NABARD Master Notes 3 - Soil Science

ARD
TOPIC - AGRICULTURE
MASTER NOTES PART III AS PER SYLLABUS - UPDATED
Precision Farming, System of Crop Intensification, organic farming; Soil and Water
Conservation: Major soil types, soil fertility, fertilizers, soil erosion, soil conservation,
watershed management
You Tube Lectures on these topics can be accessed through following Links
• Precision Farming & System of crop intensification: https://youtu.be/Fwxxzr5v4o4

• Organic Farming: https://youtu.be/uw8cJVcvifE
• Soil & water conservation-I: https://youtu.be/gs-qP--j-I8
• Soil & water conservation-II: https://youtu.be/s-XtjVNtbpM
1 Mail: Clarity4sure@gmail.com
Telegram: @Clarity4sure
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Contents
1 Precision Farming ..............................................................................................................................4
1.1 VAIBHAV SUMMIT - Session on Sensors and Sensing for Precision Agriculture by
ICAR-IARI ................................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Examples of Precision Farming & e-Technology in aid of farmers ..................................5
2 System of crop Intensification ........................................................................................................5
2.1 SRI of Rice ....................................................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Agro-ecological crop management ............................................................................6
2.1.2 Package of Practice – SRI ................................................................................................6
3 Organic Farming ...............................................................................................................................8
3.1 Principles of Organic Farming.................................................................................................8
3.2 Synonym of Organic Farming .................................................................................................8
3.3 Key Points to remember ...........................................................................................................9
3.4 Major Institutions ..................................................................................................................... 10
3.5 Jaivik Bharat............................................................................................................................. 10
3.6 Schemes ................................................................................................................................... 11
3.6.1 Assistance under organic schemes ............................................................................ 11
3.7 Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) ........................................................................ 11
3.8 Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER)
11
3.9 Capital investment Subsidy Scheme (CISS) under Soil Health Management
Scheme ............................................................................................................................................... 11
3.10 National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP) ................................................... 11
3.11 National Food Security Mission (NFSM) .............................................................................. 11
3.12 Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP) ............................................................................... 11
4 Soil ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.1 What is soil & Pedon? ............................................................................................................ 13
4.2 Soil forming process ............................................................................................................... 14
4.2.1 Active & Passive factors................................................................................................. 14
4.2.2 Fundamental and Specific process of soil formation (PEDOGENESIS) ................ 15
4.3 Horizons in soil .......................................................................................................................... 16
4.4 Properties of Soil ...................................................................................................................... 17
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4.4.1 Physical Properties........................................................................................................... 17
4.4.2 Points to remember from Soil Textural classes ........................................................... 18
4.5 Density in soil ............................................................................................................................ 19
4.6 Soil Colour ................................................................................................................................ 21
4.7 Types of Soil clay ..................................................................................................................... 21
4.7.1 Comparative analysis of clay ....................................................................................... 22
4.8 C:N Ratio .................................................................................................................................. 22
4.9 Important points related to soil organic matter .............................................................. 23
5 Soil erosion....................................................................................................................................... 24
5.1 Types of soil erosion ................................................................................................................ 26
5.1.1 Process of wind erosion .................................................................................................. 26
5.1.2 Water Erosion .................................................................................................................... 27
6 Soil Conservation ........................................................................................................................... 28
6.1 Soil Conservation Programmes ........................................................................................... 29
6.2 Assistance for soil & water conservation ........................................................................... 30
7 Desertification – Why in news ..................................................................................................... 31
7.1 Status of Desertification in India .......................................................................................... 32
7.2 Measures taken by India to Curb Desertification............................................................ 32
8 Watershed Mnagement .............................................................................................................. 33
8.1 Why in news ............................................................................................................................. 35
8.2 Neeranchal National watershed Project .......................................................................... 35
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1 Precision Farming
 Precision agriculture (PA) is an approach where inputs are utilised in precise amounts
to get increased average yields, compared to traditional cultivation techniques such
as agroforestry, intercropping, crop rotation, etc.
 Sustainable PA is this century’s most valuable innovation in farm management that is
based on using Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs).
 It is based on sustainable agriculture and healthy food production and it consists of
profitability and increasing production, economic efficiency and the reduction of side
effects on the environment.
 Benefits:
o Increases agriculture productivity.
o Prevents soil degradation.
o Reduces chemical application in crop production.
o Efficient use of water resources.
o Disseminates modern farm practices to improve the quality, quantity and
reduced cost of production.
o Changes the socio-economic status of farmers.
 Challenges:
o Research suggests educational and economic challenges as the two most
important in the application of precision agriculture.
 Among the variables that contribute to educational challenges, lack of local
experts, funds, knowledgeable research and extension personnel have more of
an impact compared to others.
 PA and initial costs have more of an impact among the economic
challenges compared to the other issues.
1.1 VAIBHAV SUMMIT - Session on Sensors and Sensing for Precision Agriculture by
ICAR-IARI
 Discussions at the Session: Recent advances in the field of sensors, remote sensing,
deep learning, artificial intelligence and Internet of Things (IoT) for monitoring and
quantification of soil, plant and environment to enhance farm productivity with
increased input use efficiency and environmental sustainability.
 Part of VAIBHAV Summit: The session is a part of the Vaishwik Bhartiya Vaigyanik
(VAIBHAV) Summit 2020. VAIBHAV is a Government of India initiative to bring together
the thought process, practices, research and development (R&D) culture of overseas
and Indian scientists/academicians.
Click You Tube
1.2 Examples of Precision Farming & e-Technology in aid of farmers
 Drones in agriculture
 Remote Sensing
 Agriculture 2.0 (Digital Agriculture) directly falls under Pillar No. 5 of Digital India, e.
eKranti – Electronic Delivery of Services and broadly caters to other pillars as well, like
e -Governance: Reforming Government through Technology, Information for All and
Early Harvest Programmes.
 Big data from agriculture – BDA
 Internet of Things (IoT)
 Robotic Sensors (SENSAGRI):
 Kisan Suvidha: mobile app provides information on five critical parameters—
weather, input dealers, market price, plant protection and expert advisories.
 Pusa Krishi: app helps farmers to get information about latest technologies
developed in research labs. This app is actually transferring the technologies from
“LAB to LAND”.
 Farm Advisory through Mobiles – Green SIM: This programme is implemented by
IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL).
 AasyaSree: a One Stop Telugu portal for Information Dissemination: “Sasya Sree – a
One Stop Telugu portal for Information Dissemination”
 The Agriculture Ministry’s MNCFC is carrying out five national level programmes,
where Satellite data and GIS and Image Processing Technologies are being used in
various domains of Agriculture, as given below:
2 System of crop Intensification

