TM-CFI RCT Version Modules 1 & 2 V.01.01.19

Certified Fiber Optic Installer
Remote Certification Training

(TR-CFI-RCT Version)
Student Manual
Modules 1 & 2
A TFS Authorized Training Provider
TM-CFI V.01.01.19 RCT Version www.thefiberschool.com

Certified Fiber Optic Installer Training
Welcome to the FiberOptic.com Certified Fiber Optic Installer training.
FiberOptic.com is an Authorized TFS Certification Training Provider. As
such this training is an integral part of the steps necessary to achieve
the valuable TFS (The Fiber School) Installer certification credential.
Further information can be found at our www.thefiberschool.com
website.
All instructors are FiberOptic.com Certified Instructors and maintain BISCI, ETA and TFS
certification credentials appropriate to their individual areas of responsibility and experience.
Objectives
Demonstrate Gain valuable

For those practical Overviews knowledge of
who design, knowledge of the Hands on the skills
install, or fiber optic skills needed needed to
maintain theory, for the final safely and
fiber optic codes, TFS Installer competently
systems standards, Certification install fiber
and practices optics
If you design, install, maintain, or supervise those who do, this training will identify you as one
who demonstrates a practical knowledge of fiber optic theory, codes, standards, and practices
widely accepted in the telecommunications industry today.
In addition, this training provides an overview of the hands on skills, which you will perform
for the RCT lab portion of this course.
You will also gain valuable knowledge of the skills applicable to all the functions necessary to
safely and competently install fiber optics communications cabling.
Module #1 encompasses Fiber Optic Basic Theory, while Module #2 is the installation part for
the Certified Fiber Optic Installer certification credential.
TR-CFI Certified Fiber Optic Installer Training
CERTIFIED FIBER OPTIC INSTALLER (TR-CFI)
THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS ______________________________________ 4

MODULE #1 FIBER OPTIC BASIC THEORY _____________________________ 6
Module #1 Section 1 ................................................................................................................ 6
History of Fiber Optics ........................................................................................................ 6
Optical Communications..................................................................................................... 9
Fiber Optic Applications .................................................................................................... 12
Advantages of Fiber Optics ............................................................................................... 15
Fiber Fundamentals (Measurements) .............................................................................. 19
Fiber Fundamentals (Fiber Structure)............................................................................... 22
Fiber Optic Safety (Light Sources) ..................................................................................... 23
Module #1 Section 2 .............................................................................................................. 27
Connector Essentials ......................................................................................................... 27
Connector Considerations ................................................................................................ 27
Connector Performance Issues ......................................................................................... 28
Reflection Issues ............................................................................................................... 28
Connector Polishes (Endfaces).......................................................................................... 29
Cleaning Overview ............................................................................................................ 30
Module #1 Section 3 .............................................................................................................. 31
Transmission Principles (Light Sources) ............................................................................ 31
Transmission Principals (Light Propagation) ..................................................................... 35
Types of Optical Fiber ....................................................................................................... 42
Transmission of Light (Dispersions) .................................................................................. 49
Attenuation Factors .......................................................................................................... 52
MODULE #2 CERTIFIED FIBER OPTIC INSTALLER ______________________ 56
Module #2 Section 1 .............................................................................................................. 56
Fiber Optic Safety.............................................................................................................. 56
Cable Structural Elements................................................................................................. 59
The Fiber Color Code......................................................................................................... 62
Fiber Optic Cable & Designs .............................................................................................. 63
Bend Insensitive Cables .................................................................................................... 64
Conductive Cables ............................................................................................................. 72
Flame Ratings .................................................................................................................... 74
Module #2 Section 2 .............................................................................................................. 77
Connector Considerations ................................................................................................ 78
Common Connectors: 2.5mm ........................................................................................... 81
Small Form Factor Connectors.......................................................................................... 82
Terminating Fiber Optic Connectors Lab .......................................................................... 84
Cleaning & Inspection ....................................................................................................... 91
Splicing .............................................................................................................................. 94
3
Module #2 Section 3 ............................................................................................................ 101

Power & Loss Budget ...................................................................................................... 101
Example of a Practical Fiber Link Budget Exercise .......................................................... 102
Testing Optical Fiber (Overview) .................................................................................... 107
Optical Testing Tier 2 ...................................................................................................... 118
Tier 2 Testing - Reading Trace Results ............................................................................ 122
Basic Evaluation of a Practical Trace Exercise ................................................................ 124
Module #2 Section 4 ............................................................................................................ 128
Standards Organizations and Codes ............................................................................... 128
Trays Panels and Enclosures ........................................................................................... 132
OSP Enclosures................................................................................................................ 133
Installation Practices ....................................................................................................... 135
Cable Management ......................................................................................................... 138
Restoration Planning....................................................................................................... 143
GLOSSARY ___________________________________________________ 145
Blue font denotes Glossary Items contained in this manual. View the on-line
glossary for a complete listing.
Red font denotes important installer information.
THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS

The Fiber School (TFS) Certified Fiber Optic Installer (CFI) Certification
identifies you as an installer who understands the basic concepts of fiber optics
installation and service as they apply to all the functions required to safely and
competently install fiber optics communications cabling.
The successful completion of this training, including the technical examination, will qualify you
to apply for the TFS Fiber Optic Installer Certification.
Certification Requirements
The requirements for the valuable TFS Fiber Optic Installer Certification, in
addition to the successful completion of this on-line training, includes:
1. This on line course (TR-CFI)
2. The on-line course Technical Exam (TE-CFI)
3. The written Practical Exam and Workbook (TP-CFI)
4. The online labs (TR-CFI-TAM-RCT)
4
Technical Exam: TE-CFI

This exam must be passed in order to qualify for certification in our
Certified Fiber Optic Installer training.
This exam is 50 questions encompassing a combination of multiple-

choice, fill-in, diagram drawing, or other similar questions.
This exam is to be completed on-line as part of this Certified Fiber

Optic Installer training.
Practical Exam Exercises Workbook

The successful completion of a written Practical Exam (TP-CFI)
encompassing problem-solving exercises which demonstrate the
applicant’s competency, ability, and knowledge of fiber optic theory,
codes, standards and practices which are widely accepted in the
telecommunications industry today.
TR-CFI-TAM-RCT Guided Labs

The attendance and successful completion of this training
requires the:
1) Viewing of the guided labs
2) Completion of the lab assignments
3) Submission of the labs for review
5
MODULE #1 FIBER OPTIC BASIC THEORY
Module #1 Section 1
Section #1 encompasses a brief history of

• History
fiber optics, signal modulation
• Optical Communications
• Applications
techniques, an overview of market
Module #1 applications, and a comparison between
• Advantages
Secton 1 optical fiber and copper media. We’ll
• Disadvantages
Fiber Optic Basics • Fundamentals continue this module with fiber
• Safety fundamentals and a safety overview.
History of Fiber Optics

Brief History and Applications of Fiber Optics
In order to better understand the current state of fiber optic technology it is necessary to
discuss a brief history of the milestones which have occurred over time.
Using light signals as a means of communication is not new, consider

the fact that Alexander Graham Bell invented the first device to use
light to transmit sound, known as the photo phone in 1880.
Early Discoveries
In 1854: Daniel Colladon & Jacques Babinet were the first to
demonstrate the guiding of light within a stream of water.
This scientific demonstration was carried out in London for
the Royal Society (British Academy of Science) by John
Tyndall.
In 1880: Alexander Graham Bell invented the

first device to use light to transmit sound, known as the photophone. It used
light that was vibrated from the surface of a mirror that was guided through the
air to strike a selenium detector that vibrated a membrane that replicated the
sound. This was limited in distance to only 200m and was never fully
developed. It did illustrate two principles: the guiding of light as a transmission
medium; and the modulation of light to communicate.
6
Technological Advancements
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
In 1937 Alec Reeves invented the process of converting analog signals into
digital form. Pulse code modulation (PCM) is the heart of technology in
communications in today’s digital world. PCM is a process in which analog
signals are converted to digital form for transmission. Since then he has been
referred to as the 'Father' of the Information Age.
Pulse code modulation is the basis for all modern digital communications and media, the main
motor for change in the 21st century and perhaps the key technology of the future.
The digital signal is represented by a series of pulses and non-pulses (1 or 0 respectively). The
stream of pulses (1s and 0s) are not easily affected by interference and noise. Even in the
presence of external noise, the presence or absence of the pulse can be easily determined.
Since PCM signals are digital, they are easy to process by inexpensive and standard techniques,
making it easier to implement complicated communication systems.
PCM is used in many ways in our day to day life. Digital radios, CDs, DVDs, the internet and
digital telephones are all examples of PCM.
1950s: Optical fibers were developed and placed on the market in the
1950’s as light guides that enable one to peer into an otherwise
inaccessible location such as into a person’s body or the interior of an
engine.
An enormous amount of light was lost in these early devices, but for the few feet involved in
these types of applications, it didn’t matter.
1960s: Hughes research announced the operation of the first laser. The
laser provided an extremely narrow and intense beam, but it was found
that fog and rain could interrupt the beam as it was sent through the
atmosphere.
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1970: Corning developed fiber that had an attenuation of .5dB/km at

1200 nm. The invention of the first low-loss optical fiber and the
manufacturing process used to produce it revolutionized the
telecommunications industry and established the optical fiber
category.
1976: Bell Laboratories demonstrated a fiber optic system that worked over a distance of 10km
without repeaters.
Commercial Applications
In 1977 AT&T began the installation of the world's first lightwave system to
provide a full range of telecommunications service over a public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
As a replacement for a copper system, this lightwave system, extending about 1.5 miles under
downtown Chicago, used glass fibers that each carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels
1980: When the divestiture of AT&T occurred in January 1, 1984 the door
was opened to revolutionize the fiber field. By 1985 long wavelength
operation at 1550 nm had become a practical application.
1995: Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) development begins.

Multiplexing is simply a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are
combined into one signal over a shared medium.
Today one will find fiber optics used within the Interexchange Carriers (IXCs), the Local Exchange
Carriers (LECs) and in Local and Wide Area Networks (LANs).
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Review – History:
1. In what year was the first fiber based telephone network installed?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Who invented the first device to use light to transmit sound?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What is PCM used for? _________________________________________________
4. What company developed the first fiber with .5dB of attenuation?
_____________________________________________________________________
Optical Communications
The principle of optical communications is to transmit a light signal through an optical fiber to a
distant receiver using four components.
No matter what the application or the system, all fiber optic networks have at least 4 parts:
• Transmitter (optical converter)

• Media (glass or plastic fiber)
• Receiver (electrical converter)
• Connectors (interface devices)
Transmitter
The transmitter or light source converts the electrical signal to the
optical domain.
Receiver
The receiver (photo detector) converts the optical domain back to an

electrical signal. This is an integral component of a transceiver or
switch.
Too much power can overload a receiver while too little power and the receiver won’t be able
to distinguish signal from noise.
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Too much power can be addressed by using an optical attenuator, a passive

device used to reduce power level without substantial distorting of the
waveform.
Medium
The Medium describes the material over which the signals travel. Optical
Fiber or “Glass” is the medium that carries the optical signal.
Connectors
Connectors are simply interface devices that allow the medium,
our optical fiber, to be plugged into the Transmitter and the
Receiver. Typical connector styles include the ST, SC, FC, and SFF,
to name a few.
Modulation Techniques
Modulation encodes or converts an analog signal into binary code, for transmission across a
channel to a demodulator which decodes the data.
You are probably already aware of a device that performs these functions, the Modem, a
common device used for dial-up internet service, modulates or codes your signal for
transmission over standard telephone lines and demodulates any received signal.
The rate (speed) of modulation is a factor in determining the bandwidth or throughput of a
transmission channel. Lasers have higher modulation rates and therefore greater bandwidths
and capacity than do LED light sources.
There are 3 common modulation techniques:

amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and
phase modulation.
As a comparison, amplitude modulation (AM) is

commonly used for transmitting information via a
radio carrier wave. AM varies the strength of the
transmitted signal in relation to the information
being sent.
For example, changes in signal strength may be used

to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker.
10
Contrast this with frequency modulation, in which the frequency is varied, and phase
modulation, in which the phase is varied.
These are ways of packaging the coded bits represented as the familiar “0” and “1” in pulse
code modulation.
Link Factors
The designer of any fiber optic link must consider some key factors before construction to
ensure proper function. Fiber wavelength, fiber bandwidth, and fiber attenuation are all
limiting factors in link design.
It is also important that the installer understand these factors and the relationship between
them as it pertains to the physical link or segment.
These key considerations, limiting link or segment performance, can be simply addressed with 4
key questions;
How much, how far, how fast and how much will it cost?
How much?
This is an applications question. Which applications
does the client want to run? Does the client want to run
voice and data; CCTV; CATV; HDTV; and medical imaging
applications? We tend to want everything but not
necessarily need everything!
How far?
Consider how far the signal must be sent. In
commercial buildings is it a 100 meter closet link to the
desktop, or a 2000 meter backbone on a campus? How about outside plant segments between
central offices within a city, or city to city? What is the distance is required 10Km, 100Km?
How Fast?
What is the bit rate or transmission speed of your network protocol? Is 10mb/s Ethernet, a
gigabit, 10 gigabit, 100 gigabit or more required?
Multimode fiber, used in local area networks or LANs, is limited in both bandwidth and distance
while single-mode fiber, used in wide area networks or WANs, is almost unlimited in bandwidth
and distance.
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For example, the maximum Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) backbone

distances for a multimode fiber backbone between buildings was 2000 meters @ 10Mb/s.
When Fast Ethernet @ 100mb/s was deployed the distance fell to 330 meters and the distance
fell again with the deployment of 1Gb/s Ethernet to 220 meters.
Each time the bit rate or speed was increased the distance drops. So it is not always possible to
get everything we want. I can transmit the high bandwidth applications but the distance will
decrease.
Can one exceed the recommended maximum distance and still achieve the desired
performance? The answer is yes! I can buy transmitters and receivers capable of transmitting
and receiving the signal over extended distances, but…
How much will it cost?

The cost of deployment is always a consideration. At home you may want download speeds of
100Mb/s but is it worth it to double or triple your monthly internet cost?
So, all the limiting factors in link design and performance are depended upon the wavelength of
the transmission, over a fiber of specific density, to determine the bandwidth, attenuation per
kilometer of length; and finally the maximum length of transmission possible.
Fiber Optic Applications
Introduction - Applications Overview
Whether you are working in construction, commercial building, industrial, education, utility or
government, the widespread use of optical fiber is found in every market segment. There are
numerous fiber optic applications including lighting, signs, gyroscopes, and sensors. But the key
thing to remember is that fiber optics are becoming all-encompassing in our society, and
therefore the knowledge you gain here will benefit you no matter how you work or live in the
future. Telephones, data communications, security, FTTx, manufacturing, medical, tactical, and
broadcasting, are all applications that currently utilize fiber optics. The use of fiber optics is
growing on a daily basis.
As an installer, the knowledge you gain here will benefit you no matter how you work or live in
the future.
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Telephone
Telephone companies helped fund and drive research into fiber optic
networks. They needed higher capacity between more and more central
office switches to support the growing needs of more telephone and data
traffic. Originally all systems were point-to-point, but when synchronous
optical networking (SONET) was introduced, the point-to-point protocol
topology was modified to support the SONET ring architecture.
Data Communications
In the mid-80s, we began to see fiber optics becoming part of data
communication standards. Ethernet protocol, which is the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 standard, was first to
incorporate both multimode and single-mode fiber and the ST connector
type as part of the physical layer specifications.
The first fiber optic standard for networking was Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI). FDDI was a dual counter rotating ring network topology
that was similar to Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) but was of higher speed and
more reliable. It used both types of fiber and introduced the first dual
position fixed connector so that each transmit and receive port was simultaneously connected
or disconnected.
Security
Today we see more and more cameras used in security
applications. The requirement for these units to be placed further
from the monitoring site requires the use of fiber optic
technologies.
Traffic cameras are a major part of most intelligent transportation systems (ITS). They are
especially valuable in tunnels, where safety equipment can be activated remotely based upon
information provided by the cameras and other sensors. On surface roads, they are typically
mounted on high poles or masts, sometimes along with street lights. On arterial roads, they are
often mounted on traffic light poles at intersections, where problems are most likely to occur.
Digital video recorders (DVR) can be mounted further away and be protected with higher
security and backup power due to the increased quality and distances offered by fiber optics.
High security compounds are being protected by smart-fences that communicate via a
monitoring site. An alarm will sound if a breach is being attempted.
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Manufacturing
A fiber optic communications cable does not need to carry any electrical current. It is possible
to construct completely non-metallic cables so that full electrical isolation can be achieved,
particularly important in the electrical industry. There are no risks of
short circuits generating sparks which may ignite explosive gases, etc.
Non-metallic cables are not prone to lightning strikes in exposed areas.
All these intrinsically safe characteristics have led to the widespread use
of fiber optics in hazardous environments such as oil refineries,
chemical works, coal mines, etc. When compared to copper
communications cables, there is less use of energy resources in
manufacturing, transporting, and installing fiber optic cables because of
the lightweight, compact nature of optical fibers.
Medical
Not only do surgical and inspection instruments use fiber optic
technology, but also medical imaging requires high bandwidth
transmission to transmit detailed images.
Tactical
The tremendous weight difference between fiber and copper has made it
advantageous to upgrade aircraft with fiber which allows for additional
payload.
Broadcasting
Transmission of video signals and digital data over conventional copper
cables cannot yet comply with constantly growing requirements. This
mostly is caused by signal quality enhancement as well as greater
distances. The problem is that the resistance of coaxial cables and twisted
pairs limits the distance which the signals can be transferred. An
inexpensive solution to the problem is fiber optics.
Optical fiber has a much wider bandwidth and far less loss than coaxial cable. This allows
transferring images with high resolution over greater distances without use of amplifiers or
repeaters. And since the signal is a beam of light instead of electric current, the system
becomes fully secured from any kind of electric interference including neighboring conductors
or high voltage power lines.
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Review: Fiber Optic Applications
1. All fiber optic network systems consist of 4 key components. What are they?
______________________________________________________________________
2. What protocol was developed by the telephone company for use on fiber networks?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What network protocol is the dominant network in the data communications industry?
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Fiber wavelength, bandwidth, and ______________ are all limiting factors in link
design and performance.
Advantages of Fiber Optics

Introduction
Fiber optics offer advantages not available in any metallic or
wireless communication system. These include higher bandwidth,
less delay, and the fact that they are unaffected by outside
interference. The advantages reach outside of the
telecommunications industry with additional capabilities in the
medical and surgical field, illumination and sensor industry, as well
as many other scientific applications.
Size and Weight

Size is a major advantage that optical fiber cables have over copper
cables. In commercial buildings the smaller diameter, lightweight fiber
cable reduces congestion in conduits and trays. In outside plant aerial
applications fiber cables are less susceptible to wind and ice
conditions when compared to their larger copper counterparts.
A typical single conductor fiber optic cable weighs 9lb/kft. A comparable coaxial cable weighs
about 80lb/kft. Fiber is easier to transport and handle in this smaller form.
15
Tensile Strength
Optical fiber has a high tensile strength. Tensile strength is the amount of
stress from pulling that it can handle before it breaks. Optical fiber has a
tensile strength greater than steel. Tensile strength is important as it
affects the way fiber must be handled.
The cladding provides much of the fiber’s tensile strength. Once the cladding is scratched or
cracked the tensile strength is gone at that location. Bending can cause this cracking especially
if the bending takes place while the fiber is under tension, as during cable pulls, and this
cracking will decrease the fibers tensile strength.
Negligible Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

Copper can act as an antenna picking up radio frequency
interference and electromagnetic interference (EMI) from
generators, motors, and other electrical sources.
Optical fiber or glass acts as an excellent dielectric and won’t
pick up these signals, resulting in noise-free transmissions. Fiber
is considered to be immune to EMI.
As a result of noise immunity, fiber routinely provides high quality transmissions with bit error
rates (BERs) much better or lower than copper or microwave.
Low Loss and Distance

Fiber has very little loss, therefore it can carry a signal farther, up to
200km without amplification.
Attenuation, or loss, in coaxial and twisted pair copper cable increases
as the frequency increases.
A telephony DS1 (Digital Service) signal at 1.544Mbs can travel approximately 6000 feet over
copper before it has to be regenerated, a DS3 signal utilizing coaxial cable at 44.736Mbs will
only travel 900 feet before it has to be regenerated.
However, in fiber optics the attenuation remains constant over a wide range of frequencies, or
wavelengths. A typical optical signal utilizing a 1550 nm wavelength can travel over 55 miles
before regeneration. In some cases greater distances, up to 120 miles, can easily be obtained.
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Lack of Cross-talk between Parallel Fibers

In conventional communication circuits, channels will bleed over into
one another resulting in other calls being heard in the background.
This bleed over can occur on copper pairs when water is introduced
into the cable or splice. The water acts as a conduit and causes increased induction to occur
between adjacent copper pairs. This is commonly referred to as cross-talk on a telephone line.
In the case of fiber, water won’t cause the light to bleed over as signal induction can’t occur.
Extremely Wide Bandwidth

Fiber has substantially more bandwidth than copper per strand. Today,
fiber has a bandwidth capability in excess of 10 GHz (129,024 DS0’s @
64Kbps). In an ideal situation utilizing dense wavelength division
multiplexing (DWDM), 128 - 40 GHz channels can be transmitted
simultaneously on one fiber.
Greater Security - Difficult to Tap Into

The light in the optical fiber does not radiate outside the cable like electrical signals do over
copper cables. Therefore, the only way to eavesdrop or to tap a fiber is to physically couple the
light from the fiber. Bending the fiber and forcing some of the light out of
the cable can accomplish this also. So, fiber can be tapped but it is
considered difficult to do so. Security software and equipment can monitor
the fiber and is capable of detecting losses occurred from unauthorized taps.
High Quality Transmission

As a result of noise immunity, fiber routinely provides communication quality orders much
better than copper or microwave. The general standard for fiber transmission is a 10-9 (1 error
out of 1 billion bits) minimum bit error rate (BER) with 10-11 or better as the norm. This is in
comparison to 10-5 to 10-7 for copper or microwave.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics
The use of optical fibers is perceived to have several disadvantages

when compared to the copper alternatives. Installers must be
knowledgeable of fiber optic theory, design, installation, and systems.
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Investment
Many expenses must be made well before any return on the investment
occurs. The initial cost includes specialized tools, test equipment and qualified
personnel. Installers need to know how to use, install, test and repair fiber
optic systems. This requires investment by employers in the training
necessary for their installers to obtain and maintain needed industry
certifications.
Strength
Although fiber cables have greater tensile strength than steel, they are
extremely susceptible to damage from lateral (side) forces. Avoid abrasions,
crushing, twisting, bending and other forms of mishandling the fiber.
Installation
Improper handling and installation techniques can create stress on a cable that
won’t be apparent today, but will be the cause of performance issues and system
failure in the future.
Fiber Optics is an Evolving Technology

What you learn now about fiber optics today is guaranteed to change. Without continual
training or awareness of this evolution you can easily fall behind.
Review: Fiber Verses Copper
1. List 4 advantages that fiber has over copper?

