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Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Foreword
FOREWORD
The road network in Ethiopia provides the dominant mode of freight and passenger
transport and thus plays a vital role in the economy of the country. The network comprises
a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design,
construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of service. As the length of
the road network is increasing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment
becomes increasingly important.
In 2002, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) first brought out road design manuals to
provide a standardized approach for the design, construction and maintenance of roads in
the country. Due to technological development and change, these manuals require periodic
updating. This current version of the manual has particular reference to the prevailing
conditions in Ethiopia and reflects the experience gained through activities within the road
sector during the last 10 years. Completion of the review and updating of the manuals was
undertaken in close consultation with the federal and regional roads authorities and the
stakeholders in the road sector including contracting and consulting industry.
Most importantly, in supporting the preparation of the documents, a series of thematic peer
review panels were established that comprised local experts from the public and private
sector who provided guidance and review for the project team.
This Manual supersedes the Geometric Design Manual part of the ERA 2002 series of
Manuals. The standards set out shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by ERA.
However, I should emphasize that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall
be observed in the use of the manual, and under no circumstances shall the manual waive
professional judgment in applied engineering. For simplification in reference this manual
may be cited as ERA’S Geometric Design Manual - 2013.
On behalf of the Ethiopian Roads Authority I would like to thank DFID, Crown Agents
and the AFCAP team for their cooperation, contribution and support in the development of
the manual and supporting documents for Ethiopia. I would also like to extend my
gratitude and appreciation to all of the industry stakeholders and participants who
contributed their time, knowledge and effort during the development of the documents.
Special thanks are extended to the members of the various Peer Review Panels, whose
active support and involvement guided the authors of the manual and the process.
It is my sincere hope that this manual will provide all users with a standard reference and a
ready source of good practice for the geometric design of roads, and will assist in a cost
effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network.
I look forward to the practices contained in this manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our
country.
Comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as
feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated.
Addis Ababa, 2013
Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Preface Geometric Design Manual -
2013
PREFACE
The Ethiopian Roads Authority is the custodian of the series of technical manuals, standard
specifications and bidding documents that are written for the practicing engineer in
Ethiopia. The series describes current and recommended practice and sets out the national
standards for roads and bridges. The documents are based on national experience and
international practice and are approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads
Authority.
The Geometric Design Manual -2013 forms part of the Ethiopian Roads Authority series
of Road and Bridge Design documents. The complete series of documents, covering all
roads and bridges in Ethiopia, is as follows:
1. Geometric Design Manual

2. Site Investigation Manual
3. Geotechnical Design Manual
4. Route Selection Manual
5. Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements
6. Pavement Design Manual Volume II Rigid Pavements
7. Pavement Rehabilitation and Asphalt Overlay Design Manual
8. Drainage Design Manual
9. Bridge Design Manual
10. Low Volume Roads Design Manual
1 1.Standard Environmental Procedures Manual
12. Standard Technical Specifications
13. Standard Detailed Drawings.
14. Best Practice Manual for Thin Bituminous Surfacings
15. Standard Bidding Documents for Road Work Contracts - A series of Bidding
Documents covering the full range of projects from large scale works unlimited in
value to minor works with an upper threshold of $300,000. The higher level
documents have both Local Competitive Bidding and International Competitive
Bidding versions.
These documents are available to registered users through the ERA website:
www.era.gov.et
Manual Updates
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to new
policies or revised laws of the land or that are mandated by the relevant Federal
Government Ministry or Agency should be incorporated into the manual from their date of
effectiveness.
Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the manual may
be accumulated and made periodically. When changes are made and approved, new
page(s) incorporating the revision, together with the revision date, will be issued and
inserted into the relevant chapter.
Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Preface
All suggestions to improve the manual should be made in accordance with the
following procedures:
1. Users of the manual must register on the ERA website: www.era.gov.et

2. Proposed changes should be outlined on the Manual Change Form and forwarded with
a covering letter of its need and purpose to the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads
Authority.
3. After completion of the draft review period, proposed modifications will be assessed by
the requisite authorities in ERA.
4. Agreed changes will be approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads
Authority on recommendation from the Deputy Director General (Engineering
Operations).
5. The release date will be notified to all registered users and authorities.
Addis Ababa, 2013
Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

Preface Geometric Design Manual - 2013
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

CHANGE CONTROL DESIGN MANUAL
This area to be completed by the ERA

MANUAL CHANGE Director of Quality Assurance
Manual Title: CHANGE NO.

(SECTION NO. CHANGE NO.
Section
Table
Explanation Suggested Modification
Figure
Page
Submitted by:
Name:_ Designation:
Company/Organisation Address
email:, Date:
Manual Change Action

Authority Date Signature Recommended Action Approval
Registration
Director Quality Assurance
Deputy Director General Eng.Ops
Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change:
Director General ERA:. Date:
Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Acknow ledgemenis
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) wishes to thank the UK Government’s Department
for International Development (DFID) through the Africa Community Access Programme
(AFCAP) for their support in developing this Geometric Design Manual - 2013. The
manual will be used by all authorities and organisations responsible for the provision of
roads in Ethiopia.
This Geometric Design Manual-2013 is based on a review of the design standards of

several countries including the USA (AASHTO, FHWA), the United Kingdom (TRL,
HA), RSA (CS1R, SANRAL). and Ethiopia (TCDE). It is based largely on ERA's
Geometric Design Manual - 2002 but includes improvements resulting from recent
research and extensions to deal with topics that were not included in the earlier manual.
This manual is consistent with the relevant sections of ERA’S Low Volume Roads Design
Manual.
From the outset, the approach to the development of the manual was to include all sectors
and stakeholders in Ethiopia. The input from the international team of experts was
supplemented by our own extensive local experience and expertise. Local knowledge and
experience was shared through review workshops to discuss and debate the contents of the
draft manual. ERA wishes to thank all the individuals who gave their time to attend the
workshops and provide valuable inputs to the compilation of the manual.
In addition to the workshops. Peer Review Groups comprising specialists drawn from
within the local industry were established to provide advice and comments in their
respective areas of expertise. The contribution of the Peer Review Group participants is
gratefully acknowledged.
The final review and acceptance of the document was undertaken by an Executive Review
Group. Special thanks are given to this group for their assistance in reviewing the final
draft of the document.
Finally, ERA would like to thank Crown Agents for their overall management of the
project.
As with the other manuals of this series, the intent was, where possible, and in the interests
of uniformity, to use those tests and specifications included in the AASHTO and/or ASTM
Materials references. Where no such reference exists for tests and specifications mentioned
in this document, other references are used.
Executive Review Group
No. Name Organization
I Amare Assefa, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority
2 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

Acknowledgements Geometric Design Manual -2013
List of Persons Contributing to Peer Group Review
No. Name Organization
1 Alemgena Alene, Dr. Ethiopian Roads Authority
2 Amanuel Haddush, Ato ICT
3 Andualem H/Georgis, Ato BEZA Consulting Engineers
4 Bizuneh Kebebe, Ato Civil Works Consulting Engineers
5 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority
6 Ezra Mersha, Ato Associated Engineering Consultants
7 Jemal Ali, Ato WT Consult
8 Tibebu Gebre, Ato Ethio Infra Engineering
Project Team
No. Name Organization Role
1 AFCAP Coordinator for

Bekele Negussie ERA
Ethiopia
2 Abdo Mohammed ERA Project Coordinator
3 Daniel Nebro ERA Project Coordinator
4 Frew Bekele ERA Project Coordinator
5 Robert Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Manager
6 Les Sampson AFCAP/Crown Agents Project Director
7 John Rolt AFCAP/TRL Lead Author
Addis Ababa, 2013
Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Page vi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD I
PREFACE ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS VII
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI
LIST OF TABLES XIII
GLOSSARY OF TERMS .XV
ABBREVIATIONS XXIX
1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1 .1 General 1-1
1.2 Organization of the Manual 1-1
2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS AND DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS 2-3
2.1 Introduction 2-3
2.2 Design Standards 2-3
2.3 Departures from Standards 2-4
3 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR ROUTE SELECTION AND DESIGN 3-1
3.2 Site Investigation Techniques 3-2
4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS 4-1
4.2 Method of Data Collection: Photogrammetry and Field Survey 4-1
4.3 Survey Data Products 4-1
4.4 Survey Data by Project Type 4-3
4.5 Field Surveys 4-3
4.6 Topography 4-5
4.7 Bench Marks 4-5
4.8 Profile and Cross Sections 4-6
4.9 Photogrammetry 4-7
4.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design 4-8
5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA: THE PRINCIPAL FACTORS DETERMINING
GEOMETRIC STANDARDS 5-1
5.2 Traffic 5-1
5.3 The Design Vehicle 5-5
5.4 Design Speed 5-7
5.5 Traffic Composition - Proportion of Heavy Vehicles 5-9
5.6 Terrain 5-9
5.7 Roadside Population and Adjoining Land Use 5-14
5.8 Pavement Type 5-15
5.9 Soil Type and Climate 5-15
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Table of Contents Geometric Design Manual - 2013
5.10 Construction Technology 5-16

5.1 1 Administrative Function 5-16
5.12 Safety 5-17
5.13 Matrix of Standards 5-18
6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS 6-1
6. 1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Lane Widths 6-1
6.3 Shoulders 6-2
6.4 Normal Crossfall 6-3
6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes 6-3
6.6 Roadside Ditches 6-5
6.7 Clear Zone 6-6
6.8 Right-of-Way 6-6
6.9 Four-Lane and Divided Roads 6-7
6.10 Medians 6-7
6.11 Single Lane Roads 6-9
6. 1 2 Typical Cross Sections and Standard Cross Sections 6-9
7 DESIGN SPEED AND SIGHT DISTANCES 7-1
7.1 Design Speed 7-1
7.2 Stopping Sight Distance 7-2
7.3 Stopping Sight Distance for Single Lane Roads (Meeting Sight Distance) 7-4
7.4 Intersection Sight Distance 7-5
7.5 Decision Sight Distance 7-5
7.6 Control of Sight Distance 7-6
7.7 Passing Sight Distance 7-7
7.8 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance 7-9
8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 8-10
8. 1 General 8-10
8.2 Cross-fall 8-12
8.3 Elements of a Circular Curve 8-13
8.4 Minimum Turning Radii 8-14
8.5 Isolated Curves 8-14
8.6 Length of Tangent Sections and Curves 8-14
8.7 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves 8-15
8.8 Widening on Curves and Embankments 8-16
8.9 Switchback Curves 8-18
8.10 Transition Curves 8-19
8.11 Super-elevation 8-20
8.12 Super-elevation Runoff 8-20
8.13 Shoulder Super-elevation 8-21
9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 9-1
9. 1 Introduction 9-1
9.2 Vertical Curve Formula 9-1
9.3 Crest curves 9-3
9.4 Sag Curves 9-5
9.5 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves 9-6
9.6 Maximum Gradients 9-8
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Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Table of Contents
9.7 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks 9-9

9.8 Minimum Gradients 9-9
9.9 Gradients through Villages 9-9
9.10 Critical Length of Gradient 9-10
9.11 Climbing Lanes 9-10
9.12 Vertical Clearances 9-13
10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT.. ...10-1
10. 1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing 10-1
10.2 Types of Mis-phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action.. 10-1
10.3 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve 10-1
1 0.4 Insufficient Separation between the Curves 10-1
10.5 Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve 10-2
10.6 Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve .. 10-2
10.7 Other Mis-Phasing 10-2
10.8 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing 10-3
11 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS 11-1
11.2 Design Requirements 1 1-1
1 1.3 Selection of Junction Type 11-3
1 1 .4 Angle of Intersection 11-5
1 1 .5 Distance between Adjoining Junctions 11-6
1 1 .6 Sight Distances and Visibility 11-6
11.7 Lane Width and Manoeuvrability 11-8
1 1 .8 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment 11-8
1 1 .9 Channelisation 11-9
11.10 Speed-Change Lanes 11-15
11.11 Turning Roadways 11-18
11.12 Private Access 11-19
11.13 Roundabouts 11-21
11.14 Checklist for Junction Design 11-27
12 GRADE-SEPARATED JUNCTIONS AND INTERCHANGES ...12-1
12.1 General 12-1
12.2 Choice of Scheme 12-2
12.3 Types of Junction 12-2
12.4 Geometric Standards 12-4
12.5 Design Principles 12-8
13 ADDITIONAL SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS ....13-1
13.2 The Road Accident Situation 13-1
13.3 Traffic Calming 13-3
13.4 Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays 13-4
13.5 Parking Lanes 13-5
13.6 Passing Points 13-5
13.7 Safety Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks 13-6
13.8 Safety Barriers 13-7
13.9 Emergency Escape Ramps 13-10
13.10 Safety Audits 13-13
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ix

Table of Contents —
Geometric Design Manual 2013
13.1 1 Public Utilities 13-14

13.12 Railway Grade Crossings 13-16
14 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS 14-1
14.2 Traffic Signs 14-1
14.3 Road Markings 14-1
14.4 Marker Posts 14-2
14.5 Traffic Signal 14-3
14.6 Lighting 14-3
15 REFERENCES 15-1
APPENDIX A CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROADS A-l
APPENDIX B COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION B-l
APPENDIX C SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS AND JUNCTIONS C-l
APPENDIX D MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS D-l
APPENDIX E UTILITIES E-l
APPENDIX F TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS AND STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS F-l
APPENDIX G PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN G-l
APPENDIX H PLANS AND DRAFTING H-l
APPENDIX I PERSPECTIVES IN GEOMETRIC DESIGN 1-1
Page x Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 List of Illustrations
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark (alternative designs are available) 4-6
Figure 5-1: Selection Procedure for Appropriate Geometric Standards 5-2
Figure 5-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)... 5-6
Figure 5-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination... 5-7
Figure 5-4: Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment 5-11
Figure 5-5: Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment 5-11
Figure 5-6: Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment 5-12
Figure 5-7: Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment 5-12
Figure 5-8: Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment 5-13
Figure 5-9: Mountainous Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment 5-13
Figure 5-10: Escarpment Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment 5-14
Figure 5-11: Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment .. 5-14
Figure 6-1: Designation of Roadside Regions 6-4
Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils 6-6
Figure 7-1: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves 7-7
Figure 7-2: Passing Sight Distance 7-9
Figure 8-1: Ratio of radii of consecutive horizontal curves 8-12
Figure 8-2: Curve Elements ...8-13
Figure 8-3: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves ...8-16
Figure 8-4: Switchback Curve ...8-18
Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve for the Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle ...8-19
Figure 8-6: Spiral Curve Transition ...8-21
Figure 8-7: Circular Curve Transition ...8-21
Figure 8-8: Shoulder Super-elevation (for Surfaced Roads) 8-22
Figure 9-1: Crest Curve 9-2
Figure 9-2: Sag Curve 9-3
Figure 9-3: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles 9-7
.....
Figure 9-4: Layout for Climbing Lane 9-12
Figure 10-1: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves 10-4
Figure 11-1: Types of at-grade junctions 11-2
Figure 11-2: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows 11-4
Figure 11-3: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows.... 11-4
Figure 1 1-4: Staggered X-Junctions 11-5
Figure 11-5: Visibility Splay for ‘Yield’ Conditions
........... .. ..
11-7
Figure 11-6: Visibility Splay for ‘Stop’ Conditions 11-7
Figure 11-7: Traffic Islands 11-11
Figure 1 1-8: Typical Triangular Island 11-12
Figure 11-9: Splitter Island 11-13
Figure 11-10: Median End Treatment 11-14
Figure 11-11: Layout for Right Turn Lane ..11-15
Figure 11-12: Layout for Left Turn Lane, Single Carriageway .11-17
Figure 1 1-13: Layout for Left Turn Lane, Dual Carriageway... .11-17
Figure 11-14: Typical Cross-road Intersection .11-20
Figure 11-15: Typical Access ..11-21
Figure 1 1-16: Roundabout Layout ....11-22
Figure 1 1-17: Vehicle Path through Roundabout ....11-24
Figure 11-18: Roundabout Dimensions .11-26
Figure 11-19: Checklist for Junction Design .11-27
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xi

List of Illustrations Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Figure 12-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions 12-3

Figure 12-2: Principles of Lane Balance 12-7
Figure 13-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety 13-2
Figure 13-2: Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays 13-5
Figure 13-3: Guardrail 13-10
Figure 13-4: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps (AASHTO) 13-11
Figure 13-5: Utilities placement detail 13-16
Figure 13-6: Railway Crossing Details with Rumble strips 13-17
Figure 13-7: Railway Crossings Details on Vertical Curve 13-17
Page xii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Road Classification, AADT, Carriageway Widths and Design Speeds. 2-3
Table 2-2: Shoulder Widths on Each Side of the Carriageway 2-4
Table 2-3: Adjustments for excessive numbers of large heavy vehicles 2-5
Table 2-4: PCU values 2-5
Table 2-5: Adjustments for PCUs greater than 300 AADT 2-6
Table 2-6: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC8 Paved 2-7
Table 2-10: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC4(I) 2-11
Table 2-1 1 : Geometric Parameters for Unpaved DC4<!) 2-12
Table 2-12: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC3(I) 2-13
Table 2-13: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC3(1) 2-14
Table 2-14: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC2(I).. 2-15
Table 2-15: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC2 0,2) 2-16
Table 2-16: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC1 2-17
Table 2-17: Minimum Standards for Basic Access 2-17
Table 4-1: Survey Data Requirements 4-2
Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys 4-6
Table 4-3: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks 4-8
Table 5-1: PCU Values for non-4-wheeled motorised vehicles 5-3
Table 5-2: Design Vehicle Characteristics 5-5
Table 5-3: Design Vehicle for Each Road Class 5-6
Table 6-1: Slope Ratio Table - Vertical to Horizontal 6-5
Table 7-1: Design Speeds 7-1
Table 7-2: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances for Paved Roads.. 7-3
Table 7-3: Stopping Sight Distances for Unpaved Roads 7-4
Table 7-4: Decision Sight Distances (metres) 7-6
Table 7-5: Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds... 7-8
Table 7-6: Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance- 7-9
Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Paved Roads 8-11
Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Unpaved Roads 8-11
Table 8-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills 8-17
Table 8-4: Transition Curve Requirements 8-20
Table 8-5: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8% 8-23
Table 8-6: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4% 8-24
Table 9-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Paved Roads) 9-5
Table 9-2: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Unpaved Roads) 9-5
Table 9-3: Minimum Values of K. for Sag Curves 9-6
Table 9-4: Maximum Gradients for Paved Sections 9-9
Table 9-5: Climbing Lanes 9-11
Table 9-6: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL). 9-13
Table 11-1: Access Control 11-6
......
Table 1 1-2: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Yield’ Conditions 11-8
Table 11-3: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Stop’ Conditions
Table 1 1-4: Length of Right Turn Lane
Table 11-5: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left Turn Lanes
Table 1 1-6: Length of Acceleration/Merging Lane
......
11-8
......
11-16
11-16
11-18
Ethiopian Roads Authority Pagexiii

List of Tables Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Table 11-7: Turning roadway widths 11-19

Table 12-1: Widths for Loops 12-5
Table 13-1: Length (including tapers) of Passing Points 13-6
Table 13-2: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials 13-13
Table 14-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves 14-2
Page xiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Glossary of Terms
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Acceleration/ An auxiliary lane used by a vehicle about to enter (acceleration

deceleration lane lane) or leave (deceleration lane) the travelled way to adjust its
speed as required for safety.
Access Way whereby the owner or occupier of any land has access to a
public road, whether directly or across land lying between his land
and such public road.
Access Control The condition whereby the road agency either partially or fully
controls the right of direct access to and from a public highway or
road.
Arterial Highway designed to move relatively large volumes of traffic at
high speeds over long distances. Typically, arterials offer little or no
access to abutting properties.
At-grade Junction Junction where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
Auxiliary Lane Part of the roadway adjoining the carriageway for parking, speed
change, turning, storage for turning, weaving, truck climbing, and
for other purposes supplementary to through traffic movement.
Aggregate Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for
example: sand, gravel (crushed or uncrushed) or crushed rock.
Asphalt In American literature asphalt is another term for bitumen. The
term is also commonly used in this way in Ethiopia. In other
countries, asphalt is commonly used as a shorthand for asphaltic
concrete or, indeed, any design of high quality bitumen/aggregate
mixture.
Asphalt Concrete A mixture to predetermined proportions of aggregate, filler and
bituminous binder material plant mixed and usually placed by
means of a paving machine.
Asphalt Surfacing The layer or layers of asphalt concrete constructed on top of the
roadbase, and, in some cases, the shoulders.
Average Annual The total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the
Daily Traffic number of days in the year.
(AADT)
Average Daily The total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days
Traffic (ADT) greater than one day and less than one year divided by the number of
days in that time period.
Axis of Rotation The line about which the pavement is rotated to super-elevate the
roadway. This line normally maintains the highway profile.
Back Slope Area between the ditch bottom and the limit of the earthworks.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xv

Glossary of Terms Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Base Course This is the main component of the pavement contributing to the
spreading of the traffic loads. In many cases, it will consist of
crushed stone or gravel, or of good quality gravelly soils or
decomposed rock. Bituminous base courses may also be used (for
higher classes of traffic). Materials stabilised with cement or lime
may also be contemplated.
Binder Course The lower course of an asphalt surfacing laid in more than one
course.
Bitumen The most common form of bitumen is the residue from the refining
of crude oil after the more volatile material has been distilled off. It
is essentially a very viscous liquid comprising many long-chain
organic molecules. For use in roads it is practically solid at ambient
temperatures but can be heated sufficiently to be poured and sprayed.
Some natural bitumens can be found worldwide that are not distilled
from crude oil but the amounts are very small.
Borrow Area An area within designated boundaries approved for the purpose of
obtaining borrow material. A borrow pit is the excavated pit in a
borrow area.
Borrow Material Any gravel, sand, soil, rock or ash obtained from borrow areas,
dumps or sources other than cut within the road prism and which is
used in the construction of the specified works. Not including
crushed stone or sand obtained from commercial sources.
Boulder A rock fragment, usually rounded by weathering or abrasion, with an
average dimension of 0.30 m or more.
Bound Pavement Pavement materials held together by an adhesive bond between the
Materials materials and another binding material such as bitumen.
Broken back Two curves in the same direction with a tangent shorter than 500
curve metres connecting them.
Bus Lay-byes Lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.
Camber The convexity given to the curved cross-section of a roadway.
Capacity Maximum practicable traffic flow in given circumstances.
Capping Layer (Selected or improved subgrade). The top of an embankment or
bottom of an excavation prior to construction of the pavement
structure. Where very weak soils and/or expansive soils (such as
black cotton soils) are encountered, a capping layer is sometimes
necessary. This consists of better quality subgrade material
imported from elsewhere or subgrade material improved by
stabilisation (usually mechanical), and may also be considered as a
lower quality sub-base.
Carriageway That portion of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and
auxiliary lanes but excluding shoulders.
Page xvi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Centre Line Axis along the middle of the road

Circular Curve Usual curve configuration for horizontal curves.
Clear Zone Unencumbered roadside recovery area.
Climbing Lane An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving
vehicles and to facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining capacity
and freedom of operation on the carriageway.
Coefficient of Ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the component of
Friction the weight of the vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force
Collector Roads Secondary roads linking locally important centres to each other, to
more important centres, or to higher class roads
Compound Curve Curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in
the same direction and having a common tangent or transition
curve where they meet.
Contraction Joint A joint normally placed at recurrent intervals in a rigid concrete
slab to control transverse cracking.
Control of Access Conditions where the right of owners or occupants of adjoining
land or other persons to access, light, air or view in connection with
a road is fully or partially controlled by public authority.
Crest Peak formed by the junction of two gradients.
Crest Curve Convex vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents
above the road level.
Critical Slope Side slope on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Cross Roads Four-leg junction formed by the intersection of two roads at
approximately right angles.
Cross-Section A vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground,
ground data and recommended works, usually at right angles to the
centreline.
Crossfall The difference in level measured transversely across the surface of
the roadway.
Crown Highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway.
Crown Runoff Also referred to as Tangent Runout. The rotation of the outer lane of
a two lane road from zero cross fall to normal camber (NC).
Critical Length of The maximum length of a specific upgrade on which a loaded truck
Grade can operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. Very often,
a speed reduction of 1 5 km/h or more is considered “unreasonable”.
Culvert A structure, other than a bridge, which provides an opening under the
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xvii

carriageway or median for drainage or other purposes.

Curb Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge
of the roadway or footway.
Cutting Cutting shall mean all excavations from the road prism including
side drains, and excavations for intersecting roads including, where
classified as cut, excavations for open drains.
Chippings Stones used for surface dressing (treatment).
Deceleration Lane An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic
stream to reduce speed without interfering with other traffic.
Decision Sight Allows for circumstances where complex decisions are required by
Distance a driver or unusual manoeuvres have to be carried out. As such, it is
significantly longer than Stopping Sight Distance.
Deflection Angle Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used in
setting out curves.
Deformed Bar A reinforcing bar for rigid slabs conforming to “Requirements for
Deformations” in AASHTO Designations M 31M.
Depressed Median A median lower in elevation than the travelled way and so designed
to carry a portion of the storm water falling on the road.
Design Capacity Maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a
roadway during a given time period without operating conditions
falling below a pre-selected design level.
Design Period The period of time that an initially constructed or rehabilitated
pavement structure will perform before reaching a level of
deterioration requiring more than routine or periodic maintenance.
Design Speed An index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a
driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment.
In practice, most roads will only be constrained to minimum
parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
elements.
Design Traffic Number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a
Volume lane or roadway during a given time period.
Design Vehicle Vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are used in
setting geometric design.
Directional The percentages of the total flow moving in opposing directions, e.g.
Distribution 50:50, 70:30, with the direction of interest being quoted first.
Diverging Movement of a vehicle out of a traffic stream.
Diverted Traffic Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels
Page xviii Ethiopian Roads Authority

between the same origin and destination.

Divided Road Road in which there are two physically separated roadways reserved
for travelling in opposite directions.
Dowel A load transfer device in a rigid concrete slab, usually consisting of
a plain round steel bar. Unlike a tie bar, a dowel may permit
horizontal movement.
Economical Limit Distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated
of Haul material than to waste and borrow.
Embankment That portion of the road prism composed of approved fill material,
which lies above the original ground and is bounded by the side
slopes, extending downwards and outwards from the outer shoulder
breakpoints and on which the pavement is constructed.
Equivalent A measure of the potential damage to a pavement caused by a
Standard Axles vehicle axle load expressed as the number of 8.16 metric tonnes
(ESAS) single axle loads that would cause the same amount of damage. The
ESA values of all the traffic are combined to determine the total
design traffic for the design period.
Equivalency Used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative equivalent
Factors standard axle loads.
Equivalent Single Summation of equivalent 8.16 ton single axle loads used to
Axle Load (ESA) combine mixed traffic to design traffic for the design period.
Escarpment Geological features that are very steep and extend laterally for
considerable distances, making it difficult or impossible to
construct a road to avoid them. They are characterised by more
than 50 five-metre contours per km and the transverse ground
slopes perpendicular to the ground contours are generally greater
than 50%.
Expansion Joint A joint located to provide for expansion of a rigid concrete slab
without damage to itself, adjacent slabs, or structures.
Eye Height Assumed height of a driver's eyes above the surface of the roadway
used for the purpose of determining sight distances.
Feeder Road Lowest level of road in the network hierarchy with the function of
linking traffic to and from rural areas, either directly to adjacent
urban centres, or to the Collector road network.
Fill Material of which a man-made raised structure or deposit such as an
embankment is composed, including soil, soil-aggregate or rock.
Material imported to replace unsuitable roadbed material is also
classified as fill.
Flexible Includes primarily those pavements that have a bituminous (surface
Pavements dressing or asphalt concrete) surface. The terms "flexible and rigid"
are somewhat arbitrary and were primarily established to
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xix

differentiate between asphalt and Portland cement concrete

pavements.
Footpath Portion of a road reserved exclusively for pedestrians.
Formation Level Level at top of subgrade.
Free Haul Maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without added cost above the unit bid price.
Freeway Highest level of arterial characterised by full control of access and
high design speeds.
Gap The elapsed time between the back of one vehicle passing a point
on the road or highway and the nose of the following vehicle
passing the same point.
Generated Traffic Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision of
improvement of the road.
Grade Separated Junction where two roads cross at different levels and are
Junction connected by ramps.
Gradient Rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the
horizontal. The slope of the grade between two adjacent Vertical
Points of Intersection (VPI), typically expressed in percentage form
as the vertical rise or fall in metres/100 metres. In the direction of
increasing stake value, upgrades are taken as positive and
downgrades as negative.
Grading Modulus Related to the cumulative percentages by mass of material in a repre¬
(GM) sentative sample of aggregate, gravel or soil retained on the 2.36
mm, 0.425 mm and 0.075 mm sieves;
+ A.42S +
GM = 3- 100
where: P2 36 = percentage passing 2.36 mm sieve
P0425 = percentage passing 0.425 mm sieve
= percentage passing 0.075 mm sieve
Guard Rail Continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from
accidentally leaving the roadway or from crossing the median.
Heavy Vehicles Those having an unloaded weight of 3000 kg or more.
Horizontal Direction and course of the road centreline in plan.
Alignment
Horizontal Lateral clearance between the edge of shoulder and obstructions.
Clearance
Horizontal Curve Curve in plan-view.
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Hot mix asphalt Generic name for all high quality mixtures of aggregates and
(HMA) bitumen that use the grades of bitumen that must be heated in order
to flow sufficiently to coat the aggregates. Includes Asphaltic
Concrete, Dense Bitumen Macadam and Hot Rolled Asphalt.
Interchange Network of roads at the approaches to a junction at different levels
that permits traffic movement from one to the other or to more
roadways or roads.
Junction Common zone of two or more roads allowing vehicles to pass from
one to the other. Meeting of one road with another.
Kerb Concrete, often precast, element adjacent to the travelled way and
used for drainage control, delineation of the pavement edge or
protection of the edge of surfacing. Usually applied only in urban
areas.
K Value Ratio of the minimum length of vertical crest curve in meters to the
algebraic difference in percentage gradients adjoining the curve.
Lane Strip of roadway intended to accommodate a single line of moving
vehicles.
Lay-by Part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes
for short periods.
Left Hand Lane On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the central reserve.
Left Turn Lane An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of left-
turning vehicles at junctions.
Level of Service Qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic,
measured in terms of operating conditions.
Limited Access Road with right of access only at a limited number of places.
Road
Link Road National Road linking nationally important centres.
Local Road Road (or street) primarily for access to adjoining property. It may
or may not be a classified road.
Longitudinal Joint A joint normally placed between traffic lanes in rigid pavements to
control longitudinal cracking.
Longitudinal Outline of a vertical section of the ground, ground data and
Profile recommended works along the centreline.
Maintenance Routine work performed to keep a pavement as nearly as possible in
its as-constructed condition under normal conditions of traffic and
forces of nature.
Markers Post, generally fitted with reflective material or small reflecting
studs, but not usually lighted, erected off the roadway to give
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxi

warning or guidance to traffic.

Meeting Sight Distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles travelling in
Distance opposite directions on a two-way road with insufficient width for
passing, to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible
to each other. It is the sum of the stopping sight distances for the
two vehicles plus a short safety distance.
Median Area between the two carriageways of a dual carriageway road.
Excludes the inside shoulders.
Merging Movement of a vehicle or vehicles into a traffic stream.
Mountainous Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in
(Terrain) both (terrain) horizontal and vertical alignment. Defined as having
26-50 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Normal Crown The typical cross-section on a tangent section of a two-lane road or
(NC) four-lane undivided road.
Normal Traffic Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no
new pavement were provided.
Non-recoverable Transverse side slope where the motorist is generally unable to stop
Slope or return to the roadway
Object Height Assumed height of a notional object on the surface of the roadway
used for the purpose of determining sight distance.
Operating Speed Highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road
under favourable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic
conditions without at any time exceeding the safe speed as
determined by the design speed on a section-by-section basis.
Overlay One or more courses of asphalt construction on an existing
pavement. The overlay often includes a levelling course, to correct
the contour of the old pavement, followed by a uniform course or
courses to provide needed thickness.
Overpass Grade separation where the subject road passes over an intersecting
road or railway.
Parking Bay Area provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the
roadway.
Passenger Car A measure of the impedance offered by a vehicle to the passenger
Equivalents (PCE) cars in the traffic stream. Usually quoted as the number of
passenger cars required to offer a similar level of impedance to the
other cars in the stream.
Passing Bay Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a vehicle
may move over to enable another vehicle to pass.
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Passing Sight Minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
Distance must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another
vehicle safely and comfortably without interfering with the speed
of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed, should it
come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre is started.
Pavement Layers The layers of different materials which comprise the pavement
structure.
Pedestrian Transverse strip of roadway intended for the use of pedestrians
Crossing crossing the road. The crossing may be uncontrolled or controlled.
Pedestrian Refuge Raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the roadway as to
divide the streams of traffic and to provide a safe area for
pedestrians.
Point of Curvature Beginning of a horizontal curve, often referred to as BC.
(PC)
Point of Point of intersection of two tangents.

Intersection (PI)
Point of Reverse Point where a curve in one direction is immediately followed by a
Curvature (PRC) curve in the opposite direction. Typically applied only to kerb lines.
Point of Tangency End of horizontal curve, often referred to as EC.
(PT)
Point of Vertical The point at which a grade ends and the vertical curve begins, often
Curvature (PVC) also referred to as BVC.
Point of Vertical The point where the extension of two grades intersect. The initials
Intersection (PVI) are sometimes reversed to VPI.
Point of Vertical The point at which the vertical curve ends and the grade begins. Also
Tangency (PVT) referred to as EVC.
Project The specifications relating to a specific project, which form part of
Specifications the contract documents for such project, and which contain
supplementary and/or amending specifications to the Standard
Specifications.
Pumping The ejection of foundation material, either wet or dry, through
joints or cracks, or along edges of rigid slabs resulting from vertical
movements of the slab under traffic.
Quarry An area within designated boundaries, approved for the purpose of
obtaining rock by sawing or blasting.
Ramp a) Inclined section of roadway over which traffic passes for the
primary purpose of ascending or descending so as to make
connections with other roadways.
b) Interconnecting length of road of a traffic interchange or any
connection between roads of different levels, on which vehicles
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may enter or leave a designated road.

Reconstruction The process by which a new pavement is constructed, utilizing
mostly new materials, to replace an existing pavement.
Recoverable Side slope of limited grade such that a motorist can generally return
Slope to the roadway.
Recycling The reuse, usually after some processing, of a material that has
already served its first-intended purpose.
Rehabilitation Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an
existing pavement. This may include overlays and pre overlay
repairs, and may include complete removal and reconstruction of the
existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing materials.
Reinforcement Steel embedded in a rigid slab to resist tensile stresses and
detrimental opening of cracks.
Reverse Camber A super-elevated section of roadway sloped across the entire
(RC) travelled way at a rate equal to the normal camber.
Reverse Curve Composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in
opposite directions.
Right Hand Lane On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the shoulder.
Right Turn Lane Auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of right-
turning vehicles at junctions.
Right of Way Strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, in which the
road is or will be situated and where no other work or construction
may take place without permission from the Roads Authority. The
width of the road reserve is measured at right angles to the
centreline.
Rigid Pavement A pavement structure which distributes loads to the subgrade
having, as the main load bearing course, a Portland cement
concrete slab of relatively high-bending resistance.
Roadbase A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on top
of the sub-base, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade. A roadbase
may extend to outside the carriageway.
Road Bed The natural in situ material on which the fill, or in the absence of fill,
any pavement layers, are to be constructed.
Road Bed The material below the subgrade extending to such depth as affects
Material the support of the pavement structure.
Road Prism That portion of the road construction included between the original
ground level and the outer lines of the slopes of cuts, fills, side fills
and side drains. It does not include sub-base, roadbase, surfacing,
shoulders, or existing original ground.
Page xxiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Roadway The area normally travelled by vehicles and consisting of one or a

number of contiguous traffic lanes, including auxiliary lanes and
shoulders.
Rolling (Terrain) Terrain with low hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall
with some restrictions on vertical alignment. Defined as terrain with
11-25 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between 3% and
25%.
Roundabout Road junction designed for movement of traffic in one direction
around a central island.
Safety Rest Area Roadside area with parking facilities for the motorist to stop and
rest.
Sag Curve Concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents
below the road level.
Shoulder Part of the road outside the carriageway, but at substantially the
same level, for accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency
use, and for lateral support of the carriageway.
Shoulder The point on a cross section at which the extended flat planes of the
Breakpoint surface of the shoulder and the outside slope of the fill and
pavement intersect.
Side Fill That portion of the imported material within the road prism which
lies outside the fills, shoulders, roadbase and sub-base and is
contained within such surface slopes as shown on the Drawings or as
directed by the Engineer. A distinction between fills and side fill is
only to be made if specified.
Side Friction The resistance to centripetal force keeping a vehicle in a circular
path. The designated maximum side friction represents a threshold of
driver discomfort and not the point of an impending skid.
Side Drain Open longitudinal drain situated adjacent to and at the bottom of cut
or fill slopes.
Side Slope Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the
ditch bottom.
Sight Distance Distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured along the
normal travel path of a roadway to the roadway surface or to a
specified height above the roadway surface, when the view is
unobstructed by traffic.
Sight Triangle The area in the quadrants of an intersection that must be kept clear
to ensure adequate sight distance between the opposing legs of the
intersection.
Speed Hump Device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting of a raised
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxv

(Bump) area or recess on the roadway.

Spiral Curve Transition curves from straight (tangent) sections of road and a
circular curve.
Stabilisation The treatment of materials used in the construction of the road bed,
fill or pavement layers by the addition of a cementitious binder such
as lime or Portland Cement or the mechanical modification of the
material through the addition of a soil binder or a bituminous binder.
Concrete and asphalt are not considered as materials that have been
stabilised.
Stopping Sight Distance required by a driver of a vehicle, travelling at a given
Distance speed, to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the roadway
becomes visible. It includes the distance travelled during the
perception and reaction times and the vehicle braking distance.
Sub-base The layer of material of specified dimensions on top of the subgrade
and below the roadbase. It is the secondary load-spreading layer
underlying the base course. It will usually consist of a material of
lower quality than that used in the base course and particularly of
lower bearing strength. Materials may be unprocessed natural
gravel, gravel-sand, or gravel-sand-clay, with controlled gradation
and plasticity characteristics. The sub-base also serves as a
separating layer preventing contamination of the base course by the
subgrade material and may play a role in the internal drainage of
the pavement.
Subgrade The surface upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are
constructed. The top portion of the natural soil, either undisturbed
(but re-compacted) local material in cut sections, or soil excavated
in cut or borrow areas, and placed as compacted embankment.
Subsurface Drain Covered drain constructed to intercept and remove subsoil water,
including any pipes and permeable material in the drains.
Super-elevation Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of a
roadway throughout the length of a horizontal curve to reduce the
effects of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle; expressed as a
percentage.
Super-elevation Length of road over which super-elevation is reduced from its

Run-off maximum value to zero.
Surface Treatment The sealing or resealing of the carriageway or shoulders by means of
one or more successive applications of bituminous binder and an
aggregate such as crushed stone chippings.
Surfacing This comprises the top layers(s) of the flexible pavement and
consists of a bituminous surface dressing or one or two layers of
premixed bituminous material (generally asphalt concrete). Where
premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the
wearing course and the binder course.
Page xxvi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Switchbacks Sequence of sharp curves at or near minimum radius employed to

traverse a mountainous or escarpment terrain section.
Tangent Portion of a horizontal alignment of straight geometries.
Taper Transition length between a passing place, auxiliary lane or
climbing lane and the standard roadway.
Tie Bar A deformed steel bar or connector embedded across a joint in a
rigid concrete slab to prevent separation of abutting slabs.
Traffic Vehicles, pedestrians and animals travelling along a route.
Traffic Capacity Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation

of passing over a given section of a lane or a roadway in one
direction or in both directions for a two-lane single roadway road,
during a given time period under prevailing road and traffic
conditions.
Traffic Flow Number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point in a stated
time, in both directions unless otherwise stated.
Traffic Lane Part of a travelled way intended for a single stream of traffic in one
direction, which has normally been demarcated as such by road
markings.
Traffic Island Central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the roadway,
generally at a road junction, shaped and placed so as to direct
traffic movement.
Traffic Volume Volume of traffic usually expressed in terms of average annual
daily traffic (AADT).
Transition Curve Curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used for
the purpose of connecting a tangent with a circular arc or two
circular areas of different radii.
Transition Length Length of the transition curve.
Trunk Road International Trunk Road linking centres of international
importance and crossing international boundaries or terminating at
international ports.
Turning Lanes Lanes which separate turning vehicles from the through traffic
lanes.
Turning Roadway Channelized turning lane at an at-grade intersection.
Typical Cross- A cross-section of a road showing standard dimensional details and
Section features of construction.
Turning Template A graphic representation of a design vehicle’s turning path for
various angles of turn. If the template includes the paths of the
outer front and inner rear points of the vehicle, reference is to the
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxvii

swept path of the vehicle.

Unbound Naturally occurring or processed granular material which is not held
Pavement together by the addition of a binder such as cement, lime or bitumen.
Materials
Vertical Direction of the centreline of a road in side profile.

Alignment
Vertical Curve Curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, normally parabolic.
Warrant A guideline value indicating whether or not a facility should be
provided. For example, a warrant for signalisation of an
intersection would include the traffic volumes that should be
exceeded before signalisation is considered as a traffic control
option. Note that, once the warranting threshold has been met, this
is an indication that the design treatment should be considered and
evaluated and not that the design treatment is automatically
required.
Waste Material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making
the embankments. It must be pointed out that this material is not
necessarily wasted as the word implies, but can be used in
widening embankments, flattening slopes, or filling ditches or
depressions for erosion control.
Wearing Course The top course of an asphalt surfacing or, for gravel roads, the
uppermost layer of construction of the roadway made of specified
materials.
Weaving Movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two or

more traffic streams intersecting at a shallow angle so that the
vehicles in one stream cross other streams gradually.
Welded Wire Welded steel wire fabric for concrete reinforcement.