 It is Agro-ecological Innovations for Improving Agricultural Production, Food Security,
and Resilience to Climate Change.
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 Contemporary strategy for intensification that depends primarily on making genetic
improvements and increasing external inputs is, however, not the only kind of
intensification that warrants consideration, An alternative strategy for intensification
that can be broadly characterized as agro-ecological seeks to make the most
productive use possible of available natural resources, including the myriad species
and genetic biodiversity found in nature, and of the fields of many millions of
smallholder farmers, especially women.
 The agro-ecological innovations reported here can be grouped under the broad
heading of System of Crop Intensification (SCI)
2.1 SRI of Rice

 The SRI International Network and Resources Center (SRI-Rice) was established at
Cornell University in 2010 to meet the growing demand for knowledge, advice, and
technical support for the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a climate-smart,
resource-conserving, yield-increasing methodology whose benefits have been
demonstrated in over 50 countries. SRI-Rice currently operates under the auspices of
International Programs of Cornell’s College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
 The Center seeks to advance and share knowledge about SRI practices and
principles, now being extended to many crops beyond rice under the rubric of
System of Crop Intensification (SCI). SRI-Rice supports networking and cooperation
among interested organizations and individuals around the globe.
2.1.1 Agro-ecological crop management

 Agro-ecological crop management represents a different form of ‘intensification’
from what is usually understood by that term, e.g., Reichardt et al. (1998).
 Agro-ecological management is exemplified by the System of Rice Intensification
(SRI) developed in Madagascar (Stoop et al. 2002; Uphoff 2012a) as well as by
conservation agriculture, integrated pest management, agroforestry, and other
combinations of practices that modify the management of crops, soil, water and
nutrients. These changes achieve, among other things, enhanced soil microbial
abundance and activity in the crops’ rhizosphere (root zone), and even within the
crops’ phyllosphere (canopy) (Uphoff et al. 2013).
 Agro-ecological management mostly intensifies knowledge and skills (mental inputs)
rather than seeds, equipment or chemicals (material inputs). More labor input is
required in some situations, but not in others, so these strategies are not necessarily
more labor-intensive. Some degree of mechanization can often be introduced.
2.1.2 Package of Practice – SRI

Seed Rate
 7- 8 kg/ha for single seedling per hill
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 12 -15 kg/ha for two seedlings per hill wherever difficulty in establishment of rice is
seen
Preparation of nursery area
 Prepare 100 m2 nurseries to plant 1 ha. Select a levelled area near the water source.
Spread a plastic sheet or used polythene gunny bags on the shallow raised bed to
prevent roots growing deep into soil.
Lifting Seedling Mats
 Seedlings reach sufficient height for planting at 15 days. Lift the seedling mats and
transport them to main field.
Sowing
 Sow the pre-germinated seeds weighing 90 -100 g / m-2 (100g dry seed may weigh
130g after sprouting) uniformly
 Cover them with dry soil to a thickness of 5mm.
 Sprinkle water immediately using rose can to soak the bed and remove the wooden
frame
 And continue the process until the required area is completed.
Watering
 Water the nursery with rose can as and when needed (twice or thrice a day) to keep
the soil moist.
 Protect the nursery from heavy rains for the first 5 DAS. At 6 DAS, maintain thin film of
water all around the seedling mats.
 Drain the water 2 days before removing the seedling mats for transplanting.
Main field preparation
 Puddled lowland prepared as described in transplanted section

 Perfect leveling is a pre-requisite for the water management proposed hereunder
Transplanting
 1-2 seedlings of 14-15 days old

 Square planting of 25 x 25 cm (10 x 10 inch)
 Fill up the gaps between 7th and 10th DAT.
 Transplant within 30 minutes of pulling out of seedlings.
Irrigation Management
 Irrigation only to moist the soil in the early period of 10 days
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 Restoring irrigation to a maximum depth of 2.5cm after development of hairline
cracks in the soil until panicle initiation
 Increasing irrigation depth to 5.0cm after PI one day after disappearance of
ponded water.
3 Organic Farming
 "Organic Agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils,
ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles
adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.
Organic Agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the
shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all
involved."
3.1 Principles of Organic Farming
Healthy soil, plants, Emulating and Emulating and For the

animals, humans = a sustaining natural sustaining natural generations to
healthy planet. systems systems come
3.2 Synonym of Organic Farming

Synonym Meaning
Eco-farming  Feed the soil, not the plant is the watchword and slogan
of ecological farming
Biological farming  Farming in relation to biological diversity
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Bio-dynamic farming  Farming which is biologically organic and ecologically
sound and sustainable farming
Macrobiotic agriculture  Agriculture based on local resources [NABARD]
3.3 Key Points to remember

Key Points to Remember
• India is home to 30 per cent of the total organic producers in the world, but
accounts for just 2.59 per cent (1.5 million hectares) of the total organic cultivation
area of 57.8 million hectares, according to the World of Organic Agriculture 2018
report.
• China has around 50 per cent and India has 30 percent of

total organic cultivable land in Asia
• As on 31st March 2018, total area under organic certification process (registered
under National Programme for Organic Production) is 3.56 million Hectare (2017-
18)
• Among all the states, Madhya Pradesh -- Rajasthan---Maharashtra---Uttar

Pradesh
• During 2016, Sikkim has achieved a remarkable distinction of converting its entire
cultivable land (more than 76000 ha) under organic certification.
• India produced around 1.70 million MT (2017-18) of certified organic products

which includes all varieties of food products namely Oil Seeds, Sugar cane,
• The total volume of export during 2017-18 was 4.58 lakh MT. The organic food
export realization was around INR 3453.48 crore (515.44 million USD).
• Leading Market - USA--------Germany

• Highest No. of Producers - India----Uganda
• Area - Total-69.8mha
• Highest- Australia-Argentina
• % Area - 1.4%
• Liecktenstein-------Samoa
• Global Organic Market - 97billion US $
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3.4 Major Institutions
IFOAM HQ-Bonn Germany,
Established 1972
Ministry of Commerce has

implemented the National
Programme for Organic
Production (NPOP) since 2001.
3.5 Jaivik Bharat