_____________________________________________________________________
2. What are disadvantages that fiber has over copper?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Fiber will not pick up any radio or electromagnetic interference from generators or
motors. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Copper is more difficult to tap into than Fiber. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
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Fiber Fundamentals (Measurements)
Let’s start with discussing some fiber fundamentals.
This section focuses on specific physical measurements, data bit rate measurements, the
electromagnetic spectrum and the wavelengths that are used within the industry today.
Common Units of Measure

The foundation of fiber optic measurements came out of a worldwide research effort by
scientists and engineers. Because of its international development, fiber optic measurements
were given in metric units. To this day fiber optic measurements still use the metric system.
However, the exception is that certain North American manufacturers offer their cabling
products with jacket markings in feet rather than meters. This helps prevent confusion in
markets unfamiliar to metric measurements.
The metric terms an installer must be familiar with are:
• Micron (µm) = a millionth of a meter - Used to measure the diameter (ϴ) of a fiber.
• Nanometer (nm) = a billionth of a meter - Used to measure wavelengths (λ).
Here is a list of standard to metric conversions as used in fiber optics:
1 meter (m) =
• 39.37 inches (in.)

1 millimeter (mm) =
• One thousandth (1/1,000) of a meter

1 micron (µm) =
• One millionth (1/1,000,000) of a meter
• One thousandth (1/1,000) of a millimeter

1 nanometer (nm) =
• One billionth (1/ 1,000,000,000) of a meter
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Data Measurements
Bit vs. Baud

Baud is the number of signal level transitions per second. It is commonly confused with bits per
second. The baud rate does not necessarily transmit an equal number of bits per second. In
some encoding schemes, baud will be equal to bits per second, but in others it will not.
For example, a signal with four voltage levels may be used to transmit 2 bits of information for
every baud. These terms are often used synonymously, but it is important to note that they are
different.
It wasn’t long ago that Bytes and

Kilobytes were sufficient in transmitting
our digital data, but as application and
files sizes have increased our
terminology has evolved. Consider the
fact we are downloading movies on
demand.
Would you rather wait two hours for a
movie to download or ten minutes?
This drives the need for increased bandwidth. This table has a list of data rates and bit sizes
commonly used in communications today.
The term "bps" specifies network bandwidth in bits per second. The term "Bps" specifies
network bandwidth in bytes per second.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of

all types of EM radiation. Radiation energy spreads
out as it is transmitted over distance. Visible light is
one type of electromagnetic radiation and radio
waves are another. The other types of EM radiation
that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are
microwave, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma
rays.
Light travels in rays, and is made up of photons that have energy, light is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum and visible light is made up of 320 trillion different colors. Our eyes
are detectors that can operate between 400 and 700 nanometers.
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Lightwaves
The speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second (2.99792458
x 10-8 m/s). This is the speed with which all electromagnetic fields
including radio waves, infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), X-rays, and
gamma rays, propagate in a vacuum. Light rays travel at slower
and different rates depending on what medium they travel in such
as: glass, air, or water.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes everything from radio (long) waves to gamma (short)
waves. Lightwaves used in fiber optic communications are part of the infrared portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Frequency
The higher the frequency the greater the amount of
information can be carried, or the higher the
bandwidth.
Infrared waves of light carry more information
because they have higher frequencies – measured in
wave cycles per second, or hertz.
Higher frequency waves can be switched on and off faster than low frequency waves, so they
can be divided into more pulses per second. The pulses and gaps between them represent the
1’s and 0’s of digital information.
The infrared laser light used in optical telephone cables has a frequency of about 100 million
megahertz, or 100 million times higher than a typical AM radio signal and 100 billion times
higher than an electrical telephone signal.
Wavelengths
Infrared light wavelengths are shorter than radio waves but have a higher frequency, therefore
they can carry more information. The higher the frequency the greater the amount of
information can be carried, or the higher the bandwidth.
21
Communications Systems
• Infrared is greater than 780 nm
• Ultraviolet is less than 410 nm
• Visible light range is 380 nm and

770 nm
Fiber Fundamentals (Fiber Structure)

Bare Fiber Structure
Optical fiber is an extremely thin glass rod coated in a plastic
coating. The glass is comprised of two parts, the inner
portion is the core and is surrounded by an outer layer called
the cladding. The denser core is centered within the
cladding. Light which is injected into the core will follow the
path of that fiber due to the property of total internal
reflection of light along the core and the cladding interface.
Light travels in the core and in the cladding, but, mostly in
the core. The Acrylate Coating protects the glass fiber.
An optical fiber can be broken down into three parts:
Core - The glass core actually carries the signal in the form of
light. It is extremely small and can be compared in size to a human hair. Single-mode cores are 8
to 10 µm (microns) in diameter, while multimode cores are 50 or 62.5 µm (microns) in diameter.
The denser core is centered within the cladding. Light which is injected into the core will follow
the physical path of that fiber core due to the property of the total internal reflection of the
light at the core and cladding boundary.
These 2 layers each have a different density described as the index of refraction. Every medium
has a different index of refraction (IOR) based upon the speed of light in a vacuum.
Cladding - The cladding acts as a waveguide and is responsible for keeping the light inside the
core. It is made of materials that act as a reflector. The cladding brings the diameter of the fiber
up to 125 µm (micron) overall. There is a standard for describing the characteristics of a fiber
contained within a cable. Imprinted on the cable’s jacket is the core and cladding diameter of
the fibers contained within.
22
A multimode fiber would be expressed as 50/125 µm (microns) and 62.5/125 µm (microns),

while a single-mode fiber is expressed as 8-10/125 µm (microns).
Acrylate Coating - The acrylate coating acts as the protective covering for the fiber core and
cladding. The addition of the coating increases the fibers diameter up to 250 µm (microns).
Review: Fiber Fundamentals
1. List the 3 layers of an optical fiber:

_____________________________________________________________________
2. Which layer of glass is 125 µm (micron) in diameter?
____________________________________________________________________
3. Fiber optic transmissions take place in the ______________ portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum?
4. What is the unit of measure for glass fiber diameters?
____________________________________________________________________
Fiber Optic Safety (Light Sources)

Safety is an important consideration when dealing with fiber optic cables
and working around active laser sources. In this section we’ll describe
specific hazards confronting an installer daily.
We will also discuss the laser classifications in use today and the safety
precaution we take while working around active laser light sources.
Eye Protection
The protection of the eyes is one of the most important safety
precautions. The eye cannot see infrared fiber optic light sources. Light
sources with wavelengths over 780 nanometers such as 850
nanometers, which is used in multimode fiber, are invisible, but can still
damage the eye.
23
Installers are exposed to potential eye problems during their everyday activities including the
inspection and preparation of fibers for termination, splicing and testing. Caution should be
taken around the output ports of optical transmitters and optical test equipment.
Laser Safety
Research studies, along with an understanding of hazards of sunlight
and conventional man-made light sources, have permitted scientists to
establish safe exposure limits for nearly all types of laser radiation.
These limits are generally referred to as maximum permissible
exposures (MPEs) by laser safety professionals.
In many cases it is not necessary to make use of MPEs directly. The experience gained in millions
of hours of laser use in the laboratory and industry has permitted the development of a system
of laser hazard categories or classifications. The manufacturer of lasers and laser products is
required to certify that the laser is designated as one of four general classes, or risk categories,
and label it accordingly. This allows the use of standardized safety measures to reduce or
eliminate accidents depending on the class of laser or laser system being used.
Laser Classes
Class 1
A Class 1 laser is considered safe based upon current medical
knowledge due to its low power output. This class includes all lasers
or laser systems which cannot emit levels of optical radiation above
the exposure limits for the eye. It presents the fewest hazards of any
of the light sources.
A Class 1M laser is safe for all conditions of uses through magnifying optics such as microscopes
and telescopes.
Class 2
Risk level increases with Class 2. A Class 2 laser or laser system must emit a
visible laser beam in the 400 to 780 nanometer range. Momentary viewing is
not considered hazardous. However, extended viewing is considered
hazardous. An example of a Class 2 laser is a VFL (Visual Fault Locator).
A Class 2 laser is safe because the blink reflex will limit the exposure to no
more than 0.25 seconds. This only applies to visible-light lasers (400–700 nm). Momentary
viewing is not considered hazardous. A Class 2M laser is safe because of the blink reflex if not
viewed through optical instruments
24
Class 3
A Class 3 laser or laser system can emit any wavelength, but
it cannot produce a diffuse (not mirror-like) reflection hazard
unless focused or viewed for extended periods at close
range. OTDR and SONET equipment may incorporate this
type of laser. Permanent eye damage can result if the laser is
viewed.
A Class 3R laser is considered safe if handled carefully, with restricted beam viewing.
The VCSEL light sources used in laser optimized multimode is typically categorized as a class 3
device. OTDR and SONET equipment may incorporate this type of laser as well as the VCSEL.
Permanent eye damage can result if the laser is viewed.
A Class 3B laser is hazardous if the eye is exposed directly, but diffuse reflections such as from
paper or other matte surfaces are not harmful.
Class 4
A Class 4 laser is hazardous to the eye and skin from direct or diffused
exposure. Fire damage is present. Ultra-long haul fiber optic equipment
incorporates this type of laser. Protective eyewear is mandatory.
A Class 4 laser includes all lasers with beam power greater than class 3B. By
definition, a class 4 laser can burn the skin, in addition to potentially
devastating and permanent eye damage as a result of direct or diffuse
beam viewing.
These lasers may ignite combustible materials, and thus may represent a fire risk. Class 4 lasers
must be equipped with a key switch and a safety interlock. All four classes of lasers will be
utilized in the telecommunications networks.
It’s best to assume that all lasers are Class 3 or Class 4 and take the proper safety precautions.
25
Review: Fiber Optic Safety
1. Class 1 lasers considered eye safe? Why?

____________________________________________________________________
2. A Class 2 laser is safe because the blink reflex will limit the exposure to no more than
0.25 seconds. True/False?
____________________________________________________________________
3. A Class 4 laser is hazardous to the eye and skin from direct or diffused exposure and
__________ danger is present.
4. What light source used in laser optimized multimode is typically categorized as a Class
3 device? _____________________________________________________________
26
Fiber Optic Basic Theory
Module #1 Section 2
In Section 2, topics will include:

• Connector Essentials Connector Essentials, Connector
• Connector Considerations Considerations, and Connector
Module #1 • Connector Performance Performance Issues. It continues with
Section 2 • Reflection Issues Connector Polishes and an Overview of
• Connector Polishes Cleaning Procedures.
Fiber Optic
• Cleaning Overview
Basics
Connector Essentials
A fiber optic connector terminates the end of an
optical fiber. It enables a quick connection and
disconnection of fiber optic links or segments. The
purpose is the precision mechanical coupling
alignment of the fiber cores so light can efficiently
pass. The basic connector unit is a connector
assembly. Regardless of the connector style, all
connectors share some common components.
Connector Considerations
How you choose what is the best connector for your needs may
be an individual choice. End-users are often driven by the
connector interfaces of their switch manufacturers such as CISCO.
The primary features used to select a connector are: price, ease
of installation, low loss specification, consistent performance, and repeatability.
Repeatability is maintained by 2 elements: 1) connector keying

and 2) the ferrule materials. Keying connectors assures the
proper alignment within an alignment sleeve so that the core to
core alignment is always maintained. Connector ferrule materials
may be plastic, (polycarbonate) or stainless steel or ceramic.
Ceramic ferrules are considered the choice for precision connectors.
27
Connector Performance Issues

Once the optical fiber is terminated with a particular connector, the connector endface
preparation will determine what the connector return loss, also known as back reflection, will
be.
Reflection Issues
Back Reflection
When two connectors are mated together in a mating sleeve, not all of the light goes through,
some gets reflected back.
Back reflection is also known as Fresnel back reflection. It is light being reflected from the
cleaved or polished end of a fiber caused by the difference of refractive indices of air and glass.
Back reflection is the ratio between the light propagating through the connector in the forward
direction, and the light reflected back into the light source by the connector surface. This is
typically about 4% of the incident light. Reflection occurs at all glass to air gaps.
Generally reflectance is the ratio of reflected power to incident power and is expressed in dB.
Minimizing back reflection is of great importance in high-

speed and analog fiber optic links, utilizing narrow line
width sources such as DFB lasers, which are prone to mode
hopping and fluctuations in their output.
Optical Return Loss

Fiber optic transmission systems use lasers to transmit signals over optical fiber, and a high
optical return loss (ORL) can cause the laser to stop transmitting correctly.
The measurement of ORL is becoming more important in the

characterization of optical networks as the use of multiplexing
increases. These systems use lasers that have a lower
tolerance for ORL, and introduce elements into the network
that are located in close proximity to the laser. Optical return
loss is detrimental to high speed laser transmissions on single
mode systems. To measure ORL you require an optical time-
domain reflectometer (OTDR).
28
Because ORL is a relationship that deals with the total power reflected back to the source, it is
not only dependent on the reflective events in the system, but also the length of the system. If
the fiber length increases, the backscattered light in the fiber increases.
Connector Polishes (Endfaces)

These special endface finishes (polishes) change the geometry of the ferrule face and are used
to reduce the amount of the light reflected back into the fiber.
The primary function of the physical contact (PC) polish design is to ensure core to core contact
between mating connectors while taking into account the effects of time, temperature,
vibration and pressure. Most common among single-mode cables, these special connector
polishes are Flat, PC, SPC (Super PC), UPC (Ultra PC), and APC (Angled PC).
Flat
Not as popular as the PC ferrules, but is typical of a hand
polish field-termination. There is significant back
reflection on single-mode fibers.
Physical Contact – PC
Physical contact domed ceramic ferrule resulting in
> -30dB back reflection.
Super Physical Contact – SPC

Super PC high radius domed ceramic ferrule resulting in >
-40dB back reflection
Ultra-Physical Contact – UPC

Ultra PC high radius domed ceramic ferrule resulting in
> -55dB back reflection.
Angled Physical Contact – APC

Angled PC has an 8 degree angled ceramic ferrule
resulting in > -70dB back reflection. APC polished
connectors are very common in analog cable TV systems
for reduced noise benefits. The APC polish is frequently used for CATV and Fiber to the X (FTTx)
applications. A properly mated pair of APC connectors is virtually lossless and transparent.
Many new deployments may deploy the APC or UPC polish connectors.
29
Review: Connectors
1. Repeatability is maintained by 2 elements: connector keying and the ferrule

materials. True/False? ________________________________________________
2. The different connector polishes such as PC, UPC and APC function to reduce
___________________________________________________________________.
3. This connector polish is virtually lossless and transparent. ____________________
4. Because ORL is a relationship that deals with the total power reflected back to the
source, it is not only dependent on the reflective events in the system, but also the
length of the system. True/False? _______________________________________
Cleaning Overview
Dirt and contamination is the #1 reason systems failure, so
when in doubt clean your connectors!
All connectors should be cleaned before they are tested or
used in a communication system.
Single mode applications are more critical and susceptible
to problems because of the small fiber core. However, every
fiber connection is critical to network performance, especially in high-speed, low power margin
networks.
It is essential to verify the condition of fiber connector endfaces. Recent studies show that
more than 85% of all fiber failures encountered in LANs are due to contaminated endfaces.
Documentation of the condition of connector endfaces is becoming a more common
requirement of fiber network certification. The specification detailing preparation and
examination of optical fiber endfaces for testing purposes is TIA–455-57B also known as Fiber
Optic Test Procedure FOTP-57 – “Preparation and Examination of Optical Fiber Endface for
Testing”.
Review: Cleaning & Inspection
1. What is the #1 reason for system failure?

_____________________________________________________________________
2. The specification detailing preparation and examination of optical fiber endfaces for
testing purposes is __________ also known as FOTP-57 (Fiber Optic Test Procedure).
30
Module #1 Section 3
Fiber Optic Basic Theory
• Transmission Principles
Section 3 topics will include: Transmission
• Light Sources
Principles, Light Propagation and Types of
• Propagation
Module #1 Optical Fiber. Dispersion Issues and
• Types of Fiber
Section 3 Attenuation Factors will also be covered.
• Dispersions
Fiber Optic Basics • Attenuation Factors
Transmission Principles (Light Sources)

Fiber optic transmissions are made possible in part due to
light sources.
The 3 choices you have when selecting a light source are a
light-emitting diode (LED), vertical cavity surface emitting
laser (VCSEL) or a light amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation (LASER). Your selection is based upon the type of
network you are using.
Typically you will choose either an LED or VCSEL if you have a
Multimode or Local Area Network. For a single-mode Wide
Area Network you would use a laser diode.
The spectral width (beam of light) is a good measurement of any light source. A general rule to
follow is, the narrower the light source the better the light source. In other terms, the more
focused the light beam, the more energy is concentrated in fewer modes. Shown is a
representation of how the 3 different light sources spectral output would look.
Light-emitting Diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source. The
LED was first invented in the early 20th century, and introduced
as a practical electronic component in 1962. All early devices
emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet and infra-red wavelengths, with
very high brightness.
The typical LED output power is: -20dBm to -15dBm
31
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy and is released in the form of light. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap
of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm) with integrated optical
components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However,
they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than
traditional light sources.
Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy and also for replacements for
traditional light sources in well-established applications such as indicators and automotive
lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.
VCSEL
The vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) is a type of
semiconductor laser diode with laser beam emission perpendicular
from the top surface, contrary to conventional edge-emitting
semiconductor lasers which emit from surfaces formed by cleaving
the individual chip out of a wafer.
There are several advantages to producing VCSELs when compared
with the production process of edge-emitting lasers. Edge-emitters
cannot be tested until the end of the production process. If the edge-emitter does not work,
whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, the production time and the
processing materials have been wasted.
VCSELs can be tested at several stages throughout the process to check for material quality and
processing issues. For instance, if the bias has not been completely cleared of dielectric material
during the etching, an interim testing process will flag that the top metal layer is not making
contact to the initial metal layer. Additionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to
the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands
of VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three inch gallium arsenide wafer.
Furthermore, even though the VCSEL production process is more labor and material intensive,
the yield can be controlled to a more predictable outcome. Another advantage besides price
that the VCSEL has over the laser is its immunity to reflections.
The VCSEL is an 850 nm device today and new versions that operate at 1310 nm are now
beginning to be produced. The two advantages of the VCSEL are its low cost to manufacture
and its concentrated higher power. The most popular VCSELs operate at 850 nm and, therefore,
have been used primarily only on multimode systems.
32
Typically the spectral width of a VCSEL is narrower than that of a Fabry Perot (FP) laser used in
low cost single-mode systems.
The VCSEL is broader, however, than a distributed feedback (DFB) laser. VCSELs have high
performance and low cost advantages. The key features are: The structure can be integrated in
two-dimensional array configuration. Low threshold currents enable high-density
arrays. Circular and low divergence output beams eliminate the need for corrective
optics. Passive versus active fiber alignment, combined with high fiber-coupling
efficiency. Lower temperature-sensitivity compared to edge-emitting laser diodes.
Laser
The term for laser originated as an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. A laser
is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation)
through a process called stimulated emission.
Stimulated emission is the process of gathering light
where each photon has the same wavelength, phase relationship and direction as the
previous photon.
Laser light is usually spatially coherent, which means that the light either is emitted in a narrow,
low-divergence beam, or can be converted into one with the help of optical components such as
lenses. Typically, lasers are thought of as emitting light with a narrow wavelength spectrum. This
is not true of all lasers, however: some emit light with a broad spectrum, while others emit light
at multiple distinct wavelengths simultaneously. The coherence of typical laser emission is
distinctive. Most other light sources emit, like an LED, incoherent light, which has a phase that
varies randomly with time and position.
Optical Receivers
Optical Receivers have photodiode components that are
doped with material used to convert light energy into
electrical energy. The three different types used in fiber
optics are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and indium gallium
arsenide (InGaAs).
Silicon
Silicon has many industrial uses. Elemental silicon is the
principal component of most semiconductor devices, most importantly integrated circuits or
microchips. Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at
higher temperatures than the semiconductor germanium and because its native oxide is easily
grown in a furnace and forms a better semiconductor/dielectric interface than any other
33
material. In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, and ceramics. It
is also a constituent of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic plastic substances made of
silicon, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, often confused with silicon itself. Multimode receivers are
likely doped with silicon.
Germanium
Germanium is an important semiconductor material used in transistors and various other
electronic devices. Its major uses are in fiber-optic systems and infrared optics, but it is also
used for polymerization catalysts, in electronics and in solar electric applications. Germanium is
mined primarily from Sphalerite, though it is also recovered from silver, lead, and copper ores.
Some germanium compounds, such as germanium chloride and germane, can irritate the eyes,
skin, lungs, and throat.
Indium Gallium Arsenide

Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) is a semiconductor composed of indium, gallium and arsenic.
It is used in high-power and high-frequency electronics because of its superior electron velocity
with respect to the more common semiconductors silicon and gallium arsenide. This makes
InGaAs the detector material of choice in optical fiber communication at 1300 and 1550 nm.
Gallium indium arsenide (GaInAs) is an alternative name for InGaAs.
EDFA Amplifier
The erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is the most
deployed fiber amplifier as its amplification window
coincides with the third transmission window of silica-
based optical fiber.
Two bands have developed in the third transmission window - the C-band (conventional band)
from approximately 1525 nm - 1565 nm, and the L-band (long band) from approximately 1570
nm to 1610 nm. Both of these bands can be amplified by EDFAs, but it is normal to use two
different amplifiers, each optimized for one of the bands.
The principal difference between C- and L-band amplifiers is that a longer length of doped fiber
is used in L-band amplifiers. The longer length of fiber allows a lower inversion level to be used,
thereby giving at longer wavelengths (due to the band-structure of erbium in silica) while still
providing a useful amount of gain. EDFAs have two commonly-used pumping bands - 980 nm
and 1480 nm.
34
The 980 nm band has a higher absorption cross-section and is generally used where low-noise
performance is required. The absorption band is relatively narrow and so wavelength stabilized
laser sources are typically needed. The 1480 nm band has a lower, but broader, absorption
cross-section and is generally used for higher power amplifiers. A combination of 980 nm and
1480 nm pumping is generally utilized in amplifiers.
Review: Transmission Principles
1. Which light source has the most defined spectral output?

_____________________________________________________________________
2. The process of gathering light where each photon has the same wavelength, phase
relationship and direction as the previous photon is known as:__________________
_____________________________________________________________________.
3. The light source that overfills the core is known as: ___________________________.
4. In fiber optic transmissions, the 3 choices of light sources are:
_____________________________________________________________________.
Transmission Principals (Light Propagation)

Propagation of Light
Fiber optic cable has two propagation modes: multimode
and single mode. They perform differently with respect to
both attenuation and dispersion. Light can be viewed as a
wave or as a particle phenomenon. When the light wave is
guided down a fiber-optic cable, it exhibits certain modes.
These are variations in the intensity of the light, both over
the cable cross section and down the cable length. In a very
simple sense, each of these modes can be thought of as a
ray of light. For a given fiber-optic cable, the number of modes that exist depends on the
dimensions of the fiber core variation of the IOR of both core and cladding. The various modes
include multimode step index, single-mode step index, and multimode graded index.
35
Single-mode Fiber
Single-mode fiber is optical fiber that is designed for the transmission of a single ray or mode of
light as a carrier and is used for long-distance signal transmission
Multimode Fiber
Multimode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for communication over shorter
distances, such as within a building or on a campus.
Mode Field Diameter

In single-mode fiber, the actual diameter of the light
beam traveling results in light traveling through the core
and part of the cladding. Therefore the mode field
diameter is usually slightly greater than the core
diameter. It results in the fact that 80% of the light
travels in the core while 20% of the light travels in the
cladding. That means that the light traveling in the cladding, the 20%, is traveling at a faster
speed the 80% traveling in the core. This is because the cladding has a lower IOR than does the
core.
Numerical Aperture (NA)

The numerical aperture (NA) expresses the light-gathering ability of a fiber as a number from 0
to 1. An NA of “0” would indicate that no light enters the core while a NA of “1” indicates that
all light would enter the fibers core. The numerical aperture varies depending on the optical
fiber type. Single-mode optical fibers have the smallest NA and narrowest acceptance cone
while large core multimode optical fibers have the largest NA and widest acceptance cone
(below).
Typical NA values for various single-mode and multimode optical fibers:

 Single-mode 8-10 µm = 0.14
 Multimode 50/125μm = 0.20
 Multimode 62.5/125μm = 0.275
36
Cone of Acceptance
The cone of acceptance is determined using
the numerical aperture:
If light is to be contained within a fiber, the
light must enter within a specified range
defined by the cone of acceptance. Light
entering the core from outside of this cone
of acceptance will miss the core or enter at
such a steep an angle that it will pass through the cladding and rather than penetrating into the
core and refracting through the cladding it will bounce off of the fiber.
The larger the numerical aperture (NA) the more light is gathered. At angles greater than the
critical angle, all light is reflected back into the fiber at the same angle it strikes the air-glass
interface.
The IOR of the core (n1) is different than the IOR of the cladding (n2). The two values together
determine the acceptance angle Θ and critical angle of the fiber.
Transmission
A ray of light traveling in glass will bend or refract
away from the direction of travel as it escapes to the
surrounding air. This angle of refraction is constant
for any single wavelength. Light is reflected back
towards the source as it hits the air/glass boundary. Light remains in the fibers core because
light reflects at the core/cladding boundary. Without the cladding the light would quickly leave
the core and escape into air due to simple refraction.
Refraction
The “i” is the angle light enters the glass while “r” is the angle light
travels through the glass. Notice the angles are different from one
another, and this is because the light bends as it enters the new
medium and then bends again when it exits.
NOTE: Refraction – The bending of the light ray as it changes speed
going from one material with a refractive index to another material
with a different refractive index.
37
Index of Refraction (IOR)

IOR is a value given to a medium to indicate the velocity of light passing through it relative to
the speed of light in a vacuum. By comparing the refractive indices of two materials, you can
determine how much light will bend, or refract, as it passes from material to another.
Calculation of Index of Refraction (n)
n=c/v
Where:
 c = is the speed of light in a vacuum
 v = is the speed of the same wavelength in fiber
Reflection
Reflections occur at a glass to air interface, such as a
connector end-face or fiber break. A mated connector
pair where connectors are not fully inserted into the
alignment sleeve also produces this Fresnel reflection.
They can cause jitter or noise in laser based systems
which increases the bit error rate. Light that returns
back the source is known as back reflection or Fresnel
reflection and typically accounts for 4% of the incident
light.
Fresnel Reflection is the light ray bouncing off the interface of two materials is produced at all
mechanical interconnections.
Rayleigh Scatter
Rayleigh scattering is the scattering of light, or other electromagnetic
radiation, by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light. It
can occur when light travels in transparent solids and liquids, but is
most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in clear
atmosphere is the main reason why the sky is blue. Rayleigh scattering,
as well as scattering by clouds both contribute to diffuse light (direct
light being sunrays).
As light passes through a particle, part of it is scattered in all directions.
The part that returns to the source is called backscatter.
38
Modes or Light Paths

A mode is a path that a light ray travels. A single-mode fiber is
named so because there is a single path for the light to travel. This
is a result of the small fiber core. However, in multimode, there are
many modes (paths) of light traveling simultaneously though core.
This is a result of the large fiber cores used in multimode fiber
cores.
Multimode fiber cores can transmit more than 250 modes, or paths
of light, from a single transmission.
Single-mode cores carry only 1 one path for the light to travel. The multimode paths are put into
one of two different categories. They will be either "High Order" modes which travel in the
outer edges of the core or "Low Order" modes which travel in the center of the fiber core. As
the wavelength decreases the number of modes in an optical fiber increases.
Wavelength
Wavelength is the peak to peak measurement of a
light wave and can be measured in nanometers (nm)
or microns (µm). Wavelength is the measure of the
color of light and is referred to as chromatic or
relating to, or produced by color.
The industry standard for measuring the wavelength for optical fibers is in nanometers (nm).
Each type of fiber has its own unique wavelengths. Multimode fibers are optimized for
operation in the 850 nm or 1300 nm, while single-mode fibers are optimized at 1310 nm or
1550 nm.
The most commonly used wavelengths for fiber optics are at windows of 850 nm, 1310 and
1550 nm. These wavelengths are high enough to make high data rates possible, yet low enough
to require relatively low power for transmission over long distances. There are also 665 nm
plastic optical fiber commonly used in industrial automation and consumer electronics. Fiber to
the home applications, also use the 1490 nm wavelength.
Ideally we would want to use 100% pure light, but that is almost impossible. Therefore, even
our finest quality light sources will vary. When light travels over a long distance, it begins to
spread out and some wavelengths travel faster than others. This spreading is known as
dispersion. Because these light waves can travel at different speeds through the glass, some
wavelengths arrive at the receiver ahead of the others, even though they all were transmitted
together. When this occurs, the receiver has great difficulty in understanding what the original
transmission was.
39
Wavelengths used in FTTH/PON systems

In a standard passive optical network (PON)
system the central office (CO) is interfaced to
the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) using DS-X (digital signal) and OC-Y (optical carrier) signals and is connected to
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) or Ethernet interfaces.
Data and voice signals use the 1490 nm for downstream signals and 1310 nm for upstream
signals.
Video services enter the system from a cable television headend or satellite feed. Video signals
are distributed using the 1550 nm. This is a downstream function.
Bandwidth & Bit Rate

Bandwidth is expressed in MHz. It describes the capacity of the media to carry signals. This
should not be confused with a bit rate which is expressed in Mbps.
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies (e.g.: of a
communication channel, or a signal spectrum) and is typically measured in hertz. Bandwidth in
hertz is a central concept in many fields, including electronics, information theory, radio
communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy.
In computer networking literature, digital bandwidth

often refers to data rate measured in bit/s, for example:
channel capacity (digital bandwidth capacity) or
throughput (digital bandwidth consumption). The reason
for this usage is that the channel capacity in bit/s is
proportional to the analog bandwidth in hertz according
to Hartley's law. Single-mode fiber has no current
bandwidth limitation. While multimode is limited in
bandwidth and distance.
The chart shows common networks and their associated
bit rates, in order of the bit rate. Note that some
networks originated in the Computer industry while
some from telephony.
40
Optical Fiber Bands
Optical fiber communications typically operate in a wavelength region corresponding to one of

three “telecom windows” or channels:
The first window at 800 to 900 nm was originally used. Laser diodes and LEDs served as
transmitters, and silicon photodiodes were suitable for the receivers. However, the fiber losses
are relatively high in this region and the first telecom window is suitable only for short-distance
transmission.
The second telecom window was originally used for long-haul transmission so that dispersive
broadening is minimized.
The third telecom window, now very widely used, utilizes wavelengths around 1500 nm. The
losses are lowest in this region, and are used with erbium doped amplifiers which offer very
high performance.
The second and third telecom windows are further subdivided into the following wavelength
bands:
 “O” band original 1260 to 1360 nm
 “E” band extended 1360 to 1460 nm
 “S” band short wavelengths 1460 to 1530 nm
 “C” band conventional (“erbium window”) 1530 to
1565 nm
 “L” band long wavelengths 1565 to 1625 nm
 “U” band ultra-long wavelengths 1625 to 1675 nm
The second and third telecom windows were originally separated by a pronounced loss peak
around 1400 nm, but they can effectively be joined with advanced fibers with low water
peak characteristics.
41
Review: Light Propagation
1. As light passes through a particle, part of it is scattered in all directions. The part that
returns towards the sources is called the _______________.
2. The bending of the light ray as it changes speed going from one material to another is
known as ___________________.
3. The Numerical Aperture (NA) expresses the light-gathering ability of a fiber as a
number from 0 to 1. An NA of “0” would indicate that:
_____________________________________________________________________
4. If light is to be contained within a fiber, the light must enter within a specified range
defined by the:
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Reflections never occur at a glass to air interface, such as a connector endface or fiber
break. True/False? _____________________________________________________
6. Index of Refraction, or IOR, is the value given to a medium that indicates the velocity
of light passing through a medium which is relative to the speed of light in a vacuum.
True/False? ___________________________________________________________
Types of Optical Fiber

Optical fiber being used today can be placed into one of two
categories. The fiber is either single-mode or multimode optical
fiber.
Multimode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used
for communication over shorter distance, such as within a
building or on a campus. Multimode fibers support applications
from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps over link lengths of up to 550 meters,
more than sufficient for the majority of premises applications.
For Indoor premises cabling systems the TIA-568.3-D standard recognizes 2 acceptable
multimode fiber optic cable core sizes as standard. They are 62.5/125 µm and 50/125 µm and
define the maximum attenuation for these 2 fiber optic cable types to be no more than 3.0
dB/km. These Local Area Networks or LANs typically use the relatively inexpensive infrared LED
and VCSEL transmitters for these short distances.
42
Step Index Multimode

For an optical fiber, a step-index profile is a
refractive index profile characterized by a
uniform refractive index within the core
and a sharp decrease in refractive index at
the core-cladding interface so that the
cladding is of a lower refractive index.
Step-index optical fiber is generally made by doping high-purity fused silica glass (SiO2) with
different concentrations of materials like titanium, germanium, or boron.
Graded Index
Step index fiber has performance issues caused by too

many modes, all traveling at the same speed because of
the single IOR of its core. In digital transmission all digits
(0’s and 1s) must arrive at the receiver in the order as
they were sent. Because some modes travel high and
some modes travel low it is possible for digits to pass
one another causing modal dispersion and increased bit
error rates.
Graded Index fiber improves upon this dispersion issue. Graded index multimode fiber is made
by layering numerous layers of glass with continuously varying indices of refraction. By doing
this, the refractive index decreases from the center outward.
Therefore the effects of modal dispersion are reduced. The light rays following high order paths,
travel faster than the ones near the center, so they all end up closer to the same place. The
cladding has a distinctively different IOR than the core.
Laser Optimized Fiber (LOF)

Laser optimized fiber is a cost effective solution for 1 Gbps Ethernet. It uses
an 850 nm VCSEL with laser optimized 50/125 µm fiber, which is the
preferred core size. LOF offers easier coupling of the VCSEL to fiber core. It is
also provides the lowest cost optics, packaging, and connectors.
43
Types of Multimode Optical Mode (OM) Fibers

There are four different types of multimode fiber recognized by the ISO/IEC 11801 specification
and the TIA-568.3-D. OM1 and OM2 designations are the original or legacy while the laser
optimized are OM3 and OM4.
EMB OFL 850/1300

“OM” Type Core Diam. (µm) 10 G Link Length 100 G Link Length
(MHz.km) (MHz.km)
OM1 62.5 - 200/500 33 m -
OM2 50 - 500/500 82 m -
OM3 50 2000 1500/500 300 m 100 m
OM4 50 4700 3500/500 550 m 150 m
4700 @ 850nm
OM5 50 3500/500 550 m 150 m
2470 @ 953nm
OM1 is 62.5/125 µm fibers with 200/500 MHz-km is associated with the overfill launch
condition of LED light sources at 850/1300 nm.
OM2 is 50/125 µm fibers rated at 500/500 MHz-km bandwidth at 850/1300mn.
OM3 is 50/125 µm laser optimized using the VCSEL as a light source and having 2000 MHz-km
effective modal bandwidth designed for 10 GB/s.
OM4 is 50/125 µm laser optimized using the VCSEL light source at 850/1300 nm and designed
for 10 Gb/s and for short reach 40 Gb/s and 100 Gb/s applications.
OM5 optical and mechanical attributes are compliant with OM4 50/125 μm specifications and
include the additional specifications of effective modal bandwidth and attenuation at 953 nm.
Known as Wideband MMF, it is intended for operation using VCSEL transceivers across the 846
to 953 nm wavelength range.
OM5 is designed and specified to support at least four WDM channels at a minimum speed of
28Gbps per channel through the 850-953 window. OM5 allows for more cost-effective
migration to transmission speeds up to 400Gbps utilizing lower-cost optics as compared to
single-mode fiber.
44
Single-mode
Single-mode fiber (SMF) is an optical cable in which the signal, or light,
propagates in a single mode or path. Since all light follows the same path, or
travels the same distance, a transmitted pulse is not dispersed and does not
interfere with adjacent pulses.
SMF fibers utilizing laser sources, can support longer distances, have a thinner
core, can be used in high speed applications and are limited mainly by the
amount of attenuation. Single-mode was development driven by the discovery that attenuation
is minimized at 1550 nm.
The longer the wavelength the less loss per kilometer distance in incurred, thus enabling very
long distance transmissions with high data rates.
The evolution of the fiber is as follows:

st
1 Generation of single-mode in the early 1980’s (1983)
operated at the 1310 nm wavelength window.
nd
The 2 Generation in 1985 added 1550 nm wavelength to the
1310 nm window.
rd
The 3 Generation in 1988 introduced dispersion shifted fiber
as an improvement for dispersion issues with the previous
generation.
th
The 4 Generation in 1994 added the 1625 nm window and is known as non-zero dispersion
shifted (NZDS) fiber.
NZDS
NZDS is in use today and known as standard single-mode fiber
(SMF). Its future for new designs may be in jeopardy as designers
are looking more at coarse wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM) and DWDM techniques that require NZDS fiber or low
water peak (LWP) fiber types. The 1550 nm wavelength region
has 0.22dB/km attenuation. 80% of all single-mode fiber used
worldwide is NZDS fiber. Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber was
designed to shift the zero dispersion wavelengths outside the
operating window.
45
Dispersion Compensating Fiber

Dispersion compensating fiber (DCF) has an opposite
dispersion of the fiber being used in a transmission
system. It is a short length of fiber spliced into a fiber optic
transmission in order to nullify the dispersion caused by
the fiber. This is generally used with standard single-mode
fiber at 1550 nm. It is used in high bit rate digital systems,
analog CATV applications, and WDM transmission systems.
When a network presents low dispersion, high power, and
small effective area, or a combination of the three, the
result is four-wave mixing (FWM). DCF is positioned between the pre-amp and the booster amp
of an EDFA where power is high. One must measure very precisely the total chromatic
dispersion to determine how much to compensate.
Large Effective Area Fiber

Large effective area fiber (LEAF) is a single-mode non-zero dispersion-shifted
fiber with large effective area that is designed for use with both single and
multiple-channel DWDM systems operating in the C and L Bands. This fiber
has been developed to meet emerging network design requirements that
use high output power erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), Raman
amplification and multi-channel DWDM (dense wavelength division
multiplexing) technology.
LEAF offers significant performance benefits such as higher power-handling capability, higher
signal-to-noise ratio, longer amplifier spacing and maximum dense wavelength division
multiplexing channel plan flexibility.
A larger effective area allows more power to be pumped into the fiber, which can be translated
into either longer distance between amplifiers, longer system length or higher signal-to-noise
ratio, without detrimental non-linear effects.
Water Peak (LWP) (ZWP)

Several telecommunication transmission
bands have been defined and standardized.
The E-band has typically been avoided
because it is a high transmission-loss region.
The E-band is the water peak region where a
standard fiber is most affected by
attenuation caused by hydroxyl ions present
within the glass core.
46
The losses can be dramatically reduced in the E-band and enable effective transmission, with a
‘zero’ or ‘low’ water-peak fiber. However, the use of "zero” does not mean that attenuation has
been eliminated at the water-peak wavelength. A peak in attenuation in optical fibers is caused
by contamination from hydroxyl (OH) ions that are residuals of the manufacturing process.
Water peak causes wavelength attenuation and pulse dispersion in the general regions of 950
nm, 1380 nm and 2730 nm.
Low-water-peak fiber (LWPF) and Zero Water Peak Fiber (ZWPF) resolves water peak issues in
the 1380 nm region thereby opening the entire spectrum from 1260 to 1625 nm for high-
performance optical transmission employing various wavelength division multiplexing
techniques (WDM).
This fiber allows transmission and multiplexing in the water peak range for FTTH applications.
Plastic Optical Fiber

