis will be taken into account
with an appropriate correction factor, the specific heat
therefore: ratio factor F , which is the ratio between the exponent
of the adiabatic transformation for the actual gas and the
qm Y x one for air:

A mathematic procedure allows to calculate the value of F

Y which makes maximum the above function (this 1.4
means finding the point where the rate dq m / dx becomes
zero): The final equation becomes:

qm (1 a x ) x x a x3 x
Y 1
3 F xT
By setting:
Therefore the maximum flow rate is reached when:
dqm 1 3 a x
0 x F xT
dx 2 x 2

1 1 (or x F xTP if the valve is supplied with reducers).

3 a x hence: x Correspondently the expansion factor reaches the
x 3 a
minimum value of 0.667.

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

pv
FF 0.96 0.28
pc

pv
FF 0.96 0.28
221.2

pv = vapour pressure

pc = critical pressure

pv and pc in absolute bar

Figure 13 – Liquid critical pressure ratio factor FF (for a generic liquid above, for water under).

Figure 14 – Expansion factor Y. The diagram is valid for a given F value.

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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

5.7 Pressure differential ratio factor in choked flow 5.8 Pressure differential ratio factor in choked flow
condition xT condition for a valve with reducers xTP

The recovery factor FL does not occur in sizing The factor xTP is the same factor xT but determined on
equations for compressible fluids. Its use is unsuitable valves supplied with reducers or installed differently from
for gas and vapours because of the following physical the standard set up as required in par. 3.3.
phenomenon. It is determined by tests using the following formula:
Assume that in a given section of the valve, under a
given value of the downstream pressure p2, the sound xT 1
velocity is reached. The critical differential ratio: xTP 2 2
Fp xT K1 K B1 Cv
1
p 0.00241 d2
x cr
p1 cr Being the flow coefficient Cv in the above formula is the
calculated one, an iterative calculation has to be used.
is reached as well, being:

2 1
x cr FL 2 1
1

If the downstream pressure p2 is further reduced, the

flow rate still increases, as, due to the specific internal
geometry of the valve, the section of the vena contracta
widens transversally (it is not physically confined into
solid walls).
A confined vena contracta can be got for instance in a
Venturi meter to measure flow rate: for such a geometry,
once the sound velocity is reached for a given value of
p2, the relevant flow rate remains constant, even
reducing further p2.
Nevertheless the flow rate does not unlimitedly increase,
but only up to a given value of p / p1 (to be determined
by test), the so called pressure differential ratio factor in
choked flow condition, xT.
Although some relationships between xT and FL are
available, reliable values of xT must be obtained only by
tests, as the internal geometry of body governs either
the head losses inside the body and the expansion
mode of vena contracta. If vena contracta is free to
expand the relationship between xT and FL may be
approximately the following:

xT 0.85 FL2

On the contrary, if vena contracta is fully confined by the

inner body walls (Venturi shape) and the pressure losses
inside the body are negligible, xT tends to be coincident
with xcr.

Valve type Trim type Flow direction FL xT Fd

Open 0.90 0.72 0.46
Globe, single port Contoured plug (linear and equal percentage)
Close 0.80 0.55 1.00
Open 0.90 0.72 0.46
Globe, angle Contoured plug (linear and equal percentage)
Close 0.80 0.65 1.00
Butterfly, eccentric shaft Offset seat (70°) Either 0.67 0.35 0.57
Globe and angle Multistage, multipath 2 0.97 0.812 -
3 0.99 0.888 -
Either
4 0.99 0.925 -
5 0.99 0.950 -

Figure 15 – Typical values of liquid pressure recovery factor F L, pressure differential ratio factor xT and valve style
modifier Fd at full rated stroke (source: IEC 60534-2-1).

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TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I – HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING

5.9 Reynolds number factor FR 5.10 Valve style modifier Fd

The FR factor is defined as the ratio between the flow The Fd factor is the valve style modifier and takes into
coefficient Cv for not turbulent flow, and the account for the geometry of trim in the throttling section.
corresponding coefficient calculated for turbulent flow It can determined by tests or, in first approximation, by
under the same conditions of installation. means of its definition:

Cv _ non turbulent dH
FR Fd
Cv _ turbulent do

The FR factor is determined by tests and can be where:

calculated with the formulas listed in table of Figure 5. - dH is the hydraulic diameter of a single flow passage
It is function of the valve Reynolds number Rev which [mm];
can be determined by the following relationship: - do is equivalent circular flow passage diameter [mm].

In detail, the hydraulic diameter is defined as four times

0.076 FD qv FL 2 Cv 2 the “hydraulic radius” of the flow passage at the actual
Rev 4 1 valve stroke:
FL Cv 0.00214 D 4
4 A
The term under root takes into account for the valve inlet dH
velocity (the so called “velocity of approach”). Except for Pw
wide open ball and butterfly valves, it can be neglected
in the enthalpic balance and taken as unity. while the equivalent circular flow passage diameter is:

Since the Cv in Rev equation is the flow coefficient

4 A
calculated by assuming turbulent flow conditions, the d0
actual value of Cv must be found by an iterative
calculation.
where:
- A is the flow passage area at the actual valve stroke
2
[mm ];
- Pw is the wetted perimeter of flow passage (it is equal
to 1 for circular holes) [mm].

The simpler is the geometry of flow pattern in the

throttling section the more reliable is the theoretical
evaluation of Fd factor with the above formulas.
Knowing the value of the Fd factor is especially important
in the following cases:
- micro-flow valves: where it is frequent the presence
of laminar flow, and then the use of the FR factor. In
these valves, characterised by flute, needle or other
type of plug, it is important to keep in mind that the
theoretical evaluation of Fd factor is highly dependent
by the annular gap between plug and seat. In these
cases, the theoretical evaluation of F d factor is reliable
only for flow coefficient CV higher than 0.1.
- low-noise valves: the Fd factor defines, in particular
formulations, the flow diameter and then the
predominating frequency of the acoustic spectrum
produced by the valve. Its knowledge is then very
important the estimation of the noise produced by the
valve during operation.
As an example, the valves with multi-drilled cage trims
have a Fd factor equal to:

1
Fd
N0

where No is the number of drilled holes in parallel.

It follows that, higher is the value of No, smaller are the
holes at same flow coefficient CV and lower is the Fd
factor, which means lower generated noise.
For more information about noise in control valves,
refer to THINKTANK Technical Bulletin “Noise
Manual”.
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HANDBOOK FOR CONTROL VALVE SIZING – TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1-I

Figure 16 – Control valve datasheet (source: IEC 60534-7).

20