 The Food Safety and Standards (Organic Foods) Regulations, 2017 are based on the
standards of National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) and Participatory
Guarantee System (PGS-India).
 The unified logo is an identity mark to distinguish organic products from non-organic
ones supported with the tagline “Jaivik Bharat”
 Certification is an important element of organic produce to instill customer
confidence. Both PKVY and MOVCD are promoting certification under Participatory
Guarantee System (PGS) and National Program for Organic Production (NPOP)
respectively targeting domestic and exports markets. The Food Safety and Standards
(Organic Foods) Regulations, 2017 are based on the standards of NPOP and PGS. The
consumer should look for the logos of FSSAI, Jaivik Bharat / PGS Organic India on the
produce to establish the organic authenticity of the produce. PGS Green is given to
chemical free produce under transition to ‘organic’ which takes 3 years.
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3.6 Schemes
 With the aim of assisting farmers to adopt organic farming and improve
remunerations due to premium prices, two dedicated programs namely Mission
Organic Value Chain Development for North East Region (MOVCD) and
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) were launched in 2015 to encourage
chemical free farming. With the simultaneous thrust given by the Agri-export Policy
2018, India can emerge as a major player in global organic markets. The major
organic exports from India have been flax seeds, sesame, soybean, tea, medicinal
plants, rice and pulses, which were instrumental in driving an increase of nearly 50%
in organic exports in 2018-19, touching Rs 5151 crore. Modest commencement of
exports from Assam, Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland to UK, USA, Swaziland and Italy
have proved the potential by increasing volumes and expanding to new destinations
as the demand for health foods increases.
 The Green Caravan of Kohima created market linkages from all villages of Nagaland
to urban areas for vegetables, handicrafts and handlooms
 Natural farming is not a new concept in India, with farmers having tilled their land
without the use of chemicals - largely relying on organic residues, cow dung,
composts, etc since time immemorial. The philosophy underlying organic farming of
integration of the elements – soil, water, microbes and ‘waste’ products, forestry and
agriculture is the correct recipe for sustainable use of natural resources, which are
coming under severe stress due to ever increasing requirement of food and
feedstock for agri based industry. This is also in sync with the Sustainable Development
Goal 2 targeting ‘end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture’.
3.6.1 Assistance under organic schemes

Assistance is provided under different schemes by the Government for promoting organic
farming in the country –
3.7 Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)

3.8 Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region
(MOVCDNER)
3.9 Capital investment Subsidy Scheme (CISS) under Soil Health Management
Scheme
3.10 National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP)
3.11 National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
3.12 Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP)
1. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): The scheme promotes cluster based
organic farming with PGS certification. Cluster formation, training, certification and
marketing are supported under the scheme. Assistance of Rs.50,000 per ha /3 years is
Click You Tube
provided out of which 62% i.e., Rs. 31,000 is given as incentive to a farmer towards
organic inputs.
2. Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER): The
scheme promotes 3rd party certified organic farming of niche crops of north east region
through Farmers Producer organizations (FPOs) with focus on exports. Under the scheme
a sum of Rs. 46,575/ha for 3years are provided for creation of FPO, support to farmers for
organic inputs, quality seeds/ planting material and training, hand holding and
certification. Apart from that financial support is also provided as subsidy to FPOs and
private entrepreneurs @ 75% and 50% respectively for setting up of post harvest
infrastructure such as integrated processing unit, integrated packhouse, cold chain
component and small processing unit as per the requirement of value chain. Of the total
funds Farmers are given assistance of Rs 25000/ha/3 years for organic inputs including
organic manure and biofertilisers etc. Support for formation of FPOs, capacity building,
post-harvest infrastructure up to Rs 2 crores are also provided in the scheme.
3. Capital investment Subsidy Scheme (CISS) under Soil Health Management Scheme: 100%
assistance is provided to State Government / Government agencies for setting up of
mechanized fruit/vegetable market waste/ Agro waste compost production unit up to a
maximum limit of Rs.190.00 Lakh /unit (3000 Total Per Annum TPA capacity). Similarly, for
individuals/ private agencies assistance up to 33% of cost limit to Rs 63 lakh/unit as capital
investment is provided.
4. National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP): Financial assistance@ 50% subsidy
to the tune of Rs. 300/- per ha is being provided for different components including bio-
fertilizers, supply of Rhizobium culture/Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria (PSB)/Zinc Solubilising
Bacteria (ZSB)/ Azatobacter/ Mycorrhiza and vermi compost.
5. National Food Security Mission (NFSM): Financial assistance is provided for promotion
of Bio-Fertilizer (Rhizobium/PSB) @50% of the cost limited to Rs.300 per ha.
6. Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP): is introduced as a sub scheme of

Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) since 2020-21 for the promotion of traditional
indigenous practices including natural farming. The scheme mainly emphasises on
exclusion of all synthetic chemical inputs and promotes on-farm biomass recycling with
major stress on biomass mulching; use of cow dung-urine formulations; plant based
preparations and time to time working of soil for aeration. Under BPKP, financial assistance
of Rs 12200/ha for 3 years is provided for cluster formation, capacity building and
continuous handholding by trained personnel, certification and residue analysis.
4 Soil
We will proceed in a systematic manner first we will understand what is soil, its formation
and types, then we will understand its erosion and lastly its conservation.
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4.1 What is soil & Pedon?
Vasily Dakuchaiev (father of soil science) defines Soil as a natural body composed of
mineral and organic constituents, having a definite genesis and a distinct nature of its own.
So the two terms mentioned here Pedology & Edaphology are mentioned from
examination point of view.
PEDON - A pedon is the smallest volume that can be called "a soil“
POLYPEDON - A polypedon is therefore, defined as a contiguous similar pedons bounded

on all sides by “Enotsoil or by pedons of unlike characters. It is a real physical soils body
which has a minimum area of more than 1 sq. km and an unspecified maximum area.
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4.2 Soil forming process
 The above illustration depicts the overall process of soil formation, basically it consists
of weathering of rocks by Physical, chemical & biological agents which lead to
formation of REGOLITH. Regolith is precursor to soil upon which active and passive
forces acts which finally leads to formation of soil. The time needed to form a soil
depends on the latitude: in environments characterized by a mild climate, it takes
200-400 years to form 1 cm of soil.
 Weathering is a natural process of breakdown and transformation of rocks and
minerals into unconsolidated residues, called regolith. In other words, the process of
transformation of solid rocks into soils is known as weathering. Weathering processes
are two types: (1) physical weathering brought about by the mechanical action of
the various weathering agents, is designated as disintegration, and (2) chemical
weathering is designated as decomposition.
 From examination point of view soil forming process i.e. fundamental and specific
processes are important.
ROCK REGOLITHSOIL
Step I: Rock to regolith is influenced by Physical, Chemical & Biological process
Step II: Regolith to soil is influenced by active & passive soil forming processes
4.2.1 Active & Passive factors

 Climate and organisms, are called active factors. They are catalysts that cause soil
to form. The other three, parent material, topography, and time, are called passive
factors.
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4.2.2 Fundamental and Specific process of soil formation (PEDOGENESIS)
 Most natural processes, such as the upliftment of a mountain mass and the tilling of
an island in sea, take place rather slowly. In contrast, the pedogenic processes, work
faster than the geological processes in changing lifeless parent material into true soil
full of life. The pedogenic processes are extremely complex and dynamic involving
many chemical and biological reactions, and usually operate simultaneously in a
given area. One process may counteract another, or two different processes may
work simultaneously to achieve the same result. The ultimate result of soil formation is
profile development.
A. Fundamental soil forming processes
(1) Humification
Humification is the process of decomposition of organic matter and synthesis of new
organic substances. It is the process of transformation of raw organic matter into formation
of surface humus layer, called Ao- horizon. The percolating water passing through this layer
dissolves certain organic acids and affects the development of the lower A-horizon and
the B- horizon.
(2) Eluviation and illuaviation