Plastic optical fiber (POF) is an optical fiber which is made out of plastic.
Traditionally PMMA (acrylic) is the core material, and fluorinated
polymers are the cladding material. Similar to traditional glass fiber, POF
transmits light (or data) through the core of the fiber. The core size of
POF is in some cases 100 times larger than glass fiber. POF has been
called the "consumer" optical fiber because the fiber and associated optical links, connectors,
and installation are all inexpensive. The traditional POF fibers are commonly used for low-
speed, short-distance (up to 100 meters) applications in digital home appliances, home
networks, industrial networks (PROFIBUS, PROFINET), and car networks (MOST). The
perfluorinated polymer fibers are commonly used for much higher-speed applications such as
data center wiring and building LAN wiring. In relation to the future request of high-speed home
networking, there has been an increasing interest in POF as a possible option for next-
generation Gigabit/s links inside the home.
Plastic Optical Fiber Characteristics
Most POF being used has a fiber diameter of 1000 µm, with a core
diameter of 980 µm, and the light used is 665 nm for plastic optical
fiber. Due to this large diameter, transmission is possible even if the
ends of the fiber are slightly soiled or damaged, or if the light axis is
slightly off center. Therefore, parts such as optical connectors can be
made inexpensively and installation work is simplified.
47
Plastic Clad Silica Fiber

In telecommunications and fiber optics, a plastic-clad silica fiber or
polymer-clad silica fiber (PCS) is an optical fiber that has a silica-based
core and a plastic cladding. The cladding of a PCS fiber should not be
confused with the polymer overcoat of a conventional all-silica fiber. PCS
fibers, in general have significantly lower performance characteristics,
particularly higher transmission losses and lower bandwidths, than all-glass fibers. The main
applications of plastic-clad silica fiber are industrial, medical or sensing applications where cores
that are larger than those used in standard data communications fibers are advantageous.
Review: Types of Optical Fiber
1. __________ fiber can support longer distances, have thinner cores and are used in
high speed applications and are limited only by the amount of attenuation.
2. Plastic optical fiber is a multimode fiber and operates with a visible red ________ light
source at ______nm.
3. Modal dispersion is reduced by using graded index fiber and is done by layering
numerous layers of glass with varying index of refraction. True/False? ____________
4. Optical fibers are either single-mode or _____________.
5. The three types of multimode fiber are step-index, ________ _______, and laser
optimized.
6. Optical fiber communications typically operate in a wavelength region corresponding
to one of three “telecom windows” also known as bands or channels. True/False?
48
Transmission of Light (Dispersions)

In the broadest sense, dispersion refers to the spreading out of a
light signal. Fiber optic transmission systems suffer from a
number of different types of dispersion. Dispersion is a
particularly significant problem in high-speed networks, which
operate at Gbps speeds as well as in long haul networks
involving links exceeding several hundred kilometers. In order to
defeat dispersion, the network must be optimized through the
placement of regenerative repeaters at appropriate intervals or
through the use of several types of Dispersion Shifted Fiber (DSF).
There are different types of dispersion you will see depending on your network configuration. If
you have a multimode network you will only see modal dispersion. Single-mode networks will
usually have one of the following types of dispersion: material (chromatic) dispersion,
waveguide dispersion or polarization mode dispersion.
Modal Dispersion
Multimode modal dispersion is distortion occurring when

the signal is spread in time because the propagation
velocity of the optical signal is not the same for all modes.
Modal dispersion limits the bandwidth of multimode
fibers.
For example, a typical step-index fiber with a 50 µm core would be limited to approximately
20 MHz for a one kilometer length, in other words, a bandwidth of 20 MHz/km. Modal
dispersion may be considerably reduced, but never completely eliminated, by the use of a
smaller core that would allow fewer modes.
Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion (CD) is a characteristic of all fiber
optics. It is caused by the fact that different wavelengths
of light travel at different velocities within the glass.
A prism is a great example of this phenomenon. Optical

fibers can be designed to control the dispersion profile
versus wavelength. The amount of chromatic dispersion is
a measure of the relative velocity of light in adjacent wavelengths in the fiber.
49
High dispersion means that light at a given wavelength is traveling down the fiber at a very
different speed then light in a wavelength right next to it.
Low dispersion means that light in the adjacent wavelength is traveling down the fiber at the
same velocity.
It is important in multi-wavelength systems to have enough dispersion to break up cross

wavelength interference problems but not so much dispersion that high bit rates become costly
to transmit. Some fibers are designed to have non zero-dispersion, but they must have the
correct amount of dispersion to balance these effects.
Chromatic dispersion is one of the mechanisms that limit the bandwidth of optical fibers by
producing pulse spreading because of the various colors of light traveling in the fiber.
Different wavelengths of light will travel at different speeds. Since most optical sources emit
light containing a range of wavelengths, each of these wavelengths arrive at different times and
thereby cause the transmitted pulse to spread as it travels down the fiber.
Chromatic dispersion occurs because different wavelengths (colors) of light travel at different
velocities through the fiber. Over great distance light begins to split up or disperse. This is a
single-mode problem and can be compensation by DCF fiber modules.
Polarization Mode Dispersion

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a form of modal
dispersion where two different polarizations of light in a
waveguide, which normally travel at the same speed, travel at
different speeds due to random imperfections and asymmetries,
causing random spreading of optical pulses. Unless it is
compensated, which is difficult, this ultimately limits the rate at
which data can be transmitted over a fiber.
A PMD compensation system is a device which uses a

polarization controller to compensate for PMD in fibers.
Essentially, one splits the output of the fiber into two principal
polarizations, and applies a differential delay to bring them back into sync. Because the PMD
effects are random and time-dependent, this requires an active device that responds to
feedback over time. Such systems are therefore expensive and complex; combined with the fact
that PMD is not yet the limiting factor in the lower data rates still in common use; this means
that PMD-compensation systems have seen limited deployment in large-scale
telecommunications systems.
Another alternative would be to use a polarization maintaining fiber (PM fiber), a fiber whose
symmetry is so strongly broken (e.g. a highly elliptical core) that an input polarization along a
50
principal axis is maintained all the way to the output. Since the second polarization is never
excited, PMD does not occur. Such fibers currently have practical problems, however, such as
higher losses than ordinary optical fiber and higher cost.
An extension of this idea is a single-polarization fiber in which only a single polarization state is
allowed to propagate along the fiber (the other polarization is not guided and escapes).This
issue affects SONET OC- 768 transmission systems using high power EDFA and Raman amplifiers.
PMD is caused by geometrical (non-circular) and stress asymmetries in the fiber and is defined
as the difference in arrival times of optical power between two orthogonal polarity axes.
Polarization is caused by the optical signal interacting with silica molecules in the fiber. The
degree of polarization in a fiber depends on factors such as ambient temperature, bending and
stretching of the fiber.
Waveguide Dispersion
Waveguide is a type of dispersion caused by the different
refractive indexes of the core and cladding of an optical
fiber. Regardless of the nature of the light source and optical
fiber, some light travels in the cladding, as well as the core.
Waveguide dispersion is one factor contributing to chromatic dispersion, both of which are
issues in long haul fiber optic transmission systems.
Longer wavelengths propagate through a glass fiber at higher velocities than lower wavelengths.
No light pulse has a perfect spectral width. For example, a 1550 nm wavelength pulse may not
be exactly 1550 nm but can vary plus or minus. The core and cladding of a glass fiber is made up
of multiple layers of glass, each with different IOR properties. Since the IOR of the glass fiber
varies, as can the wavelength of the pulse vary. Therefore, different wavelengths of light
propagate at different velocities in the different layers of the core/cladding.
So, the optical pulse can disperse, or spread, over a distance, which clearly can confuse the light
detector at the far end of the fiber.
Material Dispersion
Material is a type of dispersion that occurs in optical fiber due
to the interaction of various wavelengths within the core.
Material dispersion is one factor contributing to chromatic
dispersion.
The effect of material dispersion is that the various wavelengths comprising the pulse travel at
different velocities through the medium. So, the pulse can spread over a distance simply due to
the interaction of various wavelengths within the core.
51
Optical signals in the 1550 nm window suffer less from material dispersion than wavelengths in
the 1310 nm window
Review: Transmission of Light – Dispersions
7. Modal dispersion may be reduced, but never completely eliminated, by the use of a
smaller _________ that would allow fewer modes.
8. Different wavelengths of light will travel at different speeds describes:
_____________________________________________________________________
9. PMD is caused by geometrical (non-circular) and stress asymmetries in the fiber and is
described as the difference in arrival times of optical power between two orthogonal
polarity axes. True/False?
____________________________________________________________________
10. A type of dispersion caused by the different refractive indexes of the core and
cladding of an optical fiber is called:
_____________________________________________________________________
Attenuation Factors
Attenuation
As the light traverses the fiber, it decreases in power level. The decrease in power level is
expressed in dB or as a rate of loss per unit distance (dB/km).
Attenuation Hazards
There are many factors that will impact the performance of fiber
optic systems. Here are some examples:
Attenuation – Losses due to absorption, scattering, and other
radiation losses
Dispersion – The spreading or broadening of light as it travels
through fiber
Reflections – Occur at a glass to air interface, such as a connector
endface or fiber break. Reflections can cause jitter or noise in laser
based systems which increases the bit error rate. LEDs are not
52
subject to reflection issues. Light that returns into the source is known as back reflection or as
Fresnel reflection. Typically, it is 4% of the incident light.
Contamination - Can be a particle of dust as small as 5 – 10 microns. The core of single mode
fiber is typically 9 microns. If a particle of dirt or dust interferes with the light that travels in the
core then the power of the light transmission will be severely impaired. Contamination can also
occur from oil or grease and can affect certain wavelengths.
Attenuation is placed into two separate categories or factors, they are:
Extrinsic Factors - Extrinsic factors are losses caused by external factors that occur in the field or
during installation. These are factors external to the manufacture of the glass fiber. They are
caused by the installers themselves or other external
conditions.
An example of an extrinsic factor would be macrobending.

This is the bending of the fiber beyond the fiber’s bend radius,
causing light to leave the fiber core.
Another example would be an installer performing a bad splice
caused by a bad cleave.
Intrinsic Factors - Intrinsic factors are loss inherent to light traveling in a fiber core. These
factors are internal to the fiber and are built in at the factory. As an installer one may test for
these factors, but the results are not a consequence of anything done during the installation
process. Examples of intrinsic factors include:
Absorption - Occurs when a light ray strikes impurities in the glass and is simply absorbed.
Scattering - Occurs when a light ray strikes an area where the material density changes.
Microbending - A microscopic distortion of the fiber usually at the core and cladding boundary
causing the light to leave the core.
Attenuation – Core Alignment
Although manufacturers are allowed certain

tolerances while making fiber optic cables, every
effort is made to comply with the standards. If
these tolerances are not met, this can cause a loss
of light at the joints between two fibers. Three
major concerns of these fiber geometry problems
are core off center, different core sizes and non-
circular cores.
53
Off Center – The cores are not aligned in the center of the cladding, and therefore, do not line
up in a mechanical splice or v-groove fusion splicer.
Different Core Sizes – Different manufacturers create fiber with different cores sizes. (i.e.
Corning and Lucent) Therefore, aligning fibers from two drastically different manufacturers
could create additional loss when launching light from the larger core size fiber to the small core
sized fiber.
Non-Circular Cores – When fibers with large tolerances have been manufactured and core
shapes are not symmetrical, losses will occur because light can only propagate from one fiber to
the other at the points where core shapes overlap.
Attenuation - Splicing
When splicing, either mechanical or fusion, it is important that
both ends of the fiber have the same diameter. Core mismatch is
another problem that can cause the coupled fiber to not receive
the maximum amount of power. The amount of light lost from
either of these problems is considered splice loss.
Connector Alignment
Connectors can be another place where you can experience
high levels of light loss. Endface separation, angular
separation and core misalignment are all problem areas.
54
Review: Attenuation Factors
1. There are four factors that will impact the performance of fiber optic systems, among
them are attenuation, dispersion, ________, and __________.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What type of factor is macrobending, the bending of the fiber beyond the fiber’s bend
radius, causing light to leave the fibers core?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Reflections can cause jitter or noise in laser-based systems which increases the bit
error rate. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Microbending is a microscopic distortion of the fiber usually at the core and cladding
boundary and is a _________ factor.
You have completed the TFS

Congratulations! Certified Fiber Optic Installer “Fiber
You have completed Optics Basic Theory” Training
the • Next Step!
• Continue with the Sections. Please continue with the
Fiber Optic Basics
training module
• Certified Fiber Optic Certified Fiber Optic Installer Module
Installer section #2 Sections.
Please continue with • www.thefiberschool.com Fiberoptic.com is an Authorized TFS
the Certified Fiber • 1-877-529-9114 Certification Training Provider. As
Optic Installer Module such this training provided you the
#2
first steps in obtaining the valuable
TFS Installer Certification Credential.
55
MODULE #2 CERTIFIED FIBER OPTIC INSTALLER
Module #2 Section 1
Certified Fiber Optic Installer Section

1 encompasses Fiber Optic Safety,
• Fiber Optic Safety discusses Cable Structural Elements,
• Cable Structural Elements
the Color Code and Fiber Optic Cable
• The Fiber Color Code
Module #2 • Fiber Optic Cable & Designs
and Designs. We’ll continue this
Section 1 • Conductive Cables Section with Conductive Cable
Certified Fiber Optic • Flame Ratings issues, and finish up with fiber optic
Installer cable Flame Ratings and Designs.
Fiber Optic Safety

Safety is an important consideration when dealing with fiber optic cables
and working around active laser sources. In this section we’ll describe
specific hazards confronting an installer daily.
Safety Equipment
Let’s start with a short list of some important safety items as
shown:
When working with fibers, safety glasses provide obvious eye

protection from tiny glass shards that might fly into your eye during
the stripping and cleaving process. Less obvious is the fact that
most people are continually touching their face and eye area. Safety glasses prevent one from
unconsciously touching their eye area with their finger.
The fiber scrap collector is a covered container used to properly and safely dispose of waste
fiber shards. This is done to protect the installer as well as any other personnel, such as cleaning
crews, who may be working in the same area.
Fiber optic tweezers, unlike standard eyebrow tweezers, are ground to a very smooth finish
enabling them to grasp the very fine glass shards from the working surfaces.
We will also discuss the laser classifications in use today and the safety precaution we take
while working around active laser light sources.
56
Safety Practices
Although fiber shards can pierce the skin and are extremely difficult to remove, extreme care
must be taken to protect the eyes and to guard against accidental ingestion. These are
conditions that would require treatment with special lights and tools which would be found in a
hospital.
Follow these simple steps to ensure your safety:
• Dispose of fiber debris properly. All fiber shards must be disposed of in a covered
container that is clearly marked and expressly designed for safe disposal.
• Do not drop wastes on the floor or place in wastebaskets.
• Wash hands well before working with fibers.
• Thoroughly clean the work area when finished.
• Use a dark working surface as fiber shards reflect off the dark surface and are more
visible.
• Wear safety glasses.
• DO NOT allow FOOD, DRINK or SMOKING near the work surface!
• Remember to always wear laser safety glasses when working with the optical
transmission systems.
• Never look directly into the end of any optical fiber unless it is certain that no light is
present in the fiber.
According to Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations, 1926.54(c), “Employees, when working
in areas in which a potential exposure to direct or reflected laser light greater than 0.005 watts
(5 milliwatts) exists, shall be provided with laser filtering eye protection devices.
57
When using a visual fault locator or VFL, view the fiber end from an angle
and keep it at least 12 inches away from the eye.
Chemical Safety
When working with chemicals, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires
a material safety data sheet (MSDS) to be supplied by the manufacturer or supplier and kept
onsite for inspection.
The MSDS must be available whenever chemicals are used. Your employer must make the MSDS
available for your review but, keep in mind that it is your responsibility to read them.
The MSDS provides workers and emergency personnel with procedures for handling or working
with substances in a safe manner. They include information regarding physical data (melting
point, boiling point, etc.), toxicity, first aid, and health effects.
Review: Fiber Optic Safety
1. When using a VFL, it is recommended that it be held at an angle, away from your
person. How many inches away should it be?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How should all waste fiber shards be disposed of?
____________________________________________________________________
3. What form, containing first aid and physical data, must be available when working
with any chemicals? ___________________________________________________
58
Cable Structural Elements

Overview
A cable is simply the assembly of the fragile individual
glass fibers into a package suitable to protect the fibers
during their operational lifetime in a stress free
environment.
The 250 µm coated fibers are assembled with other
components to become a cable. A cable is composed of
multiple single strands of fiber contained within a
jacketing material suitable for the environment into which the cable will be placed. There are
several components common to many cable designs.
Central Strength Member

The central strength member facilitates the cable’s buffer tube stranding process when the
cable is produced. It also allows for cable flexing, provides temperature stability, and prevents
buckling. It can be steel or fiberglass with a polyethylene (PE) or epoxy coating.
Loose Buffer Tubes

For outside plant (OSP) cable constructions, multiple fibers each
consisting of the 250 µm: core, cladding, and coating, are placed into
3mm plastic gel filled buffer tubes.
Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in
aerial, duct and direct-buried applications. In outside plant constructions the buffer tube
protects the fibers from moisture, chemicals and mechanical stresses placed on cable during
installation, and over its in-service lifetime.
The addition of a buffer coating or buffer tube to a fiber strand is that it dramatically increases
the tensile strength of a fiber which increases the tensile strength of a cable. Tensile strength is
the degree of force that can be applied in a cable before it reaches the point of failure and
breaks. Typically applied as a pulling or stretching force.
Tight Buffered Fibers

For indoor cable constructions, the fiber consisting of the 250
µm: core, cladding, and coating, is covered with an additional
plastic coating called a tight buffer. The tight buffer brings the
fibers diameter up to 900 µm. They are then assembled into an
indoor cable.
59
Aramid Yarn
Commonly known as the strength member, aramid yarn is a fibrous
material used to protect various layers of the cable structure from
damage. Aramid yarn or Kevlar® is commonly used in both inside and
outside cable constructions as a strength member.
Outside plant cables typically use aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member.
Armoring
Armoring is a common option for outside plant, buried or aerial cable.
Corrugated steel tape or multiple metal strands, long used in copper
telephone cables, provides physical protection from rodents and
crushing forces.
Cable Sheaths
Outside plant cable sheaths or jackets are typically a high density
polyethylene material. They provide UV protection from sunlight.
The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the cable core. If armoring
is required, a corrugated steel tape is formed around the cable core with a
jacket extruded over the armor.
Inside cable sheaths or jackets are primarily PVC compounds treated to
obtain the required National Electric Code (NEC) flame ratings.
Summary
Shown is a cross-section of a typical indoor tight buffered cable. Observe the component parts
from the center outward.
• First note the color coded 900 micron tight buffered

fibers. These individual fibers contain the coated core
and cladding of the glass fiber within.
• Second, the aramid yarn strength members surrounding the tight buffered fibers.
• Third, an outer jacket or cable sheath containing all the components. Jackets would
typically be an approved material suitable for safe indoor applications.
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Other components found on larger indoor fiber counts might include a rip cord to facilitate
jacket removal and a center strength member.
Single-fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, or fiber optic patch cords (also referred to
as jumpers) to terminate loose-tube cables directly into electronic transmitters, receivers and
other active components and passive components.
Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for alternative routing
and handling flexibility and ease within buildings. Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are
used for intra-building, risers, general building and plenum applications.
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the fiber. This
design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal equipment,
and also for linking various devices in a premises network.
The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during
handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from
the fiber.
Review: Cable Structural Elements
1. There are two basic cable styles which have been designed for use in ____________
or _____________ applications.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Tight buffered fibers are used primarily indoors while loose tube designs are used
outdoors. True/False? ___________________________________________________
3. Outside plant cable sheaths provide ____________ protection from sunlight.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Tight buffered fiber diameters are _____ microns.
_____________________________________________________________________
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The Fiber Color Code

TIA-598-C Color Code is the industry standard. It is also integrated
into the TIA 568-D Commercial Cabling Building Standard. All fiber
optic installers must know this code. The color coding of the fiber
optic cables enables the installer or administrator to easily identify
the individual fibers.
This color code is also used in outside plant cables where multiple,
color coded, 250 µm fibers are housed in single, color coded buffer
tubes. Generally, the color code is used for identification purposes.
The tubes and individual fibers within a cable are simply numbered
starting with the number 1.
For example, a 48-fiber cable would contain 4 color coded tubes. Each tube would contain 12
color coated fibers. Refer to the slide shown, note that:
1. Tube #1 is Blue containing fiber numbers 1 through 12.
2. Tube #2 is Orange containing fiber numbers 13 through 24.
3. Tube #3 is Green containing fiber numbers 25 through 36.
4. Tube #4 is Brown containing fiber numbers 37 through 48.
This could continue for up to 12 tubes completing the basic color code. This would result in a
144 fiber cable.
So how do we address larger cables like a 288 fiber or a 432 fiber cable?
The color code repeats except the second set of tubes would typically be black stripped. So,
tube #13 would be a blue tube with a black stripe and contain fiber numbers 145 through 156.
This would continue up to tube number 24, aqua with a black stripe, for a total of 288 fibers.
As a note: older cables manufactured prior to the TIA-598-C standard used proprietary color
schemes, caution must be used when splicing old cables to new and accurate records must be
employed.
Review: Color Codes
1. The fiber optic color code is: Blue, Orange, Green, __________, Slate, White, Red,
Black, __________, Violet, Rose, and _________.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. The green buffer tube in an outside plant cable contains fiber numbers _______ to
________.
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Fiber Optic Cable & Designs