Fabric
Page xxviii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials (previous
designation)
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ADT Average Daily Traffic
AC Asphalt Concrete
ACV Aggregate Crushing Value - a measure of aggregate strength
ai, a2. a3 Strength coefficients. The empirical strength coefficients used

for weighting the contribution of each layer of the pavement to
the overall structural number (SN). They are modified by the
drainage coefficients, m (see below).
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
BS British Standard
BVC Beginning of Vertical Curve
CADD Computer Aided Design and Drafting
CBR California Bearing Ratio (as described in AASHTO T 193)
CMP Corrugated Metal Pipe
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

DHV Daily High Volume
DS Design Standard
DTM Digital Terrain Model
DV Design Vehicle
EELPA Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority
ELH Economic Limit of Haul
EMA Ethiopian Mapping Authority
ERA Ethiopian Road Authority
Equivalent standard axles. A measure of the damaging effect of
ESA
vehicle axles (see ERA Pavement Design Manual Volume I).
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxix

Abbreviations Geometric Design Manual - 2013
ETB Ethiopian Birr

ETC Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation
EVC End of Vertical Curve
FH Free Haul
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer
GM Grading Modulus
GPS Global Positioning System
hi, h2, h3 Thicknesses of pavement surface, base and sub-base layers
(existing or required)
HAL Horizontal Alignment Listing
HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt
IDA International Development Agency
ICL Initial Consumption of Lime test
IRI International Roughness Index
JPCP Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
JRCP Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
LAA Los Angeles Abrasion Value - a measure of aggregate strength
LoS Loss of Service
1Tb, m3 Drainage coefficients. Factors used to modify layer coefficients
in flexible pavements to take account of climate, the
effectiveness of internal pavement drainage and moisture
sensitivity.
MDD Maximum Dry Density
MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
NC Normal Crown section (or Normal Camber)
NDT Non-destructive test
PC Point of Curvature
PCC Portland Cement Concrete
PI Point of Intersection
PMS Pavement Management System
PSD Passing Sight Distance
Page xxx Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Abbreviations
PT Point of Tangency
PVI Point of Vertical Intersection
RCP Reinforced Concrete Pipe
RoW Right of Way
RPSD Reduced Passing Sight Distance
RRD Representative Rebound Deflection
RTA Road Transport Authority
SC Spiral to circular curve transition point
SSD Stopping Sight Distance
SI to S6 Subgrade strength classes used to characterize the subgrade in
pavement design (see ERA Pavement Design Manual Volume I
Flexible Pavements).
SN and MSN Structural Number and Modified Structural Number. An index
of overall pavement strength based on the thicknesses and
strengths of each pavement layer.
SNefrand MSNetr Effective Structural Number of an existing pavement

T1 to T8 Traffic classes used to characterize the anticipated traffic in
terms of ESA for flexible pavement design purposes
TBM Temporary Benchmark
ToR Terms of Reference
TRL Transport Research Laboratory, UK (formerly TRRL)
TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory, UK
TS Tangent to Spiral transition point
VOC Vehicle Operating Costs
VFB Voids Filled with Bitumen
VIM Voids in the Mix
VMA Voids in the Mineral Aggregate
VPI Vertical Point of Intersection
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxxi

Chapter 2
Geometric Design Manual-2013 Summary of Standards
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable to
most trunk roads, link roads, main access roads, collector roads, feeder roads and
unclassified roads as defined by ERA in this Geometric Design Manual.
The manual does not deal in detail with the design of major grade separated junctions
between restricted access freeways (motorways) although the topic is introduced
sufficiently for some of the simpler designs to be carried out; nor does the manual deal
with the detailed design of drainage features. For this the reader should refer to ERA’S
Drainage Design Manual.
The use of the procedures described in this manual will help in achieving reasonable
uniformity in geometric design for a given set of conditions.
1.2 Organization of the Manual
The organization of this manual and the design process are outlined in this Section.
After this introduction, a summary of the standards developed within the manual together
with departures from standards and the method of dealing with departures from standards,
are given in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 deals with preliminary design considerations. Specifically, it lists procedures for
identifying potential alignments in a ‘route corridor’ selection process.
Chapter 4 discusses survey requirements.
Chapter 5 discusses those external controls and criteria affecting the selection of the
geometric design values. These include a discussion of the road hierarchy and functional
classification; terrain considerations; the design vehicle; the importance of population
density and character of adjoining land use; design traffic volume; and design speed.
Cross sectional elements of the road include lane widths, shoulders, cross-fall, side slopes
and back slopes, roadside ditches, clear zones, and right-of-way. These issues are discussed
in Chapter 6.
A significant element in the geometric design of roads is sight distance. Chapter 7 develops
the formulae and application of both stopping and passing sight distances.
Chapter 8 deals with horizontal alignment and provides information on tangent sections,
transition curves, curve elements including circular curves, reverse, broken-back,
compound and isolated curves. Lane widening requirements for curves are explained, and
the special considerations in switchback, or hairpin, curves are discussed. Super-elevation
standards are then developed, including rates, run-off and shoulder super-elevation.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

Chapter 2
Summary of Standards Geometric Design Manual-2013
Chapter 9 is devoted to the issue of vertical alignment. Sub-sections deal with the topics of
crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum gradients, climbing lanes, and vertical
clearances.
Chapter 10 discusses the need for phasing between horizontal and vertical design,
problems associated with mis-phasing and possible corrective actions.
Chapter 11 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of
junction type, T-junctions, cross junctions and roundabouts; sight distances; and junction
elements including turning lanes and traffic islands.
Grade-separated junctions are discussed in a similar manner in Chapter 12. Topics

included are the choice of scheme, geometric standards, design principles and types of
junctions.
Safety and miscellaneous items are dealt with in Chapter 13. These include the design of
safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-bys and parking bays, parking lanes, public
utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers and emergency escape ramps.
Items defined as roadway furniture are discussed in Chapter 14. This includes traffic signs,
road markings, marker posts, traffic signals and lighting.
Finally, the appendices provide information on numerous aspects deemed best placed in an
appendix rather than in the main body of the text. This includes the classification of roads
and the current extent of ERA’s road network; details of friction factors for road surfaces;
further explanation of the method of determining sight distances; requirements for the
location of utilities; typical cross sections; supplementary information on procedures for
design and on the preparation of plans and drafting; terms and definitions, and
abbreviations used in the manual; and information concerning the use of mass haul
diagrams for minimizing the extent of earthworks.
Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 2
Geometric Design Manual-2013 Summary of Standards
2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS AND DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS

2.1 Introduction
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is
designed to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road
cross-section and the horizontal and vertical alignments. Appropriate standards depend
upon the following factors:
1. Topography.
2. Traffic volume and traffic composition.
3. Design vehicle characteristics.
4. Road function.
5. Design speed and other speed controls.
6. Control of access.
7. Road safety considerations.
8. Land use and physical features.
9. Economic and financial considerations.
10. Environmental considerations.
1 1. Alternative construction technologies.
2.2 Design Standards
The design standards apply to divided highways, trunk and link roads, main access and
collector roads, and feeder roads.
An overview of the design standards for each road class is shown in Table 2-1 relating road
functional classification, traffic volumes and design speeds. Table 2.2 summarises shoulder
widths and the widening of shoulders to provide the facilities required in urban and peri¬
urban areas.
It will be noted that the design standards do not include any three-lane, two-way roads.
Such roads were intended to function as two-lane two-way roads but with a continuous
central lane for overtaking manoeuvres to minimise congestion. Such roads were found to
have a considerably higher capacity than two-lane, two-way roads but they were found to
be dangerous because the practical effect of the three-lane cross-section was to concentrate
the faster vehicles of the two opposing traffic streams in a common lane resulting in unsafe
operations. Such roads have been universally abandoned.
Table 2.3 summarises the geometric adjustments to be made to the standards for roads that
generally carry only relatively light traffic, when the number of large and heavy vehicles
(3-axles and > 10 tonnes) comprises a significant proportion of the traffic stream.
Similarly Table 2.5 summarises the geometric adjustments to be made if the number of non
4- wheeled (and above) motorised traffic (i.e. motor cycles, etc.) and non-motorized traffic
including pedestrians exceeds certain values and requires special provision for reasons of
safety and smooth traffic flow.

Chapter 2
Finally, Tables 2.6 to 2.17 show the design standards in more detail for each class of road.
The manual describes the derivation of the standards and provides information on how to
use them.
2.3 Departures from Standards
It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to
deviate from these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of
a switchback or the use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer
departs from a standard, he must obtain written approval from ERA. The Designer shall
submit the following information to ERA:
i) The number, name, and description of the road;
ii) The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
iii) A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the
Departure from Standards;
iv) The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
v) Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the respective
regional directorate for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are
acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the Quality Assurance,
Road Inspection and Safety Directorate for final approval.

Table 2-1: Road Classification, AADT, Carriageway Widths and Design Speeds
Road Design Design Traffic Width (m) Design Speed (km/hr.)
Surface
Functional Standa Flow (AADT) Urban/Peri-
Type Carriageway Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Classification rd (Mid-life) Urban
DC8 10,000-15,000 Paved Dual 2 x 7.3 120 100 85 70 50
DC7 3,000 - 10,000 Paved 7.3 120 100 85 70 50

R DC6 1,000-3,000 Paved 7.0 100 85 70 60 50
M L N DC5 300- 1,000 Paved 7.0 85 70 60 50 50

A I
C I N Paved 6.5 -7.0 ID 50
DC4 (2) 150-300 70 60 30 50
O N K Unpaved 7.0 -7.5 in 45(3)
L
L A Paved 6.0 50
E C DC3 (2) 75-150 70 60 30 50
45(3)
F
C C Unpaved 7.0
E T E
O s (2)
Paved 3.3 40
E DC2 25-75 60 50 25 50
D R S 35(3)
Unpaved 6.0
E
R DC1 1-25 Unpaved 4.5 50 40 30 20 40
Basic
<10 Unpaved 3.5
Access
Notes 1 Choice of carriageway and shoulder widths also depends on numbers of Large Heavy Vehicles defined as vehicles with 3 or more
axles and with GVW > 10 tonnes (see Table 2.3)
2 The choice of design standard depends on the numbers of Large Heavy Vehicles as well as AADT.
3 Design speed is adjusted slightly to provide the same minimum radius of horizontal curvature as for the paved road option in
mountainous terrain.
4 Transition curves are required for all road standards except roads traversing escarpments and road classes DC1 and Basic Access.

Table 2-2: Shoulder Widths on Each Side of the Carriageway
Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) High Town Section Widths*2* (m)
Design Standard numbers of Parking Foot
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment PCUs(2)
Lane way
Median1
DC8 3.0 3.0 0.5 -2.5 0.5 -2.5 3.5 2.5 (min) 5.0 (min)
DC7 3.0 3.0 0.5 -2.5 0.5 -2.5 3.5 2.5 Barrier1
DC6 1 .5 - 3.0++ 1.5 -3.0 0.5- 1.5 0.5- 1.5 3.0 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC5 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 2.75 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC4 paved 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 2.75 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC4 unpaved Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 +2.0 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC3 paved 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 2.5 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC3 unpaved Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 + 1.5 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC2 paved 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 None n/a n/a n/a
DC2 unpaved Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 + 1.25 n/a n/a n/a
DC1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 None n/a n/a n/a
Basic Access Note 1 Note 1 Note I Note 1 None n/a n/a n/a
Notes 1 Shoulders not defined for unpaved roads.
2 Additional widths not applicable on escarpments and may not be possible in mountainous terrain.

Chapter 2
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Summary of Standards
Modifications to the standards summarised above are made for excessive numbers of large
heavy vehicles in the traffic stream and for high volumes of non-motorized vehicles, motor
cycles, pedestrians (and other forms of intermediate transport) on some of the lower road
standards. Large heavy vehicles are defined as vehicles with three or more axles and gross
vehicle weights of greater than 10 tonnes.
Table 2-3: Adjustments for excessive numbers of large heavy vehicles

Original No. of large heavy Revised design class or
AADT
design class vehicles modification to standards
Heavy vehicles > 80 DC 5
150-300 DC 4 paved Increase running surface to 7.0m
40 < Heavy vehicles < 80
and decrease shoulders to 1 .0m
150-300 DC 4 unpaved
40 < Heavy vehicles < 80 Increase road width to 7.5m
DC 3 paved
75-150 Heavy vehicles > 30 DC 4
DC 3 unpaved
25-75 DC 2
Heavy vehicles < 10 DC 1 may be used
Passenger Car Units (PCUs) are defined as shown in Table 2.4 and the modifications are
summarised in Table 2.5. The modifications are not possible on escarpments. In
mountainous terrain they are only possible along relatively flat sections. In these
circumstances the PCU values are only likely to be high where the population is high, and
this is likely to be defined as a populated area where widening is justified for that reason
alone.
Table 2-4: PCU values
Vehicle PCU value
Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
Motor cycle taxi (bajaj) 0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Small animal-drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
All based on a passenger car = 1.0

Chapter 2
Table 2-5: Adjustments for PCUs greater than 300 AADT.

Standard AADT Surface Modification
DC 8 >10,000 Paved None
DC 7 3,000-10,000 Paved None
DC 6 1,000-3,000 Paved Shoulders width increased to 3.0 m each side
DC 5 300- 1,000 Paved Shoulders increased to 2.75 m each side
Paved Shoulder width increased to 2.75 m each side
DC 4 150-300
Unpaved Increase carriageway width by 4.0 m
Paved Shoulder width increased to 2.5 m each side
DC 3 75-150
Paved None (paved sections will be short)
DC 2 25-75

Chapter 2
Table 2-6: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC8 Paved

(AADT > 10,000 Dual Carriageway)
Urban
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t Peri-
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 120 100 85 70® 50
Width of running surface m 2x7.3 2x7.3+
Width of shoulders m Table 2.2
g = 0% m 285 210 155 110 65
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 330 240 175 120 70
Distance
g= 10% m 400 285 205 140 75
SE = 4% m 780 515 350 215 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 685 455 310 195 85
Curve Radius®
SE = 8% m 610 410 280 175 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No No
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 4 6 6 6
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 6 8 8 7
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8 4
(l)
Min. Crest Vertical Curve K 185 100 55 30 10
Min. Sag Vertical Curve K 36 25 18 12 7
Normal Cross-fall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Cross-fall % 4 4 4 4 4
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
1 These values are based on an object height of 0.2m. Use of a different sized object (see
Chapter 9) requires ERA approval.
2 The design speed on escarpments may be dictated by the severity of the terrain and the
curve radius (plus curve widening) that can be achieved on the hairpin bends.

Chapter 2

(AADT 3,000-10,000)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 120 100 85 70<3) 50
Width of Running Surface m 7.3 7.3+
Width of Shoulders m Table 2.2
g = 0% m 285 210 155 110 65
Minimum.
Distance
g= 10% m 400 285 205 140 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 805 675 330(2) 270<2) 180<2)
% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25 0 20
SE = 4% m 780 515 350 215 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 685 455 310 195 85
Curve Radius<3)
SE = 8% m 610 410 280 175 80
Min. Crest Vertical Curve (1) K 185 100 55 30 10
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
2 To abort passing manoeuvre.

Chapter 2

(AADT 1,000-3,000)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 100 85 70 60(3) 50
Width of running surface m 7.0 7.0+
Width of shoulders m Table 2.2 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 210 155 110 85 65
Minimum.
Distance
g= 10% m 285 205 140 105 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance*2' m 375 330 270 230 180
SE = 4% m 515 350 215 145(3) 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 455 310 195 135*3' 85
Curve Radius*4)
SE = 8% m 410 280 175 120*3'
Min. Crest Vertical Curve **' K 100 55 30 17 10
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
3 Target value. The design speed on escarpments may be dictated by the severity of the
terrain and the curve radius (plus curve widening) that can be achieved on the hairpin
bends.

Chapter 2

(AADT 300-1,000)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 85 70 60 50(3) 50
Width of Running Surface m 7.0 7.0+
Width of Shoulders m Table 2.2 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 155 110 85 65 65
Minimum.
Distance
g= 10% m 205 140 105 75 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance'2* m 330 270 230 180 180
SE = 4% m 350 215 145 95(3> 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 310 195 135 85'3* 85
Curve Radius'4*
SE = 8% m 280 175 120 80'3*
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 8 10<4> 10'4> 9
Minimum Gradient % 0.5s 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Min. Crest Vertical Curve "* K 55 30 17 10 10
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
4 Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradients required (< 6% for minimum of 200m).
5 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%

Chapter 2
Table 2-10: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC4(I)

(AADT 150-300)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 70 60 50 25 50
Width of Running Surface m 6.5(2) 6.5(2> 6.5 6.5 6.5(2)
Width of Shoulders m Table 2.2, Table 2.3 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 110 85 65 25 65
Minimum.
Distance
g= 10% m 140 105 75 25 75
Min Passing Sight Distance m 270 230 180 50 180
SE = 4% m 215 145 95 20(3) 95
Minimum SE = 6% m 195 135 85 18,3) 85
Horizontal
Curve Radius SE = 8% m 175 120 80 17(3)
SE= 10% m 160 110 75 16(3)
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 8 10(4)<5» 10(4|(5) 9
,6>
Normal Cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Notes
1 If there are more than 80 Large Heavy Vehicles per day then DC5 should be used (Table 2.9).
2 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles is >40 per day then this should be increased to 7.0m.
(Table 2.3).
3 On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to a minimum of 1 5m.
5 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles < 10 this can be increased to 12%.
7 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%

Chapter 2
Table 2-11: Geometric Parameters for Unpaved DC4(I)

(AADT 150-300)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 70 60 45(7) 25 50
Road Width (4)
m 7.0<2>3) 7.0(23) 7.0 7.0 7
Minimum. g = 0% m 125 95 60 25 70
Stopping
g = 5% m 145 110 70 25 80
Sight
Distance g= 10% m 175 130 75 30 90
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 270 230 165 50 180
Min. Horizontal Radius m 255 175 90 25<5> 115
Max. Super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
(8>
Min Crest Vertical Curve K 35 20 9 1 11
Min Sag Vertical Curve K 12 9 5 2 7
Normal Cross-fall(6) % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes
1 If there are more than 80 Large Heavy Vehicles then DC5 should be used (Table 2.3).
2 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles is >40 but <80 then the road width should be increased
to 7.5m (Table 2.3).
3 If the number of PCUs is high, see Table 2.5.
4 In urban and peri-urban areas parking lanes and footpaths might be required and the roadway
may need to be paved (Table 2.2).
5 On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to a minimum of 15m.
6 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel - for safety, low rainfall).
7 The design speed has been adjusted to provide the same minimum radii of curvature as for the
paved DC4 standard.
9 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%.

Chapter 2
Table 2-12: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC3(1)

(AADT 75-150)
Urban
Urban
Width of Running Surface m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
Width of Shoulders'2’ (3) m Table 2.2 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 110 85 65 25 65
Minimum.
Distance
g= 10% m 140 105 75 25 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 275 225 175 60 175
SE = 4% m 215 145 95 20(3) 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 195 135 85 18(3) 85
Curve Radius
SE = 8% m 175 120 80 17‘3’
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 6 7 10<4) 10'4’ 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 8 9 12<4” 12'4’ 9
<5)
Notes
1 If there are more than 30 Large Heavy Vehicles, then DC4 should be used (Table 2.3).
3 In urban and peri-urban areas parking lanes and footpaths may be required (Table 2.2).

Chapter 2
Table 2-13: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC3(1)

(AADT 75-150)
Urban12’
Design Element Unit Flat Roiling Mountain Escarp’t Peri-
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 70 60 45<6) 25 50
Road Width m 7.0(3) 7.0<3) 6.5 6.5 7.0(2)<3)
Minimum g = 0% m 125 95 60 25 70
Stopping g = 5% m 145 110 70 25 80
Sight
Distance g = 10% m 175 130 75 30 90
Min Horizontal Radius m 255 175 90 25<4) 115
Minimum Gradient % 0.5s 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
<7)
Min. Crest Vertical Curve K. 35 20 9 1
Normal Cross-fall<5) % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes
1 If there are more than 30 Large Heavy Vehicles, then DC4 should be used (Table 2.3).
2 In urban and peri-urban areas, parking lanes and footpaths may be required and the
roadway may need to be paved (Table 2.2)
5 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel -for safety, low rainfall).
6 Design speed is adjusted to provide the same minimum radii of curvature as for the paved
DC3 standard.

Chapter 2
Table 2-14: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC2(I)

(AADT 25-75)
Urban
Urban
Width of Running Surface m 3.3
Width of Shoulders(3) m 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5<2)
Minimum. g = 0% m 85 65 45 20 65
Stopping
g = 5% m 90 70 47 20 70
Sight
Distance g= 10% m 105 75 50 20 75
Minimum SE = 4% m 145 95 55 15<7) 95
Horizontal 15<7)
SE = 6% m 135 85 50 85
Curve
Radius SE = 8% m 120 80 50 15<7)
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 6 7 10<4) 10<4) 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 8 9 12(4) 12(4> 9
Min. Crest Vertical Curve(5> K 17 10 5 2 10
Min. Sag Vertical Curve K 9 7 4 7
Notes
1 If there are more than 20 Large Heavy Vehicles, then DC3 should be used.
roadway may need to be paved (Table 2.2).

Chapter 2
Table 2-15: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC2 (U2)
(AADT 25-75)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 60 50 35<7) 20 50
Road Width<4'5) m 6.0 6.0<3)
Minimum. g = 0% m 85 65 40 20 65
Stopping
g = 5% m 90 70 45 20 70
Sight
Distance g= 10% m 105 75 50 20 75
Min. Horizontal Radius m 175 115 55 15(6) 115
(9>
<8)
Notes
1 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles >20 then DC3 should be used.
2 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles <10 then DC1 may be used.
roadway may need to be paved (Table 2.2).
5 Road widths may be reduced at the discretion of the Engineer and approval of the Client to
address specific local conditions, especially in mountainous areas.
7 Design speed is adjusted to provide the same minimum radii of curvature as for paved
standard.
8 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel-for safety, low rainfall).

Chapter 2
Table 2-16: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC1

(AADT 1-25)
Urban
Escarp’t
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain (1) (2) Peri-
Urban
Road Width m 4.5
g = 0% m 70 60 30 20 50
Minimum.
Stopping g = 5% m 80 70 35 20 55
Sight Distance
g = 10% m 90 75 37 20 60
Min. Horizontal Radius m 115 65 35 15(,) 65
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 102 102 122 12<2) 9
Min. Crest Vertical Curve K 6 2 1 6
Notes
1 On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to 13m.
2 Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradient required (< 6% for minimum of 200m).
For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only
approach. For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum
absolute standards must be applied. These are summarised in Table 2.17.
Table 2-17: Minimum Standards for Basic Access
Characteristic Minimum requirements
12m absolute but up to 20m depending
Radius of horizontal curvature
on expected vehicles
Vertical curvature
K value for crests 2.5
K value for sags 0.6
Maximum gradients
Open to all vehicles 14%
Open only to cars and pick-ups 16%
Minimum stopping sight distance Flat and Rolling terrain 50m
Mountainous 35m
Escarpments 20m

Chapter 3
Geometric Design Manual-2013 Site Investigation for Route Selection and Design
3 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR ROUTE SELECTION AND DESIGN

3.1 Introduction
Site investigation is a vital and integral part of the location, design and construction of a
road. It provides essential information on the characteristics of the soils along the possible
alignments, availability of construction materials, topography, land use, environmental
issues and socio-political considerations related to the following:
i) Selection of the route/alignment of the road;
ii) Location of water crossings and drainage structures;
iii) Design information for the road pavements, bridges and other structures;
iv) Identifying areas of possible geotechnical problems requiring specialist
investigation;
v) Identifying areas of possible problem soils requiring additional investigation and
treatment;
vi) Location and assessment of suitable, locally available, borrow and construction
material.
This list indicates that the main component of site investigations is focussed on what is
generally described as ‘engineering’ or, more precisely, ‘geotechnical engineering’.
However, various other types of survey are required. Hydrological surveys are required to
determine the water flows that determine the drainage design of the road, including
bridges; traffic surveys are required to estimate the numbers of vehicles, both motorised
and non-motorised, that will use the road; surveys are required to evaluate environmental
impacts and how to control them; surveys are required in which the local communities are
consulted about the road project; and so on.
Information obtained during the site investigation is used by the design engineer to prepare
and refine the detailed engineering design. This information is usually contained within a
series of documents that are prepared by the design engineer, initially for consideration by
the client and, ultimately, to develop the tender and draft contract documents. These
documents normally include separate volumes dealing with the following design aspects:
i) Alignment survey and geometric design;
ii) Traffic volume and traffic loading;
iii) Construction materials and subgrade properties;
iv) Pavement structural design;
v) Hydrology, drainage and water crossings;
vi) Ground stability and geotechnical design;
vii) Environmental considerations (EIA and outline EMP);
viii) Social and complementary activities;
ix) Engineer’s cost estimate.
Not all projects require the same detailed surveys. Road projects fall into the following
categories:
1) A new road that follows the general alignment of an existing track or trail;
2) Upgrading a lower class of road to a higher class

Chapter 3
Geometric Design Manual -
2013 Site Investigation for Route Selection and Design
3) A completely new road where nothing currently exists.
Some realignment, and therefore site investigation, will almost certainly be necessary
when upgrading an existing road and considerably more will be required when converting
a track into an all-weather route. Major site investigations are usually only needed when
designing and building a completely new road. In all cases the extent and quality of any
investigation has a strong influence on the selection of the most cost-effective route and
road design.
Roads of all standards require sufficient investigation to provide enough data and
information to enable the engineer to optimise the design. In this respect, it is the job of the
design engineer to ensure that a well-designed and organised site investigation is
undertaken. The design engineer must therefore specify a programme for the site
investigation teams (survey, materials, geotechnical, socio-environmental) that will
provide adequate information and data to examine the feasibility of all the options under
consideration.
3.2 Site Investigation Techniques
Site investigation techniques encompass a large range of methods. The amount and type of
investigation that is needed for a specific road depends on the nature of the proposed project
and the environment in which it is to be built. For full details of individual site investigation
techniques the reader is referred to the appropriate manuals as follows:
Route Selection Manual (ERA). This deals with the selection of the optimal route for a new
road. It provides guidance on the appraisal of factors affecting route selection including
topography, engineering geology, hydrology, social and environmental factors, and economic
return on investment. It recommends a multi-criteria analysis for the comparison of
competing options, and the identification of the most favourable solution.
Site Investigation Manual (ERA). This deals with site investigation procedures for materials
for road construction and geotechnical factors affecting the performance of the road. It covers
subgrade soil investigations, including problem soils, selection of materials for the
construction of the pavement layers, foundation investigations for structures, and the
assessment of slope stability.
Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements (ERA). This manual includes
information on surveys for estimating traffic volumes and axle loads for design purposes,
information on the use of subgrade strength data and information on the required properties
of the materials for the pavement layers.
Drainage Design Manual (ERA). This includes information for assessing the size of
culverts and bridge openings based on estimates of the water flows obtained from survey
information including rainfall intensity, catchment area and catchment characteristics.
Design Manual for Low Volume Roads (ERA). This manual includes guidance on all
required survey information for the design of low volume roads. For such roads a lower
level of survey effort is acceptable in view of the lower cost of a typical LVR compared
with the cost of higher road classes.

Chapter 4
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Survey Requirements
4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the survey requirements associated with the geometric design
process. Survey data for design purposes consist of mapping in sufficient detail for the
level of design being undertaken. In some instance a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for use
with computer design software may be required.
The survey data are dependent on project type and can be collected by aerial photography,
field topographical survey, or a combination of the two.
The following factors should be considered when determining the survey data required:
1. Size and scope of the project
2. Time requirements to move from data collection to the start of design
3. Estimated data collection cost
4. Level of accuracy and detail needed
The project designer is responsible for identifying the appropriate survey data requirements
(type of data, accuracy, area of coverage). The project designer is also responsible for
obtaining the survey data and for selecting the method of data collection.
4.2 Method of Data Collection: Photogrammetry and Field Survey
Topographical ground survey has the capability of achieving greater accuracy than
photogrammetry. The effectiveness of aerial photography depends on location (urban or
rural), ground cover, etc.
Photogrammetry is sufficiently accurate for most applications and can be more cost
effective for all but small projects. For mapping and DTMs, photogrammetry is usually the
preferred choice. However, if a project road is short, has dense foliage, or requires only
mapping of limited features, a field survey is the logical choice. Some fieldwork will be
required for most projects to compile property lines, right-of-way (ROW) information, and
data for utilities, culverts, trees, buildings, bridges and road sign data unavailable through
aerial photography.
Elevations of photogrammetric DTM points on hard surfaces are accurate to within ±60
millimetres. If more precise vertical accuracy is required for areas of a project, the data
must be obtained through a field survey. If precise vertical accuracy is required, such as for
highway pavement elevations, or if obstructed views occur, photogrammetric data can be
supplemented with survey elevations. It is recommended that survey data be collected
before the photogrammetric data to help assure the accuracy of the DTM. Table 4-1
provides guidelines for when photogrammetry, survey, or a combination of both should be
used. It should be noted that this table is a guideline only, and that appropriate methods
also depend on factors such as project location (rural or urban), and road length.
4.3 Survey Data Products
While survey data requests will typically originate from the unit responsible for the design,
they should also serve the requirements of construction. Thus the project designer has the

Chapter 4
Survey Requirements Geometric Design Manual - 2013
responsibility to ensure that survey data obtained for design meets construction needs,
eliminating the need for additional pre-construction ground data.
Mapping used for design development and right-of-way is generally provided at 1:2000
scale. In addition, 1 :500 scale mapping can be provided for highly complex projects or
bridge sites.
If vertical data is required, it is provided as DTMs that have replaced contours and cross
sections. DTMs allow more flexibility for the designer and potential follow-up use in
construction. Using the DTM approach, earthwork quantities for payment purposes can be
calculated based on the final design centreline. With DTM data, cross sections for stakeout
purposes can be generated at any desired interval and with any desired station numbering.
DTMs should be requested if the project will be designed using CADD design software, if
cross sections along multiple alignments are required, or if construction needs require
centreline cross section data.
Photogrammetric mapping products consist of 2D graphic files and 3D DTM surfaces (i.e.
*.ttn or *. dtm files) for use in the CADD system.
Field survey data must be obtained using Total Stations or GPS, the output from which
should be compatible with the CADD system to be used.
Table 4-1: Survey Data Requirements

Appropriate Collection Typical
Project Type
Terrain Data Method Bandwidth
Photogrammetry
New Construction or Upgrading Mapping'& DTM2 100 m - 150 m
and field survey
Resurfacing or Rehabilitation
Over 0.5 km long Mapping'& DTM2 Field survey 30-120m
Under 0.5 km long No Mapping2 N/A N/A
Mapping1and DTM
Resurfacing Field survey 30- 100m
(may be required)
Mapping1 and DTM Photogrammetry

Intersection Reconstruction 100-150m
and field survey
New Bridge and Bridge
Replacement
Over 6 ha Mapping1 and DTM Survey 100-150m
Under 6 ha No Mapping2 N/A 100-150m
1 . Mapping scales will be 1 :2000

2. Instead of new mapping, consider the use of record plans and photo enlargements supplemented by field
survey checks.
3. For bridges, mapping scales must be enlarged. The bandwidth should be a distance up/downstream
consistent with the ERA Bridge Design Manual.

Chapter 4
4.4 Survey Data by Project Type
Table 4.1 shows the amount and type of survey data that is generally required and the
method of data collection for each project type. Some projects may require a combination
of products.
Bridge rehabilitation projects generally do not require any terrain data unless necessary for
major rehabilitation. When terrain data is necessary, use the same terrain guidelines used
for new bridges and bridge replacement projects.
Resurfacing and rehabilitation projects usually do not require project wide mapping.
However, limited data may be required such as pavement elevations where super-elevation
adjustments are anticipated. Other projects may require very limited data such as pavement
and shoulder edges. If only limited data is needed then a field survey is preferred.
4.5 Field Surveys
Detailed ground surveys along the length of the proposed project roads should use the most
up-to-date surveying equipment such as Total Stations or GPS to examine the road
alignment and cross sections and any bridge sites and culvert sites that are considered
necessary to complete the detailed design and the estimation of quantities.
A controlled traverse should be established using GPS, coordinated and tied into the
national grid system. These points shall be referenced in the field in permanent concrete
posts and shall be shown on the plan and profile drawings. Since projects are to be carried
out using CADD it is essential to organize the topographic surveys as the first step of a
coherent data collection - design chain. Therefore the whole topographic survey should be
made using Total Stations which will directly record the alignment, profile, and cross
section data on computer files which will be retrieved by the CADD system during the
design stage.
The existing road centreline should be identified and staked every 20 metres. The
coordinates are recorded automatically using the Total Station.
The start and end of horizontal curves, and roadway cross sections are also recorded.
The following methodology is used to establish the original setting out data for the
reestablishment of the centreline:
i) The control traverse is established, monumented, and the coordinates in X, Y, Z
accurately measured and tied in to the National Grid System. Concrete beacons
are established at intervals of 150 - 300 metres. These beacons are located as close
as possible to the limit of the road reserve and where one beacon is visible from
the other along the road.
ii) Using the established polygon network of beacons, each of the centreline points is
coordinated.
iii) Using the method of least squares, the best-fit horizontal alignment through the
coordinated points is established.
Cross sections are levelled for each centreline point to a minimum of 25 metres distance
from the centreline. Road edges, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings and

Chapter 4
embankments are taken. Topographic survey information is collected for an adequate

distance on each side of the centreline and cross sections at appropriate intervals,
depending on the type of terrain.
Each cross section comprises such numbers of points as to enable it to properly define the
existing road and such other spots as are required to define the ground shape for an
adequate distance beyond the existing construction width. The data are used to generate a
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the whole road. All pertinent features including
buildings, drainage structures details, built up areas, etc. should be recorded for inclusion
on the design drawings.
New alignments are recommended where inadequate horizontal sight distances and sharp
curves exist and wherever the existing route is not to the standards. Therefore, the vertical
and horizontal alignments should be given due attention with respect to sight distance,
maximum grade, maximum length of grade criteria, and safety. In introducing new
alignments, major bridges and drainage structures should be retained as control points or as
node points on the new centreline wherever they are in good condition. Should there be a
need for realignment of the existing road, topographic surveys along the chosen
realignment should be established. The centreline of the road is defined at every 20 metre
interval. Topographical cross-sections, extending at least 25 metres either side of the
centreline, are taken at each of the centreline reference points.
Recommended bridge and major culvert sites are surveyed and mapped at a scale of 1:500
with contours at 0.5 metres intervals or greater in the more severe sections. Each of the site
surveys is tied to the elevation of the primary traverse.
Topographic data are processed using the project computer as work progress.
Detailed site investigation and surveys should be carried out for areas susceptible to
flooding or landslide and at all recommended new or replacement drainage structure
locations including a sufficient length upstream and downstream to the structure. The full
requirements for survey data for drainage structures are provided in the ERA Drainage
Design Manual.
Each survey crew shall be equipped with an electronic Total Station, a three-prism line
road, and an electronic field book. The Total Station will have unlimited on-board data
storage by utilizing integrated circuit data storage cards. Each card should be capable of
storing 500 points. The use of an electronic field book allows the Total Station operator to
code in descriptions and other important information for each data point.
Survey teams can carry out the topographic field work requirements as follows:
i) One team for the location of the control points, whether GPS or National Grid;
ii) One team to survey the centre line and the longitudinal profile,
iii) One team to survey the cross sections, and
iv) One team for the land acquisition survey.
The output from the Total Station and data collection is a computer file which contains
horizontal coordinate points, vertical elevations, and a description of all points needed to
develop a full topographic map of the area. The computer file must be capable of being
downloaded directly into a computerized design and drafting program. These programs

Chapter 4
should then be able to generate, if so desired, a three-dimensional Digital Terrain Model.

The plot should be checked and verified by the surveyors shortly after the fieldwork. The
step-by-step procedure to be used for data collection is as follows:
i) Base map information may be obtained from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
ii) The road is divided into survey subsections at a distance of 2 km. A coordinate
system is established for the roadway sections.
iii) A Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey Control System is used to locate
precisely the topographic control points required for the project. A series of
receiver stations is used to generate these points with a high degree of accuracy
by measuring signals generated from a group of three or more geosynchronous
satellites. The establishment of the zero-zero coordinate point is determined
after a review of the existing coordinate information.
iv) A bench circuit is run using accepted level procedures and degrees of accuracy.
Each benchmark is monumented and assigned coordinate points. Once
horizontal and vertical controls are established, the survey crews cross-section
the roadway alignment. The width of each cross-section is dependent on the
terrain of the roadway and the different natural and man-made features. The
minimum distance from centreline for cross-sectioning is 25 metres. The
number of points depends on the topography, road lane characteristics, project
road features within the right-of-way, and as required for the purpose of design
and computations of quantities for earthwork and profile course. Areas where
existing roads cross the alignment and areas affected by cross drainage require
additional topographic survey. Such supplementary topographic survey is
carried out concurrently during the progress of survey along the alignment.
4.6 Topography
All points of detail are located by a right-angle offset wherever possible, with chainage and
offset being recorded. Only when this method is not possible are other techniques such as
bearing and distance, to be used. Structures (buildings, bridges, culverts, etc.) are checked
by detailed face measurements. All physical features adjacent to the line, whether natural
or artificial, are recorded within a range of 25 metres either side of the centreline in open
country and in small villages (market centres) and towns.
4.7 Bench Marks
Standard benchmark levelling procedure is followed with the following limitations

observed:
i) A benchmark is established every 300 - 500 metres along the line close to the
right of way, and at all major structures (bridges and box culverts). Bench marks
must be inter-visible (see Figure 4.1 Standard Bench Mark).
ii) Every benchmark is check levelled by a forward run and a subsequent backward
run forming a closed "loop".
iii) The following standard of accuracy is to be maintained:
C=
Where C = maximum permissible error of closure in centimetres,
K = distance between bench marks in kilometres

Chapter 4
This gives Table 4.2 for comparison of accuracy
Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys

K (km) 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
C’ (cm) ±0.7 ± 1.0 ± 1.4 ±2.2 ±3.2
IRON PLATE (50mmX50mm)

( 2mm Thick)
HOLDING DOWN ROAD

WELDED WITH THE PLATE
P.C.C (M - 15)
I.
\
8
V
|\j
T
I I
1 'o CONCRETE PIPE

t
(ISOmmDIA)
8 I
i?S'
SAND FILL COMPACTED
tJ
j
P.C.C (M - 10)
8
,100/ 15ÿ ,100,
Note:- all dimensions are in mm.
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark (alternative designs are available)
4.8 Profile and Cross Sections
Profile and cross-section levelling can be run simultaneously. All profiling is done by
direct levelling to two decimal places of a metre, and wherever practicable the cross
section levels are to be obtained in the same manner. Where impracticable, direct levelling
may be replaced or extended by the use of either a hand level or Rhodes arc for cross-
section work.

Chapter 4
Where it is not possible to close a day's work on a permanent benchmark e.g. because of
failing light, a sudden storm, etc. a Temporary Benchmark (TBM) shall be established
from which the work may be resumed.
Cross-sections shall be taken to a minimum distance of 25 metres each side of the

centreline. Profile levelling is run between each pair of consecutive benchmarks,
previously established, and the leveller must close on each successive benchmark as a
turning point. For each succeeding length of profile any error from the preceding length
shall be discarded; the elevation of the previously established intervening benchmark is
accepted and used for the succeeding length of profile.
The disclosure on each previously established benchmark shall not exceed 3.2 centimetres.
The surveyor should check that closure on each successive benchmark is within the
prescribed tolerance. Where the difference is outside this limit the run must be repeated.
4.9 Photogrammetry
The processes of detailed survey, alignment design and setting out are time consuming,
especially if changes to the alignment are made later owing to unforeseen ground
conditions or changing design criteria. The use of photogrammetry can speed up these
procedures and provide the flexibility to allow additional off-site engineering works such
as access to borrow pits, spoil disposal sites and slope drainage works to be designed at a
later date.
As an example, photogrammetry from aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale can yield

uncontrolled contour mapping at a maximum scale of 1:5,000, with contours at 5-metre
intervals. It is advisable to correct the contour model by establishing two ground control
points in each stereo pair, by tying points on the photographs either to the national or local
grid, or by GPS. The main problems associated with the use of photogrammetry relate to
the lack of ground definition in areas of shade, cloud or dense forest cover.
It may be worthwhile taking photography with an 80 percent photograph overlap in order

to be able to select an appropriate air base for the amount of exaggeration required. For
interpretation in areas of high relief the viewer should use every photograph in the run (80
percent overlap, giving a short air base and minimum relief exaggeration). For areas of low
relief the viewer can select every other photograph, to double relief exaggeration. In
extreme circumstances of very flat ground the viewer can select every third or even every
fourth photograph, doubling the relief exaggeration each time.
The scale of photography is an important factor to consider in the reliability and ground
resolution of the interpretation. Table 4.3 indicates the optimum scales of photography
required to perform various desk study and design tasks.

Chapter 4
Table 4-3: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks

Optimum Air
Task Activity
Photo Scale
Feasibility Study:
Route corridor identification 1:20,000- 1:30,000
Terrain classification 1: 15,000- 1:25,000
Drainage/Drainage Area mapping 1:20,000- 1:30,000
Landslide hazard mapping 1: 10,000- 1:20,000
Contour Mapping for preliminary estimation of quantities 1: 15,000- 1:25,000
Preliminary Design:
Detailed interpretation of corridor(s) for geotechnical purposes 1: 10,000- 1: 15,000
Ground (contour) model for preliminary alignment design and 1: 10,000- 1: 15,000
Quantities
Detailed Design
Ground (contour) model for detailed alignment design and quantities 1:5,000- 1: 10,000
4.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design
With the route corridor confirmed, the alignment engineer, with a survey team, will flag
the approximate centreline. An approximate alignment should first be drawn onto
photogrammetrically plotted contour maps and enlarged prints of aerial photographs in the
office prior to embarking on detailed fieldwork.
If slope stability is critical to the alignment, then geotechnical-mapping surveys should be

undertaken at scales of between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000. It is easier for personnel to locate
themselves with the required accuracy if an approximate centreline has been set out, but
the engineer should be prepared to modify the location of the centreline in the light of the
geotechnical survey. In very difficult ground, these surveys should ideally be carried out
prior to the centreline flagging exercise using aerial photograph enlargements or compass
traverse as a means of location positioning.
With the alignment confirmed, detailed design of all subsequent works can proceed.
Design of the detailed vertical and horizontal alignments requires topographical mapping
at a scale of 1:1,000 with contour intervals at a maximum of 2 metres, using ground
survey, photogrammetry or a combination of the two. Ground survey may be preferable at
this stage due to the greater survey accuracy required. The use of photogrammetry requires
the establishment of a base line traverse and the commissioning of air photography at a
scale of between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. Plan and profile drawings and schedules of
earthwork and retaining wall designs and quantities can then be produced for contract
documentation.

Chapter 5
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Design Controls and Criteria
5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA: THE PRINCIPAL FACTORS

DETERMINING GEOMETRIC STANDARDS
5.1 Introduction
The geometric design is influenced by numerous factors and controlled by specific design
criteria as follows,
i) traffic volume expected to use the road;
ii) composition of the traffic;
iii) the design vehicle;
iv) design speed;
v) terrain;
vi) roadside population and land use;
vii) pavement type;
viii) soil type and climate;
ix) construction technology;
x) functional classification of the road;
xi) safety;
xii) economic and environmental considerations.
For a long road these factors usually vary along the route and therefore the design does not
have to be constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrary, changes in the design
are usually required in order to obtain proper balance between the road layout and the
above factors, whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
The design process is illustrated in Figure 5.1. The following text describes some of the
factors affecting design controls and criteria.
5.2 Traffic
For geometric design it is the physical dimensions of a vehicle that are important. A truck
requires more space than a car, for example, and requires a larger curve radius for turning
and a wider road for safe passing.
The way that vehicle size influences the geometric design of low and high volume roads is
fundamentally different. When the volume of traffic is high, the road space occupied by
different types of vehicle is an important element in designing for capacity, namely the
highest traffic flow per hour that the road can carry. Large trucks, buses, and non-
motorized vehicles, for example, have a strong influence. As traffic increases, traffic
interaction increases until the traffic level exceeds the capacity of the road. When this
occurs the traffic speeds and traffic flow decrease rapidly, and the level of service is
severely compromised.

Chapter 5
Design Controls and Criteria Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Step I Step I
Determine AADT of Determine AADT of heavy
motorised traffic trucks (3-axles or more)
Select
Road Class ■4
Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Determine daily PCUs Determine terrain class Detemiine nature of
of non -motorised roadside population
traffic
l r
Step 5
Select Road
> Type or Types •+
Step 6
Select widths
of carriageway -*ÿ
& shoulders
Detemiine a trial
alignment using the
parameters selected.
Figure 5-1: Selection Procedure for Appropriate Geometric Standards
Capacity is usually only an issue during the busiest hours of the day and for the heaviest
trafficked roads, hence the number of vehicles carried during the peak hour defines the
criterion for whether a higher capacity road is required. Normally, when a high volume

Chapter 5
road is being designed, traffic data should be available to determine the likely peak hour
flow and traffic composition. For a two-lane, two-way road in flat terrain, capacity is
reached when the traffic level (sum of both directions) approaches 3,200 equivalent
passenger cars per hour (Harwood et al.; 1999). This peak traffic (per hour) is usually
between 12 and 18 per cent of the ADT and a value of 15 per cent is a reasonable average.
However, a proper traffic count and analysis should always be commissioned.
For a two-lane, two-way road in flat terrain with an hourly peak flow of 15 per cent of
ADT, capacity occurs at the equivalent of an ADT of about 20,000 passenger cars per day.
In rolling terrain the critical flow is equivalent to about 13,000 passenger cars per day; in
mountainous terrain it is equivalent to about 7,000 passenger cars per day.
For the lower classes of road the volume of traffic is sufficiently low that congestion issues
do not arise from traffic volume but from the disparity in speed between the variety of
vehicles and other road users. In other words the traffic composition is the key factor.
Traffic volume for basic design purposes is based on the number of two (or more)-axled
motorised vehicles. Consideration of other traffic (motor cycles, motor cycle-based taxis,
non-motorised vehicles, pedestrians, etc) is taken into account by modifying the basic
standards. This is done by combining the number of such road users using the PCU
(passenger car unit) concept as shown in Table 5.1.
Motorcycle taxis (e.g. bajaj) are becoming popular in urban situations and it is only a
matter of time before these spread to more rural areas and become adapted for freight as
well as for passenger transport.
Table 5-1: PCU Values for non-4-wheeled motorised vehicles

Vehicle PCU value
Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
Motor cycle taxi (bajaj) 0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Small animal-drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
All based on a passenger car = 1.0
If the number of PCUs exceeds certain limits on some classes of road, the geometric design
is modified to cater for them by increasing the width of the shoulders (Table 2.5).
Roads are designed to provide good service for many years and therefore the traffic level
to be used in the design process must take into account traffic growth. Designing for the
current traffic will invariably lead to inadequate standards in the future unless the traffic
growth rate is extremely low.