Eluviation is the process of removal of constituents by percolation from upper layers to lower
layers. This layer of loss is called eluvial and designated as the A-horizon. The eluviated
producers move down and become deposited in the lower horizon which is termed as the
illuvial or B-horizon. The eluviation produces textural differences. The process of illuviation
leads to the textural contrast between A2 and B1 horizon.
B. Specific soil forming processes

(1) Podsolisation
It is a type of eluviation in which humus and sequioxides become mobile, leach out from
upper horizons and become deposited in the lower horizons. This process is favoured by
cool and wet climate. It requires high content of organic matter and low alkali in the parent
material. The process increases the proportion of silica, sesquioxide in A-horizons and
accumulation of clay, iron and aluminum in B-horizons.
(2) Laterisation
In this process, silica is removed while iron and alumina remain behind in the upper layers.
Laterisation is favoured by rapid decomposition of parent rocks under climates with high
temperature and sufficient moisture for intense leaching, such as found in the tropics. The
soil formed in this process is acidic in nature.
(3) Clacification
In this process, there is usually an accumulation of calcium carbonate in the profile. This
process is favoured by scanty rainfall and alkali in parent material.
(4) Gleization
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The term gleiis of Russian origin, which means blue, grey or green clay. The gleizationis
aprocess of soil formation resulting in the development of a glei (orgley horizon) in the
lower part ofthe soil profile above the parent material due to poor drainage condition
(1ack of oxygen) and where waterlogged conditions prevail. Under such condition, iron
compounds are reduced to soluble ferrous forms. This is responsible for the production of
typical bluish to grayish horizons with mottling of yellow and I or reddish brown colours.
(5) Salinization
Salinization is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sulphates and chlorides of
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, in soils in the form of salty (salic) horizons. It is
quite common in arid and semi arid regions. It may also take place through capillary rise of
saline groundwater and by inundation with seawater in marine and coastal soils. Salt
accumulation may also result from irrigation or seepage in area of impeded drainage.
(6) Desalinization
It is the removal by leaching of excess soluble salts from horizons or soil profile by ponding
water and improving the drainage conditions by installing artificial drainage network.
(7) Solonization (Alkalization)
The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions on the exchange complex of the
clay, resulting in the formation of sodic soils (solonetz).
(8) Solidization (dealkalization)
The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the exchange sites. This process involves
dispersion of clay. Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions becomes hydrated. Much of the
dispersion can be eliminated if Ca+ and Mg++ ions are concentrated in the water, which
is used to leach the solonetz. These Ca and Mg ion can replace the Na on exchange
complex, and the salts of sodium are leached out.
(9) Pedoturbation
Another process that may be operative in soils is pedoturbation. It is the process of mixing
of the soil e.g. argilli pedoturbation is observed in deep black soils.
4.3 Horizons in soil

As per formation of soil with time it is arranged into different layers known as horizon of soil,
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Horizon Property
O-horizon It is called as organic horizon,

Contains more than 30% OM
A-Horizon Horizon of organic matter

accumulation adjacent to surface
and that has lost clay, iron and
aluminium. (SURFACE HORIZON)
B-Horizon Horizon in which the dominant

features are accumulation of clay,
iron, aluminium or humus alone or in
combination. Coating of sesquioxides
will impart darker, stronger of red
Colour than overlying or underlying
horizons
C-Horizon It is the horizon below the solum (A +
B), relatively less affected by soil
forming processes. It is outside the
zone of major biological activity. It
may contain accumulation of
carbonates or sulphates, calcium and
magnesium
R-Horizon Underlying consolidated bed rock
and it may or may not be like the
parent rock from which the solum is
formed
4.4 Properties of Soil
4.4.1 Physical Properties

For better understanding of Soil forming process and properties go through lecture in you
tube: https://youtu.be/s-XtjVNtbpM
Property Remarks
Soil Texture Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of particles or it is the
relative percentage by weight of the three soil separates viz., sand, silt
and clay.
Soil Structure** The arrangement and organization of primary and secondary

particles in a soil mass is known as soil structure.
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Soil Surface Area Finer the particle more area exposed
Soil Density • The weight per unit volume of the solid portion of soil is called
particle density. Generally particle density of normal soils is 2.65
grams per cubic centimeter
• The oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil inclusive of pore
spaces is called bulk density. The bulk density of sandy soil is
about 1.6 g / cm 3 , whereas that of organic matter is about
0.5.
• PD>BD
Soil Porosity The space occupied by air and water and not by Soil particle or
mineral.
Soil Colour From parent material or during forming process
Soil consistence Soil consistence is described at three moisture levels namely ‘wet’,
‘moist’ and ‘dry
4.4.2 Points to remember from Soil Textural classes

Important Points to Remember
Soil particles less than 2 mm in diameter are excluded from soil textural determinations.
Particles less than 2 mm is called fine earth, normally considered in chemical and
mechanical analysis.
Sandy Soil: SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES
The sand group includes all soils in which the sand separates make up
at least 70% and the clay separate 15% or less of the material by weight
Silty Soil: The silt group includes soils with at least 80% silt and 12% or less clay
Clay Soil: a clay a soil must contain at least 35% of the clay separate and in most
cases not less than 40%
Loamy Soil: a mixture of sand, silt and day particles that exhibits the properties of
those separates in about equal proportions
Generally, the best agriculture soils are those contain 10 – 20 per cent clay, 5 – 10 per
cent organic matter and the rest equally shared by silt and sand and 30% silt - called as
clay rather than clay loam.
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SKELETON of Soil = sand+silt
The determination of relative distribution of the ultimate or individual soil particles below 2
mm diameter is called as Particle size analysis or Mechanical analysis
Bluish and greenish colors of soil are generally due to poor drainage of soil. [NABARD.IBPS-
AFO]
4.5 Density in soil

 Particle density: Particle density of soils refers to the density of the solid particles
collec- tively. It is expressed as the ratio of the total mass of the solid particles to their
total volume, excluding pore spaces between particles. Units used are nearly always
grams per cubic centimeter.
 Bulk Density: Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction. It is calculated as the dry weight
of soil divided by its volume. This volume includes the volume of soil particles and the volume
of pores among soil particles.
PARTICLE DENSITY BULK DENSITY

Textural class Particle density Textural class Bulk density (g/cc) Pore space
(g/ cm3) (%)
Coarse sand 2.655 Sandy soil 1.6 40
Fine sand 2.659 Loam 1.4 47
Silt loam 1.3 50

