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A critical Review of the Water Balance and Agronomic Effects of Conservation

Tillage under Rain-fed Agriculture in Ethiopia: Desale Kidane Asmamaw

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DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2587

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 land degradation & development
Land Degrad. Develop. (2016)
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2587

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WATER BALANCE AND AGRONOMIC EFFECTS

OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE UNDER RAIN-FED AGRICULTURE IN ETHIOPIA
Desale Kidane Asmamaw*
Samara University, PO Box 132, Ethiopia

Received 19 June 2015; Revised 6 July 2016; Accepted 6 July 2016

ABSTRACT
About 80% of Ethiopia’s population is involved in rain-fed agriculture. Moisture stress coupled with traditional tillage with breaking ard
plough, locally known as ‘Maresha’ are the major limiting factors for agricultural production. Soil erosion, low infiltration and decline ag-
ricultural productivity because of conventional tillage implement have been frequently reported. In order to curve this situation and meet
the huge food demand of the growing population, different conservation tillage systems have been implemented. However, there is limited
information about the impacts of the practices. This review paper therefore aimed at providing adequate information concerning the impacts
of the practices on water balance and crop yield. Systematic, best evidence and narrative review techniques were used. Results revealed that
the application of conservation tillage had brought significant improvement on water balance and agricultural production. Researchers found
over 50% decreased in surface runoff, 9 to 40% improvement in water productivity and good crop transpiration (T = 53 mm season
1), com-
pared to conventional tillage T = 49 mm-season
1 because of conservation tillage implement. Moreover, doubled grain yield was obtained
from ridging, subsoiling and wing plough (1076, 1044 and 1040 kg ha
1, respectively) compared to traditional tillage which resulted in
540 kg ha
1. Improving water balance and agricultural production in rain-fed agriculture need to reduce evaporation and surface runoff
through improving moisture retention and transpiration. This could be achieved by the adoption of conservation tillage which can improve
on-farm water balance, yields and water productivity among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

key words: conservation tillage; Ethiopia; rainfall partitioning; yield; water productivity

INTRODUCTION is an urgent need for the introduction of sustainable soil

and water management practices.
Agriculture is the main economic activity in the sub-Saharan
In the semi-arid regions of East Africa, short intense
Africa (SSA) supporting over 67% of the population, out
storms coupled with prolonged dry spells make crop produc-
of which 60% depends on rain-fed agriculture, generating
tion difficult (Kidane, 2014; Kraaijvanger et al., 2015;
30–40% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (Negusse
Biratu & Asmamaw, 2016). Moreover, intensive rainfall
et al., 2013). Livelihood security in the SSA is strongly de-
causes a high proportion of surface runoff that also carries
pendent on rainfall distribution and land management prac-
away the top of fertile soil (Kidane, 2014). Because of high
tices (Kraaijvanger et al., 2015; Mengistie & Kidane,
temperature, soil evaporation can reach 30–50% of the total
2016). The major challenge for the rural communities,
rainfall leaving only 10–30% for crop transpiration. Further-
representing up to 80% of the population is to improve
more, primary production is low in these arid and semi-arid
the productivity of rainwater and the available natural
areas because of the highly variable rainfall, high evapora-
resources (Kidane, 2014; Yosef & Asmamaw, 2015; Biratu
tion rates, high surface runoff and long drought periods
& Asmamaw, 2016).
(Kidane, 2014; Lanckriet et al., 2014). Inappropriate rainwa-
The sub-Saharan African countries are endowed with di-
ter balance/distribution during raining leads to low water
versified natural resources, but the economic development,
productivity. Thus, considering the wider application of
environmental quality, social wellbeing and their sustain-
conservation tillage (CT) among the smallholder farmers is
ability are declining from time to time (Yosef & Asmamaw,
crucial, because proper soil management enhances rainwater
2015). The deterioration of land productivity in many part of
infiltration and water holding capacity of the soil thereby
the SSA is mentioned as a manifestation of land degradation
minimizing evaporation losses especially during the dry
(Nyssen et al., 2009a, 2009b; Araya et al., 2011a, 2011b;
periods.
Angassa, 2014; Tesfaye et al., 2014; Asmamaw, 2015;
In Ethiopia more than 80% of the population is involved
Musinguzi et al., 2015). Crop yields from staple food crops
in agriculture and crop production that is generally practiced
such as maize, millet and sorghum remain in the order of
under rain-fed conditions; most of which is marginalized by
1 Mg grain ha
1 in smallholder rain-fed farms (Rockstrom
moisture stress (Kidane, 2014). In addition to this, tillage in
et al., 2009). To reverse the food crises in the region, there
Ethiopia is carried out with a breaking ard plough, locally
known as ‘Maresha’, whose shape and structure have
*Correspondence to: Desale Kidane Asmamaw, Samara University, PO
Box 132, Ethiopia. remained unchanged for thousands of years (Nyssen et al.,
E-mail: kidanedesu@gmail.com 2009a, 2009b; Nyssen et al., 2011; Kidane, 2014).