Chapter 5
Design Controls and Criteria Geometric Design Manual -
2013
To deal with these uncertainties it is generally expected that there is a strong correlation
between traffic level, traffic growth rates and the functional classification of a road. Such
classification is therefore often seen as a suitable alternative to represent traffic. However,
although traffic levels often increase in line with the functional classification, this is not
always true and, furthermore, the traffic levels and growth rates are likely to differ
considerably between different areas and different regions of the country. For example, the
traffic on a ‘collector’ road in one area of the country might be considerably more than on
a ‘main access’ road in another area. The design of the road, and therefore the standards
adopted, should reflect the traffic level.
In general it is expected that growth rates on roads that do not have ‘through’ traffic
(essentially feeder roads) will be lower than the growth rates on the higher classes of road,
but each situation should be treated on its own merits taking into account any expected
future developments.
For geometric design it is the daily traffic that is important. The approach recommended
for estimating the traffic for geometric design purposes is based on the estimated traffic
level at the middle of the design life period and this therefore requires an estimate of the
traffic growth rate. This method eliminates the risk of under-design that may occur if the
initial traffic is used and the risk of over-design if traffic at the end of the design life is
used. A design life of 15 to 20 years is recommended for paved roads and 10 years for
unpaved roads.
Care is required if the traffic levels are such that the capacity of the road is likely to be
exceeded before the end of the design period. Traffic congestion is costly and constructing
extra capacity in the future by adding an additional lane is often difficult and also costly. A
whole life cost analysis might prove useful to justify the costs but, in general, if capacity is
expected to be exceeded towards the end of the design period it is usually better to design
for it in the beginning.
Normally a general growth rate is assumed or is provided by government based on the

growth in registered vehicles during previous years. However, local development plans
may indicate higher growth rates in some places.
Where there is no existing road, estimating the initial traffic is difficult and estimating
future traffic even more so. However, in many cases where a new road is proposed, there is
likely to be pedestrian traffic and therefore some information on the likely vehicular traffic
after the road is constructed. In some cases an economic evaluation may have been carried
out to justify the road in the first place. This will have provided an estimate of the amount
of goods transported by pedestrians and the likely amount that will be carried by vehicles.
In the unlikely event that there is no information available, the lowest class of engineered
road (DC1) should be designed. Historical growth rates of similar roads in any specific
area should be considered if available.
It should be noted that the issue of road classification to determine the standards to be
applied is not difficult. A maximum of eight different standards are defined (DC1-DC8)
and each will be applicable over a specific traffic range. These ranges are therefore quite
wide and little difficulty should normally be experienced in assigning a suitable standard to
a new road project. Where the expected traffic is near to a traffic boundary, it is prudent to
use the higher classification.

Chapter 5
5.3 The Design Vehicle
The size of the largest vehicle that is expected to use the road dictates many aspects of the
geometric design. Such vehicles must be able to pass each other safely and to negotiate all
aspects of the horizontal and vertical alignment. Thus the vehicle characteristics and
dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and
travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include
the maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design. Trucks
of different sizes are usually used for different road standards - the driver of a large 6-axle
truck would not expect to be able to drive through roads of the lowest standards.
In view of the low density of roads (and, hence, lack of alternative routes) together with the
limited choice of vehicle for many transporters, it is prudent to be conservative in choosing
the design vehicle for each class of road so that the maximum number of vehicle types can
use them. In Ethiopia four different design vehicles have been used, as shown in Tables 5.2
and 5.3, but there is very little difference between design vehicles DV2 and DV3. Roads
designed for the single unit truck are suitable for the bus provided the front and rear
overhangs of the bus are taken into account when designing curves; and this can be done
with suitable curve widening where required as described later. The standard for the lowest
class of road (DV1) is insufficient for DV2 and DV3.
The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown in Figures 5.2, and 5.3.
Table 5-2: Design Vehicle Characteristics

Front Rear Minimum
Design Height Width Length Wheelbase
Code overhang overhang turning radius
vehicle (m) (m) (m) (m)
(ni) (m) (m)
4x4 Utility DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Single unit
DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
truck
Single unit
DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
bus
Truck + 4.8+8.4
DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 13.7
semi-trailer =13.2

Chapter 5
Table 5-3: Design Vehicle for Each Road Class

Design standard Design vehicle
DC8, DC7, DC6, DC5 DV4
DC4 DV4
DC3 DV3
DC2 DV3
DC1 DV1
/ 4//
/
//
/7'
A7
/ 90°
/
/
7
/ AJ
!
\ \ I \
\
\ \! \ \
\
t 7 \
\ \
i \
i
\
<3 i \
<Ni
—
I
-2.4m 7.6m _2. 1 m
Figure 5-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)

Chapter 5
/ 5
/ \
* N
/
/ 90°
/
Y
\
i
°s 180°
J=£ V
*
3ÿ
-i
\
MI
1 i i
i
3 1i u! i
i
3 I * i
iwi
M J
l I
-Z-5m_
T Iz
Figure 5-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination

(15m overall; also applicable for Truck (Tandem) plus Trailer DV4)
5.4 Design Speed
The design speed is used as an index which links traffic flow and terrain to the design
parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained
to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, super-elevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to design speed. The design speeds given in Table
2.1 have been determined in accordance with the following guidelines:
i) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are
undesirable.
ii) Drivers usually adjust their speed to physical limitations and prevailing traffic
conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he/she is more apt
to accept a lower speed of operation.
iii) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a
higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less
heavily trafficked road in similar topography.
iv) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not
occur abruptly but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed

Chapter 5
2013
gradually. The change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed
step ( 1 0 or 15 km/hr) and the section with the lower geometric standards should
be long enough to be clearly recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one
single curve).
v) It is often found that the physical terrain changes by two steps, typically from
mountainous to flat terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition
section of road should be provided with limiting parameters equivalent to the
rolling terrain type. Where this is not possible, i.e. a Departure from Standards,
special attention shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble
strips to alert the driver to the changing conditions.
vi) The design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed should ensure a
safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way,
avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a
particular location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum
requirements.
There are several limitations of the design speed concept that should be considered during
design:
1. Selection of dimensions to accommodate a specified design speed does not
necessarily ensure a consistent alignment design. Design speed is significant only
when physical road characteristics limit the speed of travel. Thus, a road can be
designed with a constant design speed, yet have considerable variation in
achievable speeds and therefore appear to a driver to have a wide variation in
character. For example, the radii of curves within a section should be consistent,
not merely greater than the minimum value.
2. For horizontal alignments, design speed applies only to curves, not to the
connecting tangents. Design speed has no practical meaning on tangents. As a
result, the operating speed on a tangent, especially a long one, can significantly
exceed the design speed of the road as a whole.
3. The design speed concept does not ensure sufficient coordination among individual
geometric features to ensure consistency. It controls only the minimum value of the
maximum speeds for the individual features along an alignment. For example, a
road with an 80 km/h design speed may have only one curve with a design speed of
80 km/h and all other features with design speeds of 120 km/h or greater. As a
result, operating speeds approaching the critical curve are likely to exceed the 80
km/h design speed. Such an alignment would comply with an 80 km/h design
speed, but it would violate a driver's expectancy and result in an undesirable
alignment.
4. Vehicle operating speed is not necessarily synonymous with design speed. Drivers
normally adjust speed according to their desired speed, posted speed, traffic
volumes and perceived alignment hazards. The perception of hazard presented by
the alignment may vary along a road designed with a constant design speed. The
speed adopted by a driver tends to vary accordingly and may exceed the design
speed.
5. Different alignment elements may have quite different levels of perceived hazard.
Entering a horizontal curve too fast will almost certainly result in loss of control, so
drivers adjust their speed accordingly. However, the possibility of a curtailed sight

Chapter 5
distance concealing a hazard is considered a remote occurrence. Unfortunately

drivers do not generally adjust their speed to compensate for sight distance
restrictions.
To help overcome these weaknesses in the use of design speed to design individual
geometric elements, speed profiles are used. A speed profile is a graphical depiction
showing how the 85th percentile operating speed varies along a length of road. This profile
helps to identify undesirably large differentials in the 85th percentile operating speed
between successive geometric elements, e.g. a curve following a tangent, thereby also
identifying where improvements should be made. In the common case in flat terrain where
speeds considerably higher than the design speed occur on the straight sections of the
lower standards of road, designing adjacent curves with a higher radius and higher design
speed than the standard requires, will usually result in a slightly shorter, and therefore less
expensive, section. However, the entire design should be based on the revised design speed
to ensure the appropriate levels of safety are maintained.
For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed is influenced by other factors. In such
areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are influenced by the presence
of other vehicles travelling in and across the through lanes, physical and right-of-way
constraints together with pedestrian and safety considerations. The current speed limit
through villages is 30 km/h but it is possible that this limit will be increased in the future.
However, a design speed through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h is used for design
although such segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits should not be
used as design parameters.
Traffic calming measures to reduce vehicle speeds in populated areas are discussed in
Chapter 13.
5.5 Traffic Composition - Proportion of Heavy Vehicles
The density of roads in Ethiopia is quite low and one of the consequences of this is that the
proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream on relatively low volume roads is often
quite high. Design standards DC2, DC3 and DC4 include a modification to cater for this.
For DC4, if the number of ‘large’ vehicles, defined as 3-axled (or more) trucks with GVWs
(Gross Vehicle Weights) potentially greater than 12 tonnes, is greater than 40 the width of
the paved surface is increased to 7.0m. If there are more than 80 Large Heavy Vehicles
then the standard for DC5 should be used instead of DC4.
For DC3, if the number of Large Heavy Vehicles is greater than 25, design standard DC4
should be used and, for DC2, if the number of Large Heavy Vehicles exceeds 10 then DC3
should be used.
5.6 Terrain
5. 6. 1 Terrain Class
Terrain has the greatest effect on road costs therefore it is not economical to apply the
same standards in all terrains. Fortunately drivers of vehicles are familiar with this and

Chapter 5
2013
lower standards are expected in hilly and mountainous terrain. Four categories have been
defined which apply to all roads and are illustrated in Figures 5.4 to 5.1 1 .
Terrain class needs to be established before a road is designed hence it needs to be defined
independently of the alignment that is finally selected for the road. It is determined by
counting the number of 5-metre contours crossed by a straight line connecting the two ends
of the road section in question according to the following definitions:
Flat 0-10 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally below 3%;
Rolling 11-25 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between 3% and
25%.
Mountainous 26-50 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpment Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric
standards because of the engineering problems involved. They are
characterised by more than 50 five-metre contours per km and the
transverse ground slopes perpendicular to the ground contours are
generally greater than 50%.
It is important to note that a road in mountainous terrain can be designed to follow a
reasonably direct route involving considerable earthworks or it can follow contour lines
more closely. This will require less earthworks but the road will be considerably longer.
Whichever option is chosen, the classification of the terrain remains the same irrespective
of road gradients, cross slopes or any other feature of the road itself.
5. 6. 2 Rolling Terrain
An important aspect of geometric design concerns the ability of vehicles to ascend steep
hills. Roads that need to be designed for very heavy vehicles or for animal drawn carts
require specific standards to address this, for example, special climbing lanes. Fortunately
the technology of trucks has improved greatly over the years and, provided they are not
grossly overloaded (which is a separate problem) or poorly maintained, they do not usually
require special treatment. On the other hand, animal drawn vehicles are unable to ascend
relatively low gradients and catering for them in rolling and mountainous terrain is rarely
possible. Climbing lanes cannot be justified on LVRs and nor can the provision of very
low maximum gradients.
5. 6. 3 Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain
In mountain areas the geometric standard takes account of the constraints imposed by the
difficulty and stability of the terrain. This design standard may need to be reduced locally
in order to cope with exceptionally difficult terrain conditions. Every effort should be made
to design the road so that the maximum gradient does not exceed the standards shown in
Tables 2.6 to 2.17; but where higher gradients cannot be avoided, they should be restricted
in length. Gradients greater than 12% should not be longer than 250m and relief gradients
are also required as indicated in the Tables. Horizontal curve radii of as little as 13m may
be unavoidable, even though a minimum of 15m is specified.

Chapter 5
* atUtlUiA it i
- * - -rr.
gpeJH
■
'ft?
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Figure 5-4: Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
'
'teaa
C-;
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■S.
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m;s
Figure 5-5: Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment

Chapter 5
*.
Wf
V1
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gt
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Figure 5-6: Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment
Ski
C.j
• - -
' -ÿv ■
yf#
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wffl
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/ÿ
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Figure 5-7: Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment

(NB: This design of bridge approach is not recommended because the bridge parapet is
unprotected creating a hazardous situation.)

Chapter 5
• *
t\+Z * V
Wr-r;
•• '
%
£ u
v*
<1
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m SSfci yk- ■
Figure 5-8: Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
'
M
..AgM
35
■LV. ■
*
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>
kL.:
/
- 3i£?
--
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Figure 5-9: Mountainous Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment

Chapter 5
■
I
-tjm
r-Ld * '
h<
* \
t- M
Figure 5-10: Escarpment Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment
.*.*•*»
X4
m
vw:frd&.$'
< 7 • ' .
■'
-TVg r
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WSmM
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air. -
Figure 5-11: Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment
5.7 Roadside Population and Adjoining Land Use
The more populated areas in village centres are not normally defined as ‘urban’, but in any
area having a reasonable sized population, or where markets and other business activities

Chapter 5
take place, the geometric design of the road needs to be modified to ensure good access
and to enhance safety. This is done by using:
• A wider cross section;
• Specifically designed lay-bys for passenger vehicles to pick up or deposit
passengers;
• Roadside parking areas.
The additional width depends on the status of the populated area that the road is passing
through. If the road is passing through a Wereda seat or a larger populated area, an extra
carriageway of 3.5m width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger
pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath is also specified. The latter is essentially the
shoulder. In addition, the main running surface is paved and is at least 7.0m wide. Thus the
road in such areas is similar to Class DC4 but with an additional wide parking/activities
carriageway and a footpath on each side.
When passing through a Kebele seat, a 2.5m paved shoulder is specified but no additional
footpath; although one could easily be provided if required. The carriageway is also
increased to 7.0m and therefore the standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider
shoulders.
These standards are not justified for the lower traffic levels of DC2, which is a single
carriageway, unless the road is passing through a particularly well populated area that is
not classified as a Kebele or Wereda seat but where additional traffic may be expected. In
such circumstances the shoulders should be widened to 2.5 metres for the extent of the
populated area.
5.8 Pavement Type
For a similar ‘quality’ of travel there is a difference between the geometric design
standards required for an unsealed road (gravel or earth) and for a sealed road. This is
because of the very different traction and friction properties of the two types of surfaces
and the highly variable nature of natural materials. Higher geometric standards are
generally required for unsealed roads. A road that is to be sealed at a later date should be
designed to the higher, unsealed, geometric road standards.
5.9 Soil Type and Climate
Soil type affects the ideal geometric design, principally in terms of cross-section rather
than in terms of the width of the running surface or road curvature. With some problem
soils the cross-section can be adjusted to minimise the severity of the problem by, for
example, minimising the speed of water flow; minimising the likelihood of excessive water
inundation or penetration into the carriageway; and/or moving problems areas further away
from the carriageway itself.
Ideally maximum gradients for unpaved roads should also depend on soil types but this is
usually impracticable because, in most climatic regions, almost any gradient causes
problems for unpaved roads. Recent research has demonstrated that gravel-surfaced roads
are unsustainable in many more situations than has been thought previously and this
applies equally to earth roads. Consequently every effort is being made to introduce or to
develop more sustainable surfacings for use where unpaved roads deteriorate too quickly.

Chapter 5
2013
Such surfacings cannot usually be justified for long stretches of road where they are not
essential hence the concepts of spot improvements and environmentally optimised design
(EOD) are being developed and refined.
5.10 Construction Technology
In a labour-abundant economy it is usually beneficial to maximise the use of labour rather

than rely predominantly on equipment-based methods of road construction. In such a
situation the choice of technology might affect the standards that can be achieved,
especially in hilly and mountainous areas. This is because:
• maximum cuts and fills need to be small;
• economic haul distances are limited to those achievable using wheel-barrows;
• mass balancing is achieved by transverse rather than longitudinal earth
movements;
• maximum gradients follow the natural terrain gradients;
• horizontal alignments may be less direct.
The standards in hilly and mountainous terrain are always lower than in flat terrain but this
reduction in standards need not necessarily be greater where labour-based methods are
used. Following the contour lines more closely will make the road longer but the gradients
can be less severe. Every effort should be made to preserve the same standards in the
particular terrain encountered irrespective of construction method.
5.11 Administrative Function
It is sometimes necessary to take account of the administrative or functional classification

of roads because a certain standard may be expected for each functional class of road
irrespective of the current levels of traffic. Generally the hierarchy of administrative
classification broadly reflects the traffic levels observed but anomalies are common where,
for example, traffic can be lower on a road higher in the hierarchy. It is recommended that
the standards selected should be appropriate to the task or traffic level of the road in
question, but a minimum standard for each administrative class can also be defined if it is
policy to do so.
The classification in Ethiopia comprises five functional classes.
Trunk Roads (Class I)

Centres of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are
linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. They are numbered with an ‘A’ prefix: an
example is the Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads usually have a design AADT >1000,
although they can have volumes as low as 150 AADT (see Table 2.1).
Link Roads (Class II)

Centres of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centres
are linked to each other by link roads (see Table 2.1). A typical link road has an AADT
greater than 300 although values can range between 75 and 10,000 AADT. They are
numbered with a ‘B’ prefix. An example of a typical link road is the Woldiya - Debre
Tabor - Woreta Road (B22), which links Woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir Dar on Road A3.

Chapter 5
Main Access Roads (Class III)

Centres of provincial importance are linked by main access roads (see Table 2.1). The
AADTs are typically between 150 and 300 but can range from 25 1000. They are -
numbered with a ‘C’ prefix.
Collector Roads (Class IV)

Roads linking locally important centres to each other, to a more important centre, or to
higher class roads, are classified as collector roads. AADTs are between 25 and 300. They
are numbered with a ‘D’ prefix (see Table 2.1).
Feeder Roads (Class V)

Any road linking a minor centre such as a market to rural communities is classified as a
feeder road. AADTs are less than 150. They are numbered with an ‘E’ prefix.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of
intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.
The classification and description of all existing trunk, link and main access roads within
the country, including road name, distance, type of road and road numbering, are given in
Appendix A.
5.12 Safety
Experience has shown that simply adopting ‘international’ design standards from
developed countries will not necessarily result in acceptable levels of safety on rural roads.
The main reasons include the completely different mix of traffic, including relatively old,
slow-moving and usually overloaded vehicles; a large number of pedestrians, animal
drawn carts and, possibly, motorcycle-based forms of transport; poor driver behaviour; and
poor enforcement of regulations. In such an environment, methods to improve safety
through engineering design assume paramount importance.
Although little research has been published on rural road safety in Ethiopia, the following
factors related to road geometry are known to be important:
• Vehicle speed;
• Horizontal curvature;
• Vertical curvature;
• Width of shoulders.
These factors are all inter-related and part of geometric design. In addition, safety is also
affected by:
Traffic level and composition;
Inappropriate public transport pick-up/set-down areas;
Poor road surface condition (e.g. potholes);
Dust (poor visibility);
Slippery unsealed road surfaces.

Chapter 5
2013
The last three factors are related to structural design and dealt with in the ERA Pavement
Design Manuals.
Conflicts between motorised vehicles and pedestrians are often a major safety problem on
many rural roads where separation is generally not economically possible. There are
convincing arguments based on safety considerations for keeping traffic speeds low in
mixed traffic environments rather than aiming for higher design speeds, as is the case for
major roads. The use of wider shoulders is also suggested. These considerations have been
incorporated into this manual.
Traffic level and composition are important. A considerable number of conflict situations
can arise when the number of PCUs of non-motorised traffic is large even though the
number of two (or more)-axled motorised traffic is quite low. Furthermore, the proportion
of heavy vehicles on the LVRs of Ethiopia can be high, leading to more serious conflict
situations. The overall traffic class standards are based on the number of two (or more)-
axled motorised vehicles but additional safety features are based on:
• the number of PCUs of non 2-axled motorised vehicles and pedestrians; and
• the proportion of heavy vehicles in the motorised stream.
Pedestrians (and draft animals) find it uncomfortable to walk on poorly graded gravel
shoulders containing much oversized material, especially in bare feet. They usually choose
to walk on a paved running surface, if available, despite the greatly increased safety risk.
Thus, provision of a wider unsurfaced shoulder does not ensure greater safety. On the
approaches to market villages, where the pedestrian traffic increases greatly on market
days, provision of a separate footpath is the best solution provided that the soil is suitable.
The following factors should be considered when designing for safety:

i) Wherever possible, non-motorised traffic should be segregated by physical
barriers, such as raised kerbs (through villages and peri-urban areas).
ii) Designs should include features to reduce speeds in areas of significant pedestrian
activity, particularly at crossing points. Traffic calming may need to be employed
(see Chapter 13).
iii) To minimize the effect of a driver who has lost control and left the road, the
following steps should be taken.
• Steep open side-drains should be avoided since these increase the likelihood
that vehicles will overturn. (Chapter 13).
• Trees should not be planted immediately adjacent to the road.
iv) Guard rails should only be introduced at sites of known accident risk because of
their high costs of installation and maintenance.
v) Junctions and accesses should be located where full safe stopping sight distances
are available (see Chapter 1 1).
5.13 Matrix of Standards
There are eight basic standards based on traffic level DC1-DC8 (Table 2.1) and for each of
these there are four standards to cope with terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous and
escarpment). Additional standards for some road classes are provided to cater for roadside

Chapter 5
population/activities, traffic composition (essentially the number of PCUs of non-

motorised traffic, including pedestrians (Table 2.5)), the percentage of heavy vehicles in
the traffic stream (Table 2.3) and the type of road surface (paved or unpaved). The
additional standards for traffic composition and roadside activities are essentially standards
to enhance safety.
Once these factors have been taken into account, safety alone no longer affects the number
of road standards because an acceptable level of safety must be applied to each road class.
This will differ between classes (greater safety features for higher traffic) but not within
classes. The administrative classification does not add to the number of standards either. If
the traffic level indicates that a lower standard than would normally be acceptable based on
administrative classification is sufficient, the road can be built to the minimum standard
appropriate to its administrative classification.
In contrast to the judgements required for quantifying traffic, the standards themselves are
largely dictated by the selected design speed and form a continuous range as design speed
increases.

Chapter 6
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Cross Section Elements
6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

6.1 Introduction
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage

features, and earthwork profiles.
1. Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-bys.
2. Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing
areas
3. Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes
For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. It may
also provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include
medians. Typical Cross Sections are illustrated in Appendix E of this manual. Bus lay-bys,
parking lanes, passing lanes, and viewing areas are discussed in Chapter 14.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of
the terrain (Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5). The cross-section may vary over a particular route
because these controlling factors vary. The basic requirements are, however, that changes
in cross-section standards shall be uniform within each sub-section of the route and that
any changes of the cross-section shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition
length. Abrupt or isolated changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and
reduced traffic capacity and complicate construction operations.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in cross-section

standards, for example, when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is
not economically feasible to replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs
and road markings is required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However,
all narrow structures must be widened or replaced when the width across the structure is
actually less than the carriageway width for the road standard in question.
6.2 Lane Widths
The width of the running surface and shoulders of a road largely define its cost, other
things being equal, hence defining width standards that are acceptable both to the highway
authority and to the travelling public is vital.
The width of the carriageway and shoulders has a great influence on road safety; wide
roads generally being safer than narrower ones unless speeds on narrow roads are low.
However, quantifying this in economic terms is inherently very difficult.
Wider roads require less shoulder maintenance because fewer vehicles drive over the
vulnerable edge between the running surface and shoulder. Less maintenance is also
needed because wheelpaths are wider, wheel loads less concentrated and less damage is
caused to surfacings and road bases. Also, the weak area near to the edge of the running
surface receives less traffic and deteriorates less rapidly. On the other hand, the area of

Chapter 6
Cross Section Elements Geometric Design Manual - 2013
surface that requires maintenance is larger on wide roads hence when re-surfacing is
required the cost is higher.
There is insufficient quantifiable evidence to justify carriageway and shoulder widths

purely on economic grounds using whole life cost principles. This requires knowledge
about the costs of accidents and their causes, knowledge about the road deterioration and
the effects of maintenance and much more. Knowledge about these issues has been
collected for many years and is contained in the publications related to the Highway
Development and Management Model HDM-4 and its predecessors. Such a model is very
useful for calculating the optimum standards for various aspects of the design of a road but
calculating optimum standards for widths remains a difficult problem. Because of this,
road widths are based on the long term international evolution of such standards modified
by local considerations. Judgement rather than precise calculations are required and the
final standards are based on consensus. A primary principle, however, is that higher
standards are required for higher levels of traffic. Standards for carriageway widths are
shown in Table 2.1 for all road design standards.
Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added lanes
are discussed in the Chapters 11 and 12.
6.3 Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorised traffic,
animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral
support of the pavement layers. Shoulder widths for the different design standards, terrain
type, and urban/rural environment are shown in Table 2.2. Shoulders are not specifically
defined for gravel and earth roads because, in practice, the road material spreads across the
trafficable area with no distinct demarcation. On paved roads, shoulders vary from a
minimum of 0.5m up to 3.0m depending on the terrain and design classification.
The basic shoulder widths shown in Table 2.2 are increased on some of the lower road
standards if the number of Large Heavy Vehicles in the traffic stream is high (Table 2.3)
and if the number of motorcycles, non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians (measured in
terms of Passenger Car Units) exceeds 300 (Table 2.5). At the present time this limit is
based on average daily conditions. On market days the road within several kilometres of an
urban centre can contain a very high volume of non-motorised traffic and this can be
sufficient for the average over the week to exceed 300 and justify wider shoulders.
However many markets, although very busy, may not be quite large enough to exceed this
average. The design engineer should be aware of the local situation and, if he/she feels that
it is necessary (e.g. on the basis of safety and/or congestion) to widen the shoulders, he/she
should be encouraged to request a modification to the standards.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a bituminous
surface treatment. This has several advantages;
i) prevents edge ravelling and the maintenance problems associated with parking on
an unpaved shoulder;
ii) controls ingress of moisture into the upper pavement layers;
iii) provides paved space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow;

Chapter 6
iv) provides a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs;

v) caters for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages, traffic that
would otherwise use the roadway.
The road layout in terms of widths in urban and peri-urban areas is shown in Table 2.2.
The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 metres where provision for a parking lane is
required and the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed. In fact, it is not strictly a
shoulder but an additional lane.
In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the
shoulder width can only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork e.g. at
escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced through the Departure from Standard
process presented in Chapter 2.
6.4 Normal Crossfall
Normal crossfall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface
drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to
shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum
acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from
the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material
starts to become a problem.
The normal crossfall should be 3.0 percent on paved roads. Shoulders having the same
surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall. Unpaved shoulders on a
paved road should be 1 .5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the roadway.
The crossfall or camber on unpaved roads does not remain the same for very long because
of movement of the gravel and its loss. Research has shown that the rate of deterioration of
a gravel road is highly dependent on the camber and the ability of the surface to shed water
effectively. The higher the initial camber, the longer it takes for the surface to deteriorate
to a shape that fails to shed water adequately, thereby causing accelerated deterioration. In
most circumstances, crossfalls/cambers as high as 6.0 percent should be used, although this
value may need to be modified for some types of gravel. .
For shoulder crossfall in super-elevated conditions, refer to Chapter 8.
6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes

Side slopes should be designed to ensure the stability of the roadway and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects:
i) top of the slope (hinge point),
ii) side slope, and
iii) toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back
slope, forming a ditch).
Figure 6.1 illustrates these three regions.

Chapter 6
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the hazard
potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
Carriageway Hinge point

Back slope _
Ditch
Shoulder
Side slope
Toe of slope
Figure 6-1: Designation of Roadside Regions
Refer to Table 6.1 for details of side slopes and back slopes.
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as recoverable,
non-recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or
flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or
slow them enough to return to the roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head
walls should not extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most
motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles on
such slopes can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4
generally fall into this category. Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach
the toe of these slopes, the clear zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear run¬
out area at the base is desirable.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3
generally fall into this category.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations, height
of cut or fill, and economic considerations. Furthermore, the guidance in this chapter may
be most applicable to new construction or major reconstruction. On maintenance and
rehabilitation projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the roadway itself. It may not be
cost-effective or practical because of environmental impacts or limited right-of-way to
bring these projects into full compliance with the side slope recommendations provided
here.
Table 6.1 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according to
the height of fill and cut, the material and practical experience in Ethiopia of the costs of
construction. It will be noted that with the single exception of roads in areas of black

Chapter 6
cotton soils, the recommended slopes are too steep to meet the recommendations for
adequate safety. Achieving a good safety design is clearly a function of overall cost and at
the present time is only likely to be viable for the highest classes of road.
Table 6-1: Slope Ratio Table - Vertical to Horizontal

Height of Slope Side Slope (V:H)
Material Back Slope
(m) Fill Cut
Earth Soil 0.0- 1.0 1:3 1:3
1.0 -2.0 1:2 1:2
>2.0 2:3 2:3

Strong Rock 0.0 -2.0 4:5 2:1
>2.0 1:1 4:1
1:2
Weathered Rock 0.0 -2,0 2:3 2:1
>2.0 1:1 3:1
Decomposed Rock 0.0- 1.0 1:3 1:3
2.0 -2.0 1:2 1:2
>2.0 2:3 2:3

Black Cotton Soil 0.0 -2.0 1:6
(expansive clays)*1* >2.0 1:4
Note 1 Move ditch away from fill as shown in Figure 6.2
This Table should be used as a guide only, particularly because applicable standards in
rock cuts are highly dependent on costs. Also certain soils that may be present at subgrade
level may be unstable at 1 :2 side slopes and therefore a higher standard will need to be
applied for these soils. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope
stability problems should be addressed as a final design issue.
6.6 Roadside Ditches
For the detailed design of roadside ditches, the ERA Drainage Design Manual should be
used.
The choice of side drain cross-section depends on the required hydraulic capacity,
arrangements for maintenance, space restrictions, traffic safety and any requirements
relating to the height between the crown of the pavement and the drain invert
Under normal circumstances the adoption of a trapezoidal cross-section will facilitate

maintenance and will be acceptable from the point of view of traffic safety. It is much
easier and appropriate to dig and clean a trapezoidal drain with hand tools and the risk of
erosion is lower. The minimum recommended width of the side drain is 500mm. This
shape has high flow capacity and, by carefully selecting the gradients of its side slopes, it
will resist erosion.
The V-shape is the standard shape for a drainage ditch constructed by a motor-grader. It
can be easily maintained by heavy equipment but it has relatively low capacity
necessitating more frequent structures for emptying it. Furthermore the shape concentrates
flow at the invert and encourages erosion. Using a V-shaped ditch the minimum depth
should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1 .0m elsewhere.

Chapter 6
The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be no less than 1:2; however,
these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table 6. 1 .
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils.
Where this is not possible, they should be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6 m from the
toe of the embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as
shown in Figure 6.2. The ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom
configuration.
Embankment
Min.6.00m v
Side Drain
Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils
6.7 Clear Zone
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an
encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat,
traversable, stable slopes minimize overturning accidents, which are usually severe.
Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas is an option in
the development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard cannot be
eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason, consideration should be
given to delineating the feature so it is readily visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery area that
is as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width should be a
minimum of 15 metres each side from the edge of the roadway for the higher road
standards.
For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced. It should extend beyond the toe of
the slope. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the
carriageway should normally be not less than 1.5 metres. At existing pipe culverts, box
culverts and bridges, the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if this
clearance is not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert
installations, and extensions to them, must be designed with a 1 .5-metre clearance from the
edge of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. must be a minimum of 1.0m from the
edge of the carriageway.
6.8 Right-of-Way
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width and to
enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width of the right-of-way

Chapter 6
depends on the cross section elements of the highway, topography and other physical
controls together with economic considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire
sufficient right-of-way to accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate
border areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both rural
and developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.
Right of ways will be equidistant from the centreline of the road to the left and to the right
of the carriageway. They should always be determined and shown on the final design plans
of road projects.
Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are shown in Tables 2-6
through to 2.16. In mountainous or escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth
that the right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side to the other top of
cut.
Additional areas required for outlets etc., should be provided in a manner that will not
endanger the future integrity of the drainage facility and will provide adjoining land
owners restricted use of this land after completion of the road.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for economic,
financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing
development or when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that the right-of-way
should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 metres from the edge of the road works.
However, where this occurs, it is advisable to restrict building activity along the road to
prevent overcrowding, to preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight
distances at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building line to building line
should be a minimum of 15m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve width above
the given values.
6.9 Four-Lane and Divided Roads
For such roads a planning horizon exceeding the 15 or 20 years used for rural roads is
required. Four-lane and divided roads are necessary when the traffic volume is sufficient to
justify their use and, in urban/peri-urban areas, this may be anticipated in the foreseeable
future. Indeed, some cities and towns have assumed that they will eventually be inevitable
and have included four-lane roadways in their master plans.
A minimum median width of 5.0 metres is required to allow the provision of left-turning
lanes outside of the adjacent carriageway, and to avoid having a turning passenger vehicle
from the minor road protrude into the through lanes. Geometric standards for four lane
roads are given in Tables 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3.
6.10 Medians
The median is the total area between the inner edges of the inside traffic lanes of a divided
road, and includes the inner shoulders and central islands. The purpose of the median is to
separate opposing streams of traffic hence reducing the possibility of vehicles crossing into

Chapter 6
the path of opposing traffic. This is accomplished by the selection of the width of the
median or by a physical barrier such as a guardrail.
Medians are also used to reduce the nuisance of headlight glare by the planting of shrubs
on the central island. The shrubs should not grow so tall that sunlight could fall into the
driver's eyes in bands - the stroboscopic effect encountered in avenues of trees in the early
morning or late afternoon. In addition, the stems of the shrubs should not grow so thick as
to become a further possible hazard to the motorist; a maximum stem thickness of 100 mm
is recommended. Medians should not, as far as possible, be obstructed by street furniture.
Median width depends not only on traffic volume but also on the function of the road and
on traffic composition. For example, a median functioning purely as a pedestrian refuge
could be much narrower than one protecting a turning vehicle (which could be semi-trailer
plus trailer).
A median width of 9.2 m eliminates most cross-median accidents, and this width is
recommended where no barriers are provided between opposing traffic flows. Where a
road is to be constructed in stages, the median should be wide enough to accommodate
future lanes, without falling below the recommended width in the final stage. Operational
difficulties may arise at intersections with very wide medians because of the duration of
turning movements. The median should, however, be wide enough to provide refuge to the
design vehicle.
With severe space limitations, it is possible to use medians that are as little as 1.5 m wide.
These would, however, serve only to accommodate back-to-back guardrails to ensure
vehicular separation. A median that is 5.0 m wide is able to accommodate a right turn lane
with provision for a pedestrian refuge but would also require guardrail protection to
separate the opposing flows of traffic.
It is suggested that the median island should be depressed rather than raised, because a
raised or kerbed median island, will automatically require the inner shoulder to be 3.0 m
wide to allow sufficient space for emergency manoeuvres, including stopping. A depressed
median also facilitates drainage.
The purpose of an outer separator is most frequently to separate streams of traffic flowing
in the same direction but at different speeds and also to modify weaving manoeuvres. In
general, the standards applied to medians are equally appropriate to outer separators.
Two different conditions dictate the steepness of the slope across the median namely
drainage and safety. The normal profile of a median is a negative camber, i.e. sloping
towards a central low point, to facilitate drainage. The flattest slope that is recommended is
10 per cent. Slopes flatter than this may lead to ponding and to water flowing from the
median to the carriageway. Slopes steeper than 1:4 make control of an errant vehicle
difficult, leading to a greater possibility of cross-median accidents. If surface drainage
requires a median slope steeper than 1:4, this aspect of road safety might justify replacing
surface drainage by an underground drainage system.
Differential, or split, grading requires the median to be sloped to absorb the height
difference between the carriageways. This is achieved, in the case of small height
differences, by locating the low point of the median eccentrically, retaining the maximum

Chapter 6
permissible slope. The limit is reached when the low point is adjacent to the lower
carriageway and functions as a side drain. If a steeper slope is required, the carriageways
have to be designed as completely independent roadways, with full-width shoulders,
guardrails if necessary, and sufficient distance between shoulder breakpoints, with the side
slope appropriate to the in-situ material, to accommodate the height difference between
carriageways.
The design of the ends of medians is described in Section 1 1 .9.2.
6.11 Single Lane Roads
For low traffic volume roads (<75ADT) single lane operation is adequate because the
probability of vehicles meeting each other from opposite directions is small and the few
passing manoeuvres can be undertaken at very reduced speeds using either the shoulder or
passing bays. Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, these manoeuvres
can be performed without hazard, and the overall loss in efficiency brought about by the
reduced speeds is small.
The lowest design standards (DC1 and DC2) are not sufficiently wide for passing and
overtaking to occur on the carriageway and passing bays must be provided. The increased
width at passing bays should be such as to allow two design vehicles to pass, i.e. a
minimum of 5.0 m width, and vehicles are expected to stop or slow to a very low speed.
Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 metres depending on the terrain
and geometric conditions. However, adjacent passing bays must be visible from each other.
Account should be taken of sight distances, the likelihood of vehicles meeting between
passing bays and the potential difficulty of reversing. In general, passing bays should be
constructed at the most economic locations as determined by terrain and ground conditions
such as transitions from cuttings to embankment, rather than at precise intervals.
The length of individual passing bays varies with local conditions and the type of design
vehicle but, generally, a length of 20 metres including tapers caters for most commercial
vehicles.
Significant cost savings may be realized in mountainous and escarpment terrain by

incorporating short lengths of DC1 standard within a DC2 road. This Departure from
Standard may be economically justified, especially in escarpment terrain, for design traffic
flows of less than 75 vehicles per day. However, appropriately placed, inter-visible passing
bays are essential to ensure the free flow of traffic.
6.12 Typical Cross Sections and Standard Cross Sections
Typical cross sections are illustrated in ERA Standard Detail Drawings, and cross sections
for the standard classes of roads are illustrated in Appendix E of this manual.

Chapter 8
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Horizontal Alignment
7 DESIGN SPEED AND SIGHT DISTANCES
7.1 Design Speed
Design speed is defined as the maximum (actually the 85th percentile) safe speed that can
be maintained over a specified section of road when conditions are so favourable that the
design features of the road govern the speed. To ensure that a driver is presented with a
consistent speed environment, design speed is used as an index that essentially defines the
geometric standard of a road, linking many of the factors that determine the road’s service
level, namely traffic volume; terrain; pavement type; safety/population density; and road
function.
The concept of design speed is very useful because it allows the key elements of geometric
design to be selected for each standard of road in a consistent and logical way. For
example, design speed is relatively low in mountainous terrain to reflect the necessary
reductions in standards required to keep road costs to manageable proportions. The speed
is higher in rolling terrain and highest of all in flat terrain.
In practice the speed of motorised vehicles on many roads in flat and rolling terrain will
only be constrained by the road geometry over relatively short sections but it is important
that the level of constraint is consistent for each road class and set of conditions.
In view of the mixed traffic that occupies the rural roads of Ethiopia and the cost benefit of
selecting lower design speeds, it is prudent to select values of design speed towards the
lower end of the internationally acceptable ranges as shown in Table 7. 1 .
Table 7-1: Design Speeds
Design Design speed (km/h)

standard Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment Urban
DC 8 120 100 85 70 50
DC 7 120 100 85 70 50
DC 6 100 85 70 60 50
DC 5 85 70 60 50 50
DC 4 70 60 50 (46) 0) 25 50
(,)
DC 3 70 60 50 (46) 25 50
DC 2 60 50 40(37) (1) 20 50
DC 1 50 40 30 20 40
Note 1 The design speeds in mountainous terrain for unpaved roads has been adjusted slightly so that
the minimum radii of curvature are the same for both the paved and unpaved option. This
ensures that when a road is upgraded to paved standard, the existing curves are not already
‘over’ designed.
Changes in design speed, if required because of a change in terrain, should be made over
distances that enable drivers to change speed gradually. Thus changes should never be
more than one design step at a time and the length of the sections with intermediate

Chapter 8
Horizontal Alignment Geometric Design Manual -
2013
standards (if there is more than one change) should be long enough for drivers to realise
there has been a change before another change in the same direction is encountered. In
general, a particular design speed should be used for a minimum distance of five
kilometres (i.e. considerably more than one single bend). Where this is not possible,
warning signs should be provided to alert drivers to the changes.
7.2 Stopping Sight Distance
In order to ensure that the design speed is safe, the geometric properties of the road must
meet certain minimum or maximum values to ensure that drivers can see far enough ahead
to carry out normal manoeuvres such as overtaking another vehicle or stopping if there is
an object in the road.
The distance a vehicle requires to stop safely is called the stopping sight distance. It mainly
affects the shape of the road on the crest of a hill (vertical alignment) but if there are
objects near the edge of the road that restrict a driver’s vision on approaching a bend, then
it also affects the horizontal curvature.
The driver must be able to see any obstacle in the road, hence on a crest curve, the stopping
sight distance depends on the size of the object and the height of the driver’s eye above the
road surface. The driver needs time to react and then the brakes of the vehicle need time to
slow the vehicle down. Hence stopping sight distance is dependent on the speed of the
vehicle and the efficiency of its brakes. The surface characteristics of the road also affect
the braking time so the values for unpaved roads differ from those of paved roads, although
the differences are small for design speeds below 60km/h.
The stopping distance also depends on the gradient of the road; it is harder to stop on a
downhill gradient than on a flat road because a component of the weight of the vehicle acts
down the gradient in the opposite direction to the frictional forces that are attempting to
stop the vehicle.
The stopping sight distance is given by the following formula;
V1
d = (0.278)(/)(F) + (254(/ + g/100))
where,
d = distance (metres)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
/ = coefficient of friction between tyres and roadway (see Table 7.2)
g = gradient of road as a percentage (downhill is negative)
On a flat road the value of g is zero. On a 5 percent downhill gradient the stopping distance
at 120 km/hr is typically 16 percent longer. At a 10 percent gradient it is nearly 40 percent
longer, as shown in Table 7.2. The Table also shows that for speeds above 50 km/hr, the
gradient of the road makes a significant difference and must be taken into account in
establishing safe sight distances.

Chapter 8
Table 7-2: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances for Paved Roads
Minimum Passing Sight
Design Coefficient Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Distance to allow
Passing Sight
Speed of Friction
manoeuvre to be
Distance (m)
(km/h) (f) g=0 g = 5% g= 10% (from formulae) aborted (m)
20 .42 18 18 19 160
25 .41 23 24 25 190 50
30 .40 30 32 33 220 80
40 .37 45 47 50 285 135
50 .35 65 70 75 350 180
60 .33 85 90 105 415 230
70 .315 110 120 140 480 270
80 .305 140 155 180 545 310
85 .295 155 175 205 575 330
90 .29 170 195 230 610 345
100 .285 210 240 285 675 375
110 .28 245 285 340 740 405
120 .28 285 330 400 805 425
The coefficient of friction values shown in Table 7.2 have been determined from test
results such as those shown in Figure B. 1 of Appendix B, using the lowest results of the
friction tests. The values shown in the main third column of Table 7.2 for minimum
stopping sight distance are calculated from the above formula.
Table 7.3 is similar to Table 7.2 but is for unpaved roads where the coefficients of friction
are lower and much more variable, depending on the properties of the gravel or soil.
It is important to note that the values in the Tables are for dry weather conditions. Stopping
sight distances are much longer in unfavourable wet conditions.
Full adherence to the required sight distances is essential for safety reasons. On the inside
of horizontal curves it may be necessary to remove trees, buildings or other obstacles to
obtain the necessary sight distances. If this cannot be done, the alignment must be changed.
In rare cases where it is not possible and a change in design speed is necessary, adequate
and permanent signage must be provided.
7. 2. 1 Stopping Sight Distances for Trucks
Trucks with conventional braking systems require longer stopping distances from a given
speed than do passenger cars. However, a truck driver is able to see the vertical features of
the obstruction from substantially further because of the higher driver eye height. This is
particularly important on crest curves (Chapter 9) where object height and the driver’s eye
height dictate the sight distance available. In addition, posted speed limits for trucks are
often considerably lower than for passenger vehicles.