Silt 2.798
Clay 1.1 58
Clay 2.837
Some Points to Remember from Particle and Bulk Density
• The particle density is higher if large amount of heavy minerals such as

magnetite, limonite and hematite are present in the soil. With increase in
organic matter of the soil the particle density decreases. Particle density is
also termed as true density.
• BD < 1/Porosity, BD<1/Texture, BD<1/OM
• Bulk density is of greater importance than particle density in understanding

the physical behavior of the soil.
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• Fine Textured soil has low BD
• More the organic matter content in soil results in high pore space there by
shows lower bulk density of soil
• The amount or ratio of pore space in a soil is determined by the

arrangement of soil particles like sand, silt and clay.
• In sandy soils, the particles are arranged closely and the pore space is low.
In clay soils, the particles are arranged in popous aggregates and the pore
space is high. Presence of organic matter increases the pore space.
• Sandy soil pore space – 35 -50%, Medium to Fine Textured – 50-60%,
Compact soil – 25 -30%
• Cropping reduces the porosity as cultivation reduces the organic matter
content and hence decrease in granulation
• Conservation tillage and no tillage reduces porosity than conventional
tillage
• Size of pores
1. Macro pores (non-capillary pores) : diameter >0.05 mm
2. Micro pores (capillary pores) : diameter < 0.05 mm
• In macro pores, air and water moves freely due to gravitation and mass
flow. In micro pores, the movement of air and water is very slow and
restricted to capillary movement and diffusion
• Sandy soil have more macro pores and clay soils have more micro pores. So
in sandy soils, water and air movement is rapid
Click You Tube
Click to understand about classification
4.6 Soil Colour

Soil colour is determined with help of Munsell Chart
Feature Colour
Organic Matter Soils containing high amount of organic matter show the
colour variation from black to dark brown
Iron Compound Soil containing higher amount of iron compounds

generally impart red, brown and yellow tinge colour
Silica Compound Due to presence of such materials in the soil the colour of
the soil appears like white or light coloured.
Alternate wetting and drying The colour of soil in different horizons of the soil profile is
condition variegated or mottled.
Oxidation - Reduction When soils are waterlogged for a longer period, the
permanent reduced condition will develop. The presence
of ferrous compounds resulting from the reducing
condition in waterlogged soils impart bluish and greenish
colour.
Hue Dominant spectral colour
Chroma Purity of colour
Value Lightness or darkness of colour
2.5 YR5/6 Hue of 2.5 YR, value of 5 and chroma of 6, which is equal
to Red (HVC)
4.7 Types of Soil clay

 Clay are classified on basis of Tetrahedral and octahedral silica sheet arrangement
like in 1:1 type means one tetra and one octahedral sheet alternate one after
other
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 So similarly we have four basic types of clay structure which may be expanding i.e.
which expands on absorption of water and which do not expand on absorbing
water.
TYPE EXAMPLE
1:1 Kaolinite
2:1 Expanding Smectite & Vermiculite
Montmorillonite is the most prominent member of smectite
group in soils.
Smectite, also known as “swelling clay”, is a diverse group of
clay minerals with a 2:1 layer silicate structure that can
expand and contract upon wetting and drying.
2:1 Non Expanding Illite
2:1:1 or 2:2 Chlorite
4.7.1 Comparative analysis of clay

Feature 1:1(NE) 2:1 (E) 2:1 (NE) 2:2(NE)
Representative Kaolinite Montmorillonite Illite Chlorite
Subst. No substitution Substitution in Substitution

octahedral sheet by inTetrahedral
Mg or Fe sheet by Al
SA(m2/gm) 5-20 700 -800 100-120 80
CEC 3-10 80-120; 20/25-30 20/25-30

(meq/100gm)
Smectite-80-120
Vermiculite – 100-150
Humus – 200 - 400
4.8 C:N Ratio

 Carbon to Nitrogen ratio (C:N) is a ratio of the mass of carbon to the mass of nitrogen
in a substance. For example, a C:N of 10:1 means there is ten units of carbon for each
unit of nitrogen in the substance.
Substance C:N Ratio
• The C: N ratio of cultivated soils ranges from 5/8:1 to 15:1.
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• Average (stable value) 10:1 to 12:1.
• Legumes and Farm manure/Plant material 20:1 – 30:1.
• Straw 100:1
• Saw Dust 400:1
• Microbes 4:1 to 9:1
• To stay alive, microbes need 24:1: Around 16 parts of carbon

are used for energy and eight
parts for maintenance
• Humus 10:1
• For Composting 25-30:1
• The ratio 20:1

• Between nitrogen and organic matter is thus
constant
4.9 Important points related to soil organic matter

For better understanding refer You Tube video
Points
• Temp> 1/SOM
For each 10degree C decline in mean annual temperature, the total organic matter
and N increases by two to three times.
 Rainfall>SOM; Poor Drainage>SOM; Cropped land>1/SOM
• Plant residues contain 75% moisture and 25% dry matter. This 25% is made up of
Carbon (10-12%), Oxygen (9-10%) , Hydrogen (1.5-2.5%) , N(1-2%) and mineral
matter (1-3%).
• Plant- cellulose-20-50%, Lignin 10-30%
• Aminization: The process of conversion of proteins to aminoacids.
• Ammonification: The process of conversion of aminoacids and amides to

ammonia.
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• Nitrification: The process of conversion of ammonia to nitrites (NO2) and then to
nitrate (NO3-) is known as nitrification. It is an aerobic process by autotrophic
bacteria
• Mineralisation: The biological conversion of organic forms of C, N, P and S to

inorganic or mineral forms is called mineralization
• Immobilization: The conversion of inorganic forms of C, N, P
• and S by the soil organism into organic forms is called Immobilization
• Most of the microbes grow best at pH 6 to 8, but are severely inhibited below pH
4.5 and above pH 8.5.
5 Soil erosion
The word erosion has been derived from the Latin word ‘erodere’ which means eating
away or to excavate. The word erosion was first used in geology for describing the term
hollow created by water.
Deposition
Transportation
Deattachment
Soil
Some Historical Initiatives for Soil Conservation
First Five Year Plan (1951-56)
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 The Central Soil Conservation Board established a chain of nine Soil Conservation
Research, Demonstration and Training Centers at Dehra Dun, Chandigarh, Bellary,
Ootacamund (now Udhagamandalam), Kota, Vasad, Agra, Chatra (Nepal) and
Jodhpur.
Second Five Year Plan (1956-61)
 In this plan, the Desert Afforestation and Soil Conservation Centre at Jodhpur were
developed into the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) in 1959 with
collaboration of UNESCO.
Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)
 All the Soil Conservation Research, Demonstration and Training Centres of the
Government of India except Chatra (Nepal) were transferred to the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) on the 1st October, 1967.
Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)
 Under this plan, All India Soil & Land Use Survey prepared a detailed analysis of
different watersheds of the country. The concept of Integrated Watershed
Management was successfully introduced at field level in different parts of the
country.
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79)
 In this plan, the Government of India introduced many centrally sponsored

programmers, viz; Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Flood Prone Area
Programme (FPAP), Rural Development Programme (RDP), and Desert Development
Programme (DDP).
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90)
 National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) was

launched.
Eighth Five Year Plan (1990-95)
 During this period, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and