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

 D. K. ASMAMAW

Land degradation is occurring at an alarming rate in the if soils are well conserved. Furthermore, soil has been
highlands of Ethiopia (Kidane et al., 2012; Temesgen served as a habitats range in size from micro-niches to entire
et al., 2012; Kidane, 2014; Lanckriet et al., 2014; landscapes while soil biodiversity includes all varieties of
Asmamaw, 2015). Since the 1970s there have been several life dwelling in the soil habitat below- and above-ground
attempts to develop, modify and implement the Maresha (Brevik et al., 2015). Furthermore, soils provide a home
plow in Ethiopia, with the aim of creating surface depres- for varieties of life reside in the soil ecology below- and
sions (Nyssen et al., 2008; Nyssen et al., 2011; Kidane, above-ground (Brevik et al., 2015). It supplies various eco-
2014). Traditional tillage (TT), involving repeated cross system services vital to humans and the environment such as
plowing using a Maresha plow, coupled with little adoption a reservoir and purifier of groundwater, biogeochemical cy-
of soil conservation structures appears to be a contributing cle, moderating the climate by controlling the C and N
factor to land degradation (Kidane et al., 2012; Temesgen changes and stocking about 58% of total carbon on earth.
et al., 2012; Kidane, 2014). The establishment of furrows Keesstra et al. (2016a) also confirmed that soil has enor-
and ridges increases soil moisture and grain yield and re- mous services for public health; the management system
duces soil loss (Nyssen et al., 2007; Nyssen et al., 2009a, cannot be achieved without local communities’ involve-
2009b). The overall runoff volume over the complete grow- ment. Smith et al. (2015) studied the biogeochemical cycles
ing period showed that, permanent bed (PB) had signifi- and biodiversity as key drivers of ecosystem services pro-
cantly lower runoff than TT found over 60% decreased in vided by soils. They summarized that soil have supporting,
total runoff using wheat as a test crop in the previous regulating, provisioning and cultural services for the planet
growing period (Oicha et al., 2010), while other earth.
researchers found 50% decreased in PB compared to TT In the contemporary world, concerns have to be given for
(Gebreegziabher et al., 2009). PB in this study is defined the long-term sustainability of agricultural production
as beds and furrows of 60–70 cm width (middle of the fur- through improving soil productivity. Because with the pres-
row to the next one) which will be prepared after plowing ent condition, it may not provide for the food needs of a
the plots. The furrows will be reshaped after every cropping world population projected to exceed greater than 7 billion
season without any tillage on the top of the bed. Most of the in the 2020s. The overall strategy for increasing crop yields
time the furrows are reshaped on the sowing date to prevent and sustaining it at a high level must include an integrated
the top of the bed disruption by oxen. It is very common in approach to the management of soil nutrients, along with
the highlands of Ethiopia. The optimum utilization of rain- other complementary measures (Cerdà et al., 2016;
water is, therefore, of the utmost importance. Prosdocimi et al., 2016; Keesstra et al., 2016a).
The semi-arid and sub-humid Ethiopia covers vast areas Basically, tillage is the practice of working the soil with
which represent the crop production zone suffering from se- implements to provide suitable condition to raise crops. It
rious moisture stress. Food insecurity and famine have often is carried out for a number of reasons: (i) to provide a suit-
affected these areas. Shortage of rainfall is normally reported able tilth or soil structure for the plants to establish; (ii) to
as the cause of moisture stress and famine in Ethiopia. How- control soil moisture, aeration and temperature; (iii) to de-
ever, the total average rainfall in these regions can be as high stroy weeds; (iv) to destroy or control soil pests; and (v) to
as 700 mm per year (Ayenew, 2007). One could ask why bury or clear rubbish, and incorporate manure into the soil.
such much annual rainfall would not be sufficient to grow CT is defined as a cropping system where at least 30% or
crops. Increasingly, evidences shows that the amount of wa- more of the soil surface covered with crop residue following
ter is not the key limiting factor for improved yields, even in tillage and planting (Makurira et al., 2010). These residues
the so-called dry lands. The underlying reasons can be sur- protect the soil from water and wind erosion. The practices
face runoff and soil evaporation (Temesgen et al., 2007; of CT include no tillage, minimum tillage (MT), plowing
Temesgen et al., 2009). using subsoiler, tie-ridge, moldboard (BBM) and other vari-
Rainfall, especially in moisture stress areas, is mainly lost ous techniques. The main reasons of tillage operation can be
through evaporation from the soil surface (Es) and surface achieved through the implementation of CT practices. Thus,
runoff (Qs) (Kidane et al., 2012). Under semi-arid condi- better rainwater balance and adequate agricultural produc-
tions, soil evaporation (Es) can be 60–70% of the annual tion could be possible.
rainfall (Kidane, 2014). Because of the considerable water Soil management plays an important role for water avail-
loss, water productivity is very low in rain-fed agriculture ability in the soil by enhancing infiltration, soil moisture
in Ethiopia, but there are significant opportunities for pro- storage, and purifying ground water quality and enhance re-
ducing more food with less freshwater (McHugh et al., charge (Keesstra et al., 2012). Thus, farmers, researchers, in-
2007; Araya et al., 2009, 2010, 2011a, 2012; Biratu & stitutions, and governments all have an important role to
Asmamaw, 2016). Therefore, integrated in-situ soil and wa- play in sustaining agricultural productivity through inte-
ter management practices on farmer’s field are required. grated soil management (Alvarez-Martinez et al., 2016).
According to Howitt et al. (2009), Brevik (2013), Zhao Other study also agreed that, agricultural production and soil
et al. (2015), McBratney et al. (2014) and Keesstra et al. management are key factors to understand the biogeochem-
(2016b) studies, various environmental, socio-economic, ical cycles and to design sustainable land use policy (Decock
geologic and human health issues can be better addressed et al., 2015).

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WATER BALANCE AND AGRONOMIC EFFECTS OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE

Nowadays, rain-fed crop production is becoming a risky reputable international journals having the highest impact
venture in Ethiopia and the frequent droughts and rainfall factor and self-defined scopes. Following the ethics and
variability because of El Nino effect, soil erosion have been standards of reviewing scientific paper, the researcher
a serious threat to those employed in agriculture (Asmamaw, reviewed about 100 research papers published over the last
2015; Nyssen et al., 2015; Biratu & Asmamaw, 2016). Soil 10 years. Three specific criteria were used for journal selec-
and water conservation via CT application is paramount for tion: research papers (i) directly related to CT impact on hy-
sustaining cropland productivity in Ethiopia. This review drology and grain yield; (ii) briefly expressed the topic in
paper is, therefore, aimed at providing a comprehensive depth and in a broadly scoped focus and (iii) research papers
and valuable information for scholars, and policymakers in published since 2006.
soil and water conservation areas about the role of CT on Prior to begin the actual review, identify and comprehend
rainfall partitioning and agricultural productivity in common lessons from individual articles was conducted.
Ethiopia. Because the number of published research papers selected
for this study was manageable manually, this review re-
search was conducted through systematic, best evidence
MATERIALS AND METHODS
and narrative review techniques. The selected research pa-
Ethiopia is located in the Horn of Africa between 30 and 150 pers in the studied topic have been critically reviewed and
North latitude and 330 and 480 East longitude. It covers summarized in logical manner on the basis of the author’s
about 1 · 13 million km2. The highlands > 1500 meter above experience, existing theories and models. In order to illus-
sea level (m.a.s.l.) constitutes around 45% of the total area trate some generic information about tillage impact on water
are inhabited by > 80% of the Ethiopian population. The balance and agronomy, the author included information
highest mean annual rainfall is above 2700 mm in the from some studies outside Ethiopia. The review result is
south-western highlands, which gradually decreasing to displayed using tables, figures and in qualitative way
100 mm or less in the north-eastern lowlands (Tesfahunegn, accordingly.
2013). The mean annual temperature ranges between less
than 0 °C at night in the highlands to 45 °C in the Afar low- RESULTS
lands. Lithosols, Nitosols, Cambisols and Regosols are the
main soil types. Soils erosion is most common in the study The Concept of Water Balance at the Farming System
area. Such losses will certainly cause biomass decrease, Water is in constant motion. Energy from the sun and the
and this will remain as environmental challenge unless ap- force of gravity drive the hydrologic cycle, which is the end-
propriate measures are taken. less circulation of water between the land, oceans and atmo-
Agriculture is the mainstay of the country’s economy with sphere. The water balance is the difference between in flow
more than 50% of GDP coming from this sector and out flow of water. In other words, for any arbitrary vol-
(Tesfahunegn, 2013). It has been a means of livelihood ume and during any period of time, the difference between
and survival for about 80% of the population. However, total input and output will be balanced by the change of wa-
most of the areas used by settlement are extremely degraded, ter storage within the volume (Ahmed, 2015). The total
per capita land availability is dwindled and productivity of amount of water received at field scale is because of the rain-
land is reduced. Farming is dominantly done by oxen and fall (R) and runoff diversion (Qs) or irrigation. This water is
conventional tillage (Temesgen, 2007). The country has vast partitioned into transpiration (T), soil evaporation (Es), run-
areas of fertile land, a diverse climate, adequate but variable off (Qs), deep percolation (D) and (ΔS) soil moisture storage
rainfall, and a large labor pool. Its population is currently es- variation (Temesgen et al., 2007; Makurira et al., 2010)
timated to be more than 80 million which makes Ethiopia (Figure 1). This indicated that very few amount of rainfall
the second populous countries in Africa. The country has is productive in the tropical rain-fed farming systems and
also tremendous land and water resources (Asmamaw, the non-productive (Es) flow is higher compared with the
2015). productive (T) flow. As it is displayed in Figure 1, about
For the last decades, Ethiopia has faced serious ecological 10–30% of seasonal rainfall is transpired (T) whereas about
imbalances because of large scale deforestation and soil ero- 50% is lost as evaporation (Es) from the soil, and rainfall
sion caused by improper farming practices, destructive for- intercepted plant canopies.
est exploitation and uncontrolled grazing practices. This A considerable portion of the precipitation is lost from
has resulted in a declining agricultural production, water de- soil surface as blue water flow. The blue water is the fresh-
pletion, disturbed hydrological conditions, and poverty and water resource that is mainly found in the aquifers, lakes,
food insecurity. Achieving sustainable pathways out of the rivers; seas, oceans, dams and the rainfall over the earth
downward spiral of land degradation and poverty requires (Figure 2). Whereas the water stored in the soil as moisture
that farmers adopt profitable and sustainable land manage- content and the portion of rain water which back to the at-
ment practices (Karltun et al., 2013; Asmamaw, 2015). mosphere as water vapor is called the green water. The
The study focused on the effect of CT implement on soil source of water vapor can be wetted soil surface, water bod-
water balance and agronomy in Ethiopia. The researcher ies and plant foliages. The green water can be categorized as
chose to critically investigate literatures published in productive (T) and non-productive (E). Collectively, the