Chapter 8
2013
Separate stopping sight distances for trucks and passenger cars are, therefore, not generally
used in highway design. However, there is evidence that the sight distance advantage
provided by the higher driver eye level in trucks does not always compensate for their
inferior braking. Some reasons for the longer truck braking distances include:
• Poor braking characteristics of empty trucks. The problem relates to the suspension
and tyres that are designed for maximum efficiency under load;
• Uneven load between axles;
• Propensity of truck drivers not to obey posted speed limits;
• Inefficient brakes of articulated trucks, and
• Effect of curvature where some of the friction available at the road/tyre interface is
used to hold the vehicle in a circular path.
To balance between the costs and benefits in designing for trucks, truck stopping sight
distances should be checked at potentially hazardous locations. In general, the deceleration
rate for trucks is 1.5 m/s2 which is about half that of cars and is equivalent to a coefficient
of friction of half that shown in Table 7.2 and 7.3. This increases the stopping distance by
40% at lower speeds, increasing to 70% at 120 km/h. Where required (e.g. for vertical
alignment - see Chapter 9) the driver's eye height is taken as being at 1.8 m and the object
height is as defined in Tables 9. 1 and 9.2.
Table 7-3: Stopping Sight Distances for Unpaved Roads
Design Speed Coefficient Stopping Sight Distance (m)

(km/h) of Friction (f)
g=0 g = 5% g= 10%
20 .34 19 19 21
25 .33 25 25 30
30 .32 30 35 37
40 .30 50 55 60
50 .28 70 80 90
60 .26 95 110 130
70 .25 125 145 175
80 .24 160 185 235
85 .24 180 210 270
90 .23 200 240 305
100 .23 240 290 375
7.3 Stopping Sight Distance for Single Lane Roads (Meeting Sight Distance)
For single lane roads, adequate sight distances must be provided to allow vehicles
travelling in the opposite direction to see each other and to stop safely if necessary. This
distance is normally set at twice the stopping sight distance for a vehicle that is stopping to
avoid a stationary object in the road. An extra safety margin of 20-30 metres is also
sometimes added. Although a vehicle is a much larger object than is usually considered
when calculating stopping distances, these added safety margins are used partly because of
the very severe consequences of a head-on collision and partly because it is difficult to

Chapter 8
judge the speed of an approaching vehicle, which could be considerably greater than the
design speed. However, single lane roads have a relatively low design speed, hence
meeting sight distances should not be too difficult to achieve.
7.4 Intersection Sight Distance
Intersection sight distance is similar to stopping sight distance, Table 7.2, except that the
object being viewed is another vehicle that may be entering the road from a side road or
crossing the road at an intersection. On straight sections of road many vehicles will exceed
the road’s design speed but, being straight, sight distances should be adequate for vehicles
that are travelling straight through the junction on the major road. The situation is quite
different for vehicles that may need to slow down or stop at the junction. This is because
the time required to accelerate again and then to cross or turn at the junction is now much
greater hence longer sight distances are required. This topic is dealt with in Section 1 1.3
and summarised in Tables 11.1 and 1 1.2. Further details are also provided in Appendix C.
7.5 Decision Sight Distance
Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert
drivers to stop under ordinary circumstances. However, these distances are often
inadequate when:
• A situation arises that does not require an emergency stop but drivers need to make
complex decisions;
• Information is difficult to perceive; or
• Unexpected or unusual manoeuvres are required.
Limiting sight distances to those provided for stopping may also preclude drivers from
performing evasive manoeuvres, which are often less hazardous and otherwise preferable
to an emergency stop. Even with an appropriate complement of standard traffic control
devices, stopping sight distances may not provide sufficient visibility for drivers to
perceive and understand complex situations and to perform the necessary manoeuvres.
It is evident that there are many locations such as exits from freeways, or where lane shifts
or weaving manoeuvres are performed, where it would be prudent to provide longer sight
distances. In these circumstances, decision sight distance provides the greater length that
drivers need. If the driver can see what is unfolding far enough ahead, he or she should be
able to handle almost any situation. Decision sight distance, sometimes termed
‘anticipatory sight distance’, is the distance required for a driver to:
• detect an unexpected or otherwise ‘difficult-to-perceive’ information source or
hazard in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered;
• recognize the hazard or its potential threat;
• select an appropriate speed and path; and
• initiate and complete the required safety manoeuvre safely and efficiently.
Because decision sight distance gives drivers additional margin for error and affords them
sufficient length to manoeuvre their vehicles at the same or reduced speed rather than to
just stop, it is substantially longer than stopping sight distance. Drivers need decision sight
distances whenever there is likelihood for error in information reception, decision-making,

Chapter 8
2013
or control actions. Critical locations where these kinds of errors are likely to occur, and
where it is desirable to provide decision sight distance include:
• Approaches to interchanges and intersections;
• Changes in cross-section such as at toll plazas and lane drops;
• Design speed reductions; and
• Areas of concentrated demand where there is likely to be ‘visual noise’, e.g. where
sources of information, such as roadway elements, opposing traffic, traffic control
devices, advertising signs and construction zones, compete for attention.
The minimum decision sight distances that should be provided for specific situations are
shown in Table 7.4. If it is not feasible to provide these distances because of horizontal or
vertical curvature or if relocation is not possible, special attention should be given to the
use of suitable traffic control devices for advance warning.
Although a sight distance is suggested for the left side exit, the designer should bear in
mind that exiting to the left on a main road is in conflict with driver expectancy and is
highly undesirable. The only reason for providing this value is to allow for the possibility
that a left side exit has to be employed.
Table 7-4: Decision Sight Distances (metres)

Situations
Design Interchanges. Lane drop, Lane shift. Intersections.
Speed Sight distance to nose merge. Sight distance Sight
km/h Sight distance to to beginning distance to
Right exit Left exit taper area of shift turn lane
50 NA NA 150 85 150
60 200 275 200 100 200
80 250 340 250 150 250
100 350 430 350 200 350
120 400 500 400 250 400
7.6 Control of Sight Distance
Sight distances should be checked during design and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight
lines. Details of crest and sag curve design are to be found in Chapter 9.
a) Driver's eye height: 1.05 metres
b) Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.2 metres
c) Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 metres
d) Object height for decision sight distance 0.00 metres
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight
distance (see Figure 7.1).

Chapter 8
CENTER LINE OF ROAD
SIGHT DISTANCE MEASURED

ALONG CENTERLINE OF INSIDE LINE
M J
_S!6i£L LINE.
TAT
%% OBSTRUCTION OR
CUT SLOPE
Figure 7-1: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves
Relevant formulae are as follows:

Length of Sight Line (S) = 2R sin(A/2) where A = Deflection angle (°)
Length of Middle Ordinate (M) = R(l-cos(A/2)
Example:
Radius = 1 000 metres, A = 20°;
S = 2R sin(A/2)_ M = R (1 - cos(A/2)
= 2(1000)(sin(10°) = 1000(1- cos(10°)

= 347 metres = 15.2 metre
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel.
7.7 Passing Sight Distance
The Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on a two-way road that must be
available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed. Hence
factors affecting the safe sight distances required for overtaking are complicated because
they involve the capability of a vehicle to accelerate and the length and speed of the
vehicle being overtaken. Assumptions also need to be made about the speed differential
between the vehicle being overtaken and the overtaking vehicle. In view of all these
assumptions many road authorities have simply based their standards on empirical
evidence.

Chapter 8
2013
Within the sight area, the terrain should be at the same level or a level lower than the
roadway, otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and
widen cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be
exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be
obscured in the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
di = initial manoeuvre distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the manoeuvre
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
di = 0.278 ti (v - m + a.tj/2)
Where
t|= time of initial manoeuvre, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 v.t2.
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the manoeuvre, and is
dependent on ambient speeds as per Table 7.5:
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2
minus the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane,
estimated as:
d4 = 2d2/3
Table 7-5: Clearance Distance (dÿ) for Different Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120
d3(m) 30 55 80 100
The time ti for the initial perception and manoeuvre is particularly variable and also
depends on the vehicle speed - more time is required for assessment when the overtaking
manoeuvre is considered to be dangerous.
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is
—
PSD di + d2 + d3 + cU

Chapter 8
Geometric Design Manual -2013 Horizontal Alignment
The resulting minimum sight distances for passing are as indicated in the sixth main
column of Table 7.2. For the reasons outlined herein, however, the preferable (or desirable)
PSD at 40km/h is 15% greater than the values quoted in the Table, rising to 40% greater at
120km/h.
A method of measuring and recording sight distances on plans is given in Appendix C.
---
REDUCED PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
3"
□3— HI3 1J3 —
\
03— HZ3-—
— — B— H H
NORMAL PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Figure 7-2: Passing Sight Distance
7.8 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
An alternative design strategy is to base the passing sight distances on providing enough
sight distance for a vehicle to safely abort a passing manoeuvre if another vehicle is
approaching. The recommended values are shown in the seventh column of Table 7.2.
Sight distance records are also useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage
of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the minimum needed
for passing. This is important in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distance, as in the
lower part of Figure C-l of Appendix C, it is a simple process to determine the percentage
of length of highway with a given sight distance or greater.
Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way single roadway roads.
Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road and should
be provided for as much of the road length as possible within financial limitations.
Table 7.6 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be
provided.
Table 7-6: Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
Percent Passing Opportunity and Terrain
Design
Standard Urban/Peri-
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Urban
DC8 50
50 25
DC7 33
DC6
25 25 0 20
DC5
15
DC4
20 20
DC3

Chapter 8
Horizontal Alignment Geometric Design Manual - 2013
8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT JKHBJBJ
8.1 General
The horizontal alignment consists of a series of straight sections (tangents), circular curves,
transition curves (spirals) and super-elevation. The horizontal curves are designed to
ensure that vehicles can negotiate them safely. The alignment design should be aimed at
avoiding sharp changes in curvature, thereby achieving a safe uniform driving speed.
Transition curves between straight sections of road and circular curves whose radius
changes continuously from infinity (tangent) to the radius of the circular curve (R) are used
to reduce the abrupt introduction of centripetal acceleration that occurs on entering the
circular curve. They are not required when the radius of the horizontal curve is large and
are normally not used on the lower classes of road. In Ethiopia their use is confined to
roads where the design speed is 80km/hr or greater.
In order for a vehicle to move in a circular path, an inward radial force is required to
provide the necessary centripetal acceleration or, in other words, to counteract the
centrifugal force. This radial force is provided by the sideways friction between the tyres
and the road surface assisted by the cross-fall or super-elevation.
In order to calculate the minimum horizontal radius of curvature, Rmin, for a particular
design speed, the equation is:
VD1
*mi„ =
127(e + /)
Where
VD = design speed (km/h)
e = maximum super-elevation (%/ 100)
f = side friction coefficient
The design speed is thus one of the main design parameters. Values for each class of road
under each of its operating conditions are shown in Table 2. 1 .
Values of the minimum radii of curvature for different design speeds and super-elevations
based on this formula are shown in Tables 8.1 for paved roads and Table 8.2 for unpaved
roads. For unpaved roads the super-elevation will not be constant but will vary as the
gravel is worn away. A value of 4 percent has been used in the calculations as a reasonable
compromise during the life of the gravel surface, assuming an initial maximum value of 6
percent.
Side friction coefficients are dependent on

i) vehicle speed;
ii ) type, condition and texture of roadway surface;
iii) weather conditions; and
iv) type and condition of tyres.
The coefficient is considerably less than the longitudinal friction coefficient. Its value
decreases as speed increases but there is considerable disagreement about representative
values, especially at the lower speeds. Tables 8.1 and 8.2 were developed based on the
Page 8-10 Ethiopian Roads Authorin’

Chapter 8
results of several studies (Appendix B). For paved roads the coefficient ranges from
between 0.18 and 0.25 at 20km/h down to between 0.09 and 0.16 at 120km/h.
Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Paved Roads
Design speed
20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 100 120
(km/h)
Side Friction
0.23 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10
Factor (f)
Super-elevation
15 19 30 55 95 145 215 300 350 515 780
= 4%
Super-elevation
15 18 27 50 85 135 195 270 310 455 685
= 6%
Super-elevation
15 17 25 50 80 120 175 240 280 410 610
= 8%
Super-elevation
15 16 25 45 75 110 160 220 255 375 555
= 10%
Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Unpaved Roads
Design speed
20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 90 100
(km/h)
Side Friction 0.16
0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09
Factor 5
Super-elevation =
15 25 35 65 115 175 255 355 410 475 610
4%
For unpaved roads the friction is usually considerably less. In these calculations it has been
assumed that it is 80% of the value for paved roads but this is dependent on a tightly knit
and dry surface of good quality gravel with no loose stones; in other words a surface on
which the design speed could be maintained. A poorly bound surface with many loose
particles has a very low value of friction and it has to be assumed that vehicles will be
driven on such a surface at a speed that is much lower than the nominal design speed
dictated by the sight distances and radii of curvature.
The Tables above indicate the minimum radii of curvature for different design speeds and
road surfaces. In general, these radii should be used only under the most critical conditions.
The deviation angle of each curve should be as small as the physical conditions permit.
The deviation should be absorbed in the flattest possible curve so that passing
opportunities are not unduly restricted.
Changes in design speed (see Section 5.4), if required due to changes in terrain class,
should not be made abruptly but over sufficient distance to enable drivers to change speed
gradually. The change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed step
(usually 10 or 15 km/h) and the section with the lower geometric standards should be long
enough to be clearly recognizable by drivers and not, for example, just a single curve.
The physical terrain sometimes changes by two terrain classes, typically from mountainous
to flat. Where possible a transition section of road should be provided with limiting
parameters equivalent to the intermediate terrain type namely rolling terrain. Where this is

Chapter 8
not possible, adequate warning signs must be provided to alert drivers to the changes in
geometric standards.
Under normal circumstances sections of road will contain many curves that are larger than
the minimum radii specified in the design standards. For reasons of safety and driver
comfort it is inadvisable for consecutive curves to differ in radius by a large amount even
though they are both greater than the minimum. Indeed, all the various design elements
must be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of minimum values for one
or a few elements at a particular location when other elements are considerably above the
minimum requirements. Figure 8.1 shows the required ratio of radii for consecutive curves.
Consecutive horizontal curves are defined as curves where the distance between the end of
one and the beginning of the next is less than the radius of the larger curve. The best result
will be achieved when the two radii are similar (labelled ‘very good’ in the diagram). If the
ratio of radii falls into the ‘useable’ category some discomfort or inconvenience will be felt
because of the increase in centripetal force when entering the tighter curve.
100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 1800
1800 1800
£
cc 1500 1500
£
'5
! /
1000 1000
800 1 rzx 800
600
2
c
r 600
500 -S’
/
/ y/
BE 500
400 / 400
300
/// X 300
/
200 4 Z_
200
n
..
zx to je avoided
X
100 z ~ 100
X
x:
50 _ 50
50 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 1800
radius R Iml
Figure 8-1: Ratio of radii of consecutive horizontal curves
8.2 Cross-fall
For both paved and unpaved roads there are constraints on the maximum cross-fall, as
summarised in Tables 2.6 to 2.17. These constraints translate directly into minimum values
of horizontal radii of curvature.

Chapter 8
8.3 Elements of a Circular Curve
The elements of circular curves are shown in Figure 8.2
PI
PT
Pi
Figure 8-2: Curve Elements
1 ) A is the Deflection Angle (in degrees).
2) R is the Radius of the curve.
3) T is the Tangent Distance PC to PI; T = R.tan(A/2)
4) E is the External Distance : E = R.[sec(A/2) - l]
5) L is the Curve Length. L = 2.7T.R. A/360
6) M is the Middle Ordinate M = R.[l - cos(A/2)J
7) C is the Chord Length from PC to PT C = 2.R.sin(A/2)
8) Point PC is the Point-of-Curvature Station PC = PI - T
9) PT is the Point-of-Tangency Station PT = PC+ L
Example:
A curve has a deflection angle of A = 23° 18’ 02”, and a radius of 1432.6m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate the tangent distance (T), external distance (E),
curve length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).
23°1 8'02'
T = /?tan— = (1432.6) tan = 1432.4(2026) = 295«
2

Chapter 8
L - Ax
R*2n
360
= 23.3
1432.6x2x3.14
360 - 582m
1
E = R sec-- 1 =1432.6
2
-
A
-I = 1432.4(.02 103) = 30m
cos
2
PC = PI - T = 5+053.87 - 295.35 = 4 + 758
PT = PC + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.5 1 = 5+34 1
8.4 Minimum Turning Radii
Buses, trucks, trucks with trailers and 4x4 utility vehicles require minimum design turning
radii of 12.8m, 13.7m and 7.3m respectively (Table 5.1). It is not possible to exclude any
of these vehicle categories from the lower standard roads and, as a certain amount of
tolerance is required for safe operations, the minimum horizontal curve radius of 15m is
specified in Tables 8.1 and 8.2 for all design standards.
For reasons of safety and ease of driving, curves near the minimum radius for the design
speed should not be used at the following locations;
i) On high fills, because the lack of surrounding features reduces a driver’s
perception of the alignment.
ii) At or near vertical curves (tops and bottoms of hills) because the unexpected
bend can be extremely dangerous, especially at night.
iii) At the end of long tangents or a series of gentle curves, because actual speeds
will exceed design speeds.
iv) At or near intersections and approaches to bridges or other water crossing
structures.
8.5 Isolated Curves

The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as possible.
Long tangent roadway segments joined by an isolated curve designed at or near the
minimum radius are unsafe. Long straight sections encourage drivers to drive at speeds in
excess of the design speed, hence sudden and unexpected sharp curves are dangerous.
Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in such conditions. For
isolated curves, tine minimum horizontal curve radius as shown in Tables 2.6 through 2.16
should be increased by 50 percent. This will usually result in the ability to negotiate the
curve at a speed approximately 10 km/hr higher than the design speed.
8.6 Length of Tangent Sections and Curves
There are conflicting views about curve lengths. One school of thought maintains that the
horizontal alignment should maximise the length of road where adequate sight distances
are provided for safe overtaking. Overtaking is difficult on curves of any radius and hence

Chapter 8
the length of curved road should be minimised. This requires curve radii to be relatively
close (but not too close) to the minimum for the design speed to maximise the length of
straight sections.
The alternative view is that very long straight sections should be avoided. Long tangent
sections increase the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding.
For example, a long tangent causes speeds to creep up to about 120 km/h or even higher
and the driver then has to reduce speed to negotiate the following curve, thereafter
accelerating again. Ideally, drivers should be encouraged to maintain a speed which is
close to the design speed to reduce the possibility of an error of judgment leading to an
accident. It has been found that a maximum tangent length, measured in metres, of 20
times the design speed in km/h, achieves this effect. For example, a design speed of 100
km/h suggests that tangents should, ideally, not be longer than about 2.0 km. Thus a safer
alternative is obtained by a winding alignment with tangents deflecting 5 to 10 degrees
alternately from right to left. Straight sections should have lengths (in metres) less than 20
x design speed in km/h. Such ‘flowing’ curves restrict the view of drivers on the inside
carriageway and reduce safe overtaking opportunities, therefore such a winding alignment
should only be adopted where the straight sections are very long. In practice this only
occurs in very flat terrain. The main aspect is to ensure that there are sufficient
opportunities for safe overtaking and therefore, provided the straight sections are long
enough, a semi-flowing alignment can be adopted at the same time. If overtaking
opportunities are infrequent, maximising the length of the straight sections is the best
option.
For small changes of direction it is often desirable to use a large radius of curvature. This
improves the appearance and reduces the tendency for drivers to cut comers. In addition, it
reduces the length of the road segment and therefore the cost of the road provided that no
extra cut or fill is required. A widely adopted guideline is that, on minor roads, curves
should have a minimum length of 150 metres for a deflection angle of 5° and that this
length should be increased by 30 metres for every 1° decrease in deflection angle. On
major roads and freeways, the minimum curve length in metres should be three times the
design speed in km/h. The increase in length for decreasing deflection angle also applies to
these roads. In the case of a circular curve without transitions, the length in question is the
total length of the arc and, where transitions are applied, the length is that of the circular
curve plus half the total length of the transitions.
The minimum length of tangent must allow for the run-off of the super-elevation of the
preceding curve followed by the development of that for the following curve. This distance
should be calculated during detailed design but, as a rule of thumb, a tangent length of less
than 200 m is likely to prove inadequate.
8.7 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage
may be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three
cases of successive curves are (see Figure 8.3):
i) Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction.
ii) Broken-back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction but
with only a short tangent in-between.

Chapter 8
2013
iii) Compound curve: curves in the same direction but of different radii, and without
any intervening tangent section.
The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short tangent between two curves in
opposite directions) should be avoided. Such geometries make it difficult for the driver to
remain within his lane. It is also difficult to super-elevate both curves adequately, and this
may result in erratic operation.
The broken-back arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in the
same direction) should also be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-
of way conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves
in the same direction hence safety is compromised. Problems also arise associated with
super-elevation and drainage.
The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should, however, be exercised in the use of compound curves because the
driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve,
hence safety is compromised. Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.
Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are
found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve. Where the use of compound
curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; ie. Ri should not exceed I.5.R2. A
compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or a
tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred (see Section 8.10).
REVERSE CURVE
BROKEN BACK CURVE
12
R: COMPOUND CURVE
11
R1'
Figure 8-3: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
8.8 Widening on Curves and Embankments
The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible because drivers
following the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Widening of

Chapter 8
the carriageway where the horizontal curve is tight is usually necessary to ensure that the
rear wheels of the largest vehicles remain on the road when negotiating the curve; and, on
two lane roads, to ensure that the front overhang of the vehicle does not encroach on the
opposite lane. Widening is therefore also important for safety reasons.
Vehicles need to remain centred in their lane to reduce the likelihood of colliding with an
oncoming vehicle or driving on the shoulder. Sight distances should be maintained as
discussed above.
Widening on high embankments is recommended for design classes DC8 through to DC4.
The steep drops from high embankments unnerve some drivers and the widening is
primarily for psychological comfort although it also has a positive effect on safety.
Widening for curvature and for high embankments should be added where both cases
apply.
Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for
the design vehicle. Table 8.3 gives the values to be adopted in the design.
Table 8-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills

Radius of Curve Widening: Curve Widening: Fill Widening
Curve Single Lane Two Lanes Height of fill Amount
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0
120-250 0.0 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 See Section 8.10: Switchbacks
Curve widening is generally not applied to curves with a radius greater than 250 metres
regardless of the design speed or the lane width. Widening should transition gradually on
the approaches to the curve so that the full additional width is available at the start of the
curve. Although a long transition is desirable to ensure that the whole of the travelled way
is fully usable, this results in narrow pavement slivers that are difficult, and
correspondingly expensive, to construct. In practice, curve widening is thus applied over
no more than the length of the super-elevation runoff preceding the curve. For ease of
construction, the widening is normally applied only on one side of the road. This is usually
on the inside of the curve to match the tendency for drivers to cut the inside edge of the
travelled way.
The height of fill is measured from the edge of the shoulder to the toe of the slope.
Widening is provided to make driving on a curve comparable with that on a tangent. On

older roads with narrow cross-sections and low design speeds and hence sharp curves,
there was a considerable need for widening on curves. Because of the inconvenience
attached to widening the surfacing of a lane, it follows that the required widening may not
always have been provided. Where a road has to be rehabilitated and it is not possible to
increase the radius of curvature, the designer should consider the need for curve widening.

Chapter 8
8.9 Switchback Curves
Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and
escarpment terrain. Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 1 0m, they are
generally outside of the standards for all road designs and are specified using the
guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards section in Chapter 2.
Switchback curves require careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel
through the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design
vehicles, as indicated in Figures 5.2 through to 5.4. These figures show that the minimum
outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are 12.5m, 14.1m, and 12.5m,
respectively. Minimum inner radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.
Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:

• Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design
Standards DC8, DC7 and DC6
• Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1 . This is recommended for Design Standards
DS4- DC5
• Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended for Design Standards DC3,
DC3, DC2 and DC1.
Figure 8.4 illustrates a switchback curve.
TRANSITION CURVE
CS
60g
'CS
/
$ /
§ t
CS
/ ST- '
I Ss
r
i: I
\
I
R
\ WL
SC TS
\
SC
WL
e%
s
Tÿr-
Tf*ANSl
Tl°* CURve
Figure 8-4: Switchback Curve

Chapter 8
For a design example, consider road standard DC3 which allows for only the passage of a
single DV4 vehicle. By superimposing Figure 3.1 1 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure 8.4
at the same scale, it can be shown that the requirements are (see Figure 8.5):
R= 10m Ri = 6m Rs = 14m
Thus although the normal carriageway width for a paved DC3 is 6.0m, at the switchback
curve 8m is required.
EDGE OF ROAD
j
/
/
/
/
x-
VV "-f-
WL
■WL
—
i
i INNER REAR WHEEL
OUTER FRONT WHEEL
I $ OVERHANG
\
w
\
y
i
wL
S
\
s0
% ■■
N
EDGE OF ROAD
Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve for the Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle
Requirements vary depending on passage requirements, radius, deflection angle, and

design standard, and a template should be used based on the turning radii of the design
vehicle to ensure that the vehicles can negotiate each switchback.
It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback. Gradient
parameters associated with a switchback curve are discussed in Section 9.5.
8.10 Transition Curves
The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius.

Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the
abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration and therefore to enhance safety. They may also
be used between two circular curves.
For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition
curves are not normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a
requirement for certain roads, particularly those of lower classification. Another possible

Chapter 8
2013
strategy would be to consider transitions for roads where a significant portion of the curves
have a super-elevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum super-elevation. For
Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments
having a design speed of equal to or greater than 80 km/hr. They are also required if the
radius of the circular curve is less than the values shown in Table 8.4.
Table 8-4: Transition Curve Requirements

Transition Required if
Design Speed (km/hr)
Radius of Curve is less than:
80 380
85 428
90 480
100 590
110 720
120 850
If a transition curve is required, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid,
should be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to the radius
of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition, the radius at any point of the
spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral.
In the case of a combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii,
there is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.
8.11 Super-elevation
A tighter curve can be designed if higher values of super-elevation are used, but high
values of super-elevation are not recommended if the friction is low, such as in locations
where mud is likely to contaminate the road surface regularly. High values are also not
recommended where mixed traffic and/or roadside development severely limit the speed of
vehicles. In urban areas an upper limit of 4 percent should be used. Similarly, either a low
maximum rate of super-elevation or no super-elevation is employed within important
intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly because of turning and
crossing movements, warning devices, and signals.
Super-elevation is, however, a requirement for all standards of roads.
8.12 Super-elevation Runoff
In alignment design with spirals, the super-elevation runoff is provided over the whole of
the transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length, with the tangent to spiral (TS)
transition point at the beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) transition point at the end. The
change in cross slope begins by removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on
the outside of the curve on a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent runout).
Between the TS and SC (the super-elevation runoff) the travelled way is rotated to reach
the full super-elevation at the SC. This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this
design the whole of the circular curve has full super-elevation, as shown in Figure 8.6.

Chapter 8
REMOVE
ADVERSE
SUPER RUNOFF LENGTH (L) FULL SUPER
NORMAL CROWN CROWN
<L
E.P
CONS. *L PROFILE
BOTH E.P*
INS,°£E.P
07
PROFILE v. CONTROL
§ i 8
Figure 8-6: Spiral Curve Transition.
In the design of curves without spirals the super-elevation runoff is considered to be that
length beyond the tangent runout. Empirical methods are employed to locate the super¬
elevation runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC).
Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent
approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure 8.7.
REMOVE SUPER RUNOFF LENGTH (L)

ADVERSE
a-
CROWN
NORMAL CROWN FULLSUPER
<L
CONS.
— t PROFILE
BOTH E.P* M -
,NS'OEE.P
V
PROFILE
CONTROL
6 fi & a i
Figure 8-7: Circular Curve Transition
Table 8.5 gives super-elevation rates and length of runoff for horizontal curves at different
speeds for a maximum super-elevation of 8 percent. Table 8.6 gives super-elevation rates
and length of runoff for horizontal curves at different speeds for a maximum super¬
elevation rate of 4 percent.
8.13 Shoulder Super-elevation
Figure 8.8 depicts shoulder super-elevation rates corresponding to carriageway super¬

elevation rates. The figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of super-elevated
curves, the shoulder super-elevation matches the roadway super-elevation. On the high
side (outer shoulder), the super-elevation is set such that the grade break between the

Chapter 8
roadway and the shoulder is 8 percent. An exception to this occurs at a maximum super¬
elevation of 8 percent, where the resultant shoulder super-elevation would be an
undesirable flat configuration. Here the super-elevation is set at -1% to drain the shoulder.
OUTER INNER
SHOULDER CARRIAGE WAY SHOULDER
-1%
8%
8%_
INNER SHOULDER CROSS
SLOPE STEEPEND TO
MATCH CARRIAGE WAY
-2%
— 6% 6%_
SUPER ELEVATION
OUTER SHOULDER FLATTENED

TO LIMIT ROLLOVER TO 8%
.AVo - 4% 4%_
NORMAL SHOULDER HAS
A 4% CROSS SLOPE
.4% 2%_
I
2%ÿ
: NORMAL CROWN SECTION
4% 0% 4%_
■
(ONLY AT A STATION
C
WITHIN A TRANSITION)
Note: For design classes DC5 and lower the shoulder may be sloped with the carriageway, but the
shoulder should then be surfaced on the outside of the curve.
Figure 8-8: Shoulder Super-elevation (for Surfaced Roads)

Table 8-5: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%
Vj=30km/h Vj=40 km/h Vjÿ-50 km/h Vp km/h Vjÿ70 km/h Vÿ85 km/h Vrf-IOOkm/h 120 km/h
K
(m) <%) Mm) (%) L. (m) (%) Mm) (%) Mm) (%) Mm) <%) Mm) (%) Mm) (%) Mm)
7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56 2.4 101
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.1 56 2.9 101
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.2 47 2.6 56 3J 101
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.5 47 3.4 56 4.6 101
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.1 39 2.6 47 3.6 56 4.9 101
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.8 47 3.8 56 5.2 101
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.4 39 3.0 47 4.1 56 5.6 101
1000 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.2 33 2.8 39 3.5 47 4.8 56 6.5 101
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.4 33 3.1 39 4.2 47 5.2 56 7.1 101
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.7 33 3.4 39 4.6 47 5.7 56 7.6 103
700 NC 0 RC 22 12 28 3.0 33 3.8 39 5.1 47 6.3 56 8.0 108
600
500
NC
NC
0
0
RC
2.2
22
22
2.6
3.0
28
28
3.4
3.9
33
33
4.3
4.9
39
39
6.5
7.2
47
47
6.9
7.8
56
56
-
Rmm 665
400 RC 17 2.7 22 3.6 28 4.7 33 5.7 39 7.8 51
300 2.1 17 3.4 22 4.5 28 5.6 34 6.7 44 8.0_ 31 R™ = 395
250 2.5 17 4.0 22 5.1 28 62 37 7J 48 R«m = 270
200 3.0 17 4.6 24 5.8 31 7.0 42 7.9 52
175 3.4 17 5.0 26 62 33 7.4 44 8.0 52
150 3.8 18 5.4 28 6.7 36 7.8 47 R„.= 175
140 4.0 19 5.6 29 6.9 37 7.9 47
130 4.2 20 5.8 30 7.1 38 8,0 48
120
110
4.4
4.7
21
23
6.0
6.3
31
32
73
7.6
39
41
Rm«. - 125
100 4.9 23 6.5 33 7.8 42

90 52 25 6.9 36 7.9 43
80 5.5 26 7.2 37 8.0 43 = 8.0%
TO 5.9 28 IS 39 R™'80
60 6.4 31 7.8 40 R radius of curve
50 6.9 33 V = assumed design speed
40 7.5 36 R™,-50 = rate of superelevation
30 8,0 M
e
R.,.,-10 L minimum length of runoflÿdoes not include tangent runout)
NC = normal crown section
RC remove adverse crown, super-elevation at normal crown slope
Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10m to permit simpler calculations.

Table 8-6: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4%
V>30km/h V„*40 km/h V,=50 km/h V* =60 km/h V„=70 km/h V*=85 km/h V*=l00 km/h
R c c e e e
(m) <*>) Mm) (H) L(m) <H) L(m) <*>) Mm) (H) L(m) <%> Mm) <%) Mm)
£
3000
NC
NC
0
0
0
NC
NC
NC
0
0
0
NC
NC
NC
0
0
0
NC
NC
NC
0
0
0
NC
NC
NC
0
0
0
NC
NC
NC
0
0
0
NC
NC
0
0
RC 56
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.2 56
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.1 47 2.6 56
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.2 47 2.7 56
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2J 47 2.8 56
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.5 47 2.9 56
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.7 47 32 56
1000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 22 39 2.9 47 3.4 56
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.1 33 2.4 39 3.2 47 3.5 56
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.3 33 15 39 3.4 47 3.7 56
700 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.5 33 2.7 39 3.5 47 3.9 56
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.1 28 2.7 33 2.9 39 3.7 47 4.0 56
500 NC 0 RC 22 2.3 28 2.9 33 3.1 39 3.9 47 Rom. ~ 490
-
400 NC 0 2.1 22 2.5 28 3.3 33 3.4 39 4.0. J1
300 RC 17 13 22 2.8 28 3.6 33 3.8 39 R*„ 285
250 RC 17 2.6 22 3.0 28 3.8 33 3.9 J9
200 13 17 2.8 22 3.3 28 3.9 33 R„m,=2l5
175 2.4 17 2.9 22 3.5 28 4.0 22
150 22 17 3.1 22 3.7 28 R«.n = 1 50
140 2.6 17 3.2 22 3.8 28
130 2.6 17 3.3 22 3.8 28
120 2.7 17 3.4 22 3.9 28
no 2.8 17 3.5 22 4.0 28 er 4.0%
100
90
2.9
3.0
17
17
3.6
3.7
22
22
4.0
R.,„- 100
28 R = radius of curve
80 32 17 3.8 22 V = assumed design speed
70 3J 17 3.9 22 e = rate of superelevation
60 3.5 17 4,0 22
50 3.7 18 Rimn - 60
L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
40 3.9 NC = normal crown section
R™=35 RC = remove adverse crown, super-elevation at normal crown slope
Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10m to permit simpler calculations.
Use of eÿ = 4.0% should be limited to urban conditions.
Source: AASHTO

Chapter 9
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Vertical Alignment
9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
9.1 Introduction
Vertical alignment is the combination of parabolic vertical curves and tangent sections of a
particular slope. The selection of rates of grade and lengths of vertical curves is based on
assumptions about characteristics of the driver, the vehicle and the roadway. Vertical
curvature may impose limitations on sight distance, particularly when combined with
horizontal curvature.
Thus the two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed
by sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. This chapter describes the mathematical concepts for defining the vertical
curvature of the road; defines the limiting characteristics for each road class; recommends
maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages;
develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane; and provides vertical clearance
standards.
The vertical alignment should also be designed to be aesthetically pleasing. As a general

guide, a vertical curve that coincides with a horizontal curve should, if possible, be
contained within the horizontal curve, and should ideally have approximately the same
length.
A smooth grade line with gradual changes appropriate to the class of road and the character
of the topography is preferable to an alignment with numerous short lengths of grade and
vertical curves. The 'roller coaster' or 'hidden dip' type of profile should be avoided.
9.2 Vertical Curve Formula
Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients.
The simple parabola is specified for these because the parabola provides a constant rate of
change of curvature and, hence, acceleration and visibility, along its length. Equations
relating the various aspects of the vertical curve are as follows (Figure 9.1):
Y(x) = r.X2/200 + X.gi/100 + YBvc Equation 9.1
r = —
(g2 gi)/L = G/L
Where
BVC = Beginning of the vertical curve. The coordinates are normally (0, Y(0)),
EVC = End of the vertical curve. The coordinates are normally (L, Y(L)),
Y(X) = Elevation of a point on the curve (metres)
X = Horizontal distance from the (BVC) (metres)
gi = Starting gradient (%),
g2 = Ending gradient (%),
r = Rate of change of grade per section (% per metre),
L = Length of curve (horizontal distance) in metres,
G = gi - g2 (%),

Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment Geometric Design Manual - 2013
K = L/G = horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade

(metres),
Z = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (metres)
Useful relationships are;
Equation of tangent gi is Y(X) = Y(0) + gi.X/100
Equation of tangent g2 is Y(X) = Y(L) + ga.(X-L)/100
The y coordinate of the EVC is Y(L) = (gi+g2)L/200 + Y(0)
The Intersection Point always occurs at an x coordinate of 0.5L hence the elevation is
always;
Y(IP) = (g2+3.gi)L/800 + Y(0)
Examples of crest and sag vertical curves are shown in Figures 9.1 and 9.2, respectively.
116
114
112
| INTERSECTION POINT
110
I108
I
I 106
B
104 EVC
102
| Is Length of curve |
100
8VC
98
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Chainage (metres)
-•-Crest curve -•-Tangent gl = 6% Tangent g2 = -3%
Figure 9-1: Crest Curve

Chapter 9
101
100
I
>
99
5
JL 98
o
1
0) 97
LU
96
95
0 50 100
>r
150 200 250 300
Chainage (metres)
Sag curve Tangent gl = -3% Tangent g2 = 2%
Figure 9-2: Sag Curve
Example:
For the crest curve shown in Figure 9. 1 the two tangent grade lines are +6% and -3%. The
Beginning of the Vertical Curve is at chainage 0.000 and its elevation 100.0m. The length
of the vertical curve is 400m. Compute the End of Vertical Curve and the coordinates of
the Intersection Point.
The y coordinate of the EVC is Y(L) =(g,+g2)L/200 + Y(0)

= (6 - 3).400/200 + 1 00.0 = 1 06.0
The x coordinate is X(L) =400.0
The coordinates of the IP are X(IP) = L/2 =200.0 and
Y(IP) = (g2+3.g,)L/800 + Y(0)
= (-3 + 3x6).400/800 + Y(0) = 107.5m
9.3 Crest curves
Two conditions exist when considering the minimum sight distance criteria on vertical
curves. The first is where the sight distance (S) is less than the length of the vertical curve
(L), and the second is where sight distance extends beyond the vertical curve.
Consideration of the properties of the parabola results in the following relationships for
minimum curve length to achieve the required sight distances:
For S < L (the most common situation in practice):
Lm = (G.S2)/[200(h|05 + h20'5)2] and therefore

Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment Geometric Design Manual -
2013
Lm K.G
where
Lm minimum length of vertical crest curve (metres)
S required sight distance (metres)
h, driver eye height (metres)
h2 object height (metres)
K is a constant for given values of hi and h2 and stopping sight distance (S)
and therefore speed and surface friction.
For S > L
Lm 2S - [200.(h,°'s + h205)2]/G
Eye height (hi) has been taken as 1.05 metres, and object heights h2 of 0.2 metres and 0.6
metres above the road surface.
In choosing which object height to adopt it is useful to know that in open country there is
very little evidence of vehicles being involved in accidents over crest curves because of
small objects in the carriageway. This may, of course, be because accident records are very
imperfect in many countries but evidence from the USA and Canada supports this
conjecture. In relatively flat terrain the most likely objects are another vehicle, a human
being crossing the road and a pothole. The first two are more than 0.6m high and the third
is at road surface level. An object height equal to the road surface itself is also applicable
for sag curves on the approach to a ford or drift where a driver may have to stop because of
the presence of surface water. For crest curves it has become more common to adopt an
object height of 0.6m to cater for night time conditions when the object is likely to be the
tail lights of a vehicle. However, in hilly and mountainous terrain the most likely object is
a fallen rock and in forested area, the branch of a tree. In such conditions an object height
of 0.2 metres is the best compromise.
The minimum lengths of crest curves have been designed to provide sufficient sight
distance during daylight conditions. Longer lengths would be needed to meet the same
visibility requirements at night on unlit roads but, even on a level road, low beam headlight
illumination may not show up small objects at the design stopping sight distances. There is
no point in providing a suitable sight distance if headlights are not bright enough to make
use of it, therefore these longer lengths of curve are not justified. From a safety point of
view, high objects such as vehicles and their tail lights will be adequately illuminated at the
required stopping sight distances. Approaching vehicles will be identified by the
approaching illumination and drivers should be more alert at night and/or be travelling at
reduced speed.
Similar calculations can be carried out based on passing sight distance. High values of K
result so that, in the situation where the crest of the curve is in cut, the increase in volume
of excavation will be significant. Although the designer should seek to provide as much
passing sight distance as possible along the length of the road, it may be useful to shorten
the crest curve in order to increase the lengths of the grades on either side rather than to
attempt achieving passing sight distance over the crest curve itself.

Chapter 9
Minimum values of K for crest curves are shown in Tables 9.1 and 9.2.
Table 9-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Paved Roads)
K for Stopping
Design Speed Sight Distance K for Passing
(km/h) Sight Distance
h2 = 0m h2 = 0.2m h2 = 0.6m
20 2 1 1 10
25 3 1 1 30
30 4 2 1 50
40 10 5 3 90
50 20 10 7 130
60 35 17 11 180
70 60 30 20 245
80 95 45 30 315
85 115 55 35 350
90 140 67 45 390
100 205 100 67 480
110 285 140 95 580
120 385 185 125 680
Table 9-2: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Unpaved Roads)
K for Stopping
Design Speed Sight Distance K for Passing
(km/h) Sight Distance
h2 = 0m h2 = 0.2m h2 = 0.6m
20 2 1 1 10
25 3 1 1 30
30 5 2 2 50
40 11 6 4 90
50 25 11 8 135
60 45 20 15 185
70 75 35 25 245
80 120 58 40 315
85 150 72 50 350
90 185 90 60 390
100 270 130 88 480
9.4 Sag Curves
It is assumed that adequate sight distance will be available on sag curves in daylight.
However, at night, visibility is limited by the distance illuminated by the headlamp beams.

Chapter 9
2013
Assumptions concerning the brightness of the headlights, their height above the road and
the divergence of the beams have been made and minimum sag curve lengths for this
condition have been computed. However the results lead to unrealistically long vertical
curves, especially at higher speeds, and the required sight distances may be in excess of the
effective range of the headlamp beam. Thus, the only likely situation when the calculations
are useful is on the approaches to fords and drifts and other similar locations where
flowing or standing water may be present on the road surface. Most of these structures
occur on low speed roads where headlamp illumination is more likely to reach the full
sight distances.
It is therefore recommended that, for most situations, sag curves are designed using a
driver comfort criterion of vertical acceleration. A maximum acceleration of 0.3 m/sec2 is
often used. This translates into
K > V2/395
Where V is the velocity in km/hr.
The resulting curve length values are shown in Table 9.3.
Table 9-3: Minimum Values of K for Sag Curves

Design Speed (km/h) K for driver comfort
20 1.0
25 1.5
30 2.5
40 4.
50 6.5
60 9
70 12
80 16
85 18
90 20
100 25
110 30
120 36
9.5 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves
Especially for trunk and link roads, where the algebraic difference between successive
gradients is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, obtained by applying the
above formulae, becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the grade
line. If the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short length, the result
can be a ‘hidden dip’ profile, and/or a ‘roller coaster’ type profile, as indicated in Figure
9.3. For this reason, where the algebraic difference in gradient is less than 0.5 percent, a
minimum curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic reasons. The minimum length

Chapter 9
should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h and, for preference, should be 400
metres or longer, except in mountainous or escarpment terrain.
The "Hidden Dip" Type of Profile

INCORRECT DESIGN
fTTurnmnniiiillllT
o s 10 25 30
The "Roller Coaster" Type of Profile
INCORRECT DESIGN
rrTVnVlÿ n 1 1 iflTT
Figure 9-3: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles
Where a crest curve and a succeeding sag curve have a common beginning and end, the
visual effect created is that the road has suddenly dropped away. In the reverse case, the
illusion of a hump is created. Either effect is removed by inserting a short length of straight
grade between the two curves. Typically, 60 m to 100 m is adequate for this purpose
For lower standard roads (DC1, DC2 and DC3), no minimum curve length is specified. In
these cases, the curve lengths should be kept to a minimum to enhance drainage
capabilities, and the curve lengths should match the K. values given in Tables 2.6 to 2.17
for stopping sight distance. Where the difference in grade is less than 0.5 percent, the
vertical curve is often omitted.