Cooperation, New Delhi formulated the guidelines for the implementation of
NWDPRA and published it in the form of a document commonly known as WARASA
(Watershed Areas Rainfed Agriculture System Approach)
 Soil erosion is the process by which soil is removed from the Earth's surface by
exogenetic processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and
deposited in other locations. In general, soil erosion implies the physical removal of
topsoil by various agents, including rain, water flowing over and through the soil
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profile, wind, glaciers or gravitational pull. Land and water are the most precious
natural resources that support and sustain the anthropogenic activities.
 In India almost 130 million hectares of land, i.e., 45 % of total geographical surface
area, is affected by serious soil erosion through gorge and gully, shifting cultivation,
cultivated wastelands, sandy areas, deserts and water logging. Soil erosion by rain
and transportation of soil particles through rivulets that takes place in hilly areas
causes severe landslides and floods. The anthropogenic activities including cutting
trees for agricultural implements, firewood and timber; grazing by a large number of
livestock over and above the carrying capacity of grass lands, traditional agricultural
practices, construction of roads, indiscriminate quarrying and other activities, have
all led to the opening of top surfaces to extreme soil erosion.
5.1 Types of soil erosion
Geologic Natural or normal erosion; represent erosion under the cover of vegetation
Wind Minimum drift velocity for erosion – 25-30km/hr
Water
5.1.1 Process of wind erosion

(i) Saltation: Saltation occurs when the wind lifts larger particles off the ground for short
distances, leading to sand drifts. Fine and medium sand-sized particles are lifted a short
distance into the air, dislodging more soil as they fall back to the ground.
(ii) Suspension: Suspension occurs when the wind lifts finer particles into the air leading to
dust storms. Very fine soil particles are lifted from the surface by the impact of saltation and
carried high into the air, remaining suspended in air for long distances.
(iii) Surface Creep: The movement of large soil particles along the surface of the soil after
being loosened by the impact of saltating particles.
Click You Tube
5.1.2 Water Erosion
Types
Splash Erosion
This type of soil erosion is because of the action of raindrop. The kinetic energy of falling
raindrop dislodges the soil particle and the resultant runoff transports soil particles. The
splashed particles can rise as high 0.60 meter above the ground and move up to 1.5 meter
from the point of impact.
Click You Tube
Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion the removal of soil in thin layers by raindrop impact and shallow surface flow.
This action called skimming and is prevalent in the agricultural land.
Rill Erosion
Rills formation is the intermittent process of transforming to gully erosion. The advance form
of the rill is initial stage of gully formation. The rills are shallow drainage lines less than 30cm
deep and 50 cm wide.
Gully Erosion
The advance stage of rills is transformed into initial stage of gully. Gully formation are
initiated when the depth and width of the rill is more than 50 cm. Gullies are deeper
channels that cannot be removed by normal cultivation. Depending upon the depth and
width, the gullies further divided into 4 classes namely G1, G2, G3 and G4.
Tunnel Erosion
Tunnel erosion occurs when surface water moves into and through dispersive subsoils.
Dispersive soils are poorly structured so they erode easily when wet. The tunnel starts when
surface water moves into the soil along cracks or channels or through rabbit burrows and
old tree root cavities. This type of erosion is more frequent in foothills where elevation is
between 500-750 meter.
Coastal erosion
The waves, geology and geomorphology are the three major factors that affect the
coastal erosion. Waves are the cause of coastal erosion.
Stream Bank Erosion
Stream bank erosion occurs where streams begin cutting deeper and wider channels as a
consequence of increased peak flows or the removal of local protective vegetation.
6 Soil Conservation
Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of the top most layer of the soil from erosion or
prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, acidification, salinization or other
chemical soil contamination.
Broadly soil conservation can be done by Agronomic measures and Engineering methods.
BIOLOGICAL METHODS ENGINEERING METHODS

 Agronomic practices  Basin leaching,
 Contour farming
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 Tillage and keeping the land fallow  Pan breaking,
 Crop rotation, sowing of leguminous
crops and mixed cropping  Sub soiling,
 Mulching
 Strip cropping  Contour terracing,
 Contour trenching,
 Terrace outlets,
 Gully control,
 Digging of ponds and reservoirs, and
 Stream bank protection
 Agro-stological methods  Check Dams

 Cultivation of grasses (ley farming)
 Retiring the land
 Afforestation and Reforestation
 Checking of overgrazing
 Dry farming practices  Water ways
 Cover crop  Embankment

 Inter crop  Terracing
 Strip cropping  Contours
 Mulching
 Wind Breaks
6.1 Soil Conservation Programmes

Programmes Remarks
 National Watershed Development Launched 1990-91
Project for Rainfed Area (NWDPRA)
 River Valley Project & Flood Prone
River (RVP & FPR)
 Watershed Development Project for Launched 1994-95
Shifting Cultivation Area (WDPSCA) The scheme is aimed at overall
development of jhum areas on watershed
basis, reclaiming the land affected by
shifting cultivation and socioeconomic up
gradation of jhumiafamilies living in these
areas so as to encourage them to go in for
settled agriculture.
 Reclamation & Development of
Alkali and Acid Soil (RADAS)
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 Watershed Development Fund A Watershed Development Fund (WDF) has
(WDF) been established at NABARD with the
objective of integrated watershed
development in 100 priority districts of 18
States through participatory approach
 Drought Prone Area Programme
(DPAP)
 Desert Development Programme
(DDP)
 Integrated Wasteland Development
Project (IWDP)
 National Afforestation and Eco- The National Afforestation and Eco-
Development Project (NAEP) Development Board (NAEB), set up in
August 1992,
6.2 Assistance for soil & water conservation