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 D. K. ASMAMAW

Figure 1. Overview of rainfall partitioning in the farming system in the sub-Saharan Africa (adapted from Temesgen et al., 2007). This figure is available in
colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ldr.

vapor fluxes from evaporation and transpiration termed as Similarly, from the recorded rainfall about 30% are lost as
green water flow. The flow of water from aquifers, lakes, surface runoff (Figure 1). Many researchers agreed that wa-
rivers and dams, and deep percolation because of infiltration ter loss is higher in the semi arid and dry sub-humid savanna
and the flow of water to these water bodies can be named as agro-ecology where most of the world’s poorest communi-
blue water flow. ties living (Rockstrom et al., 2009; Asmamaw, 2015). Be-
The implementations of CT as well as soil and water cause of the implementation of flood irrigation system and
conservation measures are very limited in the sub-Saharan poor soil and water management practices the irrigation
African countries including Ethiopia. As a result consider- water-use efficiency is not exceeds 30% in the savanna zone
ably high surface runoff had been recorded in these regions. (Rockstrom et al., 2009). This indicates that, despite the

Figure 2. Illustrates the new conceptualization, distinguishing between two types of water resources the blue-water resource in aquifers, lakes, and dams, and
the green-water resource as moisture in the soil and two complementary water flows the liquid blue-water flow through rivers and aquifers and the green vapor
water flow back to the atmosphere at the catchment scale ‘blue’ and ‘green’ water, ET = evapotranspiration (modified from Falkenmark & Rockstrom, 2006).
This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ldr.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WATER BALANCE AND AGRONOMIC EFFECTS OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE

savanna regions are characterized by moisture deficit, the ir- steady state infiltration rates under WS-treated plots were
rigation development and water use system is very low 0 · 84 ± 0 · 005 and 0 · 1 ± 0 · 005 cm min
1, respectively. On
which leads to periodic poverty and hunger. the other hand, 0 · 54 ± 0 · 006 and 0 · 05 ± 0 · 004 cm min
1
at 01 and 60 min were observed under the TT-treated plots.
Water Balance Components as Affected by Conservation According to the same author, the cumulative infiltration un-
Tillage at the Farming System der CT was considerably higher compared to the TT with
Infiltration and deep percolation values at 4 · 23 ± 0 · 17 and 2 · 72 ± 0 · 11 cm, respectively.
Infiltration can be defined as the rate at which water enters Compared with the conventional tillage, the WS treated
the soil through its soil atmosphere interface. In arid and plots resulted in high infiltration, better moisture retention,
semi-arid regions, where water scarcity is the major limita- high tillage depth and low soil evaporation which in turn
tion for rain-fed crop production, soil infiltration rate plays increased grain yield.
the priority role in determining the cumulative infiltration Unlike the TT system, based on soil inversion which im-
amount to be available in the soil root zone during a partic- pedes water infiltration and root penetration, CT seeks to en-
ular rainfall event that can be used by crops (Kidane, 2014). hance soil infiltration and productivity at the expense of
Infiltration is governed by gravity and capillary action. CT water logging and high surface runoff (Temesgen et al.,
disturbs the natural channels that have formed in a soil 2008; Temesgen et al., 2012). Many authors also argued
(Kidane, 2014). It is generally understood that increased that, CT systems provide farmers with an effective tool to
antecedent moisture decreases infiltration capacity and in- maximize rainfall infiltration into the soil, reduce runoff
creases surface runoff (Kidane et al., 2012). Hence, the and build up water holding capacity of the soil (Kidane
adoption of CT could rectify soil erosion problems on natu- et al., 2012; Kidane, 2014). On the other hand, infiltrated
ral resources degradation. water is further divided between transpiration and drainage.
The potentials of CT are tremendous especially with com- The drainage component contributes to the downstream
munities already using animal drawn implements for their river flow with much slower speed than surface runoff
tillage operations (Erkossa et al., 2006a, 2006b). Temesgen thereby contributing to downstream river flow at a time
et al. (2012) also noted that conventional tillage does not when there is water scarcity such as during the dry season
promote infiltration and creates hard pans below the plowed (Kijne et al., 2009; Adimassu et al., 2014).
layer in the long run compared with CT systems which pro-
vided farmers with an effective tool to maximize rainfall in- Soil Moisture or ‘Green Water’ Management
filtration into the soil. For a long period of time, water management exclusively
Majority of the CT practices provide the best opportunity considered ‘blue water’ the water in rivers and lakes
for halting degradation, restoring and improving soil pro- employed in irrigation, power generation and others
ductivity (Temesgen et al., 2008). It conserves water by re- (Figure 2). Moreover, the largest volume of freshwater is
ducing evaporation (Kidane et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2014; ‘green water’ the water contained in the soil and return to
Kidane, 2014). CT increased soil water infiltration substan- the atmosphere. Out of the received rainfall, 65% becomes
tially compared to the infiltration of the moldboard- ‘green water’. In the savannah regions including vast part
ploughed soil. It is effective in reducing the loss of many of Ethiopia, rainfall generates only a minimal amount of
surface water contaminants including sediments, pesticides blue water and the largest part of rainfall evaporates. This
and nutrients. According to Brhane et al. (2006) infiltration suggests better management of ‘green water’ can signifi-
rate was greater for deep tillage (1 · 405 cm h
1) and lower cantly compensate for lack of blue water.
for TT systems (1 · 234 cm h
1). They concluded that, the in- Green water is the soil water held in the unsaturated zone,
creased in infiltration rate with deep tillage probably reflects formed by precipitation and available to plants, while blue
the decreased in soil bulk density. water refers to liquid water in rivers, lakes, wetlands and
Erkossa et al. (2015) studied the link between soil erosion aquifers, which can be withdrawn for irrigation and other
and on-site financial cost using productivity change ap- human uses. Irrigated agriculture receives blue water (from
proach in Dapo, Meja and Mizewa watersheds in the Blue irrigation) as well as green water (from precipitation), while
Nile basin Ethiopia. Based on the report, farmers were af- rain-fed agriculture receives only green water (Kidane et al.,
fected by a considerable yield reduction and financial crises. 2012). Ethiopian agriculture is solely dependent on green
For instance, from maize (Zea mays) crop yield, farmers water thus, green water management via enhancing soil in-
annually lose about 220 and USD150 ha
1 because of the filtration is utmost important.
loss of nitrogen and phosphorus in Dapo, respectively. They The growing population numbers and changing consump-
conclude that environmentally suitable and socio- tion patterns in fast developing economies are increasing
economically acceptable and sound on-site soil and water global food demand. The frequent dry spells, El Nino effect
conservation measures in the landscapes and beyond need and droughts in many parts of Ethiopia leave farmers with-
to be encouraged. out means to water for their crops. As a result, many of the
The infiltration rate in the winged subsoiler (WS) populations are suffering from severe food shortages be-
(improved tillage) treated plots was twice higher than the cause of crop failure (Mengistie & Kidane, 2016). There-
conventionally tilled plots (Kidane, 2011). The initial and fore, better management of soil moisture is essential in

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 D. K. ASMAMAW

achieving higher yields from rain-fed agriculture. ‘Green moisture contents at 30 and 60 cm soil depths under TT
water’ is a key factor in rain-fed agriculture and its impor- could be because of soil compaction created by repeated
tance for agriculture in feeding the world population, now cross plowing using Maresha plow, which restrict root pen-
and in the future, is increasingly recognized. Improving the etration, reduce infiltration, encourage surface runoff and
management of green water has enormous potential to pro- promote extended water logging conditions. This suggests
duce more crops per drop of water. that moisture distribution along the root zone under TT
Soil moisture is often the most unreliable and scarce re- treated plots is undesirable. (Table I)
source, so the challenge is to enhance the availability and
productivity of water for biomass production (Kidane Surface Runoff
et al., 2012). CT systems coupled with contour plowing Runoff is the transfer of water from the land surface to the
are effective in preserving soil moisture (Temesgen et al., oceans and seas via streams and lakes. It consists of precip-
2007; Temesgen et al., 2012). This is very essential for itation that neither evaporates back into the atmosphere, nor
Ethiopia whose economy is highly dependent on such rain- infiltrates into groundwater. Groundwater discharge can also
fed agriculture, as there may be a time lag between arrivals replenish runoff but excess runoff leads to flooding. Runoff
of the rain and sowing of the crops (Kidane, 2014). More- is an important water balance component in rain-fed agricul-
over, a number of practices have been promoted in Ethiopia ture and influenced by soil management practices (Setegn
that further enhanced moisture conservation, in particular et al., 2010; Adimassu et al., 2014; Kidane, 2014;
deep ripping and subsoiling (McHugh et al., 2007). These Asmamaw, 2015). Gebreegziabher et al. (2009) had re-
techniques resulted in 60% yield increment, as they increase ported a total of 255, 381 and 653 m3 ha
1 runoff from PB,
water infiltration and reduce splash and sheet erosion. This terwah and TT practices, respectively during the whole
implies that, sustainable production would possibly be cropping season (Table II). They have founded over 60%
achieved via the adoption of CT practices. decreased in total runoff using wheat as a test crop in the
The effect of CT on water balance had been conducted in previous growing period, while Oicha et al. (2010) founded
the highland (high rainfall region) of Ethiopia (Kidane, 50% decreased in PB compared to TT. Similarly, Araya
2011). The average daily soil moisture content at 30 cm soil et al. (2014) reported significantly different (p < 0 · 05) run-
depth was 0 · 330 and 0 · 334 m3 m
3 and 0 · 305 and off coefficients averaged over 8 years were 14, 20 and 27%
0 · 314 m3 m
3 under CT and TT at the upper and lower for Derdero (DER), Terwah (TER) and TT, respectively.
sides of the plots, respectively. Although not statistically The application of PB practices declined the surface runoff
significant, the results showed that stored soil water at (
51%) and soil loss (
81%) and saved the downstream
deeper layers is higher under the CT than that under TT sig- communities from flood damage.
nifying the higher infiltration rates in the former. This trend According to Kidane (2011) report, the daily average sur-
is repeated at even deeper layers. The same author agreed face runoff under TT and CT treated plots was 4 · 79 and
that the higher soil moisture content at 10 cm and lower soil 2 · 48 mm/ha
day, respectively. Considerably higher surface

Table I. Effect of tillage systems on water balance (mm-day
1) in wheat crop at Chelemit and Melkawoba experimental plots respectively,
Ethiopia (conceptual model output)