Chapter 9
2013
9.6 Maximum Gradients
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity
and length of gradient; volume and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking
opportunities on the gradient and in its vicinity.
For very low levels of traffic of only a few four-wheel drive vehicles, various references
advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial vehicles
can usually negotiate an 18 percent gradient, whilst two-wheel drive trucks can
successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden.
However, under normal operating conditions the level of service and considerations of
safety the geometric design should aim at achieving grades which will not reduce the speed
of heavy vehicles to such an extent as to cause intolerable conditions for following drivers.
It has been found that the frequency of truck accidents increases sharply when truck speed
is reduced by more than 15 km/h. A speed reduction of 20 km/h is recommended as
representing intolerable conditions. If gradients on which the truck speed reduction is less
than 20 km/h cannot be achieved economically, it may be necessary to provide auxiliary
lanes for the slower-moving vehicles
The vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are under¬
powered and poorly maintained. Some existing roads are avoided and under-utilised by
traffic because of an inability to ascend the existing grades. ERA has little choice but to
limit gradients based on the existing fleet, although this translates into an added cost to
develop the road infrastructure.
Recent research has quantified the costs of using earth or gravel surfaces on steep gradient.
It has shown that spot improvements whereby the steep sections are surfaced with one of a
variety of appropriate surfacings built by labour-based methods are very cost effective at
providing all year access and reducing maintenance costs and whole life costs. Thus the
limiting gradients on gravel and earth roads reflect this and it is expected that a spot
improvement strategy will become standard practice in Ethiopia.
Maximum ‘absolute’ gradient and maximum ‘desirable’ gradient are therefore extremely
important criteria that greatly affect both the serviceability and cost of the road.
Performance considerations have formed the basis for defining the limiting criteria as
summarised in Table 9.4 and shown in the design standards in Tables 2.6 to 2.17.
When gradients of 7 percent or greater are reached, consideration should be given to

paving the steep sections (spot improvements) to enable sufficient traction to be achieved
as well as to minimise maintenance requirements. As traffic increases, the economic dis-
benefits of severe gradients, measured as increased vehicle operating and travel time costs,
will justify reducing the severity and/or length of a gradient or paving the steep sections.
On the higher design classes of road, the lower maximum recommended gradients reflect
these economics. However, an economic assessment of alternatives to long or severe
gradients should be undertaken where possible.

Chapter 9
Table 9-4: Maximum Gradients for Paved Sections
Maximum Gradient (%), for Paved Sections
Topography DC8, DC7, DC6 DC5, DC4 DC3, DC2 DC1 Basic Access
D A D A D A L) A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 10
Rolling 4,5 7 6 8 7 9 7 10
Mountainous 6,7 9 8 10 10 12 10 12 NA NA
Escarpment 6,7 9 8 10 10 12 10 12
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9
Note: D is the desirable value, A is the absolute value.
Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid
severe reductions in the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that
requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an
absolute maximum gradient can be used. Employment of a gradient in excess of the
desirable maximum can only be authorized through a Departure from Standard (see
Section 2.2).
9.7 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks
Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain, there is a

need to reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The
maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for road standards
DC8 to DC5, and 6 percent for DC4 to DC 1 . The minimum allowable gradient is 0.5%.
Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the switchback curve must meet the
requirements of Sections 9.3 and 9.4, and the transitions must be completed outside of the
switchback curve. The sag curve above the switchback shall be made as long as possible to
allow ascending vehicles to accelerate at the flatter grade when leaving the switchback.
9.8 Minimum Gradients
The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients
on uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway
elevation above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With
curbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface
drainage.
9.9 Gradients through Villages
In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent roadside
ditches in such circumstances can readily become clogged and ineffective. Sometimes they
are deliberately blocked to provide access to adjacent property or to channel flow for
agricultural use. These practices lead to saturation of the subgrade and hence pavement
failure, and should be avoided.

Chapter 9
2013
9.10 Critical Length of Gradient
The critical length of gradient is the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which
a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed. It is, to some extent,
dependent on the gradient of the approach because a downhill approach will allow vehicles
to gain momentum and thereby to increase the critical length. The critical length of
gradient also decreases, as gradient increases. This is shown in Table 9.5. Where it is
necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily trafficked roads, it is
desirable to provide either safe passing distances on the rise, or a climbing lane for heavy
vehicles.
9.11 Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A

climbing lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of
reducing congestion in the through lanes by removing slower vehicles from the traffic
stream. It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane.
The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed and traffic
volume.
Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to
overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating
costs, and increased safety. Benefits increase with increases in gradient, length of gradient,
traffic flow, the proportion of trucks, and reductions in overtaking opportunities. The effect
of a climbing lane in breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving truck will
continue for some distance along the road.
Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are greater than
400 ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link
roads. Table 9.5 was prepared according to the criteria that a 20 km/h speed reduction is
expected for a truck. It is used in the design to indicate locations where climbing lanes are
recommended.
A climbing lane layout is shown in Figure 9.4. Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and,
where possible, should end on level or downhill sections where speed differences between
different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging manoeuvres.
The introduction and termination of a climbing lane shall be effected by 100 metre long
tapers. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing lanes.
The starting point of the grade can be approximated as a point halfway between the
preceding vertical point of intersection and the end of the vertical curve.
In escarpment terrain the carriageway and shoulder widths may have been reduced, hence a
climbing lane, which will increase the width considerably, may not be economically
justified. Consideration must be given to a balance between the benefits to traffic and the
initial construction cost. In sections requiring heavy side cut, the provision of climbing
lanes may be unreasonably costly in relation to the benefits. Reduced level of service over
such sections is an alternative.

Chapter 9
The climbing lane is sometimes not effectively utilised, especially when traffic flows are
heavy, because the drivers of slower vehicles fear that they will not be allowed to merge
with the faster vehicles where the climbing lane ends. The preferred layout forces faster
vehicles to merge with the slower, thus allaying this fear to some extent. This layout is
preferred based purely on that fact that a vehicle can merge more readily with a slower-
than with a faster-moving stream of traffic (see Figure 9.4).
A slow moving vehicle should be completely clear of the through lane by the time its speed
has dropped by 20 km/h, and remain clear of the through lane until it has accelerated again
to a speed which is 20 km/h less than its normal speed.
Table 9-5: Climbing Lanes

Critical length of gradient
Gradient Maximum desirable
Design Class above which a climbing
(%) length of gradient (m)
lane is required (m)
DC7 and DC6 4 300 900
5 240 800
6 200 700
7 170 600
DS7, DC6, DC5
8 150 500
9 130 400
10 Required 400
Required 400
DC4
12 Required 400
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 9-1 1

Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment Geometric Design Manual - 2013
END OF OVERTAKING LANE
LOCATE ON DOWNGRADE BEYOND CREST ON A

\ STRAIGHT ALIGNMENT AND STRAIGHT GRADE WITH
GREATER THAN STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE TO
COMMENCEMENT OF MERGE
SEPARATION LINE MARKING FOR
DOWNHILL TRAFFIC TO BE IN I
ACCORDANCE
\ WITH NORMAI PRACTICE SEPARATION LINE AND EDGE
\ \ LINE MARKING ON APPROACHES
V\l TO BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH NORMAL

PRACTICE FOR TWO LANE ROADS
1
I
I fiL
I I
I I
I \
I
I
I
I
r I
FIRST POINT WHERE TWO LANE w
£ il WIDTH (2W) IS AVAILABLE FOR

UPHILL TRAFFIC
5
a
Sis
s V
£
LlJ
KEEP R IG-T 5
*
I UNLESS
OVERTAKING
/ RIGHT \
S'i I oE LANE
LNDS/
OVERTAKING
E
LANE MERGE
<*> \ 1 200tn AHEAD
/
LEFT
\ ,
§TÿOR USE WHERE RIGHT

\ LANE IS MORE THAN 1km
\
LONG
\
\ RIGHT
S LANE a
•ENDS /
' \ /
COMMENCEMENT OF OVERTAKING LANE 500m,
DESIGN TO DIRECT UPHILL VEHICLES INTO RIGHT LANE
Figure 9-4: Layout for Climbing Lane
The performance characteristics of a heavy vehicle are such that, for a particular gradient,
the vehicle speed will decrease to a final ambient speed that can be maintained by that
vehicle on that grade. This limits, in most references, any discussion on the maximum
length allowable at a given grade even considering the employment of a climbing lane.
However, in the interests of factors such as vehicle operating costs and travel time losses,
the absolute recommended maximum lengths at any given grade are also indicated in the
last column of Table 9.5. When these distances are reached, it is necessary to design a
relief gradient of less than 6 percent between steep sections. The relief gradient must
extend a minimum of 100 metres.

Chapter 9
These values have also taken into consideration the safety factors associated with the
increase in speed resulting in the descent of steep grades. Although they may mitigate the
safety hazard, they do not eliminate it. For example, a non-braking heavy truck will
accelerate from 0 km/hr to 90 km/hr over a distance of about 500 metres at a descending
grade of 5 percent. This emphasizes the need to provide warning signs for such vehicles at
all long continuous grades. The use of ‘escape lanes’ is discussed in Section 13.9.
9.12 Vertical Clearances
Bridges over water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 9.6
unless a refined hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom or
clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.1m for all classes of roads. This clearance
should be maintained over the roadway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the
roadway is likely to lead to raising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to
0.1m may be provided. Light superstructures (e.g. timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc)
over roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3m. See ERA's Bridge Design
Manual for further reference.
Table 9-6: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)
Design Flow at Bridge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance (m)
5 to 30 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
>300 1.2
Source: ERA Bridge Design Manual
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles shall not be less than 2.4m. For cattle and
wildlife, underpasses shall be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal
plus 0.5m, and for horse-riding the clear height shall be not less than 3.4m. Bridges above
railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m- if not otherwise stated- to facilitate
possible future electrification.
Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less than as
indicated in the ERA Drainage Design Manual.

Chapter 10
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
10.1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the
line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and
visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a
driver must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well
within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves than
with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no
more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such
defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a
psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other
cases, the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road
ahead. A sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.
10.2 Types of Mis-phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action
Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the
necessary corrective action for each type.
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects
occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their
lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a
common station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end
of each of the curves is at a common station.
10.3 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed
because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The
position of the crest is important because vehicles tend to increase speed on the down
gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected
change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal
curve, an apparent kink may be produced, as indicated in Figures 10. lb and c.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that if the horizontal curve is of short radius
they are coincident at both ends, or if the horizontal curve is of longer radius they need be
coincident at only one end.
10.4 Insufficient Separation between the Curves
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a
false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal
curve. This is a visual defect, illustrated in Figure 10. Id.

Chapter 10
Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment Geometric Design Manual -
2013
Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the
curves concurrent, as in Figure 10.1a.
10.5 Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal
curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the
vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An
example of such a visual defect is shown in FigurelO.le. The corrective action is to make
both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure 10.1a, or to separate them.
10.6 Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be
created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage
of the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve
is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This
is because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur
on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on
to the horizontal curve.
No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a gentle
horizontal curve.
If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the “hand” of the
horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.
10.7 Other Mis-Phasing
Other types of mis-phasing are indicated in Figure 10.1:
• A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure lO.lg.
This illustrates the need to avoid broken back curves in design (see Chapter 8:
Horizontal Alignment).
• A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve in Figure lO.lh. This illustrates the
effect in this case of a broken back vertical alignment on design (see Chapter 9: Vertical
Alignment).
• Figure 10. li shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical curves. In this case, the
vertical alignment has been allowed to be more curvilinear than the horizontal
alignment.

Chapter 10
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
10.8 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing
The correct phasing of vertical curves restricts the designer in fitting the road to the
topography at the lowest cost. Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of extra
earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic. He will
normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety. In cases when the
advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the designer will have to balance the costs of trial
alignments against their elegance.
a. he ceformatbr , -cfteonial aid vertical curves d, Deforrratbn, vertical curve follows horizontal
In accord curve
INCORRrC' DESIGN
TTTTTTTTTTTTI
D 1 2 3 i 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ‘2 13
b. De'ornalloi, end of norjzorlal curve follows

end of vertical curve
ITrrrrTTTTto
INCORRECT DESIGN
e. Oe(orrra'.lon, short length ot vertical curve at
lone horizontal curve "
fTrrTTrTTiTn'T
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 1011 12 13
INCORRECT DESIGN
c, Defornatkr. end of horizontal curve follows

end of vertical cur/e
INCORREC’ DESIGN
rrrrMTfTTTT
0 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 8 1011 1 13
0 1 2 3 4 5 6! 8 9 1011 ‘2 13

Chapter 10
Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment Geometric Design Manual - 2013
f, No de':mal|cn beginning of horizontal c-ve

Is sefore vertical curve h, Deformallon, double sag curves at one
horizontal &/ve
CORRECT DESIGN INCORRECT DESIGN
,
R :-Y -
<
v
V
i-.
C 1 2 3 4 5c 7 S 9 '0 11 12 13
0 1 23456789 10 11 1? 13
“V
I. No phashg of horizontal and vertical curves
g. Deformallon, sag curve betwee" two curves
ofthe sarre direction
INCORRECT DESIGN
INCORRECT DESIGN
TTT TT~TTTT
01 234 5 6 7 8 S *0 11 12 'ttwitiUrtTI
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 " 12 13
Figure 10-1: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Chapter 11
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 At-Grade Junctions
11 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS
11.1 Introduction
A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A
disproportionate amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus, from a traffic
safety aspect, junctions require attention and careful design. Good junction design should
allow transition from one route to another or through movement on the main route and
intersecting route with minimum delay and maximum safety. To accomplish this, the
layout and operation of the junction should be obvious to the driver, with good visibility
between conflicting movements.
Differing junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on

traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations. Types of junctions are illustrated in Figure 11.1
and include:
i) Three-legged T and Y-Junctions.
ii) Four-legged Cross-Junctions.
iii) Multi-legged (>4) Junctions.
iv) Roundabouts.
v) Grade Separation (discussed in Chapter 12).
Intersections vary greatly in their design and complexity based primarily on the traffic
volume that they have to accommodate. The important factors to be considered in the
selection of an intersection type are:
i) Volumes of traffic to be accommodated.
ii) Proportion of traffic on each approach.
iii) Approach speeds.
iv) Land use and land availability.
v) Local environment.
vi) Cost of construction.
Safety at intersections is of key importance. For example, the National Safety Council in
the USA has estimated that 56 per cent of all urban accidents and 32 per cent of all rural
accidents occur at intersections. Poor design, e.g. inadequate sight distances, leads to
significantly higher injury and total accident rates, hence good design is vital if accident
rates are to be minimised. It should be noted that roundabouts have considerable safety
advantages over other types of at-grade intersections.
This chapter describes the design for all at-grade junctions. A checklist for junction design
is presented in Figure 11.19 at the end of the chapter.
11.2 Design Requirements
Intersections are of two basic types, those where traffic speed is uncontrolled and those
where some control is provided. Control may consist of a mandatory ‘stop line’ or
considerably more complex signal control or traffic management system.
Uncontrolled intersections have no control at all, or simply provide advice to drivers to

‘give-way’ or ‘yield’ on the basis of priority to the first to arrive at the junction or to traffic

Chapter 1 1
At-Grade Junctions Geometric Design Manual - 20 1 3
on the major road. Such intersections are used where traffic volume is low. When the
traffic is similar on all legs, the recommended capacity of such a junction is about 250
vehicles per hour in each direction on each leg. This increases to about 750 vehicles per
hour in each direction on the major road when traffic on the minor road is 10 per cent of
this. When traffic exceeds these values, additional features need to be included as
described in the following Sections.
_
75° to
120° 60' to
75-'
T- INTERSECTION Y- INTERSECTION
THREE. LEGGED INTERSECTIONS
II
75° to ' 60° to
120a 75"
&
i
RIGHT ANGLED
77 OBLIQUE
ir OFFSET
FOUR- LEGGED INTERSECTIONS
I 21
NOT RECOMMENDED
MULTI-LEGGED INTERSECTIONS
< CENTER
ISLAND
D=
ROUNDABOUT
(ROTARY INTERSECTION!
Figure 11-1: Types of at-grade junctions
The design of junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:
i) Safety.
ii) Operational comfort.
iii) Capacity.

Chapter 11
iv) Economy.
A junction is considered safe when it is visible, comprehensible, and manoeuvrable. The
right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout and the types of
junctions used throughout the whole road network should be similar. The use of road signs
may be necessary and road markings and other road furniture will almost always be
required.
The basic objectives of good intersection design are:

• Reduction of the number of points of potential conflict to the minimum compatible
with efficient operation;
• Reduction of the complexity of conflict areas whenever possible;
• Limitation of the frequency of actual conflicts; and
• Limitation of the severity of those conflicts that do occur.
The tools available to apply these principles are interrelated:
i) Defining and arranging traffic lanes;
ii) Use of traffic islands of all sizes and types;
iii) Median islands;
iv) Horizontal and vertical approach geometry;
v) Pavement tapers and transitions; and
vi) Traffic control devices.
The first five elements are a range of physical features while traffic control devices are an
integral part of any intersection.
11.3 Selection of Junction Type
11.3.1 Junction Choice
The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection

performance and accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection
type for any particular situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety and physical
layout factors. Several alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection
of junction type based on different combinations of traffic flows is shown in Figure 11.2.
For lower volume junctions, the applicable junction type depending on traffic flow is
shown in further detail in Figure 11.3.
The basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types, including grade
separation, are as follows:
Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low flows. These can cause long delays. They
require sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal installation.
Roundabouts. These are best for low to medium flows. They provide for minimum delays
at lower flows. They have been shown to be safer than priority junctions. They require
attention to pedestrian movements and the accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
Grade-Separation. This is only for high flows because they are expensive but they result
in minimum delays. Pedestrian movements also need special consideration.

Chapter 1 1
At-Grade Junctions Geometric Design Manual - 2013
These options are discussed in more detail below.
r
LtJ
o
X
- I
>
a 10 GRADE
1s - SEPARATION
-
fc. ROUNDABOUT
§ s OR SIGNALS
a! s- i - •:
%
2 -
A- PRIORITY • ##
* V
O <
>
*4ÿ 0
I
5
10
—
1
T-r
20
••
30
.*
T
MAJOR ROAD FLOW (THOUSANDS OF VEHICLES/DAY)
Figure 1 1-2: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows
9000
ROUNDABOUT
~*
P
Q 8000
OR OTHER TYPE
2
>. 7000
ADD TURNING LANES
d 6000
g PAINTED ISLAND
2
LJ.
5000
o 4000
<
o SIMPLE
oc 3000ÿ
A
—
QC
o
2000
5
10000 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
MAJOR ROAD FLOW (2-WAY AADT)
Figure 11-3: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows

Chapter 1 1
1 1.3.2 T-Junctions
The basic junction layout for rural roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic
having priority over the minor road traffic. Applications of T-junctions include the
staggered T-junction, which caters to cross-traffic. Staggered T-junctions are often the
result of a realignment of the minor route to improve the angle of the skew of the crossing,
as shown in Figure 11.4. Where such staggered T-junctions are used, the left-right stagger
is preferred to the right-left stagger. The reason for this is that, in the latter case, a crossing
vehicle must re-enter the minor road by making a left turn on the major roadway. In other
words the number of turning manoeuvres that require traffic to cross a traffic stream
increases from 2 to 4. Ln such cases, the inclusion of a left-turning lane between the
staggers should be considered. Tine minimum distance between the T-junctions is shown in
Table 11.1.
Hot Preferred Preferred
Figure 11-4: Staggered X-Junetions
1 1.3.3 Cross Junctions
A cross junction is required where two highways cross each other (i.e. a crossroads). It
therefore has four legs. The overall principles of design, island arrangements, use of
turning lanes, and other parameters are similar to those used in T-junctions.
Experience in some countries has shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts can
reduce accident costs by more than 80 per cent.
Where more complex junction layouts involving the intersection of four or more roads are
encountered, these should be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout
should be used.
Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to adapt this basic layout in
accordance with the following principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically
satisfactory design will be produced.
1 1 .4 Angle of Intersection
The angle of intersection of two roadways influences the operation and safety of a
junction. Large skews increase the pavement area and thus the area of possible conflict.
Operationally they are undesirable because:
• Crossing vehicles and pedestrians are exposed for longer periods;
• The driver's sight angle is more constrained and gap perception becomes more
difficult;
• Vehicular movements are more difficult;

Chapter 11
At-Grade Junctions Geometric Design Manual -
2013
• Large trucks require more pavement area; and

• Defining vehicle paths by channelization is more difficult.
For new intersections the crossing angle should preferably be in the range 75° to 120°. The
absolute minimum angle of skew is 60° because drivers, particularly of trucks with closed
cabs, have difficulty at this angle of skew in seeing vehicles approaching from one side.
The designer should be able to specifically justify using an angle of skew less than 75°. In
the remodelling of existing intersections, the accident rates and patterns will usually
indicate whether a problem exists and provide evidence on any problems related to the
angle of skew.
11.5 Distance between Adjoining Junctions
Level of service and driver perception is affected by the spacing of junctions. In certain
cases it may be necessary to limit the number of junctions for reasons of safety and
serviceability. Table 11.1 gives a guide to the minimum spacing for each road design
standard, and should be used for the design of new roads or when reviewing junction
layouts.
Table 11-1: Access Control

Minimum Spacing of
Design Standard
Junctions (m)
DC8 1000
DC 7 500
DC6- DC5 300
DC4- DC3 100
DC2-DC1 20
11.6 Sight Distances and Visibility
The key to good design and maximum safety is to provide adequate sight distances for the
manoeuvres that are required. On a basic cross-road intersection these manoeuvres are left
turns and right turns from both the minor road and the major road and crossing manoeuvres
across the junction. The important factors are the time required to carry out the manoeuvre
and the time available to do so based on the sight distance and the speed of traffic. The
time required to carry out the manoeuvre depends upon:
i) Whether the vehicle is in motion and at what speed when it reaches the junction
(yield control - Figure 11.5) or begins from a stopped position (stop control -
Figure 11.6);
ii) The type and power of the vehicle;
iii) The length of the vehicle;
iv) The distance the vehicle needs to travel (number of lanes plus median, if present);
v) The gradient of the road which the vehicle has to negotiate;
vi) The perception and reaction time of the driver;

Chapter 1 1
Geometric Design Manual -2013 At-Grade Junctions
Thus calculating the time required is complex and varies considerably for different
conditions.
LA (METERS) LA (METERS)
MAJOR ROAD
%
TO
§ 20 TERS FROM LANE
OF MAJOR ROAD
§
Figure 11-5: Visibility Splay for ‘Yield’ Conditions
LA (METERS) LA (METERS)
MAJOR ROAD
i
§
20 METERS FROM LANE
EDGE OF MAJOR ROAD
Figure 11-6: Visibility Splay for ‘Stop’ Conditions
The time available to carry out the manoeuvre depends on the speed of traffic in the lanes
to be crossed. This speed is not the design speed of the road because drivers tend to slow
down when approaching junctions, even when on the major road. However the sight
distance needs to be at least as great as the product of the traffic speed and the time
required to carry out the manoeuvre.
Models have been developed for carrying out these calculations but require many
assumptions and are not reliable. The best information is obtained from empirical data, but
this is primarily based on research in western countries. As has been emphasised elsewhere
in this manual, the mix of traffic, its age spectrum, overloading practices etc. are entirely
different in Ethiopia. Furthermore, it is apparent from the discussion above that the
required sight distances also depend on driver behaviour. Nobody can doubt that driver
behaviour in western countries is significantly different to driver behaviour in Ethiopia. In
summary, it is not a simple task to calculate the optimum or minimum sight distances
applicable to different junction designs, different road classes and different mixes of traffic
in Ethiopia. A pragmatic approach is to utilise the available empirical data but to select
conservative options for safety. Appendix C summarises the empirical approach and shows

Chapter 11
2013
how sight distances can be calculated for the majority of manoeuvres and for different
design vehicles.
The greatest sight distances are needed for the manoeuvres that take the longest to execute
(required time) and involve joining fast traffic (available time). This inevitably means that
heavy truck and trailer combinations require the greatest sight distances when joining a
main road. Catering for this situation is not always possible. The methods described in
Appendix C can be used to calculate sight distances for different design vehicles but it is
prudent to use DV4 for most designs.
Practical sight distances are shown in Tables 11.2 and Table 11.3 below and are generally
more conservative than the more precise values obtained using Appendix C. However,
when the gradients on any of the legs exceed 3 per cent and when multiple lanes are
involved, prudent use of Appendix C should be made, bearing in mind that driver
behaviour is likely to be different in Ethiopia and therefore conservative options should be
used.
Table 11-2: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Yield’ Conditions
Main road design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Sight distance, LA (m) 80 95 115 140 190 215 270
Table 11-3: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Stop’ Conditions

Main road design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Sight distance Ls (m) 130 160 190 225 275 320 385
11.7 Lane Width and Manoeuvrability
All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for the appropriate vehicle turning
characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turn radii shall be a minimum of 15 metres.
Where intersecting roadways have shoulders or sidewalks, the main road shoulder should
be continued through the intersection. Lane widths should normally be the same as that of
the major road so that approaches from the minor road are usually widened if necessary.
Where conditions are severely constrained, lane widths as low as 3.3 metres can be
considered, provided that approach speeds are below 80 km/h. In constricted urban
conditions on low speed-roadways, lane widths of 3.0 metres should be the minimum
adopted.
Offsets from the edge of a turning roadway to kerb lines should be 0.6 to 1 .0 metres.
The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings.
11.8 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
The horizontal and vertical alignments through and approaching an intersection are critical
features. Simple alignment design allows for early recognition of the intersection and

Chapter 11
timely focus on the intersecting traffic and manoeuvres that must be prepared. The
following are specific operational requirements at intersections:
• The alignments should not restrict the required sight distance;
• The alignments should allow for the frequent braking and turning associated with
intersections; and
• The alignments should not require a driver’s attention to be detracted from the
intersection manoeuvres and conflict avoidance.
As a general guide, horizontal curve radii at intersections should not be less than the
desirable radius for the design speed on the approach roads. For high-speed roads with
design speeds in excess of 80 km/h, approach gradients should not be greater than -3 per
cent. For low-speed roads in an urban environment this can be increased to -6 per cent.
11.9 Channelisation
11.9.1 Purpose of Channelisation
The operation of the junction depends principally upon the frequency of gaps that naturally
occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient duration
to permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In
consequence, junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be optimised by, for
example, channelisation or the separation of manoeuvres.
At-grade intersections with large paved areas, such as those with large comer radii or with
angles of skew differing greatly from 90°, permit unpredictable vehicle movements,
require long pedestrian crossings and have unused pavement areas. Even at a simple
intersection there may be large areas on which vehicles can wander from natural or
expected paths. Under these circumstances it is usual to resort to channelisation.
The purpose of channelisation is to manage the conflicts that are inherent in any
intersection. There are eight principles of channelisation:
i) Undesirable or wrong-way movements should be discouraged or prohibited;
ii) Vehicle paths should be clearly defined;
iii) The design should encourage safe vehicle speeds;
iv) Points of conflict should be separated whenever possible;
v) Traffic streams should cross at close to right angles and merge at flat angles;
vi) High priority flows should have the greater degree of freedom;
vii) Decelerating, slow-moving or stopped vehicles should be separated from higher-
speed through lanes; and
viii) Refuge for pedestrians and the handicapped should be provided where
appropriate.
Thus channelisation is the process whereby a vehicle is guided safely through the
intersection area from an approach leg to the selected departure leg. Guidance is offered by
lane markings that clearly define the required vehicle path and also indicate auxiliary lanes
for turning movements. Various symbols are also used as road markings to indicate that
turns, either to the left or to the right, from selected lanes are mandatory. At intersections
that are complex or have high volumes of turning traffic, it is usually necessary to reinforce
the guidance offered by road markings by the application of:

Chapter 11
2013
Channelising islands;
Medians and median end treatments;
Comer radii;
Approach and departure geometry;
Pavement tapers and transitions;
Traffic control devices including signs and signals; and
Arrangement and position of lanes.
11.9.2 Channelising Islands
A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the control of vehicle movements
and which may also be used as a pedestrian refuge. Traffic islands may take the form of an
area delineated by barrier curbs or a pavement area marked by paint or a combination of
these. Traffic islands may be included in the design of junctions for one or more of the
following purposes:
i) Separation of conflicts.
ii) Control of angle of conflict.
iii) Reduction of excessive pavement areas.
iv) Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of junction.
v) Arrangements to favour a predominant turning movement.
vi) Protection of pedestrians.
vii) Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles.
viii) Location of traffic signs.
Islands are either elongated or triangular in shape and are situated in areas not normally
used as vehicle paths, the dimensions depending upon the particular junction or bus stop
layout.
The layout of an island is determined by the edges of the through traffic lanes, turning
vehicles and the lateral clearance to the island sides. Island curbs should be offset a
minimum of 0.3 metres from the edge of through traffic lanes even if they are mountable.
Typical island shapes are illustrated in Figure 11.7. The designer should bear in mind that
islands are hazards and should be less hazardous than whatever they are replacing.
Islands may be kerbed, painted or simply non-paved. Kerbed islands provide the most
positive traffic delineation and are normally used in urban areas to provide some degree of
protection to pedestrians and traffic control devices. Painted islands are usually used in
suburban areas where speeds are low (in the range of 50 km/h to 70 km/h) and space
limited.
In rural areas, kerbs are not common and, at the speeds prevailing in these areas, typically
100 km/h or more, they are a potential hazard. If it is necessary to employ kerbing at a
rural intersection, the use of mountable kerbing should be considered.
As an additional safety measure, a kerbed island may be preceded by a painted island.

Chapter 1 1
Non-paved islands are defined by the pavement edges and are usually used for large
islands at rural intersections. These islands may have delineators on posts and may be
landscaped.
JiL
'i'f
\
Figure 11-7: Traffic Islands
Drivers tend to find an archipelago of small islands confusing and are liable to select an
incorrect path through the intersection area. As a general design principle, a few large
islands are preferred to several small islands.
Islands should not be less than 5 m2 in area to ensure that they are easily visible to
approaching drivers.
Islands are generally either long or triangular in shape, with the circular shape being
limited to application in roundabouts. They are situated in areas not intended for use in
vehicle paths. Directional islands are typically triangular with their dimensions and exact
shape being dictated by:
• The comer radii and associated tapers;
• The angle of skew of the intersection; and

Chapter 1 1
At-Grade Junctions Geometric Design Manual — 2013
• The turning path of the design vehicle.
A typical triangular island is illustrated in Figure 11.8. The approach ends of the island
usually have a radius of about 0.6 metres and the offset between the island and the edge of
the travelled way is typically 0.6 to 1.0 metres to allow for the effect of kerbing on the
lateral placement of moving vehicles. Where the major road has shoulders, the nose of the
island is offset about one metre from the edge of the usable shoulder, the side adjacent to
the through lane being tapered back to terminate at the edge of the usable shoulder, thus
offering some guidance and redirection. A kerbed cross-section on the major road suggests
that the nose of the island should be offset by about 1.6 metres from the edge of the
travelled way, with the side adjacent to the through lane being tapered back to terminate
0.6 metres from the edge of the through lane.
THROUGH LANE DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL
!
SHOULDER
WIDTH
5c
b
MINIMUM AREA
Sm*
V 0.6m
<3k
XU
Figure 11-8: Typical Triangular Island
Dividing, or splitter, islands usually have a teardrop shape (Figure 11.9). They are often
employed on the minor legs of an intersection where these legs have a two-lane, two-way
or four-lane undivided cross-section. They are also often employed on the minor legs of an
intersection where these legs have a two-lane, two-way or four-lane undivided cross-
section.
The principle function of a dividing island is to warn the driver of the presence of the
intersection. This can be achieved if, at the widest point of the island, its edge is in line
with the edge of the approach leg. To the approaching driver, it appears as though the
entire lane had been blocked off by the island. If space does not permit this width of island,
a lesser blocking width must be applied, but anything less than half of the approach lane
width is not effective.
Splitter islands are also used in the approach to roundabouts where there is a need to
redirect vehicles entering a roundabout through an angle of not more than 30°.

Chapter 1 1
Dividing islands are usually kerbed to ensure that the island is visible within normal
stopping sight distance. However, it may be advisable to draw the driver's attention to the
island by highlighting the kerbs with paint or reflective markings. As in the case of the
triangular island, the nose of the dividing island should be offset by 0.6 m from the
centreline of the minor road. For the sake of consistency, the radius of the nose should be
of the order of 0.6 m.
The balance of the shape of the island is defined by the turning paths of vehicles turning
both from the minor road to the major road and from the major road to the minor.
NOTE-
1. WIDTH OF ISLAND CONTROLLED BY NOSE PLACEMENT AS
DETERMINED SY CONTROL
RADII AND ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OR ADDED RIGHT TURN LANE.
2. VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT ON APPROACH TO
PROVIDE MINIMUM
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
3. CONTROL DIMENSION, W, SHOULD BE FROM EDGE TO EDGE OF

PAVEMENT AND
SHOULD NOT INCLUDE CHANNEL.
3 SECOND TRAVEL 1 E.SECOiy

TIME MINIMUM)
POINT OF REVERSE
CERVATCHER AT
BARRIER NOSE OR
TjRAVELTIMÿ
BEYOND DESIRABLE MOUNTABLE TYPE
MEDIAN
3 n
W,| I 0.8
OFFSET NOSE
BARRIER KERBED
MEDIAN 0.8m MIN.
-
W, = UNDIVIDED APPROACH WIDTH
W, UNDIVIDED APPROACH WIDTH
Wi = W, OR 4.3 m WHICHEVER IS LARGER
POINT OF REVERSE
CERVATCHER AT
W« - W, ♦ W; DESIRABLE
W, = W1*0Sm
BARRIER NOSE OR
BEYOND DESIRABLE
Figure 11-9: Splitter Island

11.9.3 Medians
Median islands are discussed in detail in Section 6.10. The general layout of median
openings at intersections is normally dictated by wheel-track templates. However, median
openings should not be shorter than:
• The surfaced width of the crossing road plus its shoulders.
• The surfaced width of the crossing road plus 2.5 m (if kerbing is provided).
• 12.4 metres.
A further control on the layout of the median opening is the volume and distribution of
traffic passing through the intersection area. If the median is wide enough to accommodate
them, it may be advisable to make provision for speed-change and storage lanes. The

Chapter 1 1
At-Grade Junctions Geometric Design Manual — 2013
additional lanes reduce the width of the median at the point where the opening is to be
provided and thus influence the median end treatment.
The median end treatment is determined by the width of the median. Where the median is
3 m wide or less, a simple semicircle is adequate. For wider medians, a bullet nose end
treatment is recommended. The bullet nose is formed by arcs dictated by the wheel paths
of turning vehicles and an assumed nose radius of 0.6 to 1.0 m. This results in less
intersection pavement area and a shorter length of opening than the semi-circular end.
Above a median width of 5 m, the width of the minor road controls the length of the
opening. A flattened bullet nose, using the arcs as for the conventional bullet nose but with
a flat end as dictated by the width of the crossing road and parallel to the centreline of the
minor road, is recommended. These end treatments are illustrated in Figure 11.10.
The bullet nose and the flattened bullet nose have the advantage over the semi-circular end
treatment that the driver of a turning vehicle has a better guide for the manoeuvre for most
of the turning path. Furthermore, these end treatments result in an elongated median which
is better placed to serve as a refuge for pedestrians crossing the dual carriageway road.
M
Z
t OPENING
UJ
X
□
I&
I M≤
5
UJ
* \ WIDTH OF
OPENING
I
LU
5 t*r
3 II R0.6
WIDTH Of
Figure 11-10: Median End Treatment

(Criteria for width of opening are described in the text)

Chapter 1 1
11.10 Speed-Change Lanes
11.10.1 Purpose
Deceleration lanes for vehicles turning left or right from a major road are of particular
value on higher speed and higher volume roads when a vehicle slowing down to leave the
major road may impede the following vehicles and cause a hazardous situation. Similarly,
a vehicle joining a high speed road will also cause a hazardous situation unless it can
increase its speed to that of the traffic on the road before merging; hence an acceleration
lane is desirable. These are incorporated into the Standard Detail Drawing for all junctions
on trunk and link roads.
The length of such speed-change lanes are based on acceptable levels of discomfort for
decelerating and for accelerating. These lengths are greater than stopping sight distances
because the latter are concerned with emergency braking.
1 1.10.2 Right Turn Lane
Right turn lanes, comprising a taper section and deceleration lane, shall be provided for all
trunk and link road DC8, DC7, and DC6 junctions, and for other road standards meeting
any of the following conditions:
i) On four or more lane roads and divided highways.
ii) When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater, and the present year
AADT on the major road is greater than 1500 AADT.
iii) When the present year AADT of the right-turning traffic is greater than 750
AADT.
A detail of the layout for the Right Turn Lane is given in Figure 11.11. The length of the
right turn lane including the taper, measured as shown in the Figure, is related to design
speed as indicated in Table 11.4. The width of the major approach lane shall be the same as
the width of the traffic lanes.
MAJOR ROAD
Tz LD 1
W1
Lfl = LENGTH OF DECELERATION SECTION

LT = LENGTH OF DIVERGING OR TAPERED SECTION
W, = LANE WIDTH OF MAJOR ROAD £
Figure 11-11: Layout for Right Turn Lane

Chapter 1 1
At-Grade Junctions Geometric Design Manual 2013
-
Table 11-4: Length of Right Turn Lane

Length of Length of deceleration section (LD)
Main road
diverging Exit control s jeed (km/hr)
design speed
section (LT)
(km/hr) 40 50 60 70 85 100
(m)
60 65 60 20
70 75 85 45 25
85 80 130 90 70 45
100 90 185 145 125 100 55
120 110 270 230 210 180 145 85
On up-hill gradients these distances are shorter and on down-hill grades they are longer.
The increase or decrease in length is linear and is 5 per cent for every 1 per cent change in
grade. Thus, for example, for a down-hill grade of 4 per cent the length should be
increased by 20 per cent.
1 1.10.3 Left Turn Lanes
Warrants are the same as for a right-turning lane. A separate lane for left turning traffic
(traffic turning left from the major road into the minor road) shall be provided for all trunk
and link road DC8, DC7, and DC6 junctions. Warrants for inclusion of left turn lanes for
other road standards are under any of the following conditions:
i) On four or more lane roads and divided highways.
ii) When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater, and the present year
AADT on the major road is greater than 1 500 AADT.
iii) When the present year AADT of the left-turning traffic is greater than 750 AADT.
A left turn lane consists of a taper section, a deceleration section and a storage section. The
minimum lengths for taper sections are as for right turn lanes (Table 11.4). A detail of the
layout for a Left Turn Lane for a single carriageway is given in Figure 11.12; the
configuration for dual carriageways is shown in Figure 11.13. The length of the storage
section is as indicated in Table 11.5.
Table 11-5: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left Turn Lanes

Left-Turning Traffic Length of Storage Section
(AADT) (Ls)(m)
0-1500 20
1500-3000 40
>3000 60
Provision of left turn lanes can be made for both the major and minor road. On single
roadway roads where a left turn lane is to be provided, a painted central reserve shall
always be used.
In order to accommodate a left turn lane on a single roadway road the roadway has to be
widened to provide the required width. The widening shall be designed so that the through

Chapter 1 1
lanes are given smooth and optically pleasing alignments. The width of the through lanes
at the junction shall be the same as the approach lanes.
Lc+L. Lr
MAJOR ROAD WL
WD
<///////////////////////7777,
r
WL
MINOR
ROAD
Note: Where:
Central reservation to be formed LT = length of diverging section
by road markings Lo = length of deceleration section
Ls = length of storage section
WL =width of through traffic lanes
WD =width of deceleration lane
Figure 11-12: Layout for Left Turn Lane, Single Carriageway
LT
MAJOR ROAD W,
IfWD
- C.
S <1
( >
Wu
<L
MINOR
ROAD
Notes: Where:
Edges of central reserve may be LT = length of diverging section
curbed in vicinity of junction. If LQ = length of deceleration section
raised curbs are used then they Ls = length of storage section
must be set back 0.25m from lane WL = width of through carriageway
edges. Wc = width dependent upon width of central reserve
WD =width of deceleration lane
CR = Normal central reserve width
Figure 11-13: Layout for Left Turn Lane, Dual Carriageway

Chapter 11
2013
The widening shall be provided by the deviation of both through lanes from the centreline.
This shall be achieved by introducing a taper of 100-metres length at the beginning and
end of the widening.
The total length of an acceleration lane (i.e. not including the merging taper) is shown in
Table 11.6.
Table 11-6: Length of Acceleration/Merging Lane

Main road Length of Acceleration/Merging Lane
Length of
design
merging Entrance control speed (km/hr)
speed
taper (m)
(km/hr) 40 50 60 70 85 100
60 65 110 60
70 75 180 130 70
85 80 315 265 205 130
100 90 460 415 350 280 150
120 110 700 655 595 525 400 240
11.11 Turning Roadways
Turning movements are accommodated either within the limitation of the crossing
roadway widths or through the application of turning roadways. Turning roadways can be
designed for three possible types of operation:
• Case 1 One-lane one-way with no provision for the passing of stalled vehicles.
• Case 2 One-lane one-way with provision for the passing of stalled vehicles.
• Case 3 Two-lane one-way operation.
Three traffic conditions must also be considered:
• Condition A Insufficient trucks in the traffic stream to influence design.
• Condition B Sufficient trucks to influence design.
• Condition C Sufficient semi-trailers in the traffic stream to influence design.
The lengths of turning roadways at intersections are normally short, so that design for Case
1 operation is sufficient. It is reasonable to assume, even in the absence of traffic counts,
that there will be enough trucks in the traffic stream to warrant consideration, and
Condition B is normally adopted for design purposes. Widths of turning roadway for the
various cases and conditions are given in Table 11.7. The radii in the Table refer to the
inner edge of the pavement.
The simplest design is a semicircle which is adequate for medians of up to 3.0 m wide. For
medians wider than 3.0 m, a bullet-nose end treatment is preferred. The bullet-nose is
formed by two portions of control radius arc and an assumed small radius, e.g. 0.6 m. The
bullet-nose closely follows the path of the inner rear wheel of the design vehicle and

Chapter 11
results in less intersection pavement and a shorter length of opening than the semi-circular
end. For wider medians, a bullet-nose end requires shorter lengths of opening.
Above a width of 5.0 m the minimum lengths to provide for cross-traffic become the
controlling factor. At this stage the bullet nose end should be replaced by a flattened bullet
nose, the flat end being parallel to the centre line of the crossing road.
Table 11-7: Turning roadway widths

Inner Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Radius
Condition Condition Condition
(m)
A B C A B C A B C
15 4.0 5.5 7.9 6.1 8.8 13.4 7.9 10.7 15.2
20 4.0 5.2 6.7 5.8 8.2 11.0 7.6 10.1 12.8
30 4.0 4.9 6.4 5.8 7.6 10.4 7.6 9.4 12.2
40 3.7 4.9 6.4 5.5 7.3 8.8 7.3 9.1 10.7
60 3.7 4.9 5.2 5.5 7 8.2 7.3 8.8 10.1
80 3.7 4.6 5.2 5.5 6.7 7.6 7.3 8.6 9.4
100 3.7 4.6 4.9 5.2 6.7 7.3 7.0 8.4 9.1
150 3.7 4.3 4.6 5.2 6.7 7.3 7.0 8.2 9.1
Figure 11.14 shows the design of a typical cross road junction illustrating turning sections,
channelization islands, deceleration lanes, tapers, medians and mountable kerbs.
11.12 Private Access
A private access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road with a classified road.
An access shall have entry and exit radii of 6 metres or greater, depending upon the turning
characteristics of the expected traffic. The minimum width shall be 3m. A typical access is
shown in Figure 11.15; dotted lines show the possible edge of the corresponding shoulders.
The location of the access must satisfy the visibility requirement for ‘stop conditions’
described in Section 1 1.6. A drainage pipe shall be placed as required. The access shall be
constructed back to the right-of-way line, with a taper to match the existing access.