A cable is simply the assembly of the fragile individual glass fibers
into a package suitable to protect the fibers during their
operational lifetime in a stress free environment. A cable’s
physical design is based upon the environment in which the Cable
will be placed into service.
Two Types
Primarily most installers work with two types of cables. Cable used for indoor and cable used
for outdoor applications.
Inside, cables are run throughout a building in conduits, cable trays, or strung above ceilings.
They may be run vertically in a riser or horizontally to the desks. Adherence to fire and safety
codes is an important consideration.
These cables are a tight buffer design where the original 250 µm fiber is covered with an
additional plastic called a tight buffer. The tight buffer brings the individual fiber diameter up to
900 µm. They are then assembled into an indoor cable.
Outside, we find cables strung overhead on poles in aerial placements, below ground
placements in ducts, manholes or buried directly in the ground. They may be subject to climates
ranging from extreme heat and cold, to severe ice and wind conditions.
Loose-tube gel filled cables are used in the majority of outside-plant installations in North
America. In these outside plant cable constructions, multiple fibers, each consisting of the 250
micron: core, cladding, and coating, are placed into 3mm gel filled plastic buffer tubes.
A cable’s physical design is based upon the environment in which the Cable will be placed into
service.
Single-fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate
loose-tube cables directly into electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and passive
components.
Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for alternative routing
and handling flexibility and ease within buildings. Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are
used for intra-building, risers, general building and plenum applications.
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The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during
handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from
the fiber.
Cordage
Cordage is the cable that is used to manufacture both simplex and duplex patch
cables. They can come in a variety of sizes and lengths. Yellow patch cords
represent single-mode jumpers, while orange, aqua, or gray represent
multimode. Cordage is used for patch cords and jumpers, and can have a jacket
size of 1.2, 1.4, 1.7, 2.5, and 3 millimeters.
Patch cords are used to cross-connect backbone cables together or to
interconnect cable runs to electronic equipment.
Bend Insensitive Cables

An ideal selection for inside plant cables are bend insensitive categories available in both
multimode and single-mode designs.
When compared with standard fibers, bend insensitive multimode

fibers (BIMMF) have a different “waveguide,” or index profile design,
which includes an optical trench that confines light within the core,
even under tight bends.
This new design transmits light differently than conventional

multimode fibers and also impacts other important fiber parameters
such as core diameter, numerical aperture (NA) and bandwidth.
The optical “trench” is added to the cladding area outside of the fiber core. This trench retains
more of the light that would have escaped the core of a traditional multimode fiber. Several
cables available have a minimum bend radius of 7.5 mm, which compares very favorably to the
30 mm bend radius traditionally specified optical multimode.
ITU-T G.657 Bend Insensitive Fiber Standard describes two categories of single-mode fiber
suitable for use in access networks.
Category A:
These fibers are suitable for the transmission in the O, E, S, C, and L-
band (throughout the 1260 to 1625 nm range).
Fibers in this category have the same transmission and interconnection

properties as G.652D fibers with improved bending loss and tighter
dimension specifications.
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Category B:
Fibers are suitable for transmission at 1310, 1550, and 1625 nm for the restricted distances that
are associated with in-building transport of signals. These fibers have different splicing and
connection properties than G.652 fibers, but are capable at very low values of bend radius.
Simplex and Duplex

Simplex indicates one fiber. Duplex indicates two fibers (also known as a zipcord). Both simplex
and duplex 900 µm fibers are surrounded by aramid yarn and a 1.6-3 mm jacket.
Tight Buffered
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct
contact with the fiber, and the tight buffer diameter is 900 µm. This
design is suited indoor application and for “jumper cables” which
connect outside plant cables to terminal equipment, and also for linking
various devices in a premises network.
All indoor tight buffered cables have a standard jacket color code used to easily identify the type
of fiber contained within a cable. Yellow jacketed cables contain single-mode fibers while
orange or aqua jackets indicate multimode fibers.
Distribution Cable
Distribution cable (compact building cable) packages individual 900
micron buffered fibers in one overall jacket, reducing size and cost
when compared to breakout cable.
Connectors may be installed directly on the 900 µm buffered fiber at
the breakout box location of this indoor tight buffered cable.
In customer premises it refers to the backbone cables used to tie
telecommunication rooms on each floor to the main equipment room or entrance facility.
Distribution cable is also a part of the outside cable plant connection feeder or sub feeder
cables to the drop wires or buried service wires that connect to the customer’s premises. In
simple terms, it’s the cable from the serving area interface, a box on a pole, in the ground, etc.,
to the lighting protection at the entrance to the customer’s premises.
Both distribution and breakout share one common characteristic. Both can be a 900 µm
diameter tight buffer design.
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Breakout Cable
Breakout style fiber optic cable is several simplex fiber cables packaged
individually inside one jacket. This differs from distribution style cable, in which
several tight-buffered fibers are bundled under the same jacket.
The design of the breakout-style cable adds strength to the cable, although it
does make it larger and more expensive than distribution-style cable.
Breakout cable is suitable for riser and plenum applications and also for use in conduits. When
the outer jacket is removed you are, in effect, left with individual, standalone 3mm jacketed
simplex cables. This enables quick connector termination and results in rugged 3mm patch
cords. Because each fiber is individually reinforced, you can divide the cable into individual fiber
lines. This enables fast connector termination and can reduce or eliminate the need for fiber
optic patch panels.
Breakout cable can also be more economical because it requires much less labor to terminate.
Each fiber has its own jacket in breakout cable. There is one overall jacket. Typical breakout
cable has small fiber counts. It has triple the cost of distribution cable, and it is considered to be
a heavy duty design.
Consider, for example an equipment room in which riser backbones leading to the individual
floors within a building, need to be patched or interconnected to equipment located on the
opposite side of the room some 100 feet away.
Using 72 simplex patch cords running along a cable tray would result in an unattractive tangle of
cables. However one breakout cable containing 72 fibers within would create an attractive and
manageable installation.
Hybrid Cables
Hybrid cable is the term used for any fiber optic cable that contains both
single mode and multimode fibers in the same overall jacket.
Composite cables
Article 770 of the NEC describes a cable containing any current carrying
electrical conductors within the same sheath or jacket as a composite
cable.
The electrical conductors may be used for electrical light, power, non-
power-limited fire alarm, or medium power network broadband circuits
that are operating at 600 volts or less. However, the fiber and conductors
must service the same piece of equipment such as a camera location
where the electrical would be used for camera power.
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Interlocked Armor
Interlocked Armor is an externally jacketed cable similar to the flexible metallic
conduit use in electrical applications.
This cable provides a good balance of ruggedness, flexibility, low weight and labor
savings. Used in primarily indoor applications, it is basically a distribution style
cable pre-installed in a flexible metal conduit.
Ribbon: Multi-fiber push on (MPO) or MTP®

Installers agree that when it comes to fiber terminations, the modular MPO/MTP pre-
terminated multi-fiber has become popular in the data center because
of its ease of installation and reliability. The MPO/MTP is a linear array
connector containing 12 fibers in a ferrule with an easy push-on and
pull-off design. Pre-calculated lengths of pre-terminated, multi-fiber
MPO/MTP trunk cable assemblies have been proven to substantially
reduce installation times and provide better reliability.
Note: MTP® is a registered trademark of US Conec and is a high-

performance MPO Connector. An MPO connector is not necessarily an
MTP® connector however.
Armored - OSP
Armor can be used for rodent protection in aerial or
burial applications as well as the mechanical protection it
provides.
The cable is typically a loose tube gel filled (LTGF) design; however dry water blocking
protection is also available. This design can contain up to 432 fibers.
This cable can contain single or double armor, as well as single or double cable jackets. Doubled
jacketed constructions allow the armor to be removed leaving the inner cable suitable for any
indoor/outdoor use. (Temperature rating -40°C to +85°C)
Loose Tube Gel Filled – OSP

Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and direct-
buried applications.
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In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded fairly rigid plastic buffer tubes house and protect the
fiber core, cladding, and coating within. The buffer tubes are typically 3 mm in diameter.
The buffer tubes are then stranded or spiraled around a dielectric or steel central strength
member, which serves as an anti-buckling element. The most common outside plant cable used
is the stranded design. This is when multiple buffer tubes are, in a spiral or helix pattern,
stranded around the cable’s central strength member. There are also single center buffer tubes
or unitube designs commonly used in ribbon fiber constructions.
Many loose buffer tube cables contain a water resistant gel surrounding the fibers. Hence, the
term LTGF, which stands for loose tube gel filled. The gel helps protect the fibers from moisture,
making the cables ideal for high humidity environments, where water or condensation may
otherwise be problematic. The gel filled tubes can expand or contract with temperature
changes, as well.
The gel found in LTGF buffer tubes must be cleaned before splicing the fibers or installing a
buffer tube fan-out (BTFO) kit. There are also gel free buffer tubes available at additional cost.
Within the buffer tube there is an excess of fiber length; relative to buffer tube length. This
insulates fibers from the stresses of installation and environmental loading.
The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of fibers in the system.
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds up to 12 fibers per buffer tube. Loose-
tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. The modular buffer-tube design permits
easy drop-off of groups of fibers at intermediate points, without interfering with other
protected buffer tubes being routed to other locations.
The cable typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member. The outer
polyethylene jacket is extruded over the cable core. If armoring is required, a corrugated steel
tape is formed around the cable core with a jacket extruded over the armor.
Due to the highly flammable nature of traditional loose tube designs, the NEC restricts the entry
of these cables beyond a distance of 50 feet or 15 meters inside a building unless enclosed in
metal conduit.
When working with these cables it is often necessary to remove or clean off a flooding material
directly underneath the cable’s outer sheath, This also protects the cable from water
penetration should the sheath be damaged. Although, it is common for most cable
constructions today to be dry blocked instead of flooded, thus eliminating a tedious cleaning
procedure. Although dry water blocking constructions are more expensive! These dry blocking
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materials are similar to the material used in modern disposable baby diapers. They turn to gel
when wet preventing the water from penetrating further.
Buffer Tube Fan-out Kits

Although the BTFO kit is not a cable, it is an accessory for loose
buffer tube cables. Buffer Tube Fan-out kits are used in field and
factory applications to break out and provide protection for fibers
when directly terminating loose buffer tube cable with connectors.
They increase the 250 µm coated fibers to 900 µm as in tight
buffered designs.
They are considered an industry standard operating procedure.
Although 250 µm connectors are available, directly terminating them
onto 250 µm fibers is not recommended due to the lack of additional
buffer protection on the fiber. They are considered physically weak.
Ribbon - OSP
Ribbon fiber cable accommodates one or more ribbons within
the jacket. Ribbon cables are designed for use in larger
distributing systems where small cable size and high pulling
strength are important. Ribbon cable requires special tools and
equipment.
For example, a 48-fiber ribbon cable has a bend radius of 7.8
inches compared to the loose-tube equivalent with a 6.9-inch
bend radius. The tighter bend radius also benefits slack loops. Compared to loose-tube cable,
ribbon cable is less than half the weight and approximately 25% smaller in diameter.
Because of the stacked-matrix makeup, the cable will bend in only one preferred axis. If twisted
or pulled in the opposite direction of the axis, the fibers could become damaged.
An alternative to ribbon cable is loose-tube cable, which allows the fibers to lie freely within the
buffer tubes. Because the fibers are loose, they do not exhibit any preferential bend and can be
flexed in any direction. Loose-tube cables are much more flexible over tight bends. Loose tube
fibers can be robotized and terminated with an MPO-style connector or can be easily
terminated with LC-type connectors.
Indoor/Outdoor
Desired for campus building to building backbones this cable eliminates the
need and expense of a transition splice. These cables can be run directly into
an equipment room even if the equipment room is more the 50’ from where
the cable enters the building.
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This cable is also fire rated and listed under NEC Article 770 for backbone optical fiber
nonconductive riser (OFNR) applications, as well as temperature and UV Protection in the
Outdoor Environment
The NEC article 770 requires that outdoor cables be transitioned to an indoor fire rated cable
design within 50’ of building penetration or entry unless it is specifically rated with an
indoor/outdoor use or run inside a metallic conduit to within 50’ of its destination.
These cables are available with dry loose buffer tubes or 900 µm tight buffered designs.
ADSS
All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable is a high-capacity cable that offers
great flexibility for placement on overhead transmission towers.
The ADSS design eliminates the need for this cable to be lashed to a support messenger. ADSS
cables feature fiber counts up to 576, a dry core design and the high-tension strength capability
required for installation in the toughest environmental and electrical conditions. Unaffected by
electromagnetic fields, as it incorporates no metallic components; ADSS cables can be installed
and maintained on extra high-voltage power lines without interruption of power service to
customers. Although, ADSS cables require some specialized attachment hardware, aerial
installation costs are considerably less than that of conventional aerial cables.
Figure-8 Aerial
Self-supporting (Figure-8) optical cable incorporates both a steel messenger
and the optical fiber cable into a single assembly with a “Figure-8” cross-
section. This combination allows for rapid one-step installation and results
in a more durable aerial plant.
OPGW
Since the optical glass fiber is immune to EMI, OPGW or optical ground
wire is an optical fiber overhead ground wire used in the construction
of electric power lines. This cable combines the functions of grounding
and communications. At the center of an OPGW cable is a tubular
structure containing optical fibers.
These fibers are used for high-speed transmission of data, and control of the transmission line.
Utilities often lease or sell services to third parties for high-speed fiber interconnections
between cities.
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Submarine
Submarine cables are used in fresh or salt water. To protect them from
damage by fishing trawlers and boat anchors, they have elaborately designed
structures and armors. Long distance submarine cables are especially complex
designed, permitting runs of more than 100 kilometers between repeaters.
Their repeaters are powered by a constant direct current passed down the
conductor near the center of the cable. Typically they are powered from both ends, one end a
positive voltage and the other a negative voltage. A virtual earth point located about halfway
along the cable powers the repeaters from the potential difference across them.
Summary
As far as choosing a cable;
• Cordage is used in the manufacture of rugged and flexible patch cords.
• Breakout cable has several individually jacketed 3 mm simplex optical fibers with Kevlar®
strength member packed inside an outer jacket, so it can be directly connectorized. It is
rugged it is a very large and expensive cable.
• While distribution cable has the Kevlar strength member surrounding all the individual
900 µm buffered fibers and is able to be connectorized within an enclosure. It is small in
size and inexpensive.
Outside plant cables are loose tube gel filled (LTGF) but are available in dry blocking designs. If
additional protection against rodents is needed then armor is added as an option. Ribbon
designs offer the highest fiber density available.
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Review: Fiber Optic Cable Designs
1. A single tight buffered fiber surrounded by aramid yarn and an outer jacket is called
_______________________ fiber optic cable.
2. Multiple individually simplexed cables contained within one outer jacket called a
breakout cable. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Multiple tight buffered fibers surrounded by aramid yarn and an outer jacket is called
________________________ cable.
4. A BFTO kit is used to:
_____________________________________________________________________
5. What OSP cable does not need to be lashed to a messenger strand?
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Armor is used to protect fibers from _______________________________________.
7. Hybrid cable is the term used for any fiber optic cable that contains both single-mode
and multimode fibers in the same overall jacket. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
8. Outside plant LTGF cables are available in dry block designs. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
Conductive Cables
Article 250 of the NEC covers the general requirements for
bonding. Since fiber optic cables generally do not contain any
metallic components the NEC Article 250 considers them non-
conductive. If they do contain any metallic components such as
armor or strength members, they are considered conductive and
must be grounded within 50’ of building entry according to the
NEC articles 250 and 800.
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OSP Armored
Armored cable is a conductive cable used for rodent
protection in direct burial/aerial applications. A fiber optic
cable containing any metallic components is considered to be
conductive, according to the NEC Article 250, and must be
grounded within 50’ of building entry
Note the ground wedge procedure in which the wedge is driven between
the outer jacket and the armor beneath. Upon completion a terminal stud
accepts a ground strap.
Because the cable with conductive elements meets the same requirements
as the nonconductive cable, they are allowed to be substituted for a non-
conductive cable according to the guidance in Article 770.154.
Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct burial cable if
required. This cable can be non-gel filled and can also be used in aerial
applications.
Many armored cable designs contain a second jacket underneath the

armor. The armor can be removed leaving the inner cable suitable for any
indoor/outdoor use. (Temperature rating -40ºC to +85ºC)
Interlocked Armor
Optical fiber cable employing a layer of interlocking armor (steel or aluminum)

with or without an overall outer jacket is sometimes used for indoor or
indoor/outdoor applications where extra mechanical protection is needed, in
addition to the flame-retardant properties of listed optical fiber cable.
Interlocking armored cables are the most common type of conductive optical
fiber cables. Used primarily in indoor applications, it is basically a distribution
style cable pre-installed in a flexible metal conduit similar to the flexible
metallic conduit used in electrical applications. This cable provides a good
balance of ruggedness, flexibility, and low weight and labor savings
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Review: Conductive Cables
1. A conductive cable must be grounded within ________ feet of building entry

according to the NEC articles 250 and 800.
2. The NEC classifies any cable with a metallic component (such as armor) as a
___________ cable, and therefore must be _____________ upon building entry.
Flame Ratings
Introduction
NEC Article 770 defines the flame ratings for cables used indoors
based upon their use in various installation applications.
All cable jackets must be imprinted with the appropriate rating
designating their compliance to the code. There are many variations
in cabling installations. Areas where fiber optic, twisted pair and
coaxial cables need to be installed may include risers, plenums,
conduits, and an assortment of ducts, and modular furniture
pathways. The cabling in these areas should not contribute to the spreading or propagation a
fire.
Rating Designations
The National Electrical Code (NEC) has a classification system for optical fiber cable performance
under fire conditions. These requirements concentrate on how the fiber cables, when ignited,
will add a dangerous amount smoke and toxic gases into building pathways and spaces; and the
rate of flame propagation or the ability of the cable to transport the fire from one place to
another.
A cable installer must be aware of the flame ratings of the cables to be installed in these areas,
and the National Electrical Code (NEC) which specifies the listing required for cables for a
particular installation.
The NEC requires that cables used in premises be “listed for the purpose”. Four levels of fire
resistance are specified for both nonconductive and conductive cables.
These are listed from most stringent to least. The ratings are hierarchical, i.e., from a fire
resistance standpoint, a higher rating can be substituted for any lower rating, but not vice versa
optical fiber nonconductive general purpose (OFNG) and optical fiber nonconductive (OFN) are
interchangeable for NEC purposes. Also, nonconductive cables may be substituted for
conductive, but not vice versa.
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NEC Article 770 defines the flame ratings for cables used indoors based upon their use in
various installation applications. All cable jackets must be imprinted with the appropriate rating
designating their compliance to the code.
The rating is an alpha-numeric imprinting on the cable jacket:

The first two characters are simply “OF” for “Optical” and “Fiber”.
Third character defines the cable ability to conduct an electrical current, so an “N” means the
cable is non-conductive and “C” means it is conductive.
The fourth character is the actual application flame rating of the cable; General purpose, Riser,
and Plenum.
OFN or OFNG – General Purpose, type cables are used in areas other than plenums and risers.
OFNR – Riser type cables passing the UL (1666) vertical riser test are engineered to prevent the
spread of fire in vertical shaft applications. These cables are resistant to the spread of fire and
pass UL (1581) vertical tray flame test.
OFNP – Plenum Cables meeting type OFNP requirements are capable of being installed in ducts
and plenums without the use of conduit. These cables pass the modified Steiner Tunnel Test
(UL 910). Plenum rated fibers are designed and used for their low smoke and low flame
producing characteristics and are used horizontal cable runs in plenum spaces.
A plenum space is a part of a building that can facilitate air circulation for heating and air
conditioning systems. Typically space between the structural floor and the dropped ceiling or
under a raised floor is typically considered plenum.
LCC (Limited combustible cable) is fire-resistant cable with insulation made of a synthetic
material called fluorinated ethylene propylene. It is considered a safety upgrade in that reduces
the “fuel-load” exposure in plenum applications. It produces less smoke and flame and resists
the propagation of a flame downstream of the fire source than does a conventional plenum
cables.
75
LCC is more tolerant of prolonged high humidity or exposure to corrosive chemicals or

pollutants. Potential benefits of the installation of LCC in place of ordinary cabling include
enhanced safety for personnel, improved protection of investments, and reduced need for
sprinkling systems, and a possible reduction in insurance premiums. It is not currently defined in
the NEC 770.
LSZH (Low Smoke Zero Halogen) has excellent low smoke, low toxicity and
low corrosion jacket characteristics. It is used in transit, nuclear, municipal,
and industrial applications. Outside of North America it is commonly used in
commercial building plenum applications.
NEC Substitutions
The NEC allows substitutions, but, never less than the application requires.
For example; a plenum rated cable can be substituted for riser or general purpose rated
application because they are of a lesser rating then plenum. A riser rated cable could never be
used in place of a plenum rated cable, nor could a general purpose cable be used in place of
riser rated cables.
Review: Flame Ratings
1. The appropriate NEC rating must be printed on the cable jacket of an indoor rated
cable. True/False: ____________________________________________________
2. The NEC OFNP cable designation means:
___________________________________________________________________
3. LSZH (Low Smoke Zero Halogen) has excellent low smoke, low toxicity and low
corrosion jacket characterization. It is used in Transit, Nuclear, Municipal, and
Industrial applications. True/False? _______________________________________
4. LCC cables are an approved type of plenum cables that lowers the fuel load in plenum
ceilings. True/False? ___________________________________________________
5. A riser cable can be substituted for a plenum cable in a plenum. True/False: ________
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Module #2 Certified Fiber Optic Installer
Module #2 Section 2
• Connectors
Section 2 of the Certified Fiber Optic
• Essentials
Installer training program topics will
• Considerations
include: Connector Essentials, Connector
• Common 2.5mm Considerations, Common Connectors
Module #2
• Small Form Factor (2.5mm & Small Form Factor), and an
Section 2 • Connectors Lab overview of the Connector Lab. It
Certified Fiber • Cleaning & Inspection continues with Cleaning and Inspection
Optic Installer • Splicing Procedures and Splicing Methods.
Connector Essentials
A fiber optic connector terminates the end of an
optical fiber. It enables a quick connection and
disconnection of fiber optic links or segments. The
purpose is the precision mechanical coupling
alignment of the fiber cores so light can efficiently
pass. The basic connector unit is a connector
assembly. Regardless of the connector style, all
connectors share some common components.
End Pressure Control Method

All optical fiber connectors need an end pressure control method. In the common ST connector
this is accomplished by a loaded spring. This ensures the fiber cores are pressed together in
physical contact when the connectors are mated. This results in lower signal losses than would
be caused by the air gap, between the joined fiber cores. To maintain the face to face contact
the common ST connector uses a spring to maintain the end pressure, while on an FC connector
there is no spring. A threaded adapter holds the mated connectors together in contact.
Alignment Sleeve
When two connector ferrules are mated it is the alignment sleeve which holds them in precise
alignment. Common materials for these sleeves are beryllium copper or bronze phosphor or
zirconium ceramic and stainless steel.
77
Anti-rotation Device
Another key connector feature is an anti-rotation method. Any change in the relationship of any
mated connector will affect the performance. The connector cannot rotate nor move along any
axis. Newer connectors have an anti-rotation device in the form of a key and a keyway in the
adapter to prevent rotation.
Strain Relief
The cable strain relief or rear boot is critical to the integrity of any fiber segment. This one of the
weakest places in the termination as it is where the fiber enters the rear of the connector at the
back or crimp ferrule. At this point the 3 mm cable is stripped down to 900 µm or even 250 µm.
Ferrule
The ferrule is the precision component of a fiber optic connector and is what provides the
precise alignment of the fiber core axis in the connector. The glass fiber when inserted into the
connector ferrule during assembly is typically bonded to the ferrule. Ferrules are made with 3
types of material: stainless steel, ceramic or polycarbonate plastic. Ceramics are non-metallic
materials which are formed by the action of heat and are considered the best material for use in
precision ferrules.
Body
The connector body is the interface type or style. Some connectors like the ST use a round
spring loaded body with bayonet quick disconnects while newer SC connectors have a square
design. A key feature is the anti-rotation method used as the connector cannot rotate nor move
along any axis. Any change in the relationship of the mated endfaces will affect the
performance.
The boot is attached to the rear of the connector housing for strain relief. Finally the adapter or
bulkhead which has the alignment sleeve and the keyway opening is used to mate the
connectors together.
Connector Considerations
How you choose what is the best connector for your needs may
be an individual choice. End-users are often driven by the
connector interfaces of their switch manufacturers such as CISCO.
The primary features used to select a connector are: price, ease of installation, low loss
specification, consistent performance, and repeatability.
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Repeatability is maintained by 2 elements: connector keying

and the ferrule materials. Keying connectors assures the
proper alignment within an alignment sleeve so that the core
to core alignment is always maintained. Connector ferrule
materials may be plastic, (polycarbonate) or stainless steel or
ceramic. Ceramic ferrules are considered the choice for precision connectors.
Here are some other considerations you should make when choosing the right connector.
Installation Cost
The cost of the an individual connector can range from a
couple of dollars, as in the case of plastic ferrule epoxy
connectors, up to $15 or $20 dollars for a new style non-
polish quick termination connector. This also has to be
compared to the connectors actual cost of installation. A
$2 connector may take a considerable amount of time to
install involving many different tools, hand polishing and even ovens. Compared to a $20 quick
termination connector, some manufacturers claim takes only 2 or 3 minutes to install, and
needs no ovens or polishing. In most cases today the $20 quick termination connector is often a
cost effective choice.
Connector Density
As a general rule, any application involving large numbers of fibers is a
candidate for high density connections. Typical applications include: data
centers, premise cabling, and the FTTx infrastructure. Port density is a key
factor today with the small form factor (SFF) half-size connectors leading the
way to higher port density.
Termination Methods
Common termination methods include no-epoxy-no-polish
and epoxy and polish. The capabilities and limitations of
each termination method affect mated connector pair
insertion loss and reflectance. The availability of quick
mount connectors that are polished and measured for both
insertion loss and reflectance at the time of manufacture
considerably reduces testing time in the field.
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No-epoxy-no-polish Connectors
No-epoxy-no-polish connectors do not require the
use of epoxy or polishing. The manufacturer
completes those processes when the connector is
made. To terminate an optical fiber cable in the
field, the fiber is simply stripped, cleaved, inserted
into the connector and mechanically secured.
The no-epoxy-no-polish connector contains a factory-installed fiber stub with an index

matching gel in the mechanical splice part. The integral fiber stub is bonded and polished on
the ferrule endface and the fiber to be terminated is cleaved and inserted into the rear ferrule
until the two fiber ends meet. The fiber is mechanically clamped similar to a mechanical splice.
Therefore the quality of the cleaver tool used is important for good performance. Many use a
VFL to visually indicate when the fiber is properly inserted.
The primary advantage of no-epoxy-no-polish connectors is that the tedious part of the
termination process, the scribe and polishing, is accomplished in a manufacturing environment
rather than in the field. This allows for the factory polished UPC and APC endfaces necessary for
today’s greater than 1Gb/s networks
Epoxy and Polish Connectors

Epoxy and polish fiber termination include the
following steps: injecting the connector ferrule
with epoxy, curing, scribing the protruding fiber
from the ferrule, and polishing the ferrule end-
face. The cured epoxy securely bonds the fiber to
the ferrule over the operating temperature
minimizing relative fiber movement. Polished
end-face quality directly impacts both insertion loss and reflectance.
If the connector installation and polishing steps are not precisely controlled the insertion loss
and reflectance will increase. Connector ferrules are bonded to the fiber using various methods
for epoxies, crimp on and even twist-on types. Hand polishing in the field requires the installer
to polish in a figure-8 pattern to avoid scratching the endface.
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Common Connectors: 2.5mm

The 3 most common connectors are the ST, FC, and SC. All 3 are 2.5 mm in diameter which is
considered the standard size. They all meet or exceed the TIA-568.3-D standard
recommendation that there can be no more then .75db attenuation (loss) for any mated pair
connector.
ST Connector
The popular multimode optical ST connector is available for use
with single-mode fiber as well, and the only difference between
it and its multimode cousin is in the tolerance of the ferrule
center. The ST connector is a spring-loaded connector; this
arrangement allows the ferrule to move when strain is put on the cable. When used with
multimode fiber with a much larger light-carrying core, a slight movement of the ferrule is
usually not a problem. However, with single-mode fiber any movement increases optical losses.
The light-carrying core diameter of single-mode optical fiber is only 8 to 10 microns in diameter.
As a result, tolerances are extremely critical. In some cases, these losses can be so severe that a
data link actually becomes intermittent or even stops working completely. Such applications as
aerial cables or cables in an environment that is subject to constant vibration are particularly
prone to this sort of situation.
FC Connector
An FC connector is a fiber optic connector with a threaded
body which was designed for use in high-vibration
environments. It is commonly used with single-mode
optical cable. FC connectors are used in telecommunication
and test equipment. They are becoming less common and
are being displaced by the SC and LC connectors. FC is an acronym for “ferrule connector" or
"fiber channel".
SC Connector
The SC connector is known as the “subscriber connector”. You will
also hear it referred to as the “stick and click” connector. The SC
connector uses a push-pull latching mechanism similar to common
audio and video cables. For bi-directional transmission, two fiber
duplex cables are used.
The TIA-568.3-D standard connector is the SC connector. This standard no longer allows the use
of the ST connector commonly used in prior applications. It defines a connector color code in
which a blue connector denotes single-mode, while beige denotes multimode. Connectors with
a green housing denote an angle polish endface.
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Small Form Factor Connectors

The term small form factor (SFF) refers to any of several physically compact connector designs
that have been developed for use in fiber optic systems. They are about half the size of
conventional connectors and have 1.25 mm ferrules.
Small Form Factor – LC

LC single-mode and multimode connectors are manufactured under a
worldwide license from OFS Fitel, formerly known as Lucent
Technologies. The LC is a small form factor (SFF) connector and is ideal
for high density applications. The LC connector has a ferrule measuring
1.25mm O.D. (outer diameter) with either a PC or APC endface polishes,
and provides optimum insertion and return loss. The LC connector is
used on small diameter mini-cordage of 1.6mm and 2.0mm as well as on standard 3.0mm cable.
The LC connector family is Telcordia, TIA and IEC compliant. The LC is based on proven single-
fiber ferrule technology. Both the multimode and single-mode LC perform very well, and their
packing density is equivalent to other SFF connectors. Both standard epoxy and pre-polished
quick-mountable versions of the LC are available for addressing installation needs.
E-2000™ Connector Series

The E-2000™ Connector Series is one of the few fiber
optic connectors featuring a spring-loaded shutter
which fully protects the ferrule from dust and
scratches.
The shutter closes automatically when the connector
is disengaged, locking out impurities which could later lead to network failure, and locking in
potentially harmful laser beams.
The connector is easy to install, with a push-pull latching mechanism which clicks when fully
inserted.
Available for single-mode and multimode applications with physical contact (PC), Angled
physical contact (APC) 8°, endface polishes.
The series is compliant with European (EN 186270) and International (IEC 61754-15) standards.
Used in WANs, LANs, CATV, metrology, transit, and industrial applications.
MU
The single-mode and multimode MU connectors are small form factor
connectors approximately half the size of the standard SC connector.
The MU has a push-pull style design and a free floating 1.25mm ferrule
held in place with a precision spring. The MU was developed by Nippon Telegraph & Telephone
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(NTT) with a push-pull function. The connectors are composed of plastic housing and 1.25 mm
ferrules. They have high reliability and are operationally the same with SC connectors and
adapters.
Small Form Factor - MTRJ

The single-mode or multimode mechanical transfer registered jack, or
MT-RJ, uses two fibers within a common ferrule. It is well suited for high
density applications. The MT-RJ connectors utilize precision molded MT
ferrules, together with precision metal guide pins and a precision
housing to ensure fiber alignment when mating. The MT-RJ is reliable and simple to terminate.
Special patch cords are needed to test MT-RJ links or to transition to existing connector
interfaces. For example, a duplex cord with a female MT-RJ on one end with the zipcord split
into two leading to SC connectors. Only one fiber at a time is tested.
The MT-RJ is a very small duplex connector with a molded body with two fibers. Although you
could use it for epoxy-polish termination in the field, the current design uses a no-polish
technology with a pre-polished fiber stub.
What is an MPO connector?

MPO is the industry acronym for “multi-fiber push on.” The MPO-style
connectors are most commonly defined by two different documents:
• IEC-61754-7 is the standard for MPO connectors internationally
• TIA-604-5, (FOCIS 5) is the most common standard sited for in the US.
The MPO is cited in the TIA-568.3-D standard for small form factor
connectors. MPO connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables.
The MPO connector is manufactured specifically for a multi-fiber ribbon cable. The MPO single-
mode connectors have an angled ferrule allowing for minimal back reflection, whereas the
multimode connector ferrule is commonly flat.
MPO and MTP® Connector

MPO and MTP® are ribbon fiber compatible connectors based on the MT
ferrule, and allow quick and reliable connections for up to 12 or more fibers.
The MTP® connector is specifically a brand of MPO interface connector that
is owned by US Conec. Both MPO and MTP® are intended for installations
that require many fiber connections. Up to 12 fibers in a ribbon are stripped
to 125 µm cladding and inserted into 250 µm spaced parallel grooves. The ferrule also includes
two 0.7mm diameter holes, running parallel to the fibers on the outer side of the ferrule. These
two holes hold precision metal guide pins which align the fibers with tight tolerances.
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MPO and MTP® connectors feature male and female connector design. Male connectors have
two guide pins and female connectors do not. Both connector types need an adapter to mate a
pair of male and female connectors. Because MPO and MTP® connectors are trying to align so
many fibers at once, their coupling losses are typically bigger than single fiber connectors.
Terminating Fiber Optic Connectors Lab

This is an overview of the hands on skills which you will perform when you attend the instructor
led extensive 2-day hands-on training class. This class and completion of this lab exercise is
required in order to apply for and receive the actual TFS “Certified Fiber Optic Installer”
certification credential.
Fiberoptic.com features the 3M Hot melt connectors in this exercise #1.
Purpose: Each student is to make (2) ST connector multimode patch

cords each utilizing a different connector assembly technique. Your
cable assembly must pass light and visual inspection when completed.
When tested they should not exceed the TIA-568 acceptable loss limit
of .75dB.
TL-3.0 Exercise #1 Hot Melt Pre-loaded Epoxy multimode (MM) ST by 3M. Shown for reference
is the classroom tool kit required to perform this exercise.
What’s in your student kit?
(2) 3M ST Multimode (MM) Hot Melt Connectors Part #6100 consists

of (1) connector body with dust protector, (1) strain relief boot for 3
mm jackets and (1) clear strain relief tube*
(2) 3 meter pieces of 3.0 mm simplex 62.5/125 Multimode (MM) cordage

The strain relief tube (C) is not used on 3mm jacketed cable
INSTRUCTIONS:
1) Setup the work area and follow all standard safety procedures.
2) Turn on the oven to allow it to warm up. The oven should be placed in a
location convenient to all students. The oven is designed to heat and cool
up to six hot melt connectors.
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CABLE STRIPPING TEMPLATE

For this exercise take (1) 1 meter cable and;
1) Tie a tight knot on one end of the cable. This
prevents the fiber from pulling out as you put a
connector on other end.
2) Go to the other end and slide the boot over
the jacketed cable
3) Using a buffer strip tools & strip chart, mark & strip the cable according to this template:
4) Observe each step of the termination procedure on the following slides:
PREPARE THE FIBER CABLE

The 3 meter length of fiber optic cable provided can be cut into (2) 1 meter pieces:
(1) One length is to be used with this exercise
(1) One is to be used in TL-3.1 anaerobic epoxy
connector exercise
(1) One is to be used as a spare should additional cable
be required
For this exercise take (1) of the 1 meter cable pieces and;
1) Tie a tight knot on one end of the cable fiber. This is to prevent the fiber from pulling out the
cable as you put the first connector on the other end
2) Go to the cable end opposite the knotted end and slide the boot
and crimp sleeve over the 3 mm jacketed cable. This must be
done prior to putting the connector as in actual field
terminations access to the other end may not be possible.
3) Using the appropriate strip tools and strip chart, mark and strip the cable according to this
template:
Note: This template is not to scale.

Continue with each step of this termination procedure
detailed on the following slides.
4) Score and remove the jacket ¾” (19 mm) to 7/8” (22 mm) from the cable end.
5) Gather the aramid yarn together, fold it back and hold them against the cable jacket.
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Do not trim them to length at this time!

This step is to get the aramid yarn out of your way as you proceed to
remove the 900 micron buffer and 250 micron plastic coatings
protecting the glass fiber.
6) Take your marking pen and place a mark 5/8” minimum (16-19
mm) from the end of the buffered fiber.
7) Remove the buffer in small pieces until 5/8” (16-19 mm) of the buffer
has been stripped. When completed compare
the fiber with the template.
8) Clean the fiber. Use a lint-free wipe moistened with isopropyl alcohol
or equivalent.
9) Cut the aramid yarn to ¼” (6 mm) long.
10) Take your ST Hot Melt connector body, ferrule tip

down and securely insert it into the holder.
Caution! Make sure the connector is securely
inserted into the holder!
11) Place the connector and holder into the heated oven, the connector
should heat for at least 2 minutes. Caution! After 10 minutes the connector
may be fully cured and unusable.
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12) Remove the connector and holder from the oven and insert your
prepared fiber into the heated ST connector as shown:
Caution: the connector and holder are very hot and difficult to hold!
You must commit to the insertion do not pull back on the fiber once
insertion is started. Proceed to push the fiber into the connector with a
slow and steady forward motion.
Do not force the fiber into the connector
Push the cable until the aramid yarn is inside the connector. It will fold
back over the jacket as it enters into the connector. Keep a steady hand
and keep the cable centered to avoid excessive melting of the cable
jacket.
Check that bare fiber is visible beyond tip of connector.
Secure the cable to the holders strain relief
Place the assembly onto the cooling sockets for curing and cooling
(about 5 minutes)
(13) Once the assembly is cooled remove the connector from the
holder. Be very careful not to break off the glass fiber protruding from
the connector top!
Assemble strain relief boot.
You may now proceed to the scribing process.
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SCRIBE AND CLEAVE
Pen-shaped scribes may look like a ballpoint pen, but have a small
wedge tip made diamond or other hard material. This tool is used with
the "scratch and pull" technique. First the fiber is scribed perpendicular
to its length. The fiber is then pulled, which breaks at the scribe.
This tool requires an experienced operator to produce a good cleave.
Hold the selected fiber scribe at the proper angle

1. Gently score the fiber just above the adhesive bead
2. Do not saw the fiber. It is a scratch or scoring of the fiber
3. Do not press too hard as to fracture the fiber
4. Pull the scribed fiber up straight away from the tip of the ferrule.
Use your thumb and forefinger in an upward motion. If done
correctly, about 1/32" of fiber will be left protruding from the
ferrule tip.
5. Dispose of the cleaved fiber in the proper fiber trash container
6. Clean your area before moving on to the next step as fiber scraps on work area are
unacceptable
POLISHING THE CONNECTOR
AIR POLISHING:
Air polishing is always advisable. Hold a small piece of 5μm film above the
bench with one hand to form a concave surface
POLISHING ON A PAD:
Select a 2μm piece of polishing film
Wipe a layer of alcohol onto the rubber pad. Before the alcohol
evaporates, place the 2 micron polishing film on the rubber pad
shiny side down. The alcohol creates suction on the film and
helps hold it in place.
Place the ferrule tip of the connector into the polishing jig (puck)
Bring ferrule tip into contact with film surface and gently make continual figure 8 patterns
Student should start to polish gently and not tear the lapping paper.
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Beginning with a light pressure, move the puck in a figure eight pattern.
Continue until scratches on film surface become smooth tracks.
Be sure the polishing puck and film surface start out clean
• Thoroughly clean the connector’s ferrule (and polishing puck)
whenever switching between different grits of lapping paper.
• Do not to lift the puck from the pad during the polishing procedure
• Hold the connector as shown
Speed of your figure eights should be between one and two per second
After you have done 5 figure eights, increase to a medium pressure polish until the adhesive has
been removed. Then, polish an additional 3 figure eights
The connector ferrule shall be thoroughly cleaned prior to inspections using the microscope.
Clean with a lint free cloth moistened with isopropyl alcohol.
Inspecting the endface:
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Review: Connectors
1. The Ferrule is the precision component of a fiber optic connector that provides the
precise alignment of the fiber core axis in the connector. True/False? ____________
2. Repeatability is maintained by 2 elements: connector keying and the ferrule
materials. True/False? __________________________________________________
3. Hand polishing in the field requires the installer to polish in a figure-8 pattern to
avoid ___________.
4. What small form factor connector contains 2 fibers within one body?
____________________________________________________________________
5. What is the recognized TIA-568-D standard connector?
____________________________________________________________________
6. Small form factor (SFF) connectors are half the size of a standard 2.5 mm connector.
True/False? __________________________________________________________
7. APC connectors are identified by their ____________ body or boot.
8. What color identifies an SC connector as a single-mode connector?
____________________________________________________________________
9. The different connector polishes such as PC, UPC and APC function to reduce
____________________________________________________________________.
10. What color identifies an SC connector as a multimode connector?
____________________________________________________________________
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Cleaning & Inspection