Just go through once not so important
S.No Type of Assistance Criteria for assistance/ maximum State/Central

limit. Schemes/
Components
Water Conservation
1 Assistance for Water harvesting 18289/unit Assistance of Rs.18289/- Development

structures on hill slopes or plain areas per unit established. of Jalkhund
designed to tap run off water through
NGO's, SHG's, Clubs Societies.
2 Assistance for desilting & renovation of 100% subsidy as per GSR or Desilting &
waterbodies like ponds, tanks, etc, Rs.70,000/- ha. of area benefitted. Revitalization
below 500 sq.mts. of Ponds &
Tanks.
3 Support for Dry land Horticulture and Supply of planting material free of Western
cultivation of cost Ghat
Development
(a) Medicinal plants. Programme
(b) Establishment of Agro processing 50% of standard cost limited to
(a)
units and traditional art & crafts Rs.30000/- per unit
Production
production unit.
Programmes
( c) Conservation of soil & water 50% of cost limited to standard costs. (b)
through land development on the Conservation
basis of slope programmes
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(d) Assistance for Soil conservation 50% of fixed standard cost
Structures: Bank Stabilization, Drain
diversion dug out ponds, gully control.
(f) 50% of fixed standard cost Rs. 25/ trench.
4 Organizing Promotional meetings for 5 Trainings for 50 farmers per training Western
farmers. per zone. Maximum of Rs.200/- Ghat
participants Development
Programme
5 Krishi Mahotsav to showcase Rs.1.25 lakhs per Mahotsav for 500
advances in Agriculture farmers
Soil Conservation
1 Funding for allied sectors of Agriculture 100% for Govt. based projects and Rashtriya
including Animal Husbandry, Dairy, 25% for others Krishi Vigyan
Fisheries, Co.Op. Research, Registered Yojana
Farmers Groups, Societies, NGO's, (RKVY)
Private Companies on PPP mode for
production, growth development of
infrastructure & assets.
2 Registration of farmers for efficient Krishi Cards are provided free of Krishi Card.
delivery of services, with a cost
classification of their respective Land
holding.
3 Support in order to overcome the price 25% subsidy on vegetables, & 5% Govt.
rise of 10 essential vegetables and 5 subsidy on commodities Intervention
essential commodities. Control of
Price Rise
(GICPR)
4 Interest subsidy on loans for Agriculture Loan upto Rs.5.00 lakhs for period of Interest
& Allied Activities. 5 years for individual beneficiary and subsidy on
interest above 4% is subsidized. loans
5 Krishi Mahotsav for 500 farmers Rs.1.25 lakhs
7 Desertification – Why in news

Why in the news?
 India was venue for the 14th meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP14) to the
United Nations Convention to combat desertification.
 Recently, the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought was observed on
June 17th. The theme for 2019 is ‘Let’s Grow the Future Together’ to encourage people
against depleting the land of its inbuilt resources.
What is Desertification?
Click You Tube
 Desertification is the process by which the biological productivity of drylands (arid
and semiarid lands) is reduced due to natural or manmade factors. It does not mean
the expansion of existing deserts.
7.1 Status of Desertification in India

 96 million hectares or close to 29% of India's area is undergoing degradation.
 According to the Government’s data recently presented to the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), India lost 31%, or 5.65 million
hectares (mha), of grassland area in a decade.
 The extent of degraded land in India is over 105 million hectares or about 32% of
India's areas.
 India has witnessed an increase in the level of desertification in 26 of 29 states
between 2003-05 and 2011-13.
 More than 80% of the country’s degraded land lies in just nine states.
7.2 Measures taken by India to Curb Desertification

Command Area Development
 It was launched in 1974 to improve the irrigation potential utilization and to optimize
agricultural production through efficient water management.
 The Ministry of Water resources coordinates the implementation of the program with
respective state governments.
Integrated Watershed Management Programme
 It was launched in 1989-90.
 It aims to restore ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing
degraded natural resources with the creation of Rural Employment.
 It was named as “Haryali Guidelines” in 2003.
 Now it is subsumed under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (2015-16 to 2019-20)
which is being implemented by NITI Ayog.
Desert Development Programme
 It was launched in 1995 to minimize the adverse effect of drought and to
rejuvenate the natural resource base of the identified desert areas.
 It was launched for hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and cold
desert areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
 It is implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development.
 India became a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) in 1994 and ratified in 1996.
Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Projects and Flood Prone Rivers
 Both the projects are clubbed and being implemented since 2000.
 The scheme aims at improving the physical conditions and productivity status of
alkali soils for restoring optimum crop production.
 It is being implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
National Afforestation Programme
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 It is being implemented since 2000 for the afforestation of degraded forest lands.
 It is being implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
National Action Programme to Combat Desertification
 It was prepared in 2001 to address issues of increasing desertification and to take
appropriate actions.
 It is implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
Fodder and Feed Development Scheme
 It was launched in 2010.
 It aims to improve degraded grassland and also the vegetation cover of
problematic soils like saline, acidic and heavy soil.
 It is being implemented by the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Diaries.
National Mission on Green India
 It is a part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
 It was approved in 2014 with the objective of protecting, restoring and enhancing
India’s diminishing forest cover with a deadline of 10 years.
 It is being implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India
 It was released by ISRO in 2016.
 Combating desertification and land degradation is one of the thrust areas covered
by it.
Global Efforts to Prevent Desertification
 The Bonn Challenge: To bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and
degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
 Goal 15 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 2030: It declares that “we are
determined to protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable
consumption and production.”
 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): It was established in
1994, the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and
development to sustainable land management.
 The World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought is observed every year on 17th
June.
 Great Green Wall: Initiative by Global Environment Facility (GEF), where eleven
countries in Sahel-Saharan Africa have focused efforts to fight against land
degradation and revive native plant life to the landscape.
8 Watershed Mnagement
What is Watershed Development and why it is important?
 It is a area of land that feeds all the water running under it and draining off it into a
body of water.
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 The Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development has been
implementing an area development programme i.e. Integrated Watershed
Management Programme (IWMP) w.e.f. 26.02.2009 principally for development of
rainfed portions of net cultivated area and culturable wastelands. The activities
undertaken inter alia include ridge area treatment, drainage line treatment, soil and
moisture conservation, rain water harvesting, nursery raising, afforestation,
horticulture, pasture development, livelihoods for asset-less persons, etc.
 Subsequent to approval of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY),IWMP
was subsumed as one of its components.
Example:
 The Place we live is a watershed which drains all the water to nearby lake/rivers. And
in turn combining all such rivers and lakes which ultimately drains into the sea forms
a watershed.
 Watershed management or development refers to management and conservation
of surf ace and ground water resources, which includes conservation, regeneration
and Judicious use of all resources.
Example:
 Even afforestation and reforestation is an measure to protect watersheds building