Chapter 1 1
I
I
1
SHOULDER EDGE
/
■
LANE EDGE
Li
YELLOW LINE
I
J
.'J l
h 1
/A
i
V n",
V
\3 I
fl
/
NOTE a
'
FOR ALL DIMENSIONS REFER I
TO TEXT,
SEMI MOUNTABLE CURVE
MOUNTABLE CURVE
Figure 11-14: Typical Cross-road Intersection

(showing most features described in the text)
Page 1 1-20 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1 1
Ws WL WL W?
§
*
*
— DRIVEWAY
>LJ T/
/ TO
PAVE TO ROW UNE
Figure 1 1-15: Typical Access
11.13 Roundabouts
1 1.13. 1 Typical Features
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is

controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already on the roundabout.
Roundabouts thus operate by deflecting the vehicle paths to slow the traffic and promote
yielding. Figure 11.16 illustrates the features of a typical roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimum delay. They also have a good safety
record largely because traffic speeds are low and the number of potential traffic conflicts is
greatly reduced, for example, from 32 at a cross-roads to just 8 at an equivalent four¬
legged roundabout.
Despite their advantages, roundabouts are not appropriate in every situation. They may be
inappropriate:
a) Where spatial restraints (including cost of land), unfavourable topography or high
construction costs make it impossible to provide an acceptable geometric design;
b) Where traffic flows are unbalanced, with high flows on one or more approaches
leading to serious delays to traffic on the major road;
c) Where there are substantial pedestrian flows;
d) As an isolated intersection in a network of linked signalised intersections;
e) In the presence of reversible lanes;
f) Where semi-trailers and/or abnormal vehicles are a significant proportion of the
total traffic passing through the intersection and where there is insufficient space to
provide the required layout; and
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1J-21

Chapter 1 1
At-Grade Junctions —
Geometric Design Manual 2013
g) Where signalised traffic control situated down-stream of the roundabout could

cause a queue to back-up through the roundabout.
Roundabouts should be considered when:

a) Intersection volumes do not exceed 3,000 vph (vehicles per hour) at three-legged or
4,000 vph at four-legged intersections;
b) The proportional split between the volumes on the major and minor road does not
exceed 70/30 where, on three-legged intersections, the flow is less than 1 ,500 vph
or, on four-legged intersections, is less than 2,000 vph;
c) The proportional split between the volumes on the major and minor road does not
exceed 60/40 where; on three-legged intersections, the intersection flow is greater
than 1,500 vph or; on four-legged intersections, is greater than 2,000 vph.
A typical roundabout is shown schematically in Figure 11.16.
ENTRY ANGLE /
\ /
/ ' i
/
j
/ EXIT ANGLE
1 WEAVING
\
RADIUS
/ I
% I
I
A,
STRAIGHT I
4
RADIUS CURVE
/
ENTRY RADIUS
EXIT RADIUS
Figure 11-16: Roundabout Layout
11.13.2 Design Speed and Safety
The design speed within the roundabout should, ideally, be between 40 and 50 km/h.
Unfortunately this suggests a radius of between 60 and 90 metres hence requiring an
overall diameter of the roundabout of the order of 175 metres. Very often, the space for
this size of intersection is not available and a lower design speed must be accepted.
Roundabouts should not be introduced directly on rural roads where the design speeds of
adjacent sections are 90 km/h or greater. Where the design speeds on the approaches are
high, i.e. more than 15 km/h faster than the design speed within the facility, it may be

Chapter 11
necessary to consider forcing a reduction in vehicle speed. This could be by means of

horizontal reverse curvature. The ratio between the radii of successive curves should be of
the order of 1.5:1.
Consideration should be given to the use of rumble strips and warning signs at the
approaches to warn drivers to anticipate the roundabout. Speed humps should not be
employed as speed-reducing devices on major roads or on bus routes and are usually
unacceptable on approaches to major roundabouts. They are, however, sometimes
acceptable in urban environments for lower flows and lower speeds.
Roundabouts are usually more difficult for pedestrians to cross than normal junctions
hence arrangements should be made to provide adequate directions.
11.13.3 Sight distance
Approaching drivers should have a clear view of the ‘nose’ of the separator (or splitter)
island. At the yield line and while traversing the roundabout, they should have an
uninterrupted view of the opposing legs of the intersection at all times. This requirement
suggests that the elaborate landscaping schemes sometimes placed on the central islands of
roundabouts are totally inappropriate to the intended function of the layout.
Sight distance for intersections as described in Section 1 1.6 should be provided on each
approach to the roundabout to ensure that drivers can see the nose of the splitter island. It
follows that roundabouts should not be located on crest curves.
11.13.4 The General Layout
The various components of a roundabout are illustrated in Figure 1 1.16. The general layout
of a roundabout should provide for the following:
i) Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure low
traffic speeds.
ii) Adequate entry widths.
iii) Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry.
iv) Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths.
v) Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the
manoeuvres expected.
vi) A simple and clear layout.
vii) Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should prevent through
speeds in excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by maximising the difference
between the shortest route a driver can take through the roundabout versus the
straight-line distance from an entry to the opposite exit. No vehicle path should
allow a vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a radius greater than 1 00 metres (see
Figure 11.17).
Deflection
An important component is the deflection forced on vehicles on the approach to the
roundabout. The intention is to reduce the speed of vehicles so that, within limits, the
greater the deflection the better. The limit is the minimum acceptable angle of skew at an

Chapter 1 1
intersection of 60°. This corresponds to a deflection on entry of 30°. The approach radius
should not exceed 100 metres, which corresponds to the recommended design speed of 40
to 50 km/h.
NOT EXCEEDING 100m RADIUS
/
APPROACH EXIT
l
2m WIDE
Figure 1 1-17: Vehicle Path through Roundabout
Entries and exits

The widths of single lane approaches to roundabouts are typically of the order of 3.4 to 3.7
metres. The entry width is one of the most important factors in increasing the capacity of
the roundabout and can be increased above the width of the approach by flaring, i.e. by
providing a passive taper with a taper rate of 1:12 to 1:15. The recommended minimum
width for a single-lane entry is 5 metres. If demanded by high approach volumes, the
flaring may add a full lane to the entry to increase capacity. The width of a two-lane entry
should be of the order of 8 metres. A variation on the two-lane entry is to have a single¬
lane circulatory roadway with an auxiliary lane provided for the benefit of vehicles turning
right at the roundabout. The auxiliary lane is shielded from traffic approaching from the
left by moving the end of the splitter island forward to provide a circulatory road width
adequate only for single-lane travel. This approach could be adopted with advantage when
right-turning traffic represents 50 percent or more of the entry flow or more than 300 vph
during peak hours.
Circulatory roadway
The circulatory roadway width is a function of the swept path of the design vehicle and of
the layout of the exits and entries and generally should be either equal to, or slightly
greater (1.2 times) than the width of the entries. The width should be constant throughout
the circle. In the construction of the swept path of the design vehicle, it should be noted
that drivers tend to position their vehicles close to the outside kerbs on entry to and exit
from the roundabout and close to the central island between these two points. The vehicle
path, being the path of a point at the centre of the vehicle, should thus have an adequate
offset to the outside and inside kerbs. For a vehicle with an overall width of 2.6 metres, the
offset should be not less than 1 .6 metres, with 2.0 metres being preferred.
Page 11-24 Ethiopian Roads Authority>

Chapter 11
To ensure that vehicles do not travel faster than the design speed, the maximum radius on
the vehicle path should be kept to 100 metres or less (Figure 11.17). As a general
guideline, the circulatory roadway should be sufficiently wide to allow a stalled vehicle to
be passed. The minimum roadway width for single-lane operation under these
circumstances is of the order of 6.5 metres between kerbs. Two-lane operation requires a
roadway width of about 9.0 metres. If trucks are present in the traffic stream in sufficient
numbers to influence design, the circulatory road width should be increased by 3 metres
both in the single-lane and in the two-lane situation. A significant proportion of semi¬
trailers requires the width of the circulatory road width to be increased to 13 metres and 16
metres in the single-lane and the two-lane situation respectively. A circulatory road width
of 1 3 metres makes it possible for passenger cars to traverse the roundabout on relatively
large radius curves and at correspondingly high speeds. To avoid this possibility, the
central island should be modified as discussed below.
The cross-slope on the roadway should be away from the central island and equal to the
camber on the approaches to the intersection.
Central Island
The central island consists of a raised non-traversable area (except in the case of mini¬
roundabouts) that is usually circular. The island is often landscaped but the landscaping
must not obscure the sight lines across the island. A mountable area or apron may be added
to the central island to accommodate occasional Large Heavy Vehicles and to allow the
circulatory width to be reduced to 9.5m. The apron should have crossfall steeper than that
of the circulatory road, principally to discourage passenger vehicles from driving on it and
a crossfall of 4 to 5 percent is recommended.
Splitter Islands
Splitter islands should be provided on the approaches to roundabouts to:
a) Allow drivers to perceive the upcoming roundabout and to reduce entry speed;
b) Provide space for a comfortable deceleration distance;
c) Physically separate entering and exiting traffic;
d) Prevent deliberate and highly dangerous wrong-way driving;
e) Control entry and exit deflections; and
f) Provide a refuge for pedestrians and cyclists and a place to mount traffic signs.
The sizes of splitter islands are dictated by the dimensions of the central island and
inscribed circle. As a general guideline they should have an area of at least 10 square
metres so as to ensure their visibility to the oncoming driver. The length of splitter islands
should be equal to the comfortable deceleration distance from the design speed of the
approach to that of the roundabout. Ideally, the nose of the splitter island should be offset
to the right of the approach road centreline by about 0.6 to 1 metre.
The roundabout depicted in Figure 11.18 and in the Standard Detail Drawings is acceptable
for traffic volumes of up to 15,000 (based on empirical evidence rather than gap-
acceptance theory).
The following steps may be followed in laying out trial geometry for a roundabout:
1. Select the general design criteria to be used.

Chapter 1 1
2. Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. This will generally be the DV4
for all design standards.
3. Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius.
Check the design using the template in Chapter 5.
4. Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and
circulation.
5. Identify the needs of pedestrians.
6. Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities, access
requirements, and establish the space available.
7. Select a trial central island diameter and determine the width needed of the
circulating carriageway.
8. Draw the roundabout.
9. Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting legs with
sufficient separations for satisfactory traffic operations.
10. Lay out the entrance/exit islands.
11 . Check the achievement of adequate deflection. Adjust as required.
12. Check site distances at approaches and exits.
13. Layout lane and pavement markings.
14. Layout lighting plan
15. Layout sign plan.
i i
i l
i
4V K M \
ENTRY TO ROUNDABOUT
FLARED TO PROVIDE
EXTRA LANE (3)
xW
*
1.0m
ENTRY PATH CURVATURE

RADIUS MEASURED OVER
r
7"P 1.0m
>rv 1.0m
EXIT RADIUS 40m

BUT NOT LESS THAN
A LENGTH OF 20-2$m (NOT
'7 // 20m
M
MORE THAN 50m FROM GIVE
WAY LINE) SHOULD NOT EXCEED 100m /
/ V
ASSUMED PATH OF VEHIC

THROUGH ROUNDABOUT I I
I i
i /'
7 ENTRY RADIUS 6-100m
BUT NOT LESS THAN
20m AT SITES WHERE
i
LARGE VEHICLES ARE
ANTICIPATED
Figure 11-18: Roundabout Dimensions

Chapter 1 1
11.14 Checklist for Junction Design
The following is a checklist of factors that need to be considered in the design of junctions.
□ Will the junction be able to carry the expected/future traffic levels without
becoming overloaded and congested?
□ Have the traffic and safety performance of alternative junction designs been
considered?
□ Is the route through the junction as simple and clear to all users as possible?
□ Is the presence of the junction clearly evident at a safe distance to approaching
vehicles for all directions?
□ Are warning and information signs placed sufficiently in advance of the
junction for a driver to take appropriate and safe action given the design speeds
on the road?
□ On the approach to the junction, is the driver clearly aware of the actions
necessary to negotiate the junction safely?
□ Are turning movements segregated as required for the design standard?
Q Are drainage features sufficient to avoid the presence of standing water?
□ Is the level of lighting adequate for the junction, location, pedestrians, and the
design standard?
□ Are the warning signs and markings sufficient, particularly at night?
□ Have the needs of pedestrian and noon-motorized vehicles been met?
□ Are sight lines sufficient and clear of obstructions including parked and stopped
vehicles?
□ Are accesses prohibited a safe distance away from the junction?
□ Have adequate facilities such as footpaths, refuges, and crossings, been
provided for pedestrians?
□ Do the design, road marking and signing clearly identify rights of way and
priorities?
□ Is the design of the junction consistent with road types and adjacent junctions?
□ Are the turning lanes and tapers where required of sufficient length for speeds
and storage?
Date: Designer.
Date: Responsible Engineer.
Figure 11-19: Checklist for Junction Design

Chapter 12
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Grade Separated Junctions
12 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS AND INTERCHANGES

12.1 General
Grade-separated interchanges are usually associated with freeways. The fundamental

difference between a freeway and any other road is that it is subject to rigid control of
access. Entrance to and exit from a freeway may take place only at specified points,
typically remote from each other, and then only at very flat angles of merging and
diverging. As such, the freeway is characterised by the fact that all intersections along its
length are interchanges.
However, at any road junction, the flow of traffic, expressed in terms of a level of service,
can be enhanced by an interchange. Where two main roads intersect, it may be found that
traffic volumes are too high to be accommodated at an at-grade intersection, regardless of
the level of sophistication of the provision made for turning movements by means of
channelization, signalization and auxiliary lanes for through traffic. Generally, if an
intersection is likely to become a bottleneck, and all possibilities for improving its capacity
have been exhausted, an interchange is warranted. In the planning of a new road under
circumstances where close spacing of heavily trafficked intersections is anticipated, it may
be necessary to consider the provision of interchanges at points where the design level of
service cannot be achieved with at-grade intersections.
Interchanges are divided into two functional classes, referred to as Access (or Minor or
Service) interchanges, and Systems (or Major) interchanges. Access interchanges serve
local areas by providing access to freeways whereas systems interchanges are the nodes of
the freeway network, linking the individual freeways into a cohesive unit. These two
fundamentally different applications require different types of interchange layout.
An Access interchange provides free flow conditions for the main freeway with suitable
ramps to ensure that entering and exiting traffic do not affect traffic speeds on the freeway.
However the associated intersections with the minor road (or roads) are at-grade and
include the normal yield, stop and traffic controlled options described in Chapter 1 1 .
In contrast, Systems (or Major) interchanges provide free flow conditions for more than
one freeway and ensure unhindered travel for all vehicles on them. Such interchanges are
very much more complex to design and build.
Thus the use of grade separation results in the separation of traffic movements between the
intersecting roads so that only merging or diverging movements remain. The extent to
which individual traffic movements should be separated from each other depends mainly
upon capacity requirements and traffic safety aspects; it also depends upon the extent to
which important traffic movements should be given free flow conditions.
The circumstances in which the use of a grade separated junction is warranted are usually
as follows:
i) An at-grade junction has insufficient capacity.
ii) The junction is justified economically from the savings in traffic delays and
accident costs.

Chapter 12
Grade Separated Junctions Geometric Design Manual -
2013
iii) Grade separation is cheaper on account of topography or on the grounds that

expensive land appropriation can be avoided by its construction.
iv) For operational reasons.
v) Where roads cross freeways/motorways.
12.2 Choice of Scheme
In deciding on the location of a grade-separated junction, the following factors should be

taken into account:
i) Predicted traffic volumes.
ii) Cost of junction.
iii) Congestion control.
iv) Trip length (travel distance).
v) Size of urban areas.
From a study of conflicting traffic movements, it will generally be apparent which traffic
streams must be grade separated, leaving the other streams to be dealt with by junctions at
grade; the choice of these will depend upon the capacities needed. A study of the
characteristics of various types of grade-separated junctions is necessary, and a number of
alternative designs should be prepared. The final choice of scheme must satisfy capacity
requirements, geometric standards, and operational needs, and represent an economical
design. In some instances the choice of a particular design will be determined by the
adoption of two-stage construction, e.g. constructing an at-grade junction first and
providing grade separation later.
12.3 Types of Junction
12.3.1 Common Types
Figure 12.1 illustrates the common types of interchange. Grade-separated junctions

generally fall into four categories depending upon the number of roads involved and their
relative importance. These categories are as follows:
1) Three-way junctions.
2) Junctions of major/minor roads.
3) Junctions of two major roads.
4) Junctions of more than two major roads.
Each category is discussed briefly below with reference, where appropriate, to the basic
line diagram layouts shown in Figure 12-1.
12.3.2 Three-Way Junctions ( Layouts A and B)
For some Y-junctions where grade separation of only one traffic stream is required, layout
A may be appropriate. The movements associated with the missing leg must be channelled
to another location and this is only appropriate if the traffic volumes on the missing leg are
low and capable of being served by an at-grade junction elsewhere.

Chapter 12
Layout B shows a typical three-leg junction. It is appropriate for traffic where the major
-
road is DC8 and the minor road is DC7 DC3. This configuration is appropriate for traffic
volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour).
With a single loop lane, it is appropriate for loop traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour. Higher
loop traffic requires multiple loop lanes.
LAYOUIA
L4WITB
LAYOUT D
LAYOUT C
I
"T
L4WUTF
LAYOUT E
Figure 12-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions
12.3.3 Junctions of Major/Minor Roads (Layouts C and D)
Layouts C and D are the simplest for major/minor road junctions and both transfer the
major traffic conflicts to the minor road. Layout C shows the ‘half clover leaf type of
junction, which has the advantage of being easily adapted to meet difficult site conditions.

Chapter 12
2013
Layout D shows the normal ‘diamond’ junction, which requires the least land
appropriation. The choice between these options is generally dependent on land
requirements.
These configurations are appropriate for traffic volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the
four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour), with traffic of up to 10,000 ADT on the
minor road. They are appropriate for traffic where the major road is DC8 and the minor
road is DC7 - DC3. With a single loop lane, it is appropriate for loop traffic of 1,000
vehicles per hour. Higher loop traffic would require multiple loop lanes.
12.3.4 Junctions of Two Major Roads (Layouts E and F)
Layouts E and F show the two basic junction layouts for use where high traffic flows make
the simpler layouts unsatisfactory. They are appropriate for traffic volumes on both
crossing roads of between 10,000 and 30,000 AADT (3,000 vehicles per hour). Layout E
shows a ‘full clover leaf junction involving only one bridge but requiring a large land
appropriation. Layout F shows a typical roundabout interchange involving two bridges.
This layout is only suitable if the secondary road containing the roundabout is of a
relatively low design speed but carries a comparatively high volume of traffic.
12.3.5 Junctions of more than Two Major Roads
Junctions of more than two main roads are difficult to design, occupy large areas of land
and, requiring numerous bridges, are extremely expensive. This type of junction, although
unlikely to be required on rural roads in Ethiopia, can often be reduced by changes in the
major road alignments (which will simplify the traffic pattern) to a combination of the
simpler and economic layouts described above.
12.4 Geometric Standards
12.4.1 Design Speed
The geometric standards given in this manual for roads and at-grade junctions also apply to
grade separated junctions. However, the low design speeds of loops and other ancillary
roads necessitate further standards to be given.
The design speed for the through traffic movements is determined in accordance with
Chapter 5. Stopping sight distances appropriate for the design speed should always be
provided.
The design speed for loops and ramps is dependent on whether their terminations are free
flowing or a stop junction. The term ‘free flowing’ implies that the ramp terminals can be
negotiated at more or less the speed prevailing on the through road. Traffic on the
terminals thus diverges from or merges with traffic on the through road at very flat angles
For the ramps or loops of access-type interchanges, where the end of the exit loop
terminates at a road junction, the design speed should, ideally, be 40-50 km/hr. Higher
design speeds require higher radii of curvature and longer loops and therefore have a
significant cost implication. However the design speed should not be so low that it is
requires drivers who are leaving the freeway to reduce speed too quickly hence either

Chapter 12
compound curves are required suitable for an entry speed of 65% of the design speed of the
freeway or a deceleration lane must be provided on the freeway.
If a high volume of turning (exiting) traffic is expected, free flowing terminals at each end
of the loop or ramp will accommodate traffic entering and leaving at speeds close to the
operating speeds of the through and intersecting roads. A lower design speed in the middle
of the loop or ramp will have a restrictive effect on the capacity of the ramp and is
therefore unacceptable. Deceleration and acceleration lanes must also be provided on the
freeway (Section 11.10).
Where a dual carriageway intersects with another dual carriageway (Major Interchange),
the interchange between the facilities must be designed so that the loop roads do not entail
any significant reduction in the design speeds of the crossing carriageways.
12.4.2 Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes
The minimum standards to be applied for right turn deceleration lanes are the same as for
at-grade junctions (Section 11.10). The total length of the acceleration lane (i.e. not
including the merging taper) shall never be less than 150 metres or more than 400 metres.
12.4.3 Horizontal Curves and Super-elevation
The geometric principles described in this manual apply equally to the ramps for
interchanges. The maximum super-elevation for loops is e = 8% which, at a design speed
of 50 km/h, leads to a minimum radius of 80 metres. Where smaller radii are unavoidable,
warning signs are necessary.
Where transitions occur from high to low speeds the curves must be compound or
transitional, the radius at any point being appropriate for the vehicle speed at that point.
12.4.4 Vertical Curves and Gradients
To ensure reasonable standards of visibility, comfort and appearance, vertical curves

should be introduced at all changes in gradient. Vertical curve lengths should be
determined in accordance with Chapter 9 to provide safe stopping sight distances.
12.4.5 Widths and Gradients of Loops
The minimum carriageway width for loops on straight sections and horizontal radii greater
than 150m shall be 4.0m with shoulders of 1.5 metres on the near side and 1.0 metre on the
far side (widened by 0.5 metre where a guardrail is required). For loops on radii of 150
metres or less, the carriageway width shall be in accordance with Table 12. 1 .
The maximum up gradient should be 5% and the maximum down gradient should be 7%.
Table 12-1: Widths for Loops

Radius (metres) 25 30 40 50 75 100 150
Carriageway Width (m) 5.3 5.0 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0

Chapter 12
2013
12.4.6 Clearances
The required vertical and horizontal clearances shall be in accordance with Chapters 6 & 9.
12.4.7 Capacity
Grade-separated junctions are generally designed using traffic volumes given in terms of
the Daily High Volume (DHV) rather than Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADTs). A
detailed traffic study and analysis can be made to determine these values. In the absence of
such a study, it can be assumed that the DHV in an urban area is 10% of AADT. The
capacity of each traffic lane, in DHV, is normally about 1000 vehicles per hour.
Thus, for example, Table 2.1 indicates a design traffic flow of 10,000 to 15,000 AADT for
Design Class DC8. The expected DHV is therefore 1000 to 1500. The capacity of this
facility would be exceeded at more than 1000 vehicles per hour per lane, which equates to
4,000 vehicles per hour for all four lanes, hence capacity will not be exceeded at 15,000
AADT.
These DHV values are necessary in choosing the number of lanes for the loops
corresponding to the junction.
12.4.8 Basic Lanes and Lane Balance
Basic lanes are those that are maintained over an extended length of a route, irrespective of
local changes in traffic volumes and requirements for lane balance. Alternatively stated,
the basic number of lanes is a constant number of lanes assigned to a route, exclusive of
auxiliary lanes.
The number of basic lanes changes only when there is a significant change in the general
level of traffic volumes on the route. Short sections of the route may thus have insufficient
capacity. This problem can be overcome by the use of auxiliary lanes. In the case of spare
capacity, reduction in the number of lanes is not recommended because this area could, at
some future time, become a bottleneck. Unusual traffic demands, created by accidents,
maintenance or special events, could also result in these areas becoming bottlenecks.
The basic number of lanes is derived from consideration of the design traffic volumes and
capacity analyses. To promote the smooth flow of traffic there should be a proper balance
of lanes at points where merging or diverging manoeuvres occur. In essence, there should
be one lane where the driver has the choice of a change of direction without the need to
change lanes.
At merges, the number of lanes downstream of the merge should be one less than the sum
of the number of lanes upstream of the merge plus the number of lanes in the merging
ramp. This is typified by a one-lane ramp merging with a two-lane carriageway that, after
the merge, continues as a two-lane carriageway as is the case on a typical Diamond
Interchange layout. This rule precludes a two-lane ramp immediately merging with the
carriageway without the addition of an auxiliary lane.
At diverges, the number of lanes downstream of the diverge should be one less than the
total number upstream of the diverge plus the number of lanes in the diverging ramp. The

Chapter 12
only exception to this rule is on short weaving sections, such as at Cloverleaf Interchanges,
where a condition of this exception is that there is an auxiliary lane through the weaving
section. When two lanes diverge from the freeway, the above rule indicates that the
number of freeway lanes beyond the diverge is reduced by one. This can be used to drop a
basic lane to match anticipated flows beyond the diverge. Alternatively, it can be an
auxiliary lane that is dropped.
Basic lanes and lane balance are brought into harmony with each other by building on the
basic lanes, adding or removing auxiliary lanes as required. The principle of lane balance
should always be applied in the use of auxiliary lanes. Operational problems on existing
roadways can be directly attributed to a lack of lane balance and failure to maintain route
continuity. The application of lane balance and coordination with basic number of lanes is
illustrated in Figure 12.2.
THROUGH LANES UPSTREAM ♦ RAMP LANES-1

=THROUGH LANES DOWNSTREAM
MERGE
THROUGH LANES UPSTREAM

=THROUGH LANES DOWNSTREAM ♦ RAMP LANES-1
DIVERGE
© ©=
LANE BALANCE,BUT NO CONTINUITY OF BASIC NUMBER OF LANES
=351 ©=
BASIC NUMBER OF LANES BUT NO COMPLIANCE WITH LANE BALANCE
=0: j5j 0=
CONTINUITY OF BASIC NUMBER OF LANES AND LANE BALANCE
CO-ORDINATION OF LANE BALANCE & BASIC NUMBER OF LANES
Figure 12-2: Principles of Lane Balance

Chapter 12
2013
12.4.9 Minimum Spacing of Successive Interchanges
The distance between two successive grade-separated junctions is an element of great

importance in ensuring the desired level of service. In suburban zones it is necessary to
establish a minimum distance between successive grade-separated junctions. The
recommended minimum distance is 2.0km.
12.5 Design Principles
Special design principles apply to grade-separated junctions and must be considered when
comparing the characteristics of alternative designs. The main principles and described
below:
1. The high speeds normally found on roads where grade separation is required and
the low design speeds of ancillary roads make it necessary to pay particular
attention to the transitions between high and low speed. This not only influences the
use of long speed-change lanes and compound curves but also the choice of types
of interchange which do not result in abrupt changes in vehicle speeds.
2. Weaving between lanes on the main roadway within the interchange is undesirable
and can be avoided by arranging for diverging points to precede merging points.
3. On a road with a large number of grade-separated junctions, a consistent design
speed is desirable for loops. This speed shall be not less than 65% of the speed of
the adjoining major road.
4. As a general rule, left-turning movements that are grade separated should be made
through a right-hand loop.
5. Unexpected prohibited traffic movements, especially where traffic is light, are
difficult to enforce and cause danger. If possible, the geometric layout should be
designed to make prohibited movements difficult, for example on one-way loops,
entry contrary to the one way movement can be restricted by the use of suitably
shaped traffic islands to supplement the traffic signs.

Chapter 13
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Additional Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items
13 ADDITIONAL SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS
13.1 Introduction
Road user safety has economic consequences in terms of property damage, loss of earnings
or production and hospital costs resulting from physical injury, in addition to the emotional
consequences of pain, suffering and death. Safety and economy are the foundations on
which competent design rests. Inadequate consideration of either will automatically result
in inadequate design.
Miscellaneous design items in this chapter also include bus lay-bys and parking bays,
parking lanes, safety barriers, emergency escape ramps, safety rest areas and scenic
overlooks, public utilities, and railway grade crossings.
13.2 The Road Accident Situation
The road accident statistics in Ethiopia, in common with many other countries, show that
death rates from road accidents are 30 to 50 times higher than in the countries of Western
Europe. The numbers of serious injuries resulting from road accidents are equally
alarming. Economic analysis has shown conclusively that this high level of road accidents
has economic consequences for the country that is equivalent to a reduction of 2-3% of
GDP. This is a very significant drain on the economy. Furthermore, the consequences of
the road accidents impose a great deal of grief and anguish on a considerable proportion of
the population. Every effort should therefore be made to reduce the number of serious
accidents.
The geometric design of roads has an important part to play in this endeavour and road
safety aspects have been highlighted throughout this manual. Road and shoulder widths
have been increased to accommodate pedestrians, NMTs, and intermediate forms of
transport (IMTs); moderate design speeds have been used for elements of road alignment;
parking places and lay-bys for buses have been included in populated areas; account has
been taken of reduced friction on unpaved roads; adequate sight distances have been
provided; and much more.
However there are a number of other steps that could be taken to improve safety. These
include:
i) Traffic calming measures to reduce speeds in populated area;
ii) Road markings, signage and lighting;
iii) Segregating pedestrians and motorised vehicles in populated areas;
iv) Providing crash barriers at dangerous locations;
v) Providing a professional safety audit at the design stage.
A checklist of engineering design features that affect road safety is given in Figure 13.1.
Many of these have been discussed in the appropriate chapters of this manual but for more
detail the TRL publication ‘Towards Safer Roads ’ is recommended.

Chapter 13
Additional Safety and Miscellaneous Items Geometric Design Manual - 2013
UNDESIRABLE DESIRABLE PRINCIPLE APPLIED
ROUTE MAJOR ROUTES SHOULD BY-PASS

TOWNS AND VILLAGES
LOCATION + LAND USE
CONTROLS
(0 GENTLY CURVING ROADS
ROAD
GEOMETRY
mi
'v/Yftn/' HAVE LOWEST ACCIDENT
RATES
PROHIBIT DIRECT FRONTAL

OFFICE FACTORY
~~1 [FgCTDgY [TJFFjCE ACCESS TO MAJOR ROUTES
USE SERVICE ROADS
USE LAY-BYS OR WIDENED
X' SHOULDERS TO ALLOW
ROADSIDE V VILLAGERS TO SELL LOCAL
ACCESS \ PRODUCE
v \ USE LAY-BYS FOR BUS AND
TAXIS TO AVOID RESTRICTION
\ AND IMPROVE VISIBILITY
\ \
SEAL SHOULDER AND PROVIDE
SEGREGATE jjA* RUMBLE DIVIDER WHEN
PEDESTRIAN AND ANIMAL
MOTORISED
TRAFFIC IS SIGNIFICANT
AND NON -
»P CONSTRUCT PROTECTED
MOTORISED FOOTWAY FOR PEDESTRIANS AND
VEHICLES, ANIMALS ON BRIDGES
PEDESTRIANS a FENCE THROUGH VILLAGES
AND ANIMALS AND PROVIDE PEDESTRIAN
/
as,
CROSSINGS
X X
T AVOID CROSSROADS
FOR DRIVING ON THE RIGHT
JUNCTION LEFT HAND SPLAYED T-JUNCTIONS
LAYOUT HAVE BEST SAFETY RECORDS
Ji -LL J a) LOCAL WIDENING AT T-JUNCTIONS

CAN BE HIGHLY COST-EFFECTIVE
Hi nr
b) ROUNDABOUTS
HAVE BEST SAFETY RECORD
(a) (b) (a) (b)
SEGREGATE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT
(URBAN)
3 OAD USER WITH PEDESTRIANISATION
CHEMES, CYCLE OR MOTOR-CYCLE
TRACKS ETC.
ONE WAY ONE WAY STREETS ALSO REDUCE
Si ACCIDENTS
FOR DRIVING ON THE RIGHT LEFT
TURN MOST DANGEROUS MANOEUVRE
MAXIMUM POSSIBLE USE OF CUL-DE-
TOWN
SACS AND LOOPS IN RESIDENTIAL
PLANING AREAS
Figure 13-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety
Page 13-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority>

Chapter 13
13.3 Traffic Calming
13.3.1 Purpose
The seriousness of road accidents increases dramatically with speed and hence very
significant improvements to road safety are possible if traffic can be slowed down. This
process is called traffic calming. All such methods have their advantages and
disadvantages and the effectiveness of the methods also depends on aspects of driver
behaviour that can vary considerably from country to country. Therefore research needs to
be carried out in Ethiopia to identify the most cost effective approaches.
The effect of any traffic calming measure on all the road users should be carefully
considered before they are installed. Some are unsuitable if large buses are part of the
traffic stream; some are very harsh on bicycles, motorcycles and motor cycle taxis; and
some are totally unsuitable when there is any animal drawn transport.
The three most common methods are:

i) Chicanes;
ii) Rumble strips; and
iii) Speed reduction humps.
13.3.2 Chicanes
These are designed to produce artificial congestion by reducing the width of the road to
one lane for a very short distance (3-5m) at intervals (typically 300m) along it. They are
usually built on alternate sides of the road. They cause drivers to slow down provided that
the traffic level is high enough to make it very probable that they will meet an oncoming
vehicle. The method is obviously unacceptable if traffic flow is high because the
congestion that is causes will be severe. For safety, they must be illuminated at night.
13.3.3 Rumble strips
These are essentially a form of artificial road texture that causes considerable tyre noise
and vehicle vibrations if the vehicle is travelling too fast. They are used in two ways. The
first is to delineate areas where vehicles should not be, where they are provided as a line
running parallel to the normal traffic flow so that if a vehicle inadvertently strays onto or
across the line the driver will receive adequate warning. Secondly they are used across the
road where they are placed in relatively narrow widths of 2 to 4m but at intervals along the
road of typically 50 to 200 metres. They are uncomfortable to drive across at speed hence
they are effective in slowing down the traffic. They do not need to be illuminated at night.
13.3.4 Speed Reduction Humps and Cushions
These are probably the most familiar measures used to slow traffic. They are essentially
bumps in the road extending uniformly from one side to the other. Unlike rumble strips,
speed reduction humps are quite high and, if they are designed badly, they can cause
considerable vehicle damage. They are often used in villages where they are placed at
intervals of between 50m and 200m. They are effective but usually unpopular with drivers.

Chapter 13
Additional Safety and Miscellaneous Items Geometric Design Manual -
2013
The shape of the hump is important to reduce the severity of the shock when a vehicle
drives over it. Ideally they should cause driver discomfort but not vehicle damage. The
height of the bump is usually 75 or 100 mm but the width should be at least 2.5 metres and
the change in slope from the roadway onto the hump should be gradual. The top of the
hump can be rounded or flat.
Speed humps should not be employed as speed-reducing devices on major roads or on bus
routes. Where design speeds are of the order of 100 km/h or more, the speed hump would
have to be long and the height low to ensure that the vertical acceleration caused by the
speed hump does not cause the driver to lose control.
Based on a similar principle to the speed hump, speed reducing cushions are more
versatile. They are essentially very similar to the speed hump but the hump is not
continuous across the road. The width of a two lane road is usually covered by two or three
cushions with considerable gaps between them. The idea is that Large Heavy Vehicles will
not be able to pass without at least one wheel running over one of the humps but bicycles
and motorcycles can pass between them without interference. If suitably designed, the
wheels of animal drawn carts can also avoid the humps.
13.4 Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays
Rural bus lay-bys serve to remove buses from the traffic lanes. Parking bays are provided
for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the roadway. The location and design of lay¬
bys should provide ready access in the safest and most efficient manner possible. Providing
lay-bys clear of the lanes for through traffic can considerably reduce the interference
between buses, taxis and other traffic.
To be fully effective, lay-bys should incorporate;

i) A deceleration lane or taper to permit easy entrance to the loading area.
ii) A standing space sufficiently long to accommodate the maximum number of
vehicles expected to occupy the space at one time.
iii) A merging lane to enable easy re-entry into the through-traffic lanes.
The deceleration lane should be tapered at an angle flat enough to encourage the bus or taxi
operator to pull completely clear of the through lane. A taper of 5:1, longitudinal to
transverse, is a desirable minimum.
A loading area should provide 15 metres of length for each bus. The width should be at
least 3.5 metres and preferably 4.0 metres. The merging or re-entry taper may be somewhat
more abrupt than the deceleration taper but, preferably, should not be sharper than 3:1.
The total length of lay-bys for a two-bus loading area of minimum design should be as
shown in Figure 13.2 and in the Standard Detail Drawings. These lengths of lay-bys
expedite bus manoeuvres, encourage full compliance on the part of bus and taxi drivers,
and lessen interference with through traffic. Sufficient footpaths should be provided at bus
lay-bys.
The standard detail drawings show a bus turnout at a mid-block location. They also depict
a parking bay (see also Figure 13.2).

Chapter 13
50,0m
— -H24m ] [
2 bus lay by
(36m 3
48m 4 etc.)
STANDARD MULTI-BUS LAY-BY
a
-
!
i
40.0m
IE
“3
n
KERBLINE ijJ_BUS I
18m Radius 12m Radius f
40.0m 5m 30.0m
PARKING BAY
Figure 13-2: Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays
Locating bus lay-bys and parking bays on the near side of junctions is to be discouraged.
Where possible, bus turnouts should be positioned subsequent to junctions. This location
minimizes congestion and delays at the junction. It is preferable that they are located at
least 75 m past an intersection.
13.5 Parking Lanes
Parking lanes differ from parking bays in that they allow for parking of vehicles rather than
solely buses and taxis. They should be provided at all congested business and shopping
areas. The parking lane width for parallel parking is 3m, which may be reduced to 2.5m
where available space is limited. Where additional parking capacity is desired and
sufficient carriageway width is available, angle parking may be adopted.
13.6 Passing Points
Single lane roads do not allow most vehicles to pass in opposite directions or to overtake,
hence passing places have to be provided. A clear distinction should be drawn between
passing points and lay-bys. Lay-bys are provided for specific purposes, such as parking or
bus stops. A passing point is a short length of widened road with a taper at each end. It
appears similar to an elongated bus stop or a lay-by. The structure and surface of the
passing point is the same as the main carriageway. The increased width provided by a
passing place should allow two vehicles to pass at slow speed and hence depends on the
design vehicle.

Chapter 13
2013
The most important feature of passing points is the frequency at which they are constructed
along the road. The frequency depends upon the following factors:
a) Meeting sight distances
b) Traffic volume and mix
c) Acceptable reversing distance for vehicles
d) Terrain
e) Strength of surrounding ground.
Meeting sight distance refers to the length of road where drivers in vehicles travelling
towards each other begin to see each other. Ideally, at least one passing point should be
placed within each sight distance and the next passing point should always be visible from
the one before.
In hilly terrain the spacing of passing points must be more flexible and responsive to both
sight distance and the constraints of the surrounding landscape. As a general rule the
optimal spacing should be equal to the sight distance, up to a maximum of 500 metres. An
alternate approach is to locate passing places at regular intervals (say every 500m).
Drivers of heavy or wide vehicles may be unwilling to reverse long distances hence where
trucks are travelling in both directions, it may be necessary to reduce the passing point
spacing.
After determining the spacing and location of passing points, the length and width should
be set. The length is primarily dependent on the traffic volume. If the traffic volume is
high, the passing point should be long enough to accommodate several vehicles waiting for
oncoming traffic to pass. A general guide for length (including tapers) of passing points is
shown in Table 13-1.
Table 13-1: Length (including tapers) of Passing Points

Traffic volume Length of Passing Point
(vehicles per day) (m)
<20 25
20 to 30 50
More than 30 75
A suitable width depends upon the width of the road itself. The criterion is to provide
enough overall width for two design vehicles to pass each other safely at low speed hence a
total trafficable minimum width of 5.5 metres is required. Allowing for vehicle overhang
when entering the passing bay, a total width of 6.5 metres is suitable.
13.7 Safety Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks
Safety rest areas and scenic overlooks are desirable elements of the complete highway
development and are provided for the safety and convenience of the highway user.

Chapter 13
A safety rest area is a roadside area with parking facilities separated from the roadway,
provided for vehicle drivers to stop and rest for short periods. The rest area should provide
the user with an opportunity to stop in an atmosphere that affords a distinct change from
the monotony of driving.
A scenic overlook is a roadside area provided for drivers to park their vehicles, beyond the
shoulder, primarily for viewing the scenery or for taking photographs in safety. The
attraction of such a facility depends upon the presence of scenic and historical points of
interest. The facilities should be designed so as to avoid marring the landscape.
Site selection for safety rest areas and scenic overlooks should consider the scenic quality
of the area, accessibility, and adaptability to development. Site plans should be developed
that should include proper and safe location of entrances and exits, road signs and
markings, acceleration and deceleration lanes as required, and parking areas for cars and
trucks. They may also include certain types of rest facilities (benches, tables, shelters,
drinking fountains, rest rooms).
Where such facilities are specified, the average distance between rest areas should be 15 to
25 km. As far as possible, such facilities should be avoided where adjacent roadway
gradients are in excess of 4%.
13.8 Safety Barriers

13.8.1 Purpose
Many accidents on high-speed roads involve vehicles leaving the road and coming into
collision with hazardous obstacles such as trees, bridge supports, or simply rolling down a
high embankment. Similarly, a vehicle leaving a lane on a dual carriageway runs the risk
of collision with an oncoming vehicle. The risk of these types of accidents can be reduced
by the use of safety barriers (guardrails). Barriers may also protect roadside facilities from
vehicle impact. The purpose of the barrier is to absorb or deflect the impact with as little
severity as possible.
Safety barriers should be placed sufficiently far from the carriageway edge so as not to
cause a hazard to vehicles, nor to reduce the effective width of the carriageway.
There is no standardization of the configuration of safety barriers at present. A description

of each type of guardrail and a brief discussion of the positive and negative elements of
each type follows.
13.8.2 Jersey Barriers
Of the guardrail types available, the Jersey barrier is the configuration classified as the
safest. Constructed of concrete, this rigid barrier has the best chance of preventing the
vehicle from proceeding beyond the barrier.
It also has the best chance of avoiding vehicle and occupant injury if impacted, because the
profile allows the vehicle to ride up the barrier. However, the following problems have
been noted:
• Jersey barriers must be continuous, because an opening, in addition to providing no
protection, is in itself a hazard.

Chapter 13
2013
• The beginning and end of the barriers usually include no transition sections, and
thus represent a hazard when hit head-on.
13.8.3 Grouted Rock Guardrail
This rigid barrier makes economic sense in that it employs materials available locally in its
construction and also provides labour-intensive employment. However, the rail tends to be
of a wider configuration than the others, and therefore requires a larger construction width.
As it is of solid and substantial construction, it also represents a hazard of itself. This could
be mitigated by the inclusion of end sections, and by the employment of a cross-section
more closely approximating to that of a Jersey barrier.
13.8.4 Steel Rail Guardrail
This is a steel rail supported by concrete posts and is the most common worldwide
configuration of guardrail. The barrier is slightly flexible and absorbs energy leading to
less severe accidents. Its configuration is shown in Figure 13.6. The concrete posts must be
built with good foundations. Special attention should be paid to the end sections, which
should not be blunt.
13.8.5 Wire-Rope Barriers
This type of guardrail consists of two strands of cables fed through concrete posts. These
guardrails are the least desirable configuration because:
1) If the cable is snapped due to an impact, the entire length of guardrail becomes
ineffective. By comparison, if a steel rail configuration is hit, only one segment is
ineffective.
2) The cable can be stolen, whether for use in towing a vehicle or for some other
reason.
13.8.6 Use and Placement of Barriers
The routine employment of barriers is called into question for several reasons:
i) In addition to the construction cost of the guardrail itself, there are other related
costs. These include the need to construct a wider roadway width to provide a
platform for the construction of the guardrail. This is necessary, particularly in
mountainous terrain and in rock cuts, and adds more to the construction costs than
the cost of the guardrail itself.
ii) Traffic volumes are low on many road classes. It is likely that if the placement of
guardrails were quantified on such roads using a cost/benefit analysis, they would
not be cost effective.
iii) Where mountainous terrain with steep side slopes is encountered, the conscientious
driver will automatically adjust his behaviour to compensate for the safety hazards
anticipated with the terrain, minimising the need for the guidance provided by the
guardrail.

Chapter 13
iv) Guidelines rather than standards usually govern the placement or non-placement of
guardrails. Thus they are not an essential requirement for the road construction.
v) The above factors can create problems with liability. Liability is minimised when
guardrail placement is not a requirement. Conversely, if guardrails are placed but
not maintained, the chances of a finding of liability are much greater.
The conclusion reached from consideration of the above is that guardrails should not
routinely be constructed where long and steep side slopes are encountered. However, a
compromise in the interest of safety is to provide delineators at all such sections.
Conversely, short sections of guardrail should be employed on the approaches to all

bridges. Without these, an errant driver can impact on the blunt end of the bridge rail, or
proceed down the steep side slope into the river. Guardrails should be used at all four
comers of the bridges, and should be of a parabolic end section configuration such that the
guardrail begins a distance from the edge of the lane. The end treatment should not be
blunt, but should be buried into the ground. Decreasing the spacing of the guardrail posts
to provide a transition from the deformable rail section to the solid bridge railing should
strengthen the section closest to the bridge railing. The end of the last rail should be
doweled into the face of the bridge rail. Details are as indicated on the ERA Standard
Detail Drawings.
Where guardrails are employed, they should include reflectors to aid in the guidance of
vehicles at night.
Safety barriers, or guardrails, are a compromise between the conflicting demands of

construction costs and safety, and are themselves a hazard. To be warranted, guardrails
should be a lesser hazard than that which they are intended to replace.
On existing roads an important warrant for guardrail installation is an adverse accident

history. Another warrant for the installation of guardrails is to install these where the driver
cannot anticipate the danger associated with the roadway segment.
In the case of new roads, it is necessary to consider whether an accident would be more
likely with or without guardrails, and whether the outcome of such an accident is likely to
be more serious without guardrails than with them. In certain areas where guardrails may
be of benefit, for instance in mountainous terrain, it is often the case that the additional
width requirement for such installation cannot be achieved without significant earthwork
costs, often comprising rock materials
Another factor is that where guardrails are employed they need to be maintained. The
responsible authority cannot be held liable for not installing guardrails, but could be held
liable for an accident due to an un-maintained portion of guardrail.
Guardrails are only mandated at approaches to narrow bridges, being those of a width of
7.32 metres or narrower. A standard guardrail detail is shown in the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings and in Figure 13.3.