Treatment P Qs I T Es R ΔS T/P (ratio) Qs/p (ratio) Reference Year of trial

TT 284 137 57 26 · 9 14 · 7 48 0 · 40 0 · 09 0 · 48 Kidane, 2011 2010–2011
CT 284 71 · 2 57 38 · 2 1·5 52 · 5 63 · 6 0 · 13 0 · 25
TT 305 61 70 94 105 86
41 0 · 31 0 · 77 Temesgen, 2007 2004
STS 305 26 70 98 122 95
35 0 · 32 0 · 71
ST 305 35 70 91 127 91
39 0 · 30 0 · 76
TT 398 40 0 244 133 0
21 0 · 61 0 · 10 Temesgen, 2007 2005
STS 398 17 0 272 126 0
17 0 · 68 0 · 04
ST 398 25 0 258 131 0
17 0 · 65 0 · 06
TT 355 40 100 158 39 56
37 0 · 44 0 · 11 Temesgen et al., 2007 2005
STS 355 17 100 196 25 54
36 0 · 50 0 · 05
ST 355 25 100 178 31 57
36 0 · 55 0 · 07
TT 420 100 145 114 80 175
49 0 · 27 0 · 24 2003
STS 420 42 145 149 77 191
40 0 · 36 0 · 10
ST 420 57 145 143 86 177
43 0 · 34 0 · 14
Hint: P, precipitation; T, transpiration; Es, soil evaporation; Qs, surface runoff; R, deep percolation; I, interception; ΔS, change in storage variation.
Hint: Based on this study, Terwah (TERW) is a traditional water conservation technique in which furrows are made with ‘maresha’ along the contour at an
interval of 1 · 5–2 m. it is especially used in tef, where the farmers prepare furrows on the contour. Derdero can be defined as a traditional ridge without ties for
broadcasted planting. In Lasta northern Ethiopia, the derdero system is applied by many farmers, especially for fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), wheat
and tef. At the last tillage operation, the farmer broadcasts the seeds over the surface, and then prepares beds and furrows along the contour using the Marasha,
in order to conserve water. Soil and seeds that are on the position of the furrows are moved to an upper position on the beds in the ploughing process. Most of
the plants will then germinate on the beds (Nyssen et al., 2011).

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WATER BALANCE AND AGRONOMIC EFFECTS OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE

Table II. Runoff volume (m3 ha
1) and runoff coefficient (%) as sediment transport and, subsequently, reduce downstream
affected by different conservation tillage systems flooding and sedimentation problems.
Treatment Total runoff Average runoff References Mekonnen et al. (2015) also assessed the sediment trap-
volume m3 coefficient (%) ping efficacy of sediment storage dams (SSDs) built in the
ha
1 outlet of eight small sub-catchments in northwest Ethiopia.
Traditional 56 · 3 a 19 · 5 a Araya et al., The result showed that SSDs trapped an average of
tillage (TT) 2015 1584 Mg ha
1 of the inflow sediment and catchment specific
Terwah 33 · 94 a 7·6 b sediment yield ranged from 8 · 6 to 55 Mg ha
1 year. Based
Permanent 28 · 32 a 4·7 b on the report, the efficacy of SSDs was 74% and 67% for ga-
bed (PB) bion and stone bund, respectively.
TT 67a 0 · 16 a McHugh et al.,
Subsoiling 62a 0 · 15 2007 Among the CT systems tested on tef crop in Ethiopia, MT
Tied ridge 25a 0 · 06 resulted in the highest runoff (Qs = 48 mm-season
1)
No tillage 34 0 · 08 followed by TT (Qs = 34 mm-season
1) while improved till-
TT 653a 15 · 5a Gebreegziabher age with subsoiling (ITS) resulted in the lowest runoff
Terwah 381b 9 · 0b et al., 2009 (Qs = 23 mm-season
1) (Temesgen et al., 2007). This im-
PB 255c 6 · 0b
plies that the adoption of CT could minimize surface runoff
Values with different letters within a column are statistically significant by maximizing infiltration which would be look at what
(p < 0 · 05) for the respective experimental result.
proportion of rainwater has been used for crop production.
DeLaune & Sij (2012) had been conducted tillage
runoff, under the TT-treated plots, was observed throughout research in Texas from 2001 to 2008. The study was
the study. This may be because of the presence of hard pans conducted within a field that had been in no-till wheat with
created by repeated cross plowing using TT which reduced occasional grazing for seven years. Seven tillage treatments
infiltration rate thus promoting surface runoff. were evaluated, including: no-till, conventional till and soil
A straw application field experiment was conducted by aeration using roller angles of 08, 2 · 58, 58, 7 · 58 and 108.
Prosdocimi et al. (2016) in Eastern Spain using rainfall sim- The result showed that conversion from no-till to conven-
ulation tests at 55 mm h
1 over 1 h on 40 paired plots of tional tillage increased runoff volume by 38%.
0 · 24 m2. The straw cover varied from 48 to 90% with a me- Ahmed et al. (2015) quantified the amount of soil loss
dian value of 59% as a result of the application of 75 g of using GIS based Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
straw per m2. The result shows that the use of straw mulch model in Bahir Dar Zuria district, Ethiopia. Based on the
resulted in delayed ponding and runoff generation and, as study, the most pronounced RUSLE factor that increase soil
a result, the median water loss decreased from 52 · 59 to erosion have been the slope length (L) and slope steepness
39 · 27% of the total rainfall. The straw cover reduced the (S). The annual soil loss for crop land, vegetation, grass land
median sediment concentration in runoff from 9 · 8 to and degraded land was 19 · 05, 8 · 78, 8 · 82 and 71 · 16
3 · 0 g L
1 and the median total sediment detached from ton ha
1 y
1, respectively. This is to mean that land use land
70 · 34 to 15 · 62 g per experiment. The median soil erosion cover and conservation practices have strong relation with
rate decreased from 2 · 81 to 0 · 63 Mg ha
1 h
1 because of the amount of soil loss. The effect of the LUC implementa-
the straw mulch protection. They concluded that straw tion on the hydrological response of the model is substantial,
mulch is very effective in reducing soil erodibility and sur- showing significant changes in the flow dynamics in the
face runoff. Choke Mountains Ethiopia.
Soil management variables such as tillage affect surface
runoff volume. The severity of runoff is a function of rainfall Evapotranspiration
quantity and intensity, soil and surface characteristics and Evapotranspiration (ET) is the process whereby water origi-
tillage operations. However, CT that involves deep tillage nating from a wide range of sources is transferred from the
passes had been found to reduce surface runoff compared soil compartment and/or vegetation layer to the atmosphere
to TT. Numerous studies have shown that, excessive soil (Verstraeten et al., 2008). ET includes evaporation from sur-
manipulation leads to a deterioration in soil structure, accel- face water bodies, land surfaces, soil, sublimation of snow
erated soil erosion and surface runoff and consequently, re- and ice, plant transpiration as well as intercepted canopy wa-
duces crop yield (Temesgen et al., 2008). ter. ET represents both a mass and an energy flux. ET is the
Mekonnen et al. (2014) studied a review research on soil portion of the precipitation which returns back to the atmo-
conservation through sediment trapping in Ethiopia. They sphere through evaporation from a free water surface, a bare
noted that different vegetations integrated with two or more soil or interception on a vegetal cover and other objects and
conservation measures (vegetative as well as structural) are transpiration from plants (Ahmed, 2015).
important factors influencing sediment trapping efficacy. Of the CT systems tested on tef crop in Ethiopia, ITS re-
The same author concluded that if integrated measures are sulted in relatively higher crop transpiration (T = 53 mm
implemented at the most appropriate spatial locations within season
1), followed by TT T = 49 mm-season
1 and MT
a catchment where they can disconnect landscape units from T = 32 mm-season
1 (Temesgen, 2007). With similar setup,
each other, the system will decrease runoff velocity and the same author tested CT systems on maize crop and he