Overview
Dirt and contamination is the #1 reason systems failure, so
when in doubt clean your connectors! All connectors should
be cleaned before they are tested or used in a
communication system. Single mode applications are more
critical and susceptible to problems because of the small
fiber core. However, every fiber connection is critical to network performance, especially in
high-speed, low power margin networks. It is essential to verify the condition of fiber
connector endfaces. Recent studies show that more than 85% of all fiber failures encountered
in LANs are due to contaminated endfaces. Documentation of the condition of connector
endfaces is becoming a more common requirement of fiber network certification. The
specification detailing preparation and examination of optical fiber endfaces for testing
purposes is TIA–455-57B also known as FOTP-57 (Fiber Optic Test Procedure).
Cleaning - Wet and Dry

Cleaning is one of, if not the most important aspect of any fiber optic system.
Some techniques are better than others and as of this time, there is no one
industry standard or recommended procedure. That is why some
manufacturers use a wet or a dry method, and some use both.
The problem with a wet only method is that it may leave a residue on the
connector endface. If you only use a dry method, you will remove dust and
dirt, but you may leave a film or smear on the connector endface. With the
wet and dry method combined you can clean almost all types of
contamination, no matter what the source. Finally after cleaning you must verify your actions to
confirm that you have successfully cleaned the connector and not scratched it.
Cleaning Products
Various methods and products can be used to clean fiber
optic systems. With a dry technique, clean the endface with
a lint free dry wipe material. Do not use the blow dry
method! When wet cleaning use nothing less than 99%
isopropyl alcohol and lint free wipes. Cleaning sticks are
available for 2.5mm and 1.25mm adapters. These sticks
allow the cleaning of connectors without opening up the
panels, disconnecting and cleaning each connector
individually. This reduces the likelihood of the installer
unintentionally damaging the connectors during the cleaning
process.
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There are many fiber optic cleaning products specifically designed for unterminated fiber,
connectorized fiber, or fiber bulkheads such as those found on the front patch panels and
optical ports. For cleaning fiber bulkheads and fiber connectors, precision fiber cleaning solvent
can be used with cleaning sticks to clean any connectors or bulkheads, including FC and APC.
One-step bulkhead and connector cleaner is designed for cleaning 2.5 mm FC/PC, SC, and ST
fiber connectors and bulkheads, quickly and without the need for solvents. Universal fiber
connector cleaner is available. This hand-held connector cleaner is a great alternative to alcohol
or solvent. The cleaning cloth effectively removes dirt, dust, oil, grease, and debris from
connector endfaces. When cleaning unterminated fiber there are two options. Cleaning solvent
can be applied with lint-free wipes. A second option is to use a solvent such as alcohol with
Kimwipes™. A one-touch pump dispenser bottle is great for minimizing solvent evaporation.
A fiber optic cleaning kit bundles all of the products necessary to clean
fiber. Most kits contains a fiber connector cleaner, connector cleaning
sticks, lint-free wipes, handheld connector cleaner, and a replacement
reel.
Inspection
A fiber inspection scope produces a high-quality, low-distortion image of both the connector
end and the fiber. With a high-intensity illumination system and 200X or 400x magnification,
scopes are powerful enough to offer a clear image of the fiber core as well as the surrounding
cladding.
Inspect via Video Probe or Fiber Scope

For inspecting multimode endfaces a 100x
power microscope is sufficient, but the use
of 200x power is preferred. When it comes
to single-mode endfaces, a 400x power
microscope is necessary.
A video probe is fast becoming the choice for visual inspection as it is easy to focus and you can
record jpeg images of the endfaces for record.
They are available with many different inspection tips and adapters for every connector and
applications. Standard tips (2.5 mm and 1.25 mm) connectors for testing male ends like those
92
used in patchcords and female tips for bulkheads and

ports. For tight spaces such as those found in hard to
reach locations like transceivers, printed circuit boards
or bulkheads that are available 60 degree angle tips.
Thorough cleaning must be carried out whenever a
connection is made for fiber optic testing or when fusion splicing. When splicing bare fiber wipe
with an alcohol soaked lint free wipe. Avoid open bottles when using a fusion splicer as alcohol
fumes are explosive!
Contamination Factors
The fiber endface needs to be free of cracks, scratches, edge chips, pits, and other anomalies. A
clean connector should exhibit no signs of dirt, scratching, oil, or other residue. An acceptable
connector may have minor defects only on the outer cladding of the endface. Protect the
exposed fiber end from contact with all surfaces. Contact with hard surfaces may scratch or chip
the end, permanently damaging the connector. Dust particles may also result in scratches to the
exposed end. Touching the exposed fiber end with your finger will leave oil residue.
Clean each connector each time before it is inserted into a sleeve or adapter. A dirty connector
(plug) will contaminate an adapter sleeve (receptacle). Clean all suspect surfaces first with pure
(99%) alcohol or cleaning chemical and then dry with a reel cleaner or lint free cloth or stick
type wipe. A dry Kim wipe can scratch a connector face. Kimwipes™ should always be used in
the wet process with 99% isopropyl alcohol.
Observe the examples of a clean, dirty, alcohol, skin oil, and scratches.
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Review: Cleaning & Inspection
1. What is the #1 reason for system failure?

_____________________________________________________________________
2. When it comes to single-mode endfaces a, ________ power microscope is necessary.
3. When cleaning with alcohol, 99% isopropyl alcohol is specified. True/False?
____________________________________________________________________
4. The fiber endface needs to be free of ________, scratches, chips, pits and other
anomalies.
Splicing
When working with fiber optic cables or connections there are 2 different types of
splicing the technician can perform. They are fusion or mechanical. Splicing is a
method used to terminate or join fibers of like or unlike composition. The fusion
splice is considered a permanent fix while a mechanical splice is a temporary fix. A
quality cleave tool is essential for successful and can have an impact when looking
at splice loss in your fiber. A high precision cleave will give you a 90 degree, perpendicular, cut
every time you make a cut.
CLEAVE TOOLS
There are many different makes and models of cleave tools available on
the market today. Here are two examples. One is a precision cleave tool
and the other is a beaver tail cleaver. Both will score and cut the fiber, but
only the high precision tool will ensure the same 90 degree cut each and
every time.
There are three simple rules a technician needs to follow when using a
cleaver.
Rule 1 - Good Cleave = Good Splice

Rule 2 - Good Tool = Good Cleave
Rule 3 – A good splicing technician will always use good tools
Remember, the better the precision cleave tool, the better the splice, and a clean well organized
workplace is essential for a good splicing procedure.
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MECHANICAL SPLICING
Although the consumable cost is generally higher in mechanical
splicing, the overall cost is much lower because the expense of a
fusion splicer is not required. However, mechanical splices have a
slightly higher loss but are great for quick temporary repairs.
Mechanical splices use an index matching gel in the middle of the

splice to reduce or eliminate the Fresnel reflections that occur. They are often used for
restoration, reel acceptance testing, and are available for single-mode or multimode fibers and
can accommodate 250 µm, and or 900 µm buffer diameters. Like mated connector pairs they
produce a reflective event which is reduced by the use of the index matching gel. The TIA-
568.3-D Commercial Building standard specifies a maximum loss not to exceed .3 dB for any
mechanical splice.
Mechanical Splicing Process
There are many different mechanical splices and kit available. The Corning®
CamSplice™ is extremely popular and easy to use. Corning is the originator of
mechanical splice technology. The 3M™ Fibrlok™ is also extremely popular.
Both require an assembly jig. The AMP® Corelink® is simple to use and the
mounting jig is an option.
Carefully observe the process of the 3M™ Fibrlok™ used in the CFI skills
training.
Mechanical Splicing Issues

There are several issues which may cause unsatisfactory splice results.
1) Poor cleave quality can cause the light to deflect away

from the core of the fiber.
2) Lateral core offset is caused by poorly made fibers with
cores that are not centered. Rotating the fiber slightly
may help correct this problem.
3) Angular misalignment occurs when the fiber is not aligned
within the alignment sleeve.
4) Core mismatch – occurs when the fibers are spliced with cores that are not the same size
(single-mode & multimode).
5) Endface separation is due to the fiber not being inserted all the way into the splice.
6) Contamination is simply dirt or other debris on the fiber's cleaved endface can block
signal transmission.
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Fusion Splicing – A fusion splicer is a piece of equipment

used to initiate the controlled melting of optical fibers
using heat created from an electrical arc. It has the
capability to join two fiber ends together “As if they were
never broken”. An electrical arc is controlled to provide
the appropriate temperature required to melt the optical
fibers together. This is typically 1600-2000 degree
Celsius. A very short duration “pre-arc”, sometimes call a
cleaning arc, softens the fibers as the splicer brings the cleaved ends together. Then the main
arc then fires, fusing the fibers permanently together. This creates a low-loss, non-reflective
splice.
It is important to select the correct splicing mode as single-mode fibers require a high
temperature, short duration, arc, while multimode fibers require a lower temperature for a
longer duration of time.
An arc calibration should be performed at the start of the splice session. Using single-mode
fiber it adjust the power and duration of the arc to operating specifications based on ambient
conditions.
Fusion splicing has long been the standard for outside plant (OSP) utility environments
deploying high bandwidth single-mode applications. Fusion splicers produce highly reliable low
loss splices from .01 dB to .1 dB. TIA-568 specifies a maximum allowable splice loss of .3 dB
while the IEEE and Telcordia specify .1 dB maximum.
The fusion splice results displayed by the splicer are estimates only.
Therefore the TIA-568 requires Tier 1 - PMLS testing to be conducted
and recommends Tier 2 OTDR testing as well.
High fusion splice losses are most often caused by improper cleave
angles, fractures or unwanted contamination. They may also be
caused because the splicer is out of calibration and performing an arc calibration should correct
the issue.
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Fusion Splicer - Types

Fusion splicing is a permanent bond of optical
fibers that is done by fusing or welding the fiber
ends together. This type of splicing is done with a
fusion splicer, which mechanically aligns the fiber
to match the cores of the glass. There are two
classifications of fusion splicers: core alignment
and fixed-v groove splicers.
Core alignment splicers align the fiber cores. They have the ability to not just bring two fiber
ends together but to move them along several axes to precisely align the cores. They can also
efficiently splice cores of different sizes together or compensate for lateral core offsets. There
are two methods that manufacturers use in order to align the fiber cores.
LID: Local-Injection Detection Alignment injects light into the fiber using a controlled bend
radius. The splicer then positions the fibers by looking for the highest light reading. Once the
fibers are in the best alignment position the arc is fired and they are fused together.
PAS: A Profile Alignment System splicer use motors to align the fibers, controlled by light,
mirrors and cameras. The profiles of each 90 degree cleaved fiber face are aligned to achieve
minimum splice loss.
Fixed V Groove splicers uses precise mechanics to bring together fibers aligned within specially
designed fiber clamps or holders. There is no camera or light detection used to correct errors in
alignment. The fibers are set into a fixed v-shaped grove and are simply brought together and
arced. They are based on the concept that if the outer cladding (.125 µm) is aligned therefore
the cores must be aligned. These cladding alignment splicers we first marketed to the FTTx
industry as inexpensive alternate to core alignment because FTTx deploys new fiber and doesn’t
need to address issues in legacy fiber deployments.
Fusion Splicing Process

The splicing environment should always be kept as clean and organized as possible.
Note: Cleaning the fiber after cleaving can damage the newly cleaved endface. It might add
unwanted contaminants such as dust or alcohol residue which might result in an unacceptable
splice value or a physically weak splice point.
97
Core Alignment
1) Strip, Clean and Cleave the fibers
2) Insert the fibers into fixed clamps or removable fiber holders
3) Observe the cleave angle
4) Inspect for dirty or contaminated fiber
5) Arc the fibers
6) Review the splice loss for the splice
7) Remove the fibers from the splicer
8) Bring up the protective sleeve and place into the oven
Fixed V-Groove Alignment

1) Strip, Clean and Cleave the fibers
2) Insert the fibers into fixed clamps or removable fiber holders
5) Arc the fibers
6) Review the splice loss for the splice
Note: that the process is the same for Core and V-groove units, so there’s no need for additional
training to migrate from one unit to the next. All brands operate in similar manner.
Pigtail Terminations
Outside plant (OSP) applications, such as cable, telephone, and
broadcast providers, require high data rate services. Connectors are not
installed directly onto a fiber. Pigtails are used for terminations for
single-mode systems. This is because single-mode systems use high
powered lasers which are highly susceptible to back reflection. When
you splice on a pigtail termination using a fusion splicer, there is no back
reflection issue.
Why use pigtails?

Since the pigtail contains a factory terminated connector on one end it has better performance
than a field connector of any type. The result is lower insertion loss and lower return loss as
they are factory tested, passed QC process, and are formally documented. In addition, fusion
splicing is a time saver (faster), labor saving, and easier as the splicer does the work.
98
Ribbon Splicing
Larger fiber counts have driven the need for ribbon fibers. They are 250 µm
fibers laid out as a flat ribbon. The ribbon is held together with a plastic
“matrix” coating. Ribbon cables come in 4, 8, 12, or 24 fiber counts. Special
tools maybe required to splice ribbon fiber. For instance hot jacket stripper is
used to remove the matrix and the fibers 250 µm coatings.
Although many ribbon splicers use core alignment technology when operating in a single fiber
setup, they operate with cladding alignment technology when performing multi-fiber ribbon
splicing.
Ribbon Splicing Process

As mentioned previously, larger fiber counts have driven the need for ribbon fibers. And we
know the ribbon fiber comes in a variety of fiber counts. Here is the process for splicing a ribbon
cable. You’ll note that the steps are similar to a single fiber splicer.
Ribbon Splicing Process:

1) Strip the fibers using a hot jacket stripper
2) Clean and cleave the fibers
3) Insert the fibers into the clamps of fiber holders
6) Arc the fibers
7) Review the splice loss for each splice point
Splice Protection Sleeves

Splice Protection Sleeves are used to protect the splice after the fusion
process. Since all the plastic coating were remove the 125 µm bare
glass must be physically protected by placing a splice sleeve on the
fiber to be spliced. Heat shrink type single or ribbon sleeves are used.
Butterfly sleeve protection may also be used as they can be slid over
the splice after the splice has been completed.
99
.
Review: Splicing
1. The two types of splicing techniques are mechanical and _____________________.

2. Local injection detection alignment splicers inject light into the fiber using a
controlled __________ ___________.
3. Which type of splice is considered permanent? _______________________________
4. What is the number one rule of splicing? _____________ = __________________
5. The maximum attenuation for a splice according to TIA is .3 dB. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
6. A fusion splice is considered to be a non-reflective event. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
7. Single-mode fibers require a high temperature, short duration are while multimode
fibers require a lower temperature for a longer duration of time. True/False?
_____________________________________________________________________
8. Core alignment fusion splicers align the fiber core, fixed v-groove splicers align the
___________________.
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Module #2 Section 3
• Power & Loss Budget This is Section 3 of the Certified Fiber

• Loss Budget Form Optic Installer training program. Topics
• Cabling Designs will include: Power & Loss Budgeting and
Module #2
• Testing Optical Fiber Testing Optical Fiber. Also discussed will
Section 3 • Power Meter
Certified
be the requirements of Tier 1 & Tier 2
• Light Source
• OTDR testing procedures including reading OTDR
Fiber Optic
Installer trace results.
Power & Loss Budget

Power & loss Budget (Introduction)
How does an installer know if the cable link,
segment, or backbone planned will work?
How do you know if an existing cable plant will it

work with the newest generation of switches?
To ensure that fiber-optic segments have the

ability to operate properly, you need to calculate
the link's power budget.
To calculate a budget for the cable plant is a relatively simple calculation. It is the sum of all the
parts! That’s the maximum allowable loss based on standards or specifications. Add the cable
losses per kilometer distance to the number of connector pairs and splices and you have the
expected loss of the fiber link or segment.
Next determine the power values for the transmitter and receiver (the switch) being deployed.
That is also a simple calculation. Take the gain of the amplifier (transmitter) and subtract from
that the value of receiver’s sensitivity. The result defines the maximum amount of power that
can be lost between the transmitter and receiver before the receiver would be unable to
process the signal. This is the power budget.
Then compare the two results, if the cable plant loss is more than the value of the power
budget it simply will not work.
101
Example of a Practical Fiber Link Budget Exercise

The purpose of this practical exercise is to calculate the estimated loss on a fiber span. Here
there are three buildings linked via a fiber optic cable using multimode fiber. You will need to
determine the estimated loss based on the allowable losses used in TIA-568.3-D:
Budget Max:
Cable dB/Km @ 850 = 3.75 dB
Cable dB/Km @ 1300 = 1.50 dB
Mated Pairs @ 0.75 dB each
Splices @ 0.30 dB each
102
LOSS BUDGET FORM SECTION 1 – POWER
Next we’ll review the following form in detail:
Review the Section 1 the Power section of the budget form shown. Note that the power budget
calculation is based upon:
1) The launch power of the transmitter – The receiver sensitivity, both measured in dBm,
equals the power budget of in this example 10dB or loss.
Follow along as we review the data needed to establish a budget.
We will calculate our budget based upon both wavelengths: 1310 & 1550 nm.
Line 1a: Record: the gain of the transmitter as -16dBm using the average transmitter power.
Line 1b: Record: the receiver sensitivity as -26dBm
Line 1c: Subtract: (the transmitter average power -16dBm minus the receiver sensitivity -26dBm
equals 10dB, the System Gain.
Continue to lines 2 & 3:

Line 2a: Determine the power penalties for the operating margin, in this example enter 2dB.
Line 2b: Note: Power penalties are factors that adjust the system gain, including the operating
margin, receiver power penalty, and repair margin. In this example the Receiver power
penalties are 0dB.
Line 2c: The repair margin will be 2 splices @ .1dB each which equals .2dB.
Line 2d: Total power penalties which is the sum of 2a, 2b, 2c which equals 2.2dB.
103
Calculate the link loss budget;

Line 3a: Enter the system gain (from 1c) which is 10.0dB.
Line 3b: Enter the total power penalties (from 2d) which are 2.2dB.
Line 3c: Total link loss budget is the system gain (10dB from 1c) minus the power penalties
(2.2dB from 2d) equals 7.8dB.
This result defines the maximum amount of power that can be lost between the transmitter and
receiver before the receiver would be unable to process the signal. This is the power budget.
Continue to:
LOSS BUDGET FORM SECTION 2 - PASSIVE CABLE SYSTEM LOSSES

Now we calculate the passive cable system losses. Since some of these items are wavelength
specific so we’ll do calculations at both 1310 nm and 1550 nm.
Line 4a: Enter the fiber cable length as 10 Km.

Line 4b: Enter the fiber loss/km @ 1310 nm wavelength as .35dB/Km
Enter the fiber loss/km @ 1550 nm wavelength as .22dB/Km
Line 4c: Total optical fiber (cable) loss:
@ 1310 nm .35dB/km x 10Km equals 3.5dB
@ 1550 nm .22dB/km x 10Km equals 2.2dB
Line 5a: Enter the connector loss per mated pair as .75dB
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Line 5b: Enter the number of mated connector pairs as 1

Line 5c: Multiply 5a x 5b equals .75 total connector loss
Line 6a: Enter the loss for each splice as .10dB
Line 6b: Enter the number of splices which total 5.
Line 6c: Multiply 6a x 6b equals .50dB Total splice loss.
Continue to lines 7 & 8:

Line 7a: Calculate other components such as bypass switches, couplers, and splitters. Enter “0”
for this exercise.
Line 8a: Calculate the total passive loss cable system insertion losses:
Total optical fiber loss (from 4c) 3.50dB @ 1310 nm and 2.20dB at 1550 nm.
Line 8b: Total connector loss (from 5c) is .75dB.
Line 8c: Total splice loss (from 6c) is .50dB.
Line 8d: Total the components, (from 7a), which is 0.0dB.
Line 8e: Total system loss equals the sum of 8a, 8b, 8c, and 8d or:
4.75db @ 1310 nm and 3.45db @ 1550 nm
LOSS BUDGET FORM SECTION 3 – VERIFYING PERFORMANCE
Now let’s compare the results of Section 1 and Section 2 together to verify system performance
at 1310 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths:
Line 9a: Enter the system performance margin to verify adequate power from 3c or 7.80dB.
Line 9b: Enter the Passive system loss from (8e):
4.75dB @ 1310 nm and 3.45dB @ 1550 nm.
Line 9c: Subtract the passive system loss (9b) from the power budget (9a).
The result at 1310 nm is 3.05dB and @ 1550 nm is 4.35dB. This is the operating margin or
headroom. Note that the margin must be greater than zero (0) for the system to operate as
installed.
In this example, the system should operate as installed. But, keep in mind there is no system
performance margin stated. If the System Performance was specified to be = 3 dB or greater,
105
then the 3.05 dB at the 1310 nm wavelength might be a too close to safely put into service.
Often the simplest way to increase the power and thus the margin, is to deploy a more
powerful transmitter/receiver (Switch).
CABLING DESIGN PARAMETERS
There are two important calculations that must be used

when designing a fiber optic network.
They are:
1. The maximum signal loss across an existing fiber
2. The maximum fiber distance given the loss
budget
The loss budget form we reviewed demonstrated the maximum signal loss across an existing
fiber. Let’s now consider the maximum fiber distance given the loss budget. In this example we
calculate the theoretical distance which could be obtained based upon a transmitter & receiver
power budget. That is the formula Power Budget = Launch Power – Receiver Sensitivity.
In this example we’ll use (-16 dBm) launch power minus a (-29 dBm) receiver sensitivity which
equals (=) 13 dB power budget.
In this example we’ll start with the power budget and subtract from that the physical
components of the fiber cable plant excluding the cable losses as that is the theoretical distance
we seek to establish.
Power Budget = 13.0 dB

Losses from Splices (5 @ .1) = - 0.5 dB
Losses from Connectors (2 @ .75ea) = - 1.5 dB
Operational Safety Margin = - 3.0 dB
Net Power Budget = 8.0 dB
The net power budget represents the maximum loss allowed along the cable length. So, using
an 8dB power budget and a fiber rated not to exceed .5dB/km, the maximum distance is 16km.
That is simply (8dB / (0.5dB/km) =16km.
106
Review: Loss Budgets
1. When calculating a loss budget which component loss is wavelength specific?