Chapter 13
1 905 m 1 905 m
nn
ii
LJ UJ
Figure 13-3: Guardrail
13.9 Emergency Escape Ramps
13.9.1 Need and Location
Where long, descending gradients exist, the provision of an emergency escape ramp at an
appropriate location is desirable for the purpose of stopping an out-of control vehicle away
from the main traffic stream.
Highway alignment, gradient, length, and descent speed contribute to the potential for out-
of-control vehicles. For existing highways a field review of the problem grade may reveal
damaged guardrail, gouged pavement surfaces or spilled oil, indicating locations where
operators of heavy vehicles have had difficulty negotiating a downgrade.
While there are no universal guidelines available for new and existing facilities, a variety
of factors are used in selecting the specific site for an escape ramp. Each location presents
a different array of design needs requiring analysis of factors including topography, length
and percent of grade, potential speed, economics, environmental impact, and accident
experience. Ramps should be located to intercept the greatest number of runway vehicles,
such as at intermediate points along the grade.
Escape ramps generally may be built at any feasible location where the main road
alignment is tangent. They should be built in advance of curves that cannot be negotiated
safely by a runaway vehicle, and in advance of populated areas.
13.9.2 Types
There are four types of emergency escape ramps. The first is a sand pile, the others are
arrester beds, classified by grade; descending grade, horizontal grade, and ascending grade.
They are illustrated in Figure 13.4. All function by application of the decelerating effect of
loose material.
Sand piles, composed of loose, dry sand dumped at the ramp site are usually no more than
120 metres in length. The influence of gravity is dependent on the slope of the surface.
The increase in rolling resistance is supplied by the loose sand. Deceleration characteristics
of sand piles are usually severe and the sand can be affected by weather. Because of these
characteristics, the sand pile is less desirable than the arrester bed. However, at locations

Chapter 13
where inadequate space exists for another type of ramp, the sand pile may be appropriate
because of its compact dimensions.
Escape ramps are constructed adjacent to the carriageway. The use of loose material in the
arrester bed increases the rolling resistance to slow the vehicle. Descending ramps can be
rather lengthy because gravitational effects are not acting to help reduce the speed of the
vehicle.
The preferred type of escape ramp is the ascending type with an arrester bed. Ramp
installations of this type use gradient resistance to advantage, supplementing the effects of
the aggregate in the arrester bed, and generally reducing the length of ramp necessary to
stop the vehicle. The loose material in the arresting bed increases the rolling resistance, and
also serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp grade after it has come to a safe stop.
Each one of the ramp types is applicable to a particular situation and must be compatible
with location and topographic controls at possible sites.
'56
H'G»*AY
A. SAND PILE
'56
H;
B. DESCENDING GRADE
'56
0.0 % RAMP
C. HORIZONTAL GRADE
'56
hÿAy
D. DESCENDING GRADE
MOTE:
PROFILE IS ALONG THE BASE LINE OF THE RAMP.
Figure 13-4: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps (AASHTO)

Chapter 13
2013
13.9.3 Design Considerations
The design and construction of effective escape ramps involve a number of considerations
as follows:
1. To safely stop an out-of-control vehicle, the length of the ramp must be sufficient to
dissipate the energy of the moving vehicle.
2. The alignment of the escape ramp should be tangential to the carriageway to relieve
the driver of undue vehicle control problems.
3. The width of the ramp should be adequate to accommodate Large Heavy Vehicles.
Widths of ramps range from 3.6 to 12 metres.
4. The in-fill material used in the arrester bed should be clean, not easily compacted,
and have a high coefficient of rolling resistance. In-fill material should be single¬
sized natural or crushed coarse granular material or sand. Such material will
maximize the percentage of voids, thereby providing optimum drainage and
minimizing compaction. The use of single-size aggregate also minimizes
maintenance, which must be performed by scarifying when the material is prone to
compaction. Loose gravel or sand can also be used. A maximum particle size of 40
millimetres is recommended.
5. Contamination of in-fill material can reduce the effectiveness of the arrester bed by
creating a hard surface layer at the bottom of the bed. Therefore, an aggregate depth
up to 1.0m is recommended. To assist in decelerating the vehicle smoothly, the
depth of the bed should be tapered from a minimum of 75 millimetres at the entry
point to the full depth of aggregate in the initial 30 to 60 metres of the bed.
6. A positive means of draining the arrester bed should be provided to avoid
contamination of the arrester bed material. This can be accomplished by grading the
base to drain, intercepting water prior to entering the bed or by edge drains.
Geotextiles can be used between the sub-base and the bed materials to prevent
infiltration of fines.
7. The entrance to the ramp must be designed so that a vehicle travelling at high speed
can enter safely. Sight distance preceding the ramp should be provided so that the
driver can enter safely and the full length of ramp should be visible. The angle of a
departure for the ramp should be small. The main roadway surfacing should be
extended to a point at the bed entrance such that both front wheels of the out-of-
control vehicle will enter the arrester bed simultaneously.
8. Advance signing is required to inform a driver of the existence of an escape ramp
and to prepare him well in advance so that he will have enough time to decide
whether or not to use the escape ramp. Regulatory signs near the entrance should be
used to discourage stopping or parking at the ramp.

Chapter 13
To determine the distance required to bring a vehicle to a stop with consideration of the
rolling resistance and gradient resistance, the following equation may be used:
V2
L=
254(R ±G)/100
Where:
L = distance to stop (i.e. the length of the arrester bed), m,
V = entering velocity, km/h,
G = percent gradient of ramp,
R = rolling resistance expressed as equivalent percent gradient (Table 13.2).
For example, assume that topographic conditions at a site selected for an emergency escape
ramp limit the gradient of an ascending ramp to 10 percent. The arrester bed is to be
constructed with loose gravel for an entering speed of 140 km/h. Using Table 13.2, R is
also determined to be 10 percent. The length necessary is determined from the above
equation. For this case the length of the arrester bed is about 385 metres.
Table 13-2: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials

Rolling Resistance Equivalent Grade
Surfacing Material
(kg/100 kg GVM) (%)'
Crushed aggregate, loose 50 5.0
Gravel, loose 100 10.0
Sand 150 15.0
Pea gravel 250 25.0
Note 1 Rolling resistance expressed as equivalent gradient
A plan and profile of an emergency escape ramp with typical appurtenances is shown in
the Standard Detail Drawings.
Where a full-length ramp is to be provided with full deceleration capability for the design
speed, a ‘last chance’ device should be considered when the consequences of leaving the
end of the ramp are serious. The use of a ramp end treatment should be designed with care
to ensure that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
Mounds of in-fill material between 0.6 and 1.5 metre high with 1:1.5 slopes have been
used at the end of ramps in several instances as the ‘last chance’ device.
13.9.4 Maintenance
After each incident the in-fill materials should be reinstated. The arrester beds should be
inspected periodically and the in-fill materials replaced as necessary.
13.10 Safety Audits
The subject of road safety is remarkably complex in that, although many unsafe practices
are glaringly obvious, there are many situations where it is difficult to identify what is
likely to be unsafe, especially if the project is a new road and one is working from

Chapter 13
2013
drawings. The history of road safety is full of ideas that were thought to improve road
safety but often had no discemable effect or even made things worse. The problem has
always been lack of reliable data; there is no substitute for a systematic method of
recording the characteristics of road accidents and analysing the data when there is
sufficient for reliable conclusions to be drawn.
Professional road safety auditing is the next best thing and is regularly undertaken on every
road project in some countries in an attempt to improve the safety design from the very
beginning. It is anticipated that this practice will become increasingly common in Ethiopia,
especially for road projects located in populated areas.
13.11 Public Utilities
13.11.1 General
All highway improvements, whether upgraded within the existing right-of-way or entirely
on new right-of-way, generally entail adjustment of utility facilities. The costs of utility
adjustment vary considerably depending on the location of project. Utilities include:
a) Sanitary sewers.
b) Water supply lines.
c) Overhead and underground power and communications lines.
d) Drainage and irrigation lines.
The following factors should be considered in the location and design of utility
installations.
1) Utility lines should be located to minimize the need for later adjustment, to
accommodate future highway improvements, and to permit servicing such lines
with minimum interference to traffic.
2) Longitudinal installation should be located on a uniform alignment as near as
practicable to the right-of-way line so as to provide a safe environment for traffic
operation and preserve space for future highway or street improvements of other
utility installations.
3) To the extent feasible and practicable, utility line crossings of the highway should
cross on a line generally normal to the highway alignment. Those utility crossings
those are more likely to require future servicing should be encased or installed in
tunnels to permit servicing without disrupting the traffic flow.
4) The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines within the highway right-of-
way limits should conform to the clear roadside policies and specific conditions
for the particular section involved. Safety of the travelling public should be a
prime consideration in the location and design of utility facilities on highway
rights-of-way.
5) Sometimes attachment of utility facilities to highway structures, such as bridges,
is a practical arrangement and may be authorized. Electric and Telephone Cables
and water main placing in one trench should be done according to Figure 13.5
unless otherwise stated by the concerned institutions.

Chapter 13
6) All utility installations on, over, or under highway right-of-way and attached
structures should be of durable materials designed for long service-life
expectancy, relatively free from routine servicing and maintenance, and meet or
exceed the requirements of the applicable industry codes or specifications.
7) On new construction in road locations no utility should be situated under any part
of the road, except where it must cross the highway.
8) Utility poles and other aboveground utility appurtenances that would constitute
hazards to errant vehicles should not be permitted within the highway clear zone.
The only exceptions permitted would be where the appurtenance is breakaway or
could be installed behind a traffic barrier erected to protect errant vehicles from
some other hazard. The clear zone dimension that is to be maintained for a
specific functional classification is found in Chapter 6: Cross Section Elements.
13. 11.2 Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority’
The placement of light poles, power poles, wires, and underground cables, as per the
Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority guidelines, is given in the Appendix D.
13.11.3 Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority
The placement of water and sewerage pipes, as per the Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage
Authority, is given in the Appendix D.
13.11.4 Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation
The placement of telecommunications cables, as per the Ethiopian Telecommunications

Corporation, is given in the Appendix D.

Chapter 13
4,500 MIN VERGE ROAD WAY
8
900
1.700
o
2,600
jsoa n 1,470
a.
\OF SEWER TO BE PLACED AT 2.BOO
FROM B.L. IF LOCATED ON THE SAME SIDE
CH A8 THE WATER MA1N8
NOTE:-
1. AFTER LAYING WATER
MAIN, BACKFILL TO BS0
DEPTH BEFORE INSTALLING
ELECTRICITY CABLES AND TELEPHONE
DUCTS
2. INSTALL CABLE DUCTS FOR

TELEPHONE CABLES WHEN INSTALLING
OTHER SERVICES.
ELECTRIC AND TELEPHONE CABLES AND

WATER MAIN IN ONE TRENCH
Figure 13-5: Utilities placement detail
13.12 Railway Grade Crossings
The horizontal and vertical geometries of a highway approaching an at-grade railway

crossing should be constructed in a manner that does not require a driver to divert attention
from roadway conditions. If possible, the highway should intersect the tracks at a right
angle with no nearby intersections or driveways. This layout enhances the driver's view of
the crossing and tracks and reduces conflicting vehicular movements.
Where this is not possible, the angle of skew shall be not greater than 45° (Figure 13.6).
Crossings should not be located on either highway or railway curves. Roadway curvature
inhibits a driver's view of a crossing ahead and a driver's attention may be directed towards
negotiating the curve rather than looking for a train. Railway curvature may inhibit a
driver's view down the tracks from both a stopped position at the crossing and on the
approach to the crossings.

Chapter 13
-START OF NON PASSING ZONE

200m FROM CROSSING
t RUMBLE STRIPS (OPTIONAL)

M -STOP LINE
z
m T
r
3Q-1 Oftn
GATE
CAUTIONARY SIGNS STOP Lll
Figure 13-6: Railway Crossing Details with Rumble strips
Where highways that are parallel with main tracks intersect highways that cross the tracks;
there should be sufficient distance between the tracks and the highway intersections to
enable highway traffic in all directions to move expeditiously and safely.
It is desirable that the intersection of the highway and railroad be made as level as possible
from the standpoint of sight distance, ride quality, braking and acceleration distances (see
Figure 13.7). Vertical curves should be of sufficient length to ensure an adequate view of
the crossing, and crest and sag curves are the same as for the roadway design. The sight
distance requirements down the tracks are similar to those for a roadway junction.
It is necessary to install signing to provide a safe crossing. Traffic control devices for
railroad-highway grade crossings consist of signs and pavement markings. Standards for
design and placement of these devices are covered in the Standard Detail Drawings.
C/L C/L C/L

RAIL TRACK RAIL
VERTICAL CURVE
VERTICAL CURVE
>ÿ1 -L GRAÿL-—-
1!
GRADE xT
Figure 13-7: Railway Crossings Details on Vertical Curve

Chapter 14
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Road Furniture and Markings
14 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS
14.1 Introduction
Road furniture and markings include the elements intended to improve the driver's
perception and comprehension of the continually changing appearance of the road.
Elements addressed herein include traffic signs, road markings, marker posts, traffic
signals, and lighting.
Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient
manoeuvring on the road. Road markings delineate the pavement edges and thereby clarify
the paths that vehicles are to follow. Marker posts assist in a timely perception of the
alignment ahead and, when equipped with reflectors, provide good optical guidance at
night. Traffic signals are key elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads
and for some rural junctions. Finally, lighting is provided to improve the night time safety
of a road.
Traffic signs, road markings, and marker posts must conform to ERA/RTA standards.
Standards for traffic signs and road markings and their placement are provided in the ERA
Standard Detail Drawings.
14.2 Traffic Signs
The extent to which signs and markings are required depends on the traffic volume, the
type of road, and the degree of traffic control required for safe and efficient operation.
The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric
design. However, physical layout must also be supplemented by effective traffic signing as
a means of informing and warning drivers, and controlling drivers. Design of traffic signs
and road markings is an intricate part of the design process.
Traffic signs are of three general types:

i) Regulatory Signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement
ii) Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
iii) Informatory Signs: convey information of use to the driver.
14.3 Road Markings
14.3.1 Purpose
The function of road markings is to encourage safe and expeditious operation of the road.
Road markings either supplement traffic signs and marker posts or serve independently to
indicate certain regulations or hazardous conditions. There are three general types of road
markings - pavement markings, object markings and road studs.
14.3.2 Pavement markings
Pavement markings consist of centrelines, lane lines, no overtaking lines, edge lines, etc.
Night time visibility of these markings can be markedly improved by mixing small glass

Chapter 14
Road Furniture and Markings Geometric Design Manual -
2013
beads into the paint or thermoplastic before applying it to the road surface. Other pavement
markings such as stop and pedestrian crossings and various word and symbol markings
may supplement pavement markings.
14.3.3 Object Markers
Physical obstructions in or near the carriageway should be removed in order to provide the
appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impractical, such objects should be adequately
marked by painting or by use of other high-visibility material. Where the object is in the
direct line of traffic, the obstruction and marking thereon should be reflectorised.
14.3.4 Road Studs
Road studs are manufactured plastic objects incorporating reflectorised patches. Hybrid
markings consisting of both reflective road markings and reflective studs can be useful for
night-time driving in unlit areas. They are generally placed along the centreline of the road,
in the middle of the “broken-line” portion of the marking, for added demarcation. The
studs can also be used to give an audible and tactile warning of crossing any line that
incorporates them, such as a pedestrian crossing.
The configuration for road markings is shown in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings.
All permanent pavement and object markings must be formed in thermoplastic materials
and must be reflectorized.
14.4 Marker Posts
Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe and expeditious
operation. There are two types of marker posts in use - guideposts and kilometre posts.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes
in shoulder width, abrupt changes in the alignment, approaches to structures etc. For
changes in shoulder width and approaches to structures, guide posts should be placed at
50m intervals. For spacing of guideposts at curves, see Table 14.1.
Table 14-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves

Curve Radius (m) Guide Post Spacing (m)
500 35
200 20
100 12
50 8
30 5
Kilometre posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads. The kilometre posts must be
numbered as indicated in Appendix A beginning at Addis Ababa or beginning at the trunk
road-link road intercepts. Kilometre posts must be placed every 1 km, past the edge of the
shoulder.

Chapter 14
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Road Furniture and Markings
Marker posts shall be constructed from either concrete or plastic. Plastic marker posts may
have the following advantages:
i) Lower initial costs.
ii) Lower maintenance cost due to their ability to absorb an impact and remain
intact.
iii) Minimal damage to impacting vehicle.
iv) Safer highway environment.
v) Unlikely to be removed by local population for alternative use.
The incorporation of reflective panels into the marker post greatly improves their visibility
at night.
14.5 Traffic Signal
Traffic signals control vehicular and pedestrian traffic by indicating the priority of
movement for certain predetermined or traffic-actuated intervals of time. They are key
elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and for some rural junctions.
The phasing of the signals at each road junction should be integrated to achieve optimum
efficiency. In designing the road, careful consideration should be given to the junction
location and geometry with respect to traffic signal visibility and pedestrian requirements.
The layout of traffic lanes at signal-controlled junctions determines the functioning of the
junction. Adequate provision should be made for right and left turning lanes and signals
must be phased accordingly. Consideration should also be given to the provision of
pedestrian signals at major junctions.
14.6 Lighting
Lighting is provided to improve the safety of a road. Statistics indicate that the night-time
accident rate is higher than during daylight hours, which, to a large degree, may be
attributed to impaired visibility. In urban areas, where there are concentrations of
pedestrians and junctions, fixed source lighting tends to reduce accidents. However,
lighting of rural highways is seldom justified except at junctions, intersections, and railway
level crossings, narrow or long bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, and areas where there is
activity adjacent to the road (e.g. markets).
To minimize the effect of glare and to provide the most economical lighting installation,
luminaries should be mounted at a height of at least 9 metres. High mounted luminaries
provide greater uniformity of lighting and mounting heights of 10 to 15 metres are
frequently used. High mast lighting (special luminaries on masts of 30 metres) is used to
illuminate large areas such as intersections. This type of lighting gives a uniform
distribution of light over the whole area and thus illuminates the layout of the intersection.
Lighting columns (poles) should be placed behind vertical kerbs whenever practical. The
appropriate distance is 0.5m behind the kerb for roads with a design speed of 50 km/h or
less, and 1.2m or greater for roads with a design speed of 80 km/h or greater. Where poles
are located within the clear zone, regardless of distances from the edge of the carriageway,
they should be designed to include a frangible impact attenuation feature. However, these

Chapter 14
Road Furniture and Markings Geometric Design Manual -
2013
types of poles should not be used on roads in densely populated areas, particularly with
footways. When struck, these poles may collapse and cause injury to pedestrians or
damage adjacent property. Because of lower speeds and parked vehicles on urban roads,
there is much less chance of injuries to vehicle occupants from striking fixed poles
compared to higher speed roads.
On dual carriageways, lighting may be located either in the median or on the right hand
side of each carriageway. However, with median installation the cost is generally lower
and illumination is higher on the high-speed outer lanes. On median installations, dual
mast arms should be used, for which 12-15 metre mounting heights are favoured.
These should be protected with a suitable safety barrier. On narrow medians, it is

preferable to place the lighting poles so that they are integral with the median barrier.
When it is intended to install highway lighting in the future, providing the necessary
conduits/ducts as part of the initial road construction can give rise to considerable savings.

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 References
15 REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (2001). Policy

on the geometric design of highways and streets. Washington, DC..
Austroads (2000). Draft Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads Sydney,.
Australia.
Committee of State Road Authorities (1998). TRH 17: Geometric Design of Rural
Roads. Pretoria, South Africa.
The Highway Agency (1997). Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. London, UK.
Neumann, T R (1985). Intersection channelization design guide. Transportation Research

Board, NCHRP Report 279, Washington, DC..
TRL (1994). Towards Safer Roads: A Guide for Planners and Engineers. TRL Limited,
Crowthome, UK.
TRL (1988). A Guide to Geometric Design. Overseas Road Note No 6. TRL Limited,
Crowthome, UK.
Transportation Research Board (2000). Highway Capacity Manual Special Report 209,
National Research Council, Washington, DC..
SATTC (1998). Code of Practice for the geometric design of trunk roads.
CSIR/Transportek Report CR-97/049, Pretoria, RSA..
South African National Road Agency. Geometric design guidelines. RSA.

Appendix A
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Classification of Roads
Appendix A CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROADS
The following are the classified roads in Ethiopia under the five classes. This classification
should always be updated and the information should be used after getting confirmation
from the relevant ERA Division by the designer.
Table A-l : Numbering of Trunk Roads
Number Road Section Length (km)

A1 Addis- Assab 853
A2 Addis- Axum 1071
A3 Addis- Gondar 737
A4 Addis- Gimbi 445
A5 Addis- Metu 510
A6 Jima-Mizan Teferi 554
A7 Mojo- Arba Minch 432
A8 Shashemene- Agere Maryam 214
A9 Nazareth- Asela 77
A10 Awash- Dengego- Degehabur 572
A 10a Dengego- Dire Dawa 20
Total 5485
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page A-l

Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Table A-2: Numbering of Roads
Length
Number Road Section Surfacing Type
(km)
I. Trunk Roads
A1 Addis- Assab 853 Paved
A 1-1 Addis - Modjo 71
A I -2 A 1-2 Modjo- Nazreth 25
A 1-3 Nazreth - Metehara 95
A I -4 Metehara- Awash Junction 46
A 1-5 Awash Junction -Gewane 153
A 1-6 Gewane - Mille 150
A 1-7 Mi lie - Semera 75
A I -8 Semera - Serdo 30
A 1-9 Serdo - Dobi 50
A 1 - 10 Dobi - Burie 130
Ala Dobi - Galafi 28
II. Link Roads

BII Mille - Kombolcha 130
B1 1-1 Mille - Bali 88 Un paved
B I 1- 2 Bati - Kombolcha 42 Paved
III. Main Access Roads
IV'. Collector Roads

D1 1 Assaita junc. - Assaita 50 Unpaved
V. Feeder Roads
Ell Modjo - Ejere - Arerti 60 Unpaved
Page A-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority »

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A2 Addis- Axum 1071

A2-1 Addis - Debreberehan 130 Paved
A2-2 Debreberehan - Debresina 60 Paved
A2-3 Debresina - Efeson/Ataye 110 Paved
A2-4 Efeson/Ataye-Kemisse-Kombolcha 105 Paved
A2-5 Kombolcha- Dessie 25 Paved
A2-6 Dessie - Woldiya 120 Paved/Unpav.
A2-7 Wodiya - Waja 66 Unpaved
A2-8 Waja - Maichew 80 Unpaved
A2-9 Maichew- Mekele 120 Unpaved
A2-10 Mekele - Adigrat 125 Paved
A2-1 1 Adigrat - Adiabun 108 Unpaved
A2-12 Adiabun - Axum 22 Unpaved
11. Link Roads 35

B20 Addigrat - Zalanbesa 240 Paved
B21 Dessei - Gundowoin 180 Unpaved
B21-1 Dessei - Mekane Selam 60 Unpaved
B21-2 Mekane Selam - Gundowoin 299 Unpaved
B22 Weldiya -Woreta 120 Unpaved
B22-1 Weldiya- Gashena 22
B22-2 Gashena - Filakit 21
B22-3 Filakit - Debrezebit 96
B22-4 Debrezebit - Debre Tabour 40
B22-5 Debre Tabour - Woreta
111. Main Access Roads 86

C21 D/Berehan - Deneba - Jihur Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads 135

D21 Tarmaber - Mehalemeda 40 Unpaved
D22 Robit - Awash Unpaved
V. Feeder Roads 85
E21 Senbo - Kesern 42 Unpaved
E22 D/Berhan - Ankober 22 Unpaved
E23 Tarmaber - Seladingay Unpaved
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page A- 3

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A3 Addis- Gondar 737
A3-1 Addis - Commando 113 Paved
A3-2 Commando - Abay River 95 Paved
A3-3 Abay River - Dejen 22 Paved
A3-4 Dejen - Debre Markos 72 Paved
A3-5 Debre Markos - Bure Junction 110 Unpaved
A3-6 Bure Junction - Dangla 73 Unpaved
A3-7 Dangla - Bahir Dar 80 Unpaved
A3-8 Bahir Dar - Werota 53 Unpaved
A3-9 Werota - Azezo Airport 101 Unpaved
A3-10 Azezo Airport - Gondar 18 Paved
II. Link Roads
B30 Gondar - Axum 356 Unpaved
B30-1 Gondar - Debark 103
B30-2 Debark - Adi Arkay 73
B30-3 Adi Arkay - Boya River 20
B30-4 Boya River - Inda Selassei 97
B30-5 Inda Selassei - Axum 63
B31 Tik - Bahir Dar 259 Unpaved
B31-1 Tik - Mota 139
B31-2 Mota -Bahir Dar 120
B32 Bure Junction - Nekempte 257 Unpaved
B32-1 Bure Junction - Abay River 60
B32-2 Abay River - Gida 89
B32-3 Gida - Ander Guten 46
B32-4 Ander Guten - Nekempte 62
C31 C32 Mukautre - Alemketema 105 Unpaved
C33 Mankussa - Birsheleko 26 Unpaved
C33-1 Kosober - Bambudi 323 Unpaved
C33-2 Kosober - Chagni 56
C33-3 Chagni - Mambuk 56
C33-4 Mambuk - Guba 131
C34 Guba junc. - Bambudi 80
C35 Azezo - Metema 185 Unpaved
Gondar - Humera 250 Unpaved
D31 IV. Collector Roads 250

D32 Dogolo - Aksta - Tenta - Dawnt-Gasht 53 Unpaved
D33 Dibate junc. - Dibate 22 Unpaved
Tissabay junc. - Tissabay Unpaved
23
E31 V. Feeder Roads 52
E32 Chancho - Deneba Unpaved
Azezo - Gorgora Unpaved
Page A -4 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A4 Addis- Gimbi 441
A4-1 Addis- Holeta 40 Paved
A4-2 Holeta - Ambo 85 Paved
A4-3 Ambo - Gedo 65 Paved
A4-4 Gedo - Bako 57 Paved
A4-5 Bako - Nekempte 81 Paved
A4-6 Nekempte - Gimbi 113 Unpaved
11. Link Roads

B40 Gimbi - Assosa 233 Unpaved
B40-1 Gimbi -Nejo 70
B40-2 Nejo - Mendi 70
B40-3 Mendi - Bambasi 51
B40-4 Bambasi - Assosa 42
B41 Ambo - Giyon (Weliso) 60 Unpaved
B42 Nekempte Junction - Bedele 92 Unpaved
B42-1 Nekempte Junction - Dedessa Bridge 62
B42-2 Dedessa Bridge - Bedele 30
B43 Gimbi(Mekenajo) - Dembidolo 197 Unpaved
B43-1 Gimbi(Mekenajo) -Alem Teferi 111
B43-2 Alem Teferi - Dembidolo 86

C40 Asosa - Kurmuk 96 Unpaved
C41 Holeta - Muger 85 Unpaved
C42 Gedo - Fincha 134 Unpaved
C44 C44- Bambasi - Gambela Unpaved
1 Bambasi - Begi 70
C44 -2 Begi - Mugi 1 14
C44 -3 Mugi - Shebel 94
C44-4 Shebel - Gambela
C44a Mugi - Dembidolo 43 Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads 79

D41 Nedjo - Jarso - Shemel Toke Unpaved
V. Feeder Roads 51
E4I Asossa junc. - Dabus Unpaved
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page A-5

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A5 Addis- Metu 580
A5-1 Addis (Alemgena) - Giyon (Weliso) 94 Paved
A5-2 Giyon (Weliso) - Walkite 42 Paved
A5-3 Walkite - Gibe River 33 Paved
A5-4 Gibe River - Saja 65 Paved
A5-5 Saja - Jimma 87 Paved
A5-6 Jimma - Bedele 143 Paved/Unpav.
A5-7 Bedele- Metu 116 Paved/Unpav.
II. Link Roads

B50 Metu - Gambella 164 Unpaved
B50-1 Metu - Gore 18
B50-2 Gore - Gambella 146
B51 Alemgena - Sodo 339 Unpaved
B51-1 Alemgena - Butajira 130
B51-2 Butajira -Hosaina 100
B51-3 Hosaina - Areka 69
B51-4 Areka - Sodo 40
B52 Jima -Sodo 241 Unpaved
B52-1 Jima - Chida 82
B52-2 Chida - Waka 74
B52-3 Waka - Sodo 85
B53 Gore - Mizan Teferi 179 Unpaved
B53-1 Gore - Gecha 73
B53-2 Gecha - Tepi 55
B53-3 Tepi - Mizan Teferi 51

C50 Gambela - Jikawo 120 Unpaved
C51 Welkite - Hosaina 150 Unpaved
C52 Indibir- Ziway 108 Unpaved
C52-1 Indibir- Butajira 60
C52-2 Butajira - Ziway 48
C53 Bole junc. - Tolay 65 Unpaved
C54 Limmu June.- Sintu - Atnago 80 Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads

D51 Gambela - Abobo 45 Unpaved
D52 Metu - Alge 50 Unpaved
V. Feeder Roads
E51 II. Tulubolo - Arbuchulule 27 Unpaved
E52 Atat junc. - Kose 47 Unpaved
E53 Gubre junc.-Bojobar 62 Unpaved
E54 Agaro - Gera Agriculture devt. 72 Unpaved
E55 Metu -Sor Hydro Electric Power 32 Unpaved
Page A-6 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A6 Jima- Mizan Teferi 216 Unpaved
A6-1 Jima- Bonga 101
A6-2 Bonga - Mizan Teferi 115
V. Feeder Roads
E61 Bonga - Chida 80 Unpaved
E62 Shishinda - Tepi 74 Unpaved
I. Trunk Roads
A7 Mojo- Arba Minch 446 Paved
A7-1 Mojo- Ziway 87
A7-2 Ziway - Shashemene 89
A7-3 Shashemene - Alaba 70
A7-4 Alaba - Sodo 70
A7-5 Sodo - Arba Minch 130
11. Link Roads

C70 Arbaminch - Kelem Unpaved
C70-1 Arbaminch - Konso 85
C70-2 Konso - Woito 46
C70-3 Woito - Turmi 130
C70-4 Turmi - Kelem
C71 Sodo -Woito Unpaved
C71-1 Sodo -Sawla 139
C71-2 Sawla- Jinka
C71-3 Jinka -Keyafer - Woito 92
C72 Arbaminc junction - Gerese-Sawla Unpaved
C73 Konso - Yabelo 135 Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads

D70a Meno - Fejej 135 Unpaved
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page A -7

Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual -
2013
I. Trunk Roads
A8a Shashemene - Wondo Genet 20 Unpaved
A8 Shashemene- Hgere Mariam 120 Paved
A8-1 Shashemene- Awassa 20
A8-2 Awassa - Aposto 35
A8-3 Aposto - Dilla 54
A8-4 Dilla - Hgere Mariam 11
II. Link Roads

B81 Shashemene-Dodola 73 Unpaved
B82 (Aposto) Wendo-Negele 279 Unpaved
B82-1 (Aposto) Wendo-Kebre Mengeste 154
B82-2 Kebre Mengeste - Negele 125

C80 Hageremariam - Moyale 300 Paved
C80-1 Hageremariam - Yabelo 94
C80-2 Yabelo - Mega 99
C80-3 Mega - Moyale 107
C81 Agere Selam-Daye-Mejo-Soyema 100 Unpaved
C82 Mega - Bulbul 205 Unpaved
C82-1 Mega - Wachile 85
C82-2 Wachile- Bulbul 60
C82-3 III. Bulbul - Negele 60
C83 Goba -Bitat 223 Unpaved
C83-1 Goba - (Delo)Mena 112
C83-2 (Delo)Mena - Bitat 111
IV. Collector Roads

D81 Wondo -Dila 37 Unpaved
D82 Negele -Dolo 314 Unpaved
D82-1 Negele - Filtu 112
D82-2 Filtu - Dolo 202
Page A -8 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A9 Nazareth- Asela 77 Paved
II. Link Roads

B90 Asela -Code 608 Unpaved
B90-1 Asela-Dodola 120
B90-2 Dodola-Robe 113
B90-3 Robe-Ali-Ginir 138
B90-4 Ginir-Imi 180
B90-5 Imi -Gode 57
B90a Robe- Goba 14 Unpaved
B91 Dera- Chole 123 Unpaved
B91-1 Dera- Sire 23
B91-2 Sire-Chole 100
B92 Iteya- Diksis - Robi 76 Unpaved

C90 Robe - Goro - Ginir 141 Unpaved
C91 Chole -Arberekti 164 Unpaved
C91-1 Chole- Mechara 66
C91-2 Mechara - Gelemso -Arberekti 98
C92 Robe - Shek Husen 1 Unpaved
C92-1 Robe - Seru 55
C92-2 Seru - Shek Husen 90
65
V. Feeder Roads
E91 IV. Sodere - Nura era 60 Unpaved
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page A -9

Appendix A
I. Trunk Roads
A10 Awash Junction - Degehabur 572
A 10-1 Awash Junction - Arbereketi 106 Paved
A 10-2 Arbereketi - Kulubi 130 Paved
A 10-3 Kulubi - Dengego 31 Paved
A 10-4 Dengego - Harar 31 Paved
A 10-5 Harar - Jijiga 103 Unpaved
A 10-6 Jijiga - Degehabur 171 Unpaved
AlOa Dengego - Dire Dawa 20 Paved
II. Link Roads

B100 Degehbur-Gode 398 Unpaved
B 100-1 Degehbur- Kebridar 233
B 100-2 Kebridar-Gode 165
B10I Metehara- Chole 200 Unpaved
B102 Babile-lmi 365 Unpaved
B102-1 Babile-Fik 160
B102-2 Fik- Hamero 105
B102-3 Hamero- Imi 100

C100 Diredawa - Dewole 224 Unpaved
C101 Diredawa-Hurso-Erer Kebridar - 54 Unpaved
Cl 02 Warder 120 Unpaved
Cl 03 Gode - Hargele. 205 Unpaved
Cl 04 Gode - Kelafo - Ferfer 135 Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads

D10 1 Kobo - Deder 12 Unpaved
D10 2 Harer - Jarso - Bombas 81 Unpaved
Page A- 10 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix B
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Coefficients of Friction
Appendix B COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION
The coefficients of friction as determined by various authors are shown in Figure B-l.
Longitudinal friction coefficients depend on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of
roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tyres. Its value decreases
as speed increases but there is considerable disagreement about representative values,
especially at the lower speeds.
0.8
“"TEST DATA
5 ;ÿ
- EXTRAPOLATED
0.7
■*"fir!
7
IR; MIXE;
0) ns
51 0.6 JL DRY-P&
3
18OC/0
43 j$r"
5
■S4-G5O5- \
8J.S= 0.5
£ &
111
■“
“-Eg
QM-
6
%
%%
23J o-4
©
o
£oÿvc
%
o ts a
oga. 9ÿ
II --2
4-OW
0.2
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Speed of Vehicle (km/hour)
Figure B-l: Longitudinal Friction for Various Tyre and Pavement Conditions
It is therefore difficult to define representative values in a country such as Ethiopia where

the conditions are so variable; worn tyres are common, gravel roads can have particularly
low friction characteristics, and the climate varies from wet to arid.
Side friction coefficients are also dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture
of roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tyres. Figure B-2
illustrates some values obtained by various researchers.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page B-l

Appendix B
Coefficients of Friction Geometric Design Manual - 2013
.22
HRB 1940 Moyer & Berry
.20
.18 \
.16
K /
HRB 1936 Barnett
S
N
«
oo
14 Arizona
.12 X
Assumed for Curve Design
N
.10
HRB 1940 Stonex 8. Noble
.08
20 30 40 SO 60 TO 80 90 100 110 120
Speed (km/h)
Figure B-2: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways
The values used in this manual (Tables B-l and B-2) allow a reasonable safety factor to
cater for the wide range of conditions. For unpaved roads a systematic reduction in the
values used for paved roads has been used.
It is reported that drivers in urban environments tolerate a higher degree of ‘discomfort’

than drivers in rural areas, hence it is sometimes advocated that higher coefficients of
friction could be used for calculating minimum radii of curvature at the lower speeds in
urban areas. In view of the general conditions in Ethiopia (see above) it is not considered
prudent to do so.
Table B-l: Friction factors for paved roads

Design speed (km/h) 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Longitudinal Factor 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28
Side Friction Factor 0.23 0.215 0.205 0.185 0.17 0.155 0.145 0.13 0.125 0.105
Table B2 Friction factors for unpaved roads.

Design speed (km/h) 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 90 100
Longitudinal Factor 0.34 0.33 032 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 033 0.23
Side Friction Factor 0.185 0.17 0.165 0.15 0.135 0.125 0.12 0.11 0.105 0.10 0.09
Page B-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix C
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Sight Distance at Intersections
Appendix C SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS AND JUNCTIONS
C.l Introduction
The provision of adequate sight distances and appropriate traffic controls is essential for
safe intersection operation. Mathematical models have been developed for carrying out the
required calculations for adequate sight distances at junctions of different types but require
many assumptions and are not reliable. The best information is obtained from empirical
data but this is primarily based on research in western countries. The mix of traffic, its age
spectrum, overloading practices etc. are entirely different in Ethiopia. Furthermore, the
required sight distances also depend strongly on driver behaviour. It is therefore not a
simple task to calculate the optimum or minimum sight distances applicable to different
junction designs, different road classes and different mixes of traffic. A pragmatic
approach is to utilise the available empirical data but to select conservative options for
safety.
Stopping sight distance should be provided continuously on all roadways including at the
approaches to intersections. However, in rural areas or when approach speeds are in excess
of 80 km/h, the decision sight clearance set out in Section 7.5 should be provided on all
approaches to intersections for safe operation, particularly where auxiliary lanes are added
to the intersection layout to accommodate the turning movements. This is the sight distance
required by drivers entering the intersection to enable them to establish that it is safe to do
so and then to carry out the manoeuvres necessary either to join or to cross the opposing
traffic streams. The distances shown in this Appendix are derived from research into gap
acceptance as reported in NCHRP Report 383 Intersection Sight Distance.
C.l Sight Triangles
Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a clear sight triangle free of obstructions
that may block a driver's view of potentially conflicting vehicles on the opposing
approaches. Two different forms of sight triangle are required, approach sight triangles
and departure sight triangles as shown in Figure C.l.
The approach triangle will have sides with sufficient lengths on both intersecting roadways
such that drivers can see any potentially conflicting vehicle in sufficient time to slow, or to
stop if need be, before entering the intersection.
For the departure sight triangle, the line of sight described by the hypotenuse of the sight
triangle should be such that a vehicle just coming into view on the major road will, at the
design speed of this road, have a travel time to the intersection corresponding to the gap
acceptable to the driver of the vehicle on the minor road.
Both forms of sight triangle are required in each quadrant of the intersection. The line of
sight assumes a driver eye height of 1.05 metres and an object height of 1.3 metres. The
areas shown shaded in Figure C.l should be kept clear of vegetation or any other obstacle
to provide a clear line of sight. To this end, the road reserve is normally splayed to ensure
that the entire extent of the sight triangle is under the control of the road authority.
Furthermore, the profiles of the intersecting roads should be designed to provide the
required sight distance. Where one or other of the approaches is in cut, the affected sight
triangles may have to be ‘day-lighted’, i.e. the natural material occurring within the sight
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page C-l

Appendix C
Sight Distance at Intersections Geometric Design Manual - 2013
triangles may have to be excavated to ensure inter-visibility between the relevant

approaches.
1:
16
.S
7 2
=
Major road b
Maiqpr6ad
b a a
Approach sight is. Approach sight

triangle for viewing Decision point Decision point ' triangle for viewing
traffic from the left traffic from the
for a right turn right for a left turn
A Approach Sight Triangles
1s 1
.5
- i
—
Major road b
Ja a
t (t/fajor road
b
ll *
/
Departure sight / Departure sight
triangle for viewing Decision point Decision point triangle for viewing
traffic from the left traffic from the
for a right turn right for a left turn
B Departure Sight Triangles
Figure C.l Sight Triangles
Sight distance values are based on the ability of the driver of a passenger car to see an
approaching passenger car. It is also necessary to check whether the sight distance is
adequate for trucks. Because their rate of acceleration is lower than that of passenger cars
and, as the distance that the truck has to travel to clear the intersection is longer, the gap
acceptable to a truck driver is considerably greater than that required by the driver of a
passenger car. For design purposes, the eye height of truck drivers is taken as 1 .8 metres
for checking the availability of sight distance for trucks.
Page C-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix C
C.3 Intersection Control
The recommended dimensions of the clear sight triangles vary with the type of traffic
control used at an intersection because different types of control impose different legal
constraints on drivers resulting in different driver behaviour. Sight distance policies for
intersections with the following types of traffic control are shown below:
A. Intersections with no control;
B. Intersections with ‘Stop’ control on the minor road;
a. Right turn from the minor road (Case B1 );
b. Left turn from the minor road (Case B2);
c. Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case B3);
C. Intersections with ‘Yield’ control on the minor road;
a. Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case C 1 );
b. Left or right turn from the minor road (Case C2);
D. Intersections with traffic signal control;
E. Intersections with all-way Stop control.
C.3. 1 Intersections with no control (Case A)
Uncontrolled intersections are not used in conjunction with the main road network but are
common in rural networks and access roads to rural settlements. In these cases, drivers
must be able to see potentially conflicting vehicles on intersecting approaches in sufficient
time to stop safely before reaching the intersection. Thus sight triangles with legs at least
equal to the stopping sight distance at the design speed of the road should be provided on
all the approaches to uncontrolled intersections (Tables 7.2 and 7.3). However, the sudden
appearance at the available sight distance of a vehicle about to cross a junction should not
require an emergency stop by the vehicle on the other road (except in extreme
circumstances) hence sight distances should exceed the stopping sight distance.
However, observations in the NCHRP study indicate that vehicles approaching

uncontrolled intersections typically slow down. This occurs even when no potentially
conflicting vehicles are present. Hence if sight triangles of the ideal size cannot be
provided, approaching vehicles travelling at less than their normal running speed can still
brake to a stop if required in an emergency situation. Table C.l shows revised sight
distances based on the NCHRP study.
If these sight distances cannot be provided, advisory speed signing to reduce speeds or
installing Stop signs on one or more approaches should be investigated.
Uncontrolled intersections do not normally require departure sight triangles because they
typically have very low traffic volumes. If a driver finds it necessary to stop at an
uncontrolled intersection because of the presence of a conflicting vehicle, it is unlikely that
another potentially conflicting vehicle will be encountered as the first vehicle departs the
intersection.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page C-3

Appendix C
Sight Distance at Intersections Geometric Design Manual -
2013
Table C.l: Recommended Sight Distances for Intersections

with no Traffic Control
Sight Distance (m)
Design
Speed Approach gradient
(km/h)
0 to -3% -4% -5% -6%
30 25 25 25 30
40 30 35 35 35
50 40 45 45 45
60 50 55 55 55
70 65 70 70 70
80 80 90 90 95
90 95 105 105 115
100 120 130 130 145
110 140 155 170 170
120 165 180 200 200
Note. The stopping sight distances in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 should be used
whenever possible
C.3.2 Intersections with Stop control on the minor road (Case B)
Departure sight triangles for intersections with Stop control on the minor road should be
considered for three situations:
• Left turns from the minor road (Case B1);
• Right turns from the minor road (Case B2); and
• Crossing the major road from the minor road (Case B3).
Approach sight triangles, as shown in Figure C.l.A need not be provided at Stop-
controlled intersections because all minor-road vehicles should stop before entering or
crossing the major road.
Vehicles turning left from the minor road have to cross the stream of traffic approaching
from the left and then merge with the stream approaching from the right. Right-turning
vehicles need only merge with the stream approaching from the left. As the merging
manoeuvre requires that turning vehicles should be able to accelerate approximately to the
speed of the stream with which they are merging, it necessitates a gap longer than that for
the crossing manoeuvre.
C3.2. 1 Left turn from the minor road (Case Bl)
A departure sight triangle for traffic approaching from the right as shown in Figure C.l.B
should be provided for left turns from the minor road onto the major road for all Stop-
controlled approaches. Field observations of the gaps accepted by the drivers of vehicles
turning to the left onto the major road have shown that the values in Table C.2 provide

Appendix C
sufficient time for the minor-road vehicle to accelerate from a stop and merge with the
opposing stream without undue interference. These observations also revealed that major-
road drivers reduce their speed to some extent to accommodate vehicles entering from the
minor road. Where the gap acceptance values in Table C.2 are used to determine the length
of the leg of the departure sight triangle along the major road, most major-road drivers
need not reduce speed to less than 70 percent of their initial speed.
Table C.2 applies to passenger cars. However, for minor-road approaches from which
substantial volumes of heavy vehicles enter the major road, the values for single-unit
trucks or semitrailers should be applied. Table C.2 includes adjustments to the acceptable
gaps for the number of lanes on the major road and for the approach gradient of the minor
road. The adjustment for the gradient of the minor-road approach need be made only if the
rear wheels of the design vehicle would be on an upgrade steeper than 3 per cent when the
vehicle is at the stop line of the minor-road approach.
The length of the sight triangle along the major road (distance b in Figure C.l) is the
product of the design speed of the major road in metres/second and the critical gap in
seconds as listed in Table C.2. If these sight distances along the major road (including the
appropriate adjustments) cannot be provided, consideration should be given to the
installation of advisory speed signs on the major-road approaches.
Dimension a in Figure C.l.B depends on the context within which the intersection is being
designed. In urban areas, drivers tend to stop their vehicles immediately behind the Stop
line, which may be located virtually in line with the edge of the major road. A car driver
would, therefore, be located about 2.4 metres away from the Stop line. In rural areas,
vehicles usually stop at the edge of the shoulder of the major road. In the case of a 3-metre
wide shoulder, for example, the driver would be approximately 5.4 metres away from the
edge of the travelled way.
Table C.2: Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle along
the Major Road for Right and Left Turns from Stop-controlled Approaches
Travel Time (seconds) at Design Speed of
Vehicle
the Major Road
Passenger car 7.5
Single unit truck 9.5
Semi trailer 11.5
Multi-lane highways.
For left turns onto 2-way highways with more than 2 lanes, add 0.5 seconds for cars and 0.7
seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be crossed by the turning
vehicle. No adjustment is necessary for right turns.
Adjustment for gradients.
If the approach gradient on the minor road exceeds 3% add 0.1 second per gradient for right
turns and 0.2 seconds per gradient for left turns
Where the major road is a dual carriageway, two departure sight triangles have to be
considered: a sight triangle to the left, as for the crossing movement and one using the
acceptable gap as listed in Table C.2 for vehicles approaching from the right. This

Appendix C
2013
presupposes that the width of the median is sufficient to provide a refuge for the vehicle
turning from the minor road. If the median width is inadequate, the adjustment in Table
C.2 for multilane major roads should be applied with the median being counted as an
additional lane. The departure sight triangle should be checked for various possible design
vehicles because the width of the median may be adequate for one vehicle type and not for
another so that two different situations have to be evaluated.
C3.2.2 Right turn from the minor road ( Case B2)
A departure sight triangle for traffic approaching from the left, as shown in Figure C.l
should be provided for right turns from the minor road. The lengths of the legs of the
departure sight triangle for right turns should generally be the same as those for the left
turns used in Case Bl. Specifically, the length of the leg of the departure sight triangle
(dimension b) along the major road should be based on the travel times in Table C.2,
including appropriate adjustment factors.
Dimension a depends on the context of the design and can vary from 2.4 metres to 5.4
metres. Where sight distances along the major road based on the travel times from Table
C.2 cannot be provided, it should be kept in mind that field observations indicate that, in
making right turns, drivers generally accept gaps that are slightly shorter than those
accepted in making left turns. The travel times in Table C.2 can be decreased by 1 .0 to 1.5
seconds for right turn manoeuvres, where necessary, without undue interference with
major-road traffic. When the recommended sight distance for a right-turn manoeuvre
cannot be provided, even with this reduction, consideration should be given to the
installation of advisory speed signs and warning devices on the major road approaches.
C3.2.3 Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case B3)
In most cases it can be assumed that the departure sight triangles for right and left turns
onto the major road, as described for Cases Bl and B2, will also provide more than
adequate sight distance for minor-road vehicles crossing the major road. However, it is
advisable to check the availability of sight distance for crossing manoeuvres:
• Where right and/or left turns are not permitted from a particular approach and
crossing is the only legal manoeuvre;
• Where the crossing vehicle has to cross four or more lanes; or
• Where substantial volumes of heavy vehicles cross the highway and where there
are steep gradients on the departure roadway on the far side of the intersection that
might slow the vehicle while its rear is still in the intersection.
Table C.3 presents travel times and appropriate adjustment factors that can be used to
determine the length of the leg of the sight triangle along the major road to accommodate
crossing manoeuvres. At divided highway intersections, depending on the width of the
median and the length of the design vehicle, sight distance may be needed for crossing
both roadways of the divided highway or for crossing the near lanes only and stopping in
the median before proceeding.