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 D. K. ASMAMAW

noted that strip tillage with subsoiling (STS) resulted in the (ΔS), in wheat crop under CT and TT treated plots
highest transpiration (T = 196 mm-season
1), followed by (Table I). Surface runoff under TT and CT was 48 · 24 and
strip tillage (ST), T = 178 mm-season
1, compared with 25% of the total received rainfall, respectively. Surface run-
(TT) T = 158 mm-season
1, respectively. Similar finding off accounted for the largest proportion of the partitioned
tested on wheat crop under different tillage systems had water under both treatments. According to the model result,
been conducted in Ethiopia by (Kidane, 2011). The result transpiration in CT exceeded that in TT. The proportion of
from the conceptual model showed that, CT resulted in the transpiration to precipitation (T/p) under CT and TT was
highest crop transpiration T = 38 · 2 mm-day
1 compared 13 · 4 and 9% respectively, which showed that CT is the best
with TT = 26 · 9 mm-day
1, respectively. option for increased yield. As seen from Table I, the effect
Soil evaporation results from the conceptual model of CT was more pronounced on surface runoff reduction.
showed that evaporation was generally low under both treat- This may be because of increased infiltration as also ob-
ments because of summer season and Dega climate zone in served in infiltration rate tests. Several authors (Temesgen
Ethiopia (Kidane et al., 2012). According to the report, soil et al., 2007; Kidane et al., 2012; Temesgen et al., 2012;
evaporation under the TT plots was higher compared to the Kidane, 2014) who run similar model founded higher sur-
CT treated plots. The loss of water via soil evaporation un- face runoff under TT system as compared to CT treated
der WS and TT-treated plots declined as the crop cover in- plots. Similarly, water logged conditions and higher non-
creased. The relatively higher soil evaporation observed productive water loss (Es, Qs) were observed under TT
under the TT plots revealed that TT techniques using (Kidane, 2011; Temesgen et al., 2012).
Maresha plow do not promote infiltration and on the con- Water balance before and after intervention of integrated
trary, create a hard pan on the soil in the long run and open soil and water conservation measures have been studied in
the soil for further evaporation (Makurira et al., 2010). Con- Ethiopia (Negusse et al., 2013). The input component of
sidering the limitation of TT, use of WS could reduce soil the catchment was precipitation and the output components
evaporation through encouraging the water holding capacity were actual evapotranspiration and runoff. The amount of
of the soil. water that infiltrated into the ground was calculated using
the water balance equation:
DISCUSSION P
AET
QB
GWRB ¼ 0 (1)
Water Balance Model Output (Rainfall Partitioning) 3
Where, P is precipitation (5 867 346 m ); QB is surface
Rainfall partitioning significantly affects the water balance runoff before the intervention (1 577 167 m3); AET is
and availability of water to crops. CT affects the two actual evapotranspiration (4 206 149 · 41 m3); and GWRB
partitioning points in the soil water balance (Temesgen is groundwater recharge before the intervention.
et al., 2007). The first partitioning point is where rainfall is Therefore; GWRB = 5 867 346
(4 206 149 · 41 + 1 577 167)
partitioned at the soil surface into interception, infiltration m3 GWRB = 84 029 · 59 m3. The volume of water that perco-
and surface runoff while the second partitioning point is late down and join the groundwater before the intervention
where soil moisture is partitioned between crop water up- was found to be 84 029 · 59 m3 which is 1 · 43% of the mean
take, soil evaporation and drainage. CT improves the soil annual rainfall of the catchment. With the same input com-
structure through reduced the frequency of plow, deep till ponent, 652 375 · 19 m3 the volume of water was recorded
and disruption of the hard pans which leads to enhance soil as groundwater recharges after the intervention which is
organic matter content. This resulted in enhanced soil fertil- 11 · 12% of the mean annual rainfall of the catchment. A to-
ity which reduced runoff and increased infiltration thus af- tal amount of 465 031 · 02 m3 surface runoff was captured by
fecting the first partitioning point. the various physical conservation structures which are con-
In the second partitioning point, CT increased water structed at the foot hillsides the catchment. After the imple-
uptake by plants because root growth is opened to the water mentation of integrated soil and water conservation
table. The water holding capacity of the soil may be in- measures in the catchment, the volume of runoff generated
creased because of organic matter improvement, which re- from the different land use of the catchment is reduced by
sults in more water available for useful transpiration by the amount of 568 345 · 6 m3and the groundwater recharge
crop. Moreover, CT is aimed at altering the rainfall is increased by 1 033 376 · 62 m3. They concluded that, be-
partitioning such that more infiltration at the expense of sur- cause the study area is characterized by high intensity of
face runoff, in the first partitioning point and more root wa- rainfall during two months and which can produce high sur-
ter uptake thus more useful transpiration at the expense of face runoff, additional physical conservation structures have
soil evaporation, in the second partitioning point are to be constructed to capture 100% of the generated runoff.
achieved (Temesgen et al., 2007).
Kidane (2011) conducted a field trial on CT effect on wa-
AGRONOMY
ter balance in Ethiopia. The conceptual model output
showed that, rainfall was partitioned into transpiration (T), Yield levels in smallholder farming systems in the semi-arid
interception (I), soil evaporation (Es), deep percolation SSA are generally low because of moisture deficit in the root
(D), surface runoff (Qs) and soil moisture storage variation zone during critical crop development stages (Enfors et al.,

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WATER BALANCE AND AGRONOMIC EFFECTS OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE

2010). Several researchers have reported increased yields response to water stress. They noted that tef crop yield was
from CT implementation (Erkossa et al., 2006a, 2006b; dramatically reduced when optimal water is not applied dur-
Temesgen et al., 2007; Temesgen et al., 2012; Alavijeh ing the early establishment and flowering stages of the crop.
et al., 2014; Araya et al., 2015) (Table III). Alamouti & The mean potential grain and straw yield of the tef
Navabzadeh (2007) also found yield increment with increas- cultivars for the experimental seasons was 1818 kg ha
1
ing plowing depth averaging with 6571 kg ha
1 under CT, and 7800 kg ha
1, respectively. Tef water requirement was
compared to TT 5717 kg ha
1, respectively. They concluded found to be approximately 15–30% lower than that of bar-
that comparing shallow tillage to, deep tillage increased ley. Tef is likely give significantly higher grain yield when
wheat yield by 15%. As all knows, soil erosion adversely nearly optimal water supply is attained. From the study re-
affects the agricultural production by removing essential nu- port one can concluded that, technological support coupled
trients of the soil which are crucial for crop growing. Reduc- with upgrading the skill and knowledge of farmers in water
ing soil erosion using CT systems therefore maintain soil management such as reducing field application loses has sig-
fertility, increased moisture availability and crop yield. nificant contribution in saving the limited water in dry land
Hence, the adoption of CT can reverse the processes of land areas and increase yield.
degradation by improving the soil conditions for crop pro- Temesgen et al. (2012) reported that the mean values of
duction (Kidane et al., 2012; Biratu & Asmamaw, 2016). both biomass and grain yields from CT had been higher
Araya et al. (2011a) had conducted crop coefficient yield than that from TT. ITS which had been tested on tef
response to water stress and water productivity of tef crop in Ethiopia resulted in the highest crop yield
(Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)) experiment in northern Ethiopia as (Y = 1180 kg ha
1), compared with TT (Y = 1070 kg ha
1)
mean of increasing water productivity. The report indicates and MT Y = 890 kg ha
1, respectively. Similarly, the test re-
that, the seasonal yield response to water stress was 1 · 04 sult from maize crop at the same experimental site under
which indicated that tef has a moderately sensitive and linear STS (Y = 2130 kg ha
1) and ST, Y = 1840 kg ha
1 yielded

Table III. Average grain yields and standard errors for conservation farming experiments for different crops in Ethiopia

Tested crop Tillage system Biomass (kg ha
1) Grain yield (kg ha
1) Reference
Wheat Conservation tillage 5833 ± 872a 2685 ± 462b Temesgen et al., 2012
Traditional tillage 4167 ± 797a 1985 ± 245b
Tef Conservation tillage 3960 ± 340a 2396 ± 440b
Traditional tillage 3470 ± 429a 1868 ± 367b
Maize Open STS 3576 c 993 c Temesgen et al., 2007
Open ST 4347 bc 1250 bc
Closed STS 4875 ab 1332 ab
Closed ST 5750 a 1587 a
Tef Traditional tillage 6 · 7 ± 0 · 18a 1173 ± 50a Oicha et al., 2010
Terwah 4 · 5 ± 0 · 64b 925 ± 99b
Permanent bed 3 · 0 ± 0 · 69b 678 ± 73c
Wheat Broad bed and furrow nd 1101b Erkossa et al., 2006a, 2006b
Green manure nd 1780a
Ridge and furrow nd 1698a
Reduced tillage nd 1862a
Tef Broad bed and furrow nd 2841
Green manure nd 2894
Ridge and furrow nd 2884
Reduced tillage nd 2981
Chickpea Traditional tillage nd 1430 a McHugh et al., 2007
Subsoiling nd 2030 b
Open ridges nd 1470 a
Tied ridges nd 1530 ab
Tef with fertilizer Ripping + ridging nd 1462 ± 133bc Rockstrom et al., 2009
application Ripping + wing-plough nd 1403 ± 179bc
Ripping + subsoiling nd 1266 ± 141bc
Traditional tillage nd 1258 ± 131c
Wheat with no fertilizer Ripping + ridging nd 1775 ± 111a
application Ripping + wing-plough nd 1609 ± 128ab
Ripping + subsoiling nd 1540 ± 127abc
Traditional tillage nd 1458 ± 100bc
Wheat Derdero+ nd 5 · 9 ± 0 · 14a Araya et al., 2015
Terwah + nd 5 · 1 ± 0 · 12b
Traditional tillage nd 4 · 2 ± 0 · 15c
Values with different letters within a column are statistically significant (p < 0 · 05) for the respective experimental result. nd, no data; STS, strip tillage and
subsoiling; ST, strip tillage.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 D. K. ASMAMAW