check dams, percolation dams etc.
8.1 Features of WDC-PMKSY

(i) As per the Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects-2008
(Revised Edition-2011), the period for completing PMKSY (Watershed
Development) projects is between 4-7 years. The activities to be taken up are
distributed over three phases.
 The Preparatory Phase (1 to 2 years) involves preparation of DPR, Entry Point
Activities and Institution & Capacity Building.
 The Watershed Works Phase (2 to 3 years) involves the Watershed Development
Works, Livelihood Activities for the asset-less persons and Production System &
Micro Enterprises.
 The Consolidation and Withdrawal Phase (1 to 2 years) involves consolidation and
completion of various works.
(ii) The cost norm for IWMP is Rs. 15,000/- per ha for hilly & difficult area, Rs. 12,000/-
per ha for other areas and upto Rs. 15,000 per ha for IWMP projects in Integrated
Action Plan (IAP) Districts.
(iii) While the funding pattern between Centre and States in the erstwhile IWMP was
90:10, the funding pattern under Watershed Development Component of PMKSY
is 60:40.However, for North-Eastern States and Hill States (J&K, H.P & Uttarakhand)
the funding pattern between Centre and the States continues to be 90:10. The
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projects under IWMP undertake a cluster of micro-watersheds of area about 5000
ha in rainfed/ degraded areas having no assured irrigation. Dedicated institutions
are also provided at Centre, State and District levels. The programme lays
emphasis on meticulous planning and capacity building, by providing a special
provision of 1 % for preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) and 5 % for
Institution and Capacity Building.
8.2 Institutional Setup

Ministry level The Department of Land Resources has the necessary institutional
mechanism in the form of Steering Committee chaired by the Secretary,
DoLR for effective and professional management of watershed projects.
State Level A State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) has been constituted with professional
support
District level Watershed Cell-cum-Data Centre (WCDC) is the District level institution to
supervise and coordinate IWMP projects in the District. WCDC is set up in
DRDA/ Zilla Parishad/ District Level Implementing Agency
Project level Project implementation is supervised by the Project Implementing Agency
(PIA).
Village level Watershed Committee (WC) is constituted by the Gram Sabha for
implementation of the project at field level. It comprises of at least 10
members, half of which are representatives of SHGs and User Groups (UGs),
SC/STs, women and landless. One member from WDT is also represented in
WC.
Importance:
 It recharges groundwater table.

 Restores water for drinking and other human proposes
 Protects bio-diversity of a region, it managed properly can restore biodiversity
 Restores soil Fertility and helps in soil conservation
 Helps fight climate change, and promotes sustainable agriculture.
8.3 Why in news

 Parliamentary Standing committee has submitted a report Highlighting the delays in
implementing watershed development projects under PMKSY.
 Till 2016 the founding pattern was 90:10 with central government taking former value
and state government letter. Presently the ration is changed to 60:40 moreover
projects takes 3 to 8 Years for completion and requires even more time to show visible
results.
 The Central or State government will recognize the regions for the need for watershed
management under, “Pradhan Mantri Kristi Sinchai Yojana”, which will be work under
the Ministry of Rural Development.
8.4 Neeranchal National watershed Project

 The Neeranchal National Watershed Project (NNWP) is a World Bank assisted project
undertaken by the Government of India to support the Integrated Watershed
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Management Program (IWMP) for the improvement and conservation of water
resources. The project started in 2016 and will continue until 2022. (The project will be
implemented from 2016-17 to 2021-22)
 The Ministry of Rural Development will implement the project and support the
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayi Yojana in water management. Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and
Maharashtra are the chosen states for project implementation.
 The total project cost is USD 357.0 million. The project will be financed through
Investment Project Financing (IPF) at a 50/50 cost-sharing ratio, with USD178.5 million
in International Development Association (IDA) financing, and an equivalent from
GoI (in Indian rupees) of USD178.5 million, outside of WDC-PMKSY.
 The DoLR (dept. of land development) has overall responsibility at the national level
for planning and delivering centrally financed watershed schemes, such as the IWMP
/ WDC-PMKSY. Field implementation is by states through existing SLNAs assigned
under WDC-PMKSY for watershed development. To ensure that the Neeranchal
project directly links to WDC-PMKSY field activities and experiences in selected sites,
the project will be implemented in a similar manner; at the central level by the DoLR
under the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) of the GoI
NEXT – PART IV
Water Resource: Irrigation Management: types of irrigation, sources of

irrigation, crop-water requirement, command area development, water
conservation techniques, micro-irrigation, and irrigation pumps, major,
medium and minor irrigation.
Notes will be updated from time to time
Feedback can be submitted to E-Mail: Clarity4sure@gmail.com
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MASTER NOTES PART III AS PER SYLLABUS - UPDATED

• Precision Farming & System of crop intensification: https://youtu.be/Fwxxzr5v4o4

2 System of crop Intensification

2.1 SRI of Rice

2.1.1 Agro-ecological crop management

2.1.2 Package of Practice – SRI

 7- 8 kg/ha for single seedling per hill

Preparation of nursery area

Lifting Seedling Mats

Main field preparation

 Puddled lowland prepared as described in transplanted section

 1-2 seedlings of 14-15 days old

 Irrigation only to moist the soil in the early period of 10 days

3.1 Principles of Organic Farming

Healthy soil, plants, Emulating and Emulating and For the

3.2 Synonym of Organic Farming

3.3 Key Points to remember

• China has around 50 per cent and India has 30 percent of

• Among all the states, Madhya Pradesh -- Rajasthan---Maharashtra---Uttar

• India produced around 1.70 million MT (2017-18) of certified organic products

• Leading Market - USA--------Germany

Ministry of Commerce has

3.5 Jaivik Bharat

3.6.1 Assistance under organic schemes

3.7 Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)

6. Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP): is introduced as a sub scheme of

POLYPEDON - A polypedon is therefore, defined as a contiguous similar pedons bounded

Step I: Rock to regolith is influenced by Physical, Chemical & Biological process

4.2.1 Active & Passive factors

(2) Eluviation and illuaviation

B. Specific soil forming processes

4.3 Horizons in soil

O-horizon It is called as organic horizon,

A-Horizon Horizon of organic matter

B-Horizon Horizon in which the dominant

4.4 Properties of Soil

4.4.1 Physical Properties

Soil Structure** The arrangement and organization of primary and secondary

Soil Colour From parent material or during forming process

4.4.2 Points to remember from Soil Textural classes

Sandy Soil: SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES

4.5 Density in soil

PARTICLE DENSITY BULK DENSITY

Fine sand 2.659 Loam 1.4 47

Silt loam 1.3 50

• The particle density is higher if large amount of heavy minerals such as

• BD < 1/Porosity, BD<1/Texture, BD<1/OM

• Bulk density is of greater importance than particle density in understanding

• The amount or ratio of pore space in a soil is determined by the

4.6 Soil Colour

Iron Compound Soil containing higher amount of iron compounds

Hue Dominant spectral colour

Chroma Purity of colour

Value Lightness or darkness of colour

4.7 Types of Soil clay

4.7.1 Comparative analysis of clay

Representative Kaolinite Montmorillonite Illite Chlorite

Subst. No substitution Substitution in Substitution

SA(m2/gm) 5-20 700 -800 100-120 80