Appendix C
Table C.3: Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle along
the Major Road for Crossing Manoeuvres from Stop-controlled Approaches
Vehicle
the Major Road
Passenger car 6.5
Semi trailer 10.5
For left turns onto 2-way highways with more than 2 lanes, add 0.5 seconds for cars and 0.7
seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be crossed. In the case of dual
carriageways with inadequate median width for refuge, count the median as another lane to
be crossed.
Adjustment for gradients.
If the approach gradient on the minor road exceeds 3% add 0.2 second per percent gradient in
excess of 3%.
Notes: 1. For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 per cent, increase by the same factor as in
Tabled.
2. Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the intersection but does not stop.
C.3.3 Intersections with Yield control on the minor road (Case C)
Vehicles entering a major road at a Yield-controlled intersection may, because of the

presence of opposing vehicles on the major road, be required to stop. Departure sight
triangles as described for Stop control must therefore be provided for the Yield condition.
However, if no conflicting vehicles are present, drivers approaching Yield signs are
permitted to enter or cross the major road without stopping. The sight distances needed by
drivers on Yield-controlled approaches exceed those for Stop-controlled approaches
because of the longer travel time of the vehicle on the minor road.
For four-legged intersections with Yield control on the minor road, two separate sets of
approach sight triangles as shown in Figure C.l.A should be provided; one set of approach
sight triangles to accommodate right and left turns onto the major road and the other for
crossing movements. Both sets of sight triangles should be checked for potential sight
obstructions.
C3.3. 1 Crossing manoeuvres ( Case Cl)
The lengths of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road to accommodate
the crossing manoeuvre from a Yield-controlled approach (distance a in Figure C.l.A) are
given in Table C.4. The distances are based on similar assumptions as those for Case A
control. The distances and times in Table C.4 should be adjusted for the gradient of the
minor road approach, using the same factors as used in Table C.l.

Appendix C
2013
Table C.4: Leg of Approach Sight Triangle Along the Minor Road to Accommodate
Crossing Manoeuvres from Yield-controlled Approaches
Design speed Travel time (ta) from
Distance along minor
(minor road). decision point to
road (m)
(km/h) major road(l|(2)
30 30 3.4
40 40 3.7
50 50 4.1
60 65 4.7
70 85 5.3
80 110 6.1
90 140 6.8
100 165 7.3
110 190 7.8
120 230 8.6
Notes 1 For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 per cent, increase by
the same factor as in Table C.l.
2 Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the
intersection but does not stop
The length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the major road to accommodate
the crossing manoeuvre (distance b in Figure C.l.A) should be calculated using the
following equations:
tc — ta + (w + La)/(0.167.Vmjnor)
b = 0.278.tc.VmajOr
where:
tc = travel time to reach and clear the major road in a crossing manoeuvre (sec)
b = length of leg of sight triangle along the major road (m)
ta = travel time to reach the major road from the decision point for a vehicle that
does not stop (sec) (use appropriate value for the minor road design speed
from Table C.l, adjusted for approach grade, where appropriate)
w = width of intersection to be crossed (m)
La = length of design vehicle (m)
Vminor= design speed of minor road (km/h)
Vmajor= design speed of major road (km/h)
These equations provide sufficient travel time for the major road vehicle during which the
minor-road vehicle can:
1. Travel from the decision point to the intersection, while decelerating at the rate of
1 .5m/s2 to 60 per cent of the minor-road design speed; and then
2. Cross and clear the intersection at the same speed.

Appendix C
Field observations did not provide a clear indication of the size of the gap acceptable to the
driver of a vehicle located at the decision point on the minor road. If the required gap is
longer than that indicated by the above equations, the driver would, in all probability, bring
the vehicle to a stop and then select a gap on the basis of Case B. If the acceptable gap is
shorter than that indicated by the above equations, the sight distance provided would, at
least, provide a margin of safety.
If the major road is a divided highway with a median wide enough to store the design
vehicle for the crossing manoeuvre, then only crossing of the near lanes need be
considered and a departure sight triangle for accelerating from a stopped position in the
median should be provided, based on Case B 1 .
C3.3.2 Left and right-turn manoeuvres (Case C2)
To accommodate left and right turns without stopping (distance a in Figure C.l.A), the
length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road should be 25 metres.
This distance is based on the assumption that drivers making right or left turns without
stopping will slow to a turning speed of 15 km/h. The length of the leg of the approach
sight triangle along the major road (distance b in Figure C.l.B) is similar to that of the
major-road leg of the departure sight triangle for Stop-controlled intersections in Cases B1
and B2. For a Yield-controlled intersection, the travel times in Table C.2 should be
increased by 0.5 seconds. [The minor-road vehicle requires 3.5 seconds to travel from the
decision point to the intersection. These 3.5 seconds represent additional travel time that is
needed at a Yield-controlled intersection (Case C). However, the acceleration time after
entering the major road is 3.0 seconds less for a Yield sign than for a Stop sign because the
turning vehicle accelerates from 15 km/h rather than from a stop condition. The net 0.5
seconds increase in travel time for a vehicle turning from a Yield-controlled approach is
the difference between the 3.5 second increase in travel time on approach and the 3.0
second reduction in travel time on departure explained above].
Since approach sight triangles for turning manoeuvres at Yield-controlled sites are larger
than the departure sight triangles used at Stop-controlled intersections, no specific check of
departure sight triangles at Yield-controlled intersections should be necessary.
C.3.4 Intersections with traffic signal control (Case D)
In general, approach or departure sight triangles are not needed for signalised intersections.
Indeed, signalisation may be an appropriate accident countermeasure for higher volume
intersections with restricted sight distance and a history of sight-distance related accidents.
However, traffic signals may fail from time to time. Furthermore, traffic signals at an
intersection are sometimes placed on two-way flashing operation under off-peak or night
time conditions. To allow for either of these eventualities, the appropriate departure sight
triangles for Case B, both to the left and to the right, should be provided for the minor-road
approaches.
C.3.5 Intersections with all-way Stop control (Case E)
At intersections with all-way Stop control, the first stopped vehicle on each approach
would be visible to the drivers of the first stopped vehicles on each of the other
approaches. It is thus not necessary to provide sight distance triangles at intersections with

Appendix C
2013
All-way Stop control. All-way Stop control may be an option to consider where the sight
distance for other types of control cannot be achieved. This is particularly the case if
signals are not warranted.
C.3.6 Left turns from a major road (Case F)
Left-turning drivers need sufficient sight distance to enable them to decide when it is safe
to turn across the lane(s) used by opposing traffic. At all locations, where left turns across
opposing traffic are possible, there should be sufficient sight distance to accommodate
these manoeuvres. Since a vehicle that turns left without stopping needs a gap shorter than
that required by a stopped vehicle, the need for sight distance design should be based on a
left turn by a stopped vehicle. The sight distance along the major road to accommodate left
turns is the distance that would be traversed at the design speed of the major road in the
travel time for the appropriate design vehicle given in Table C.5. This table also contains
appropriate adjustment factors for the number of major-road lanes to be crossed by the
turning vehicle.
Table C5: Travel Times Used to Determine the Sight Distance Along the Major Road
to Accommodate Right Turns From the Major Road (Case F)
Vehicle
the Major Road
Passenger car 5.5
Semi trailer 7.5
For left turns that have to cross more than one opposing lane add 0.5 seconds for cars and 0.7
seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be crossed. In the case of dual
carriageways where the median is not sufficiently wide to provide refuge for the turning
vehicle, the median should be regarded as another lane to be crossed.
If stopping sight distance has been provided continuously along the major road and if sight
distance for Case B (Stop control) or Case C (Yield control) has been provided for each
minor-road approach, sight distance should generally be adequate for left turns from the
major road. However, at intersections or driveways located on or near horizontal or vertical
curves on the major road, the availability of adequate sight distance for left turns from the
major road should be checked. In the case of dual carriageways, the presence of sight
obstructions in the median should also be checked.
At four-legged intersections, opposing vehicles turning left can block a driver's view of
oncoming traffic. If left-turn lanes are provided, off-setting them to the right, to be directly
opposite one other will provide left-turning drivers with a better view of oncoming traffic.
C.4 Effect of skew on sight distance
When two highways intersect at an angle outside the range of 75° to 120° and where
realignment to increase the angle of intersection is not justified, some of the factors for
determination of intersection sight distance will need adjustment. Each of the clear sight

Appendix C
triangles described above is applicable to oblique-angle intersections. The legs of the sight
triangle will lie along the intersection approaches and each sight triangle will be larger or
smaller than the corresponding sight triangle would be at a right-angle intersection. The
area within each sight triangle should be clear of sight obstructions, as described above. At
skew intersections, the length of the travel paths for crossing manoeuvres will be
increased. The actual path length for a crossing manoeuvre can be calculated by dividing
the total width of the lanes (plus the median width, where appropriate) to be crossed by the
sine of the intersection angle and adding the length of the design vehicle. The actual path
length divided by the lane width applied to the major road cross-section gives the
equivalent number of lanes to be crossed. This is an indication of the number of additional
lanes to be applied to the adjustment factor shown in Table C3 for Case B3.
The sight distances shown for Case B can, regardless of the form of control, also
accommodate turning movements from the minor road to the major road at skew
intersections. In the obtuse angle, drivers can easily see the full sight triangle and, in
addition, often accelerate from the minor road at a higher rate than when they have to
negotiate a ninety-degree change of direction. In the acute-angle quadrant, drivers are often
required to turn their heads considerably to see across the entire clear sight triangle. For
this reason, it is suggested that Case A should not be applied to oblique-angle intersections.
Stop or Yield control should be applied and the sight distances appropriate to either Case B
or Case C provided. Even in a skew intersection it is usually possible for drivers to position
their vehicles at approximately 90° to the major road at the Stop line, offering added
support for the application of Case B for skew intersections. When driving through a
deflection angle greater than 120°, the right turn to the minor road may be undertaken at
crawl speeds. Allowance could be made for this by adding the time, equivalent to that
required for crossing an additional lane, to the acceptable gap.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page C-ll

Appendix D
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Measuring Sight Distance
Appendix D MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS

By determining graphically the sight distances on the plans and recording them at frequent
intervals, the designer can appraise the overall layout and provide a more balanced design
by minor adjustments in the plan of profile. Once the horizontal and vertical alignments are
tentatively established, the practical means of examining sight distances along the
proposed highway is by direct scaling on the plans. Methods for scaling sight distances are
demonstrated in Figure D-l. The figure also shows a typical sight distance record that
could be shown on the final plans.
Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is
desirable to measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each station.
Both horizontal and vertical sight distances should be measured and the shorter lengths
recorded. In the case of two-lane highways, passing sight distance in addition to stopping
sight distance should be measured and recorded.
Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as

buildings, hedges, wooded areas, high ground, or other topographic features. These
generally are plotted on the plans. Horizontal sight is measured with a straightedge, as
indicated at the upper left in Figure D-l. The cut slope obstruction is shown on the
worksheets by a line representing the proposed excavation slope at a point 600 millimeters
(approximate average of 1070 millimeters and 150 millimeters) above the road surface for
stopping sight distance and at a point about 1100 millimeters above the road surface for
passing sight distance. The position of this line with respect to the centerline may be scaled
from the plotted highway cross sections. Preferably, the stopping sight distance should be
measured between points on the one traffic lane, and passing sight distance from the
middle of one lane to the middle of the other lane. Such refinement on two-lane highways
generally is not necessary and measurement to the centerline or traveled way edge is
suitable. Where there are changes of grade coincident with horizontal curves that have
sight-limiting cuts slopes on the inside, the line-of-sight intercepts the slope at a level
either lower or higher than the assumed average height. In measuring sight distance the
error in the use of the assumed 600-or 1 100-millimeters height usually can be ignored.
Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated at the
right center of Figure D-l. A transparent strip with parallel edge 1300 millimeters apart
and with scratched lines 150 millimeters and 1070 millimeters from the upper edge, in
accordance with the vertical scale, is a useful tool. The 1070-millimeter line is placed on
the station from which the vertical sight distance is desired, and the strip is pivoted about
this point until the upper edge is tangent to the profile. The distance between the initial
station and the station on the profile intersected by the 150 millimeters line is the stopping
sight distance. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile
intersected by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.
A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Figure D-l. Sight distances in
both directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and profile
sheet of the proposed highway. Sight distance less than 500 m may be scaled to the nearest
10 meters and those greater than 500 meters to the nearest 50 meters. Sight distances can
easily be determined also where plans and profiles are drawn using computer-aided design
and drafting systems (CADD), although such programs presently do not automatically
make this determination.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page D-l

Appendix D
Measuring Sight Distance Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used to advantage to tentatively
determine the marking of no-passing zones. No-passing zones thus established serve as a
guide for markings when the highway is completed. The zone so determined should be
checked and adjusted by field measurements before actual markings are placed.
Page D-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

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1 60 180 200 200 1
I0 [250 \T25 1 40 |300 |900+ | 900+ 1 080 mm to 1 080 mm
EXAMPLE SIGHT DISTANCE RECORD

Figure D-l: Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans
opian Roads Authority Page D-3

Appendix E
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Utilities
Appendix E UTILITIES
E.l Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority
The Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority Distribution Manual, dated January
1975, shows the following parameters:
Minimum vertical clearance of wires above roads:
The manual generally gives no guidance on the placement of the utility within the road
reserve. A drawing shows that street lighting is to be placed 1 meter behind a curb on a
main road. The manual does not state placement for un-curbed roads, and such placement
should not be allowed. Similarly, power poles are placed 60 cm behind curbs; in rural
areas, the poles shall be placed at least 15 meters from the center of the road.
For underground cables crossing the road, unprotected cables are placed 80 cm below a
gravel road; or cables encased with concrete pipe are placed 1 00 cm below an asphalt road
or paved sidewalk. The EELPA shows vertical clearances as per Table E-l.
Table E-l: Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface in Centimetres
Open-Supply Wires, Voltage to

Guys, Ground
Type of Location Messengers,
Etc. 750 to 15,000 to
0 to 750
15,000 50,000
When crossing above:
Railroads 820 820 850 910
Streets, alleys, and
roadways 550 550 610 670
Private driveways 310 310 610 670
Walkways for pedestrians
only 240 460 460 520
When wires are along:
Streets or alleys 550 550 610 670
Roads in rural districts 430 460 550 610
E.2 Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority
The Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority reports that they generally follow the
proposals indicated in the Master Plan for pipe laying. This consists of laying pipes under
the sidewalks. However, in situations where the sidewalk is narrow or does not exist, pipes
are laid in the median, if there is one, or in the edge of the asphalt road.
For pipes up to 150 millimeters diameter, pipes are laid at a depth as indicated in Table E-
2. For larger pipes, the depth is generally greater than 1 .5 meters.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page E-l

Appendix E
Utilities Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Table E-2: Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts
Diameter Depth Width Bedding thickness

(mm) (cm) cm) (cm)
150 85 70 10
125 72.5 70 10
100 70 50 10
75 57.5 40
<50 55 40
E.3 Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation
The Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation reports that for directly buried cable
installation, the ETC uses a depth of 1.0-1.2 meters for primary cable and 0.6-0.8 meters
for secondary cable. ETC does not have a standard location plan within the road right-of-
way at the time of the preparation of this manual.
Page E-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Typical Cross Sections
Appendix F TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS AND STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS
Standard Cross Sections for road classes from DC1 to DC8 are shown in Figures F-l to F-8
and typical town sections from F-9 to F-l 3.
Note that many towns have master plans that will show a slightly different configuration
from the town sections shown. In such cases, our typical section should represent the
minimal requirements.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page F-l

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opian Roads Authority Page F-3

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xisting Ground) - "Pevment Liyers

— jPavment Layers
Roadbed
(Existing Ground)
Sub-grade Sub-grade
Figure F-ll: Divided Two Lane (Zonal Seat) Typical Town Section
F-26 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Limit of Roadbed
-2.5 m-
Pedestrian Trafflc Lane -Traffic Lane Pedestrian
' Walkway ' Walkway
1.0 m 3.5 m -3.5 m - -3.5 m---3.5 m

■
■3.0 m--
T '
m .
m 'A/ /$vT T
Roadbed
(Existing Ground) - -Payment Layin
LJ - -Payment Layen
Roadbed
(Existing Ground)
Sub-grade
Sub-grade
Figure F-12: Divided Two Lane (Regional Seat) Typical Town Section
hiopian Roads Authority Page F-27

Limit of Roadbed
Pedetttin Traffic Ijne Traffic Lane

' ’
Walkway Walkway
5 m-
1.5 m
-15 m 3.5 m -3.5 m -
A - 3.5 m 3.5 m 3.5 m
1.5 m
-4.5 m—
— ---
wr -- X - —-
-"'TK r—
- nr
nr~T
Roadbed Roadbed
(Existing Ground) -PlviMiUyM (Existing Ground)
-amimitumn
Sub-grade
Sub-grade
Figure F-13: Divided Three Lane (Addis Ababa) Typical Town Section
ge F-28 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix G
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Procedure for Design
Appendix G PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN
G.l Introduction
This chapter has been prepared as a guide and checklist for personnel engaged in road
design. It is not intended as a textbook nor should the contents be considered mandatory in
the design of all road projects. It is recognized that whilst the design procedure is generally
the same for any project, there are many specific issues, which the designer must consider
in proceeding with the design of each individual project.
Reference is made in this chapter to the procedures to be followed in the preparation of
data for processing by computer-aided methods. However, whether the designer uses
manual or computer methods, he must always be aware that good engineering judgment
must be exercised at all times. A complete review of all field data, project requirements,
economics and applicable specifications must be considered in order to produce the most
technically sound and economic design for each project.
The designer must also be aware of any relevant safety and environmental regulations and
incorporate these features in the design. The chapter ends with the presentation of a
checklist for road link design.
G.2 Rev iew of Field Data

Horizontal Alignment.
In many cases the designer of the final alignment has little control over the location of the
horizontal alignment due to right-of-way restrictions, previous commitments with local
community groups and other factors. The following items should be considered:
1. Review topographical data along with horizontal alignment to ensure that steep
gradients are avoided where possible.
2. Review topography to ensure that alignment does not run parallel to major
drainages, which may result in channel changes, extra culvert lengths due to skews,
etc.
3. Review curve data to ensure that the degree of curvature meets the allowable
maximum for the required design speed. Also avoid broken curves in alignment or
short tangents on switch back curves that make it impossible to design adequate
super- elevation transitions.
Projects to be designed by computer-aided methods should have horizontal alignment data

submitted as follows:
1 . If the project has been located on photogrammetric manuscripts, the designer need
only submit beginning station and degree of curvature and coordinates of every
horizontal P.I.
2. If the project has been located by ground surveys, the designer should submit
horizontal alignment data in notebook form.
The designer will furnish ERA with copies of horizontal alignment listing (HAL), which
will list all stations and coordinates of P.C., P.I. and P.T. of each curve, including curve
data.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page G-l

Appendix G
Procedure for Design Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Terrain Cross Sections

The terrain cross sections (original cross sections) should be reviewed for accuracy
keeping the following points in mind:
1. Check to see that notes are complete and that cross sections extend sufficient
distances from the centre line to accommodate the template and will permit shifting
of the alignment, if necessary, without re-cross sectioning.
2. Check all benchmarks, turning points, H.I.'s etc., to ensure that cross section
elevations will be reduced correctly.
Check to see that stream profiles have been surveyed and noted in the field notes to
distinguish them from cross sections.
For projects where terrain data are taken directly from aerial photography, the designer
must convert the data for processing. The level of detail from aerial photographs depends
on the flying height, cloud cover and ground vegetation.
Topography Data
Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will generally be collected
electronically for downloading to appropriate computer-aided design software.
Topography data obtained by photogram metry can be more complete and accurate in that it
will include all planimetric features such as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing
improvements, in addition to elevation contours and spot elevations.
The topography data should be checked for completeness and accuracy against other maps
available to the designer.
Topography data will be of great use to the designer in determining right-of-way
restrictions, swamp or rock locations, and the need for relocating utility lines or other
physical features that affect the design.
G.3 Design criteria

Prior to commencing the design, the designer should tabulate all design criteria to be used
on the particular project so that other personnel working on the project will be aware of it.
This data will be obtained through discussions with the ERA Engineer, commitments to
local governing bodies, or through his own analysis of design requirements.
The following items should be tabulated and included in the design file:
1. Design speed.
2. ADT present and future. The ADT should be noted as actual count, listing the date
of count or estimate.
3. A typical section sketch should be prepared showing the proposed geometric
section, such as finished and subgrade widths, ditch dimensions, crown and super¬
elevation, cut and fill slope sections, etc.
4. The files should show design criteria used in determining drainage requirements,
such as 25-year flood frequency, hydrologic chart, etc.
Page G-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix G
5. Right-of-way widths should be noted including agreements for construction

easement.
6. If a soils profile has been taken, it should be part of the file with cover thickness
tabulated. In some areas, a chemical analysis at culvert locations may be required to
determine need for protective coating of pipes.
7. The designer should note whether the profile grade should roll with the terrain,
avoiding high fills and cuts, or whether grades should be as smooth as possible.
8. All control profile elevations should be noted such as, existing pavements to be
matched, minimum pipe cover requirements, railroad elevations crossings, bridge
elevations to be matched, as well as any other elevation requirements, which may
have been agreed to with abutting property owners.
9. Locations of possible borrow and aggregate pits should be noted.
10. The designer should note the requirements for earthwork balancing such as
maximum balance distance, whether tight balance or borrow and waste designs
should be followed and whether ditches can be widened or slopes flattened to
achieve better balanced design.
1 1 . Shrinkage and swell factors should be noted, whether calculated or estimated.
12. Location of rock outcrops, swamps, springs should be indicated.
13. The need for fencing, gates, cattle guards, cattle passes, curbing, guard rail, etc.,
should be noted and criteria used for determining these needs.
14. The need for road approaches, and acceleration, deceleration and passing lanes
should be noted.
15. All available information on base course and surfacing should be noted to determine
thickness, asphalt requirements, need for bituminous seal coats, etc.
16. All other items that may have a bearing on the design should be noted such that all
personnel involved in the design will be aware of criteria and design requirements.
The designer should obtain copies of all correspondence on the project and make it
part of the design file.
G.4 Site Trip

It is imperative that the designer makes a field trip to the site and walks the entire
alignment reviewing the topography before start of actual design. At this time he can note
special problems and design considerations, discussing these items with the ERA Engineer
or his staff. The designer should take photographs of special problem areas to enable him
to best solve design problems.
After this field trip and discussions, the designer has a much better overall picture of the
project and its requirements and can best determine the extent of construction details to go
on the plans. Projects to be designed tor contract work will require more details and
explanation on pay quantities than force account projects.
G.5 Preliminary Design Drawings

During the early stages of design, preferably prior to the field trip, the following
preliminary design drawings or sketches should be prepared:
1 . Typical section of roadway showing geometric (sketch is adequate).
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page G-3

Appendix G
Procedure for Design Geometric Design Manual -
2013
2. Drainage plan map showing all drainage areas and stationing were they cross the
proposed road. This drawing need not be to scale.
3. Profile plot of existing centre-line ground line. This can be plotted at a scale of
usually 1: 1 000 vertical and 1 : 1 0,000 horizontal.
4. Plan plot of alignment. This shows all planimetric features of the terrain - (scale is
usually 1: 10,000). Right-of-way lines should be superimposed on this drawing to
determine if there will be any restrictions.
5. Soils profile plot and material pit drawings showing type and depth of material.
6. Stream profiles extending a sufficient distance upstream and downstream to
determine pipe grade and skew angles.
G.6 Preliminary Design Procedure

Up to this time the designer has been primarily engaged in reviewing and assembling field
data, setting design criteria and establishing project requirements with very little design
work accomplished. The following guideline will assist the designer in proceeding with
preliminary design:
1. If the Designer is at liberty to change the horizontal alignment he should make the
decision whether the proposed alignment is the most feasible or whether offsetting
the alignment could result in a more economical design. The horizontal alignment
should be coordinated with the profile by studying a continuous stretch of the plan
and profile, visualizing the road in three dimensions to determine if changes are
required.
2. Calculate drainage areas and waterway openings for all pipe culverts, box culverts
and bridges. After determining the waterway openings the pipe sizes should be
calculated to determine control points on the grade line. The Designer need not
make the final decision as to exact pipe size or type of structure (CMP, RCP, or
concrete box culvert) at this time, and an approximation will suffice.
No effort is made in this manual to describe the methods used to determine
drainage structure requirements since these methods are given in the ERA Drainage
and Bridge Design Manuals. It is recommended that the Engineer obtain copies of
these manuals for drainage structure calculations.
3. Spot culvert locations on the profile plot noting flow line elevations and sizes of
pipes. Note control elevations that must be met such as minimum pipe cover,
existing pavement, and bridge elevations.
4. The first trial grade line can now be drawn on the profile plot. The grade can either
be the finished pavement or the subgrade profile.
The following items should be considered in laying the trial grade:

1. Projects starting at a T-intersection should begin with a minimal grade for a
minimum of 20 metres from the intersection before entering steeper grades in order
to provide better sight distance and to allow stopping and starting of vehicles on
near-level grades.
2. Vertical P.I.'s should be placed at even stations or plus 50's for ease in calculating
grades and staking. Where possible, V.P.I.'s should be spaced 300 - 500 metres

Appendix G
apart and curve lengths should be determined to provide proper site distance for the
design speed. Where possible, minimum curve lengths of 100 metres should be
maintained and extremely long crest vertical curves should be avoided since many
drivers refuse to pass on vertical curves.
3. Avoid placing V.P.I.'s where intersecting side roads will be on crest vertical curves
as this reduces sight distances and creates safety hazards.
G.7 Checklist for Final Road Link Design

A flowchart for the design process is presented in Figure 5-1. Figure G-l serves as a
checklist for ensuring that all critical elements of the final design have been addressed.
Figure G-l: Checklist for Final Road Link Design
General
□ 1. Has the design standard been selected?
□ 2. Does the selected standard fit into the environment and road hierarchy?
□ 3. Has the design speed been selected?
□ 4. Does the standard selected provide for the design vehicle(s)?
□ 5. Does the standard selected provide for the traffic volume?
□ 6. Does sufficient right-of-way exist, or can it be obtained?
Cross Sections
□ 7. Are the cross-section widths adequate for the levels of traffic flow predicted?
□ 8. Have cross-sections been widened at sharp horizontal curves?
□ 9. Does the design include adequate shoulders?
□ 10. Has the full carriageway cross-section been continued across culverts and minor
bridges up to 30m span?
□ 11. Are side slopes and back slopes adequate?
□ 12. Does the cross section provide for drainage?
□ 13. Have the clear zone requirements been met?
Alignment
□ 14. Are stopping sight distances along the road above the minimum values required
for the design speeds for both horizontal and vertical alignments?
□ 15. Are the radii of horizontal curves, with superelevation where required, above the
minimum values identified for the design speed?
□ 16. Have reverse curves, broken-back curves, and compound curves been avoided?
□ 17. Are isolated curves of sufficient radius?
□ 18. Is superelevation according to standards?
□ 19. Are the vertical curves adequate for the design speeds?
□ 20. Are the gradients below the maximum permissible values?
□ 21. Are the gradients as indicated on cross-sections and longitudinal sections
sufficient to avoid standing water?
□ 22. Does the alignment allow regular overtaking opportunities, including for single
lane standards?
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page G-5

Appendix G
Procedure for Design Geometric Design Manual -
2013
□ 23. Have climbing lanes been introduced where necessary to provide adequate and
safe overtaking opportunities?
□ 24. Is road access too open or too restricted?
□ 25. Do the combined geometric design elements produce a consistent and safe
alignment?
□ 26. Will the road allow safe driving in darkness?
□ 27. Will the design lead to reduced severity in the event of an accident?
Junctions
□ 28. Does the junction design minimize potential conflicts to the extent
possible/practical?
□ 29. Is the type of junction selected appropriate for the conditions present?
□ 30. Do the junction approaches provide adequate visibility?
□ 31. Does the junction cater to the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles as
required?
□ 32. Have turning lanes been considered?
□ 33. Has lighting been considered?
Provision for Pedestrians

□ 34. Has pedestrian usage been estimated, and have appropriate facilities been
provided for pedestrian and non-motorized safety both along and across the road?
Miscellaneous
□ 35. Has provision been made for the placement of utilities?
□ 36. Have traffic signs, signals, road markings and guideposts been provided?
□ 37. Have centerline and edge-line markings been designed which give adequate
guidance/control for drivers?
□ 38. Has adequate provision been made for the provision of bus lay-byes, and for
parked and stopped vehicles?
□ 39. Are railway crossings adequately designed?
□ 40. Have guardrails been considered, especially at bridge approaches?
□ 41. Is there any scope for the installation of emergency escape ramps?
□ 42. Have speed limit zones, safety barriers, and emergency escape ramps been
considered?
Departures from Standards

□ 43. Are departures from standards necessary? Have these been documented and has
proper action been taken?
Date: Designer Date: Responsible Engineer

Appendix H
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Plans and Drafting
Appendix H PLANS AND DRAFTING

H.l General
The final plans are the graphic portrayal of the complete highway design. These plans,
together with the specifications, enable the Engineer and the contractor to locate and
construct on the ground the highway facility as visualized by the designer. Plans should be
kept as simple as possible yet be complete enough so that the need not be compelled to try
to guess what the designer intended.
Unique drawing numbers must be included on the drawings. The drawings should not
contain any estimated quantities. The minimum size of lettering chosen must be legible
after plan reduction.
H.2 Completeness of Plans
The completeness of plans and profiles and level of detail adopted for a given project shall
be consistent with the type of road, and the nature of the work to be undertaken.
Plans for tender and construction purposes shall be produced at 1:2000 scale on A1 size
paper, which may be reduced to A3 size for tender purposes. The plans shall include a title
sheet, project location plan, plan and profile drawings, typical cross sections, structural
details, material pits and road furniture details.
1. Title sheet: The title sheet is a standard form and shall show the road functional
classification number, the project number, and project length and location, with arrows
designating the beginning and ending stations on the route map. Design criteria such as
design speed, maximum curvature, gradient, terrain class, etc., will be tabulated. An
index of all drawings will be shown and a title block for signatures by the Consultant
will appear in the lower right hand comer.
2. Typical cross section sheet: This sheet will show the road section or sections with all
dimensions, such as lane, carriageway, and shoulder widths and other details.
3. Plan and Profile sheet: These sheets are standard with the upper half for alignment and
the lower half for profile.
i) The alignment in rural areas is normally plotted at a scale of 1:4000 (A3) and will
show centerline in heavy lines and right-of-way lines in lighter lines. Thick
marks will be shown on the centerline every 100 meters, with a heavier tick
mark every 5 stations. The alignment will be clearly defined with stationing,
bearings, curve data, and north arrow. Alternatively, the setting-out data can be
presented in a computer file.
ii)The location of all land lines, forest boundaries, city limits, railroads, present
roads, existing and proposed fences pole lines, channels, ditch structures,
bridges, culverts, utility lines, large trees, improvements within or adjacent to
right-of-way, approach roads, right-of-way markers, and detour roads shall be
properly shown to scale.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page H-l

Appendix H
Plans and Drafting Geometric Design Manual -
2013
iii) Notes will accompany the notations clearly stating the work to be
accomplished, such as: to be removed, to remain in place, work by other,
construct, etc.
iv) Description, location and elevation of all benchmarks are generally noted along
the profile portion of the plan and profile sheet.
v) The profile is normally plotted at a scale of 1:200 vertical and 1:2000

horizontal (Al) on the lower half of the plan and profile sheet. The horizontal
scale must be the same as the scale used in the alignment, or plan view.
vi) The elevation of the ground and proposed grade line should be plotted
accurately, noting P.V.I. station, elevation, length of curve, middle ordinate,
beginning and ending of curve and percent gradient. The grade line should be
continuous along parabolic curves and should be the profile grade (top of
finished surface or subgrade) as noted on the typical section.
vii) All cross drainage structures and bridges shall be noted, including graded
ditches, ditch blocks, grade of special ditches and cross section of ditches and
dikes. Existing culverts must be shown with dashed lines, and new structures
must be shown with solid lines.
4. Structure detail sheets. These sheets include bridge details, curb and gutter details,
concrete box culverts, headwalls, drains, underpasses, cattle guards and other special
structures. These drawings should be complete and include location, elevations,
dimensions, estimate of quantities, and applicable specifications, if not covered in the
specifications.
5. Material Pits. This drawing will show the location, shape and size of material pits for
borrow, subbase, base course, mineral aggregate for bituminous material and chips,
and concrete aggregates. In addition to the sketch of the pit, the location of test holes
and the results of sample tests should be tabulated. Existing roads to be used or haul
roads (length and location) should be noted.
6. Detail Drawings: These can include junction and driveway details, bus lay-by details,
climbing lane details, guard rail details, striping details, destination sign details, and
fencing details, as appropriate. Standard details are given in the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings.
7. Mass Haul Diagram: Earthwork quantities are represented graphically and are
tabulated on this sheet.
H.3 Size of Plans

All drawings should be the standard Al size and printing should be bold and large to
permit legibility when reduced to A3 size.
H.4 Uniformity of Plans

The designer should strive to maintain uniformity in preparation of road plans rather than
giving them "his personal touch". Plans prepared using uniform standards are easier to
Page H-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix H
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Plans and Drafting
understand by both the engineer and the contractor and will generally result in fewer
disputes or claims.
H.5 Abbreviated Plans

Certain types of construction projects use less intense design than other types. Projects
such as rehabilitation projects usually do not consist of new alignments and may have only
spot geometric improvements. Such projects may require only minor engineering control,
and therefore the plans may be abbreviated. For instance, in the above example, no plan
and profile sheets need be included except in areas requiring relocations or substantial
grade or curve changes. Plans will be similar to complete plans except plan and profile
sheets will be limited to sections affected by such improvements.
However, sufficient information concerning horizontal and vertical alignment must be

shown to enable the contractor to stake the project.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page H-3

Appendix 1
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Perspective in Geometric Design
Appendix I PERSPECTIVES IN GEOMETRIC DESIGN
To illustrate the advantages of visualising the alignment in three dimensions and to guide
the design towards good practice, a number of alignment combinations are shown in
Figures 1.1 to 1.16.
Figure 1.1 shows the advantage of maintaining a constant, uniform grade for as long as
possible. Local dips to minimise earthworks that result in a disjointed alignment will be
there for the life of the road.
'X
\
Figure LI: Effect of eliminating a dip on a long grade
Tangent Alignment
Preferred
Profile
Figure 1.2: Short sag curve on a long tangent
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page l- 1

Appendix I
Perspective in Geometric Design Geometric Design Manual - 2013
Short crests and sags should also be avoided on horizontal curves, as shown in Figure 1.3.
Maintaining a constant grade is the preferred option.
Figure 1.3: Removal of humps on a horizontal curve
Alignment
Preferred
A A
Profile
Figure 1.4: Short humps on a long horizontal curve

Appendix I
A short discontinuity or dip in the alignment preceding a horizontal curve creates a

particularly discordant view. Eliminating the crest curves in advance and following the sag
curve improves the appearance, as shown in Figure 1.5 and 1.6.
>
—)
A \
SN
&
a X
Figure 1.5: Short hump and dip preceding horizontal curve replaced by long sag
curve linking into horizontal curve.
Alignment
Preferred
Profile
Figure 1.6: Short vertical curves preceding a long horizontal curve.

Appendix I
A common fault in road alignment is illustrated in Figure 1.7 and 1.8. The roadway is often
unnaturally curved to cross a small stream or grade separation at right angles. The
advantages in the alignment aesthetics of a skew crossing often far outweigh the savings
deriving from a square crossing.
as Figure 1.7: Skew crossing improves horizontal alignment
Preferred
Alignment
a*
Profile
Figure 1.8: Distorted alignment at bridge crossing.

Appendix I
Figure 1.9(a) illustrates the broken-back horizontal curve, or two curves in the same
direction separated by a short tangent. The sag curve on the separating tangent intensifies
the broken-back effect. The advantages of using a single radius curve throughout are
illustrated in Figure 1.9(b).
4K S'
Figure 1.9(a) and 1.9(b): Replacement of broken-back curve by single radius long
curve
Preferred
-V Alignment
Prnfilp
Figure 1.10: Broken-back curve

Appendix I
Minor changes in grade or rolling of the vertical alignment as shown in Figure 1. 1 1 should
be avoided on long horizontal curves.
Figure 1.1 1: Rolling grade line and its elimination
Alignment
y Preferred
Profile
Figure 1.12: The advantages of co-ordinating the horizontal and vertical alignments

Appendix I
Figure 1.13 shows the effect when the start of a horizontal curve is hidden by an
intervening crest and the continuation of the curve is visible in the distance. The road
appears disjointed.
M sS
Alignment
Line of sight
Profile
Perspective
Figure 1.13: Apparent break in horizontal alignment when start

of horizontal curve is hidden by a crest

Appendix I
A sag curve at the start of a horizontal curve has the effect of enhancing the sharp angle
appearance as shown in Figure 1.14, and should be avoided. Raising the preceding grade
will move the sag curve downstream. A longer radius on the horizontal curve would cause
it to start earlier. Applying both remedial measures should result in a better phasing of the
horizontal and vertical alignments.
1
I
L
Figure 1.14: Out-of-phase vertical and horizontal alignments.

Appendix I
Figures 1.15 and Figure 1.16 illustrate the advantages of co-ordinating the horizontal and
vertical alignment. In each case the vertical curve is contained within the horizon. Figure
1.15 shows a well-coordinated crest curve and horizontal curve and Figure 1.16 shows a
well-coordinated sag and horizontal curve.
Figure 1.15: Well-coordinated crest and horizontal curve.
Figure 1.16: Well-coordinated sag and horizontal curves

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2013

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

Addis Ababa, 2013

Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

1. Geometric Design Manual

Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

1. Users of the manual must register on the ERA website: www.era.gov.et

Addis Ababa, 2013

Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

This area to be completed by the ERA

Manual Title: CHANGE NO.

Manual Change Action

Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change:

Director General ERA:. Date:

Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

This Geometric Design Manual-2013 is based on a review of the design standards of

Executive Review Group

No. Name Organization

I Amare Assefa, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority

2 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

List of Persons Contributing to Peer Group Review

No. Name Organization

1 Alemgena Alene, Dr. Ethiopian Roads Authority

2 Amanuel Haddush, Ato ICT

3 Andualem H/Georgis, Ato BEZA Consulting Engineers

4 Bizuneh Kebebe, Ato Civil Works Consulting Engineers

5 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority

6 Ezra Mersha, Ato Associated Engineering Consultants

7 Jemal Ali, Ato WT Consult

8 Tibebu Gebre, Ato Ethio Infra Engineering

No. Name Organization Role

1 AFCAP Coordinator for

2 Abdo Mohammed ERA Project Coordinator

3 Daniel Nebro ERA Project Coordinator

4 Frew Bekele ERA Project Coordinator

5 Robert Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Manager

6 Les Sampson AFCAP/Crown Agents Project Director

7 John Rolt AFCAP/TRL Lead Author

Addis Ababa, 2013

Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Page vi Ethiopian Roads Authority

LIST OF TABLES XIII

GLOSSARY OF TERMS .XV

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vii

5.10 Construction Technology 5-16

Page viii Ethiopian Roads Authority

9.7 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks 9-9

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ix

13.1 1 Public Utilities 13-14

Page x Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xi

Figure 12-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions 12-3

Page xii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Pagexiii

Table 11-7: Turning roadway widths 11-19

Page xiv Ethiopian Roads Authority