higher compared with TT (Y = 1720 kg ha
1), respectively. agriculture (Kijne et al., 2009). Water productivity is a mea-
The participated farmers have noticed the differences in bio- sure of the amount of water needed to generate an amount or
mass and grain yield and they believed that, the reasons value of produce (Temesgen et al., 2007). Generally, water
could be reduced soil erosion, better weed control and productivity in this paper is equivalent to water use
extended period of soil wetness and reduced water logging efficiency, which can be defined as the amount of crop
in CT. produced per unit of water (kg-m
3), where the yield is
Rockstrom et al. (2009) had conducted a field experiment (kg-ha
1) and the water ( m
3 ha
1) (Kijne et al., 2009).
in conservation farming (CF) on maize and tef crop for five Water productivity in rain-fed agriculture is influenced by
years (1999–2003) in Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Zambia. They the large proportion of non-productive water flows in the water
explained that ripping integrated with ridging and fertilizer balance (Temesgen et al., 2007). The distinction between
yielded on average 1780 kg ha
1, improving maize grain ‘blue’ and ‘green’ water flow in the hydrological cycle is a
yields with 40% over TT practice using Maresha and no fer- practical tool for analysis of water flow partitioning. It is gen-
tilizer which gave an average yield of 1260 kg ha
1 erally agreed that, in subsistence farming systems, where TT
(p < 0 · 001) in Ethiopia (Table III). Also CF practices using practices are abandoned, the productive green water flow com-
ripper with wing-plough and fertilizer resulted in signifi- ponents are too low compared to non-productive water flow.
cantly higher yield (1610 kg ha
1) than conventional prac- The current focus of water productivity has evolved to in-
tice with Maresha and no fertilizer (p < 0 · 01). For tef, TT clude the benefits and costs of water used for agriculture in
without fertilizer resulted in the lowest yield with an average terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Water productivity can
of 540 kg ha
1, which corresponds to the yield level experi- be calculated as the ratio of grain yield to total rainfall, total
enced by many poor rural households in Ethiopia. evaporation and transpiration using (Rockstrom et al., 2009)
The same authors reported that the combined conserva- equations:
tion agricultural practices (ridging, subsoiling or reduced
Y
tillage with Maresha and wing plough) with fertilizer re- WP ¼ (2)
P
sulted in almost doubled grain yield (average tef grain yield
of 1076, 1044 and 1040 kg ha
1, respectively) compared to W PET ¼
Y
(3)
conventional use of Maresha and no fertilizer. Even conser- ðP
Qs
RÞ
vation agricultural practices with no added fertilizer in- Y
creased grain yields with 20–50% to 640 and 780 kg ha
1 W PT ¼ (4)
T
for ripping + wing plough and ripper + ridging as compared
to conventional non-fertilized tillage using Maresha, al- Where WP, WPET and WPT are water productivity in kg-m
3
though not statistically significant (p > 0 · 05) (Rockstrom for total rainfall, total evaporation (the sum of soil evapora-
et al., 2009). Other studies also founded that grain yield con- tion and interception) and plant transpiration respectively, Y
siderably increased under improved tillage system is grain yield kg-ha
1 and P is total rainfall in mm-season
1.
(Makurira et al., 2010). Temesgen et al. (2007) reported that, ITS have resulted in
Kidane (2011) noted an increased in soil moisture content relatively better water productivity (WPET = 0 · 42 kg-m
3)
at the root zone under CT (33%) compared to TT (27%) against TT (WPET = 0 · 39 kg-m
3). Moreover, the same
which in turn increased crop yields. Moreover, CT imple- author noted that, STS resulted in the highest water
ments are able to penetrate the soil to a depth ranging from productivity (WPET = 0 · 67 kg-m
3) followed by ST
20 to 30 cm (McHugh et al., 2007). This is an indication that (WPET = 0 · 60 kg-m
3) compared with TT (WPET = 0 · 58 kg-
through the use of CT, the problems of low water productiv- m
3) which had been tested in maize crop, respectively
ity and low yields could be addressed via improving the soil- (Table IV). According to Araya et al. (2015), rain water pro-
water conditions of the agricultural fields. Hence, initiating ductivity (WP) was significantly higher under CF compared
peasants to adopt this improved tillage techniques and ap- to TT for wheat, tef, and Grass pea tested crops, respectively.
propriate utilization of it will avert water losses and in- The improvements in WP between 9 and 40% demonstrated
creases crop yields. the effectiveness of CF systems in capturing rainwater, and im-
proving green water availability and crop yield, hence reduc-
ing dry spell effects. This indicates that CF which enhances
WATER PRODUCTIVITY
soil moisture at the root zone is very essential in Ethiopia.
The notion of water productivity evolved from two disci- Rainwater productivity (WPrain) for CF practices in
plines. Crop physiologist defined water use efficiency as car- Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania, showed absolute average
bon assimilated and crop yield per unit of transpiration and gains from 500 to 1500 m3 per produced Mg maize grain
then later as the amount of produce per unit of transpiration. (Rockstrom et al., 2009). The lowest WPrain improvements
Irrigation scientists have used the term water use efficiency for CF practices were observed in Kenya however the
to describe how effectively water is delivered to crops and largest WPrain gains were obtained at the Ethiopian and
to indicate the amount of water wasted. In a broad sense, Tanzanian experiments with more than 1000 m3 Mg
1 rain-
water productivity relates to the net socio-economic and en- water savings (on average) when practicing CF as compared
vironmental benefits achieved through the use of water in to conventional tillage systems.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, (2016)
 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WATER BALANCE AND AGRONOMIC EFFECTS OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE

Table IV. Water productivity (kg grain m
3, kg ha
1 mm
1 Mean ± SEM) as affected by tillage systems in Melkawoba and Hagere Selam
sites, Ethiopia
Year Treatment Crop WPT WPET WPP Reference

2003 Traditional tillage Maize 12 · 2 4·1 3·5 Temesgen et al., 2007

Strip tillage with subsoiling 9·6 3·9 3·0
Strip tillage 10 · 6 4·1 3·3
2004 Traditional tillage 11 · 4 4·0 3·3
Strip tillage with subsoiling 9·4 3·2 3·4
Strip tillage 11 · 1 3·5 3·6
2005 Traditional tillage 11 · 4 4·8 4·8
Strip tillage with subsoiling 11 · 7 5·8 6·0
Strip tillage 11 · 1 3·8 5·2
2009 Traditional tillage Wheat nd nd 5 · 9 ± 0 · 14a Araya et al., 2015
Terwah nd nd 5 · 1 ± 0 · 12b
Derdero nd nd 4 · 2 ± 0 · 15c
2010 Traditional tillage Tef nd nd 3 · 6 ± 0 · 1a
Terwah nd nd 3 · 7 ± 0 · 08a
Derdero nd nd 3 · 3 ± 0 · 06a
2011 Traditional tillage Grass pea nd nd 4 · 4 ± 0 · 05a
Terwah nd nd 4 · 2 ± 0 · 08a
Derdero nd nd 3 · 3 ± 0 · 14b

3
Hint: Where WP, WPET and WPT are water productivity in kg m for total rainfall, total evaporation (the sum of soil evaporation and interception) and plant
transpiration, respectively.

Nyssen et al. (2009a, 2009b) founded the reduction of CONCLUSIONS

51% surface runoff and 81% soil loss under CT compared
Smallholder crop farming has been in existence in Ethiopia.
to TT. The concept reflects the desire to do better using less
The farming practice is, predominantly based on oxen
of scarce water resources by applying CT systems. To feed
plowing using TT, with which each tillage operations are
the rising food demand of the growing urban and rural pop-
under taken perpendicular to each other. This review study
ulation in moisture scarce regions, agricultural water pro-
shows that the CT and soil conservation practice experi-
ductivity has to be improved (Rockstrom et al., 2009).
ments had been tested at different soil and climate
Therefore, for the rural poor more productive use of water
conditions in different time with various conservation
can mean better nutrition for families, more income and pro-
tools/practices in many parts of Ethiopia. Despite these
ductive employment.
facts, the tested conservation practices resulted in better rain-
Water productivity is dependent on several factors includ-
fall partitioning (water balance), good water productivity
ing water management practices, agronomic practices and
and increased agricultural production compared with no
economic and policy incentives (Kijne et al., 2009). Even
conservation application. Therefore, it is concluded that the
where the potential gains from water managements in rain-
application of integrated CT with physical and biological
fed agriculture are greatest, improving water management
conservation measures can improve moisture conservation,
alone is not enough to achieve significant and sustainable in-
runoff reduction, water balance, water productivity and crop
creases in yield. This implies that, at the farming systems
yield in the highlands of Ethiopia.
level full response to water investments is achievable only
if other production factors such as soil fertility, cropping
systems and tillage practices are improved simultaneously. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Therefore, considering the banner of ‘more crop per drop’
is utmost important and one can find that different people The author would like to acknowledge all the anonymous re-
define the word ‘drop’ in different ways such as more kilo- viewers and editors for their important comments and
grams per unit of transpiration by breeders and more suggestions.
kilograms per unit of rainwater by agronomists and agricul-
tural engineers. In addition to selecting crops and crop vari-
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