_____________________________________________________________________
2. The launch power of the transmitter minus (-) the receiver sensitivity, both measured
in dBm, equals the power budget. True/False?
___________________________________________________________
3. A cable plant has a power budget of 15dB. The total passive cable plant losses are
18dB. Will it work? Yes/No? Why?
___________________________________________________________________
4. Subtracting the passive system loss from the power budget and the results at 1310nm
are 3.63dB and at 1550nm are 4.35dB. This is known as the _______ _______ for each
wavelength.
Testing Optical Fiber (Overview)

OPTICAL TESTING
In the beginning of our industry there were either sophisticated factory

tests or primitive field tests. Over time the sophistication of the factory
tests has migrated to the field. The optical Time-domain reflectometer
(OTDR) and the optical loss test set (OLTS) are the predominant tools
used today in field testing. The visual fault locator (VFL) and optical
return loss (ORL) are also used. New advanced testing of bandwidth,
dispersion and optical spectrum or wavelength testing is beginning to appear on critical fiber
systems. By performing testing in the beginning, before we use the installed fiber, we can
reduce the time to restore a circuit that fails. Documentation allows us to prevent future
mistakes and shorten restoration time. Troubleshooting techniques and checklists can also save
time.
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Tests to be performed
Testing should be performed at several stages during the installation
process.
The first stage is pre-installation when the fiber arrives on site.
Reel acceptance testing is highly recommended as any fiber

performance issues or “dark fibers” can be detected prior to pulling
the fiber into place. All fiber reels are to come with both ends
exposed so it may be checked on site prior to installation. The test
can be performed with a simple VFL to check for continuity to
identify dark fibers, or an optical loss test sets to verify each fiber’s performance against
specifications.
The OTDR can also perform these functions with the benefit of having to strip and prepare both
fiber ends. Failure to do this can be extremely costly to any installation contractor.
The post-installation stage is after the fiber is installed and in place and the segment is fitted
out with connectors and splices. Segment verification can be performed by the installer with the
visual fault locator (VFL) and an optical break locator (OBL). The OBL will give distance to break
measurements.
The documentation stage includes the final acceptance tests for all fiber segments to include:
fiber characterization, total loss per kilometer and Total distance as defined in Tier 1 and Tier 2
testing procedures as define in the standards.
Benchmarking your fiber following installation is extremely important to establish base-line

records for documentation, troubleshooting, and restoration purposes. This data becomes part
of the permanent records for both the end user and installer.
Tier 1 Test Requirements
Tier 1 testing is required to be compliant with the standard and

includes:
• Attenuation, typically tested with a light source and power meter
(LSPM) or optical loss test set (OLTS)
• Link length, determined by test equipment or from cable jacket
markings
• Polarity, to make sure that a transmitter on one end of the fiber
will connect to a receiver at the other end.
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About Bi-directional Testing
• Bi-directional testing is not required by Tier 1 requirements, but is considered a standard

operating procedure throughout the industry and should always be done.
• Using an OTDR (Tier 2) does not eliminate the need for bi-directional PM&LS testing.
Although single direction loss measurement method is quicker and cheaper; the bi-directional
method is preferable for more reliable overall characterization, as it reduces the likelihood of
service call and additional troubleshooting in the future.
Bi-directional testing of fiber optic cable is important to insure the quality of a fiber link. The
main reason is due to the fact that no 2 glass fibers are exactly the same. For example, lighting
transmitting light travels from a larger core to a smaller core, or there is an offset at a splice
point the will be more loss occurring in one direction than the other.
Tier 2 Test Requirements

Tier 2 testing is considered optional and includes:
• All testing required as described in Tier 1 testing
• Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) testing
Bi-directional testing is not required, but is considered a standard
operating procedure throughout the industry and should always be
done.
Using the bi-directional average enables installers to accurately measure splice loss.
PM & LS Overview
When using an PM & LS or optical loss test
set (OLTS) a light source is connected to
one end of the fiber under test (FUT) and a
power meter is attached to the other end to
measure the amount of power or light being
received. This is also known as span testing
or end to end loss testing. The power
meter & light source is considered the
most accurate tools for loss testing because it measures loss whereas an OTDR calculates the
distance to an event. It does however require access to both ends of span or segment. The
segment should be tested to simulate the active system wavelengths. An OLTS can be obtained
as single, dual or multi-wavelength tools and they measure the wavelength of light in the
nanometer scale.
109
Light Source
A fiber optic light source (FOS) is the device that provides a continuous wave
and stable energy source allowing us to measure attenuation. The Light
Source provides a stable energy level. It may have multiple wavelengths
capability. Single-mode segments require laser source while multimode
segments would require LED or VCSEL sources.
In the display image used, the light source is set to the 1550 nm wavelength.
You will notice that there are two ports on this unit. This means we have a
light source capable of delivering MM and SM wavelengths. (Some older units
used different ports for each wavelength).
Power Meter
An optical power meter (OPM) is a device used to measure power. A
typical optical power meter consists of a sensor, measuring amplifier and
display. The sensor primarily consists of a photodiode selected for the
appropriate wavelengths and power levels. A photodiode is a
semiconductor diode that functions as a photo detector. Photodiodes are
packaged with either a window or optical fiber connection, to let in the
light to the sensitive part of the device.
The display unit, the measured optical power and set wavelength is
displayed. Power meters must be calibrated using a traceable calibration standard.
A traditional optical power meter responds to a spectrum of light, however the calibration is
wavelength dependent. This is not normally an issue, since the test wavelength is usually
known, however it has a couple of drawbacks. Firstly, the user must set the meter to the correct
test wavelength, and secondly if there are other spurious wavelengths present, then wrong
readings will result.
Dynamic Range
Power meters must have enough power to measure transmitter output and be sensitive enough
to measure the received power. The optical receiver sensitivity defines the minimum power
level that can be detected. Here are the typically power levels for some common applications:
• Telephone range from +20 dBm to -70 dBm;

• CATV range from +26 dBm to -55 dBm
• LANs range from -20 dBm to -60 dBm
110
OTDR Overview
The OTDR is a very popular tool for testing fiber spans, and is most
beneficial in providing distance to event information. It should be used to
test optical cable when they are delivered. They should also provide a
signature of your fiber network once installation is complete.
An OTDR operates because light reflects off intrinsic particles in our fiber.
They provides a signature or characterization of a fiber in the form of a graphical trace. An OTDR
operates because light reflects off intrinsic particles in a fiber.
OTDR Basics
The OTDR sends out a pulse of light and measures the
level of light that is reflected back. An optical coupler
allows both optical source and optical receiver to be
connected to the same fiber.
The graphic illustrates how an OTDR is able to

operate using only one end of the fiber. Light travels
out through a coupler, once reflected light returns, it is split out toward a detector.
OTDR Options
Inexpensive OTDRs are often self-contained instruments used for segment
testing, documentation and troubleshooting. More expensive units are
platform based and can also be used for the testing requirements of the
long distance outside plant. Plug-in modules are available for specific
dispersion issues as well as other network requirements, they include:
• The PMD Test Module is used to test polarization mode dispersion in a span
• The CD Test Module is used to test chromatic dispersion in a span to determine the
location of CD as there are devices designed to correct these effects
• The OSA Module or optical spectrum analyzer looks at individual wavelengths or
channels when multiplexing.
• Various Protocol Testing Modules used to analyze a number of protocols on the market
such as Ethernet, SONET.
111
The Visual Fault Locator or Continuity Tester is one of the least

expensive and most useful tools you can own. This tool is used to
quickly find breaks and verify the continuity of an
optical fiber. The VFL shines a visible (red) laser
light into the fiber and can locate faults, up to approximately five
kilometers away. VFLs operate @ 635 nm for higher visual accuracy or @
670 nm for longer distances. A VFL is able to identify or “see” breaks
through 3mm jacket.
Fiber Testing - Scope

Inspection microscopes are instruments used in visual inspection to locate
faults on the fiber connector endface. They are available with 200X and
400X magnifications. It is recommended that you use a 400X especially with
SM applications.
Fiber Testing – Video Probe

Video probes are available that can inspect through the bulkhead without the need to
disassemble. These video probes save the technician from the strain of looking through hand-
held microscopes and accidental exposure to a live fiber which can permanently damage your
eyesight. Visual inspection of fiber connectors is at 200X to 400X magnification. For single-mode
inspection a 400x power is recommended.
The connector condition including both cleanliness and scratches is shown as a direct view the
endface. The video image can be transmitted from a camera onto a display. These probes offer a
video capture option to save pictures of the ferrule end-face for documentation. These probes
may be connected to laptops and OTDRs with a USB port.
112
Fiber Testing - Optical Fiber Identifiers

An optical fiber identifier (OFI) can identify an optical fiber by detecting the
optical signals being transmitted though the fiber. There is no need to open the
fiber. This instrument detects live transmissions, continuous wave (CW), and
most 270 Hz, 1 kHz, and 2 kHz modulated tones. It also detects tones generated
by a light source. Many identifiers can indicate signal power level and direction
of transmission.
Fiber Testing - Talk Sets

A fiber talk set is used to transmit voice over an installed fiber optic cable,
allowing communication between technicians who are splicing or testing the
fiber, even when they are in the field. The fiber talk set is connected to an
unused fiber. For example for a 6 port test the talk set is connected to the 6th
port while ports 1-5 are tested with an optical loss test set (OLTS). Then the
talk set is connected to the first port while the 6th port is tested.
Optical Testing Tier 1

Tier 1 testing is required to be compliant
with the standard and includes:
• Attenuation, typically tested with a light

source and power meter (LSPM) or optical
loss test set (OLTS)
• Link length, determined by test equipment or from cable jacket markings
• Polarity, to make sure that a transmitter on one end of the fiber will connect to a receiver at
the other end.
Power and Loss

Just about every measurement in fiber optics refers to optical power. The power output of a
transmitter and the receiver sensitivity is an absolute measurement, meaning that you measure
the actual value of the power. Loss is a "relative" power measurement, the difference between
the power coupled into a component like a cable or a connector and the power that is
transmitted through it. This difference is what we call optical loss and defines the performance
of a cable, connector, splice, etc.
113
Optical Power & Loss Fundamentals

Power
The decibel (dB) is often used to quantify the gain or loss of
optical power for fiber or network elements. Power is measured
in dBm which is an abbreviation for dBmW (milliwatt).
The dBm decibel unit also has the following useful attributes:
• It reduces large numbers to a convenient size
• It offers resolution for a number of decimal places
• 1dB gives 2.3 % resolution
• 0.01 dB gives 0.23 % resolution.
Fiber optic test equipment is available with resolutions of 0.1 -

0.001 dB / dBm of resolution. Whereas it may be occasionally possible to make use of 0.001
dBm / dB resolution in carefully controlled laboratory conditions, there is very little use for such
resolution in optical fiber testing.
Light is power and as such conforms to the 3 dB rule of Power which states that for every
change of 3 dBm the power doubles or is halved.
For example, in light transmissions, a decrease of 3 dBm would result in a 50% loss of light,
while an increase of 3 dBm would double the light.
The dBm is the number of dBs relative to a reference power of 1 mW. This is often used to
specify absolute power levels, therefore (0) dBm equals 1 mW is an absolute unit of power*.
Power levels below 1mW, such as -1dBm are displayed as negative values.
The number of decibels is equivalent to ten times the logarithm of the power variation
therefore for every change of 10 dBm + or – the decimal for the absolute unit of power (1.0mW)
will move to the left (+) (10mW) or to the right (-) (.1mW).
Loss
Loss is measured as dB. The formula to calculate loss is:
 (-dBm) - (-dBm) = dB
 (Power in) - (Receive Power) = Loss
A few key terms to remember are:
 dB = Loss
 dBm = Power
 dBm – dBm = dB
114
About Mandrel Wrapping

TIA standards specify that the
multimode launch cord is to be
wrapped five, non-overlapping, times
around a mandrel for calibration and
testing.
The diameter of the mandrel is

determined by the launch cord core
size and construction. The purpose of
the mandrel in multimode testing is to
remove the modes, or pathways, of
light near the outer edge of the core
acting as a mode filter.
Using a mandrel gives a more realistic measurement by removing these outer modes before the
reference is set. Since this light will nearly always be lost in any typical installed link because of
normal bends and connections. Without a mandrel loss, measurements may be incorrectly
increased. If unexpectedly high loss is encountered in an installed link, a mandrel wrap may help
resolve the high loss issue. As noted in the chart, a mandrel is not required for single-mode.
Standards require multimode launch jumpers:

 To be wrapped 5 x, non-overlapping, around a mandrel
For calibration and testing the mandrel diameter is determined by:
• The launch jumper core size & construction
The purpose of the mandrel:
• Is to remove the high order light modes
• Traveling near the outer edge of the core
• It functions as a mode filter
• It gives a more realistic measurement
• These modes will nearly always be lost to bends and connections in a segment.
115
PM&LS Testing Procedure - OFSTP-14

The TIA-526-14-C defines the Optical Power Loss Measurement
of an Installed Multimode Fiber Cable Plant.
It is often described as the 2 jumper reference method. Two

patch cords; one the mandrel wrapped connected to the light
source; and the other connected to the power meter; are
coupled together in the middle and referenced to zero.
The middle connection is then separated and the respective devices brought to the fiber
segments to be tested a loss measurement is calculated.
PM & LS Testing Procedure - Method A is known as the Single

Jumper Reference (TIA-526-14-C) method and is defined for Tier 1
testing procedure. The set up and testing procedure is as follows:
1. Turn on the Light Source and let it warm up for at least 5

minutes!
2. Inspect & clean all connectors before testing!
3. Connect the PM and LS together using a single mandrel
wrapped measurement quality jumper (MQJ).
4. Select the proper wavelength to be tested on both units.
Select the proper measurement scale:

5. On the power meter (PM) select the dB or loss scale.
6. Press & Hold the "Reference" key; the PM will display "0.00“, this will "Zero out" the test
jumper.
7. Disconnect the single jumper from the PM.
8. Attach the second jumper to the PM
9. Use a mating sleeve to connect the two jumpers together. Do not zero out again! This is
just to validate the second test jumper.
10. Disconnect the jumpers at the alignment sleeve and proceed to test the fiber segments.
 Once a reference is taken! Do not turn off the LS or disconnect the referenced
jumper at the LS as it would be necessary to “Zero” reference the PM&LS.
116
Recording Segment Loss

Testing the segment or link for loss (A-B):
1. Connect & disconnect 3 times and record the loss results
2. Add them together & Average the 3 readings and record the dB loss.
3. This is the loss of the tested segment (A-B).
4. Repeat the procedure for segment loss (B-A) & record the results.
Please review the Testing Form shown!
117
Optical Testing Tier 2

All Tier 1 testing as previously defined is required to be compliant with
the Tier 2 optional testing standard.
The Tier 2 is option includes in addition to all Tier 1 testing requirements

includes testing with an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR).
OTDR traces characterize the individual components of a fiber link: connectors, splices and
other loss events. Tier 2 testing compares the data collected to specifications to determine if
they are acceptable. OTDR testing provides evidence that every component in a fiber optic
cabling system was properly installed as does Tier 1.
However, most clients consider Tier 2 testing to be critical because it identifies faults that would
not be apparent with basic Tier 1 testing certification. Test results can be downloaded to a
computer and managed with reporting documentation software.
OTDR Test Configuration with Launch and Landing Cables
Without a launch cable the initial

length of the fiber link under test is
hidden within a blind area known as
an event dead zone which occurs at
the launch of the pulse.
Therefore, loss measurements cannot
be accomplished in the initial section
of the fiber link.
With the use of a launch cable, the initial section of fiber link can be measured. This is because a
blind area (event dead zone) created by the launch of the pulse occurs within the length of the
launch cable. This allows you to measure through the event and display the insertion loss and
reflectance value of the connector at the beginning of the fiber link or segment under test.
OTDRs require a launch cable, also known as a suppression box when measuring end-to-end
loss, fiber loss, connector loss and reflectance of the fiber link under test.
To test an entire section of fiber (end-to-end), two launch cables are recommended. One cable
will serve as a launch cable testing the near-end connection, while the other cable will serve as
a landing cable enabling the accurate calculation of the connector loss and reflectance values at
the far end of the fiber link under test.
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OTDR Set-up Procedure

Turn on the OTDR and warm it up and stabilize for at least 5 minutes. Longer warm-up periods
may be required based upon ambient conditions at the testing location.
Go to the setup and settings menu.
First, select which port you want to test from (multimode or single-mode), then set whatever
test pass/fail parameters and limits you want to use, then set the fiber type such as MM or SM,
and the desired wavelengths to be tested.
 Single-mode loss is more sensitive to fiber bending or mechanical stress at

wavelengths above 1480 nm. It is important to perform additional measurements
on single-mode at 1550 nm, as a means of verifying the installed performance, even
if the operational system is to be used at 1310 nm.
 For example, if a 1310 nm link is tested and the overall link loss is measured a 1.1dB.
Then the results of the 1550 link is recorded at 1.3dB. Since loss dB/km
specifications are lower at 1550 nm the result should be lower than the 1310 nm
result not higher. This is typically because single-mode loss is more sensitive to
macrobends, microbends or mechanical stresses.
It is possible to create and save multiple sets of OTDR test limits and select one for a particular
job. Each OTDR test passes or fails based on a comparison against the selected set of test limits.
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You may elect then set launch fiber compensation parameters (if available), designate which
end you are testing from, and notate what you want to call each end of the fiber. This is used to
simplify testing by removing the launch and receive cable losses and lengths from
measurements. The launch (landing) cables still appear on the trace, but the length and loss
calculations are removed from the certification test results.
If you are a contractor, your customers want to know where an event is in their fiber plant, not
where it is on your test setup.
For example, when using a 150m launch cable, the first connector of the fiber link under test
will show up at the 150m distance marker where it is actually the “zero” meter mark of the
cable segment tested.
Finally designate the fiber characteristics or allow the default setting to the previously selected
fiber. You may also choose to set user-defined parameters such as the fibers index of refraction,
numerical aperture and back-scatter coefficient for the fiber-under-test.
Now choose from the menu to set distance range, averaging time, pulse width and loss
threshold.
Distance (range) is important in determining the pulse width setting. Longer pulse widths (more
power) are necessary for longer distances. Shorter pulse widths for shorter distances.
Autotest automatically sets the distance range, averaging time, pulse width, and loss threshold.
Just select the autotest, and push the test button. The OTDR will choose the most appropriate
setting for the fiber that you are testing.
Running an Autotest
Now that you are all set up for testing, simply turn the dial to autotest, clean and plug your
launch cable into the fiber link under test segment and press autotest. If it passes, press save,
name the test, and test the next fiber.
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OTDR Trace Using Launch and Landing Cables

This is a trace depicting the Test Configuration with Launch and Landing Cables displayed
previously.
Note the left hand vertical scale representing the power or reflected signal level while the
bottom scale represents the length or distance.
As we “walk” the trace, the first spike or reflective event is the launch port of the OTDR, the
second reflective event is the “A” or first connector of the fiber link under test.
Continue along the sloping line of the fiber trace until we come to the midway point where a
drop in the slope of the trace occurs. This is the typical signature of a non-reflective event such
as the fusion splice in our fiber link.
The fiber trace continues until the reflective event “B”, the second and last connector of the
fiber link is reached and continues until it reaches the end of the landing cable where a very
large reflective event occurs as the light pulse leaves the fiber and escapes into the air.
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Tier 2 Testing - Reading Trace Results

An OTDR trace is a graphic representation of
loss of signal over a given distances. All OTDR
displays have the same layout. Power is
displayed on the Vertical axis and Distance is
displayed on the Horizontal axis.
A Non-Reflective event signature is typically

indicative of a fusion splice or macro bend.
A Reflective event signature is typically

indicative of a connector, Mechanical Splice or
a Break in the fiber.
OTDR Trace Using Launch and Landing Cables

This is a trace depicting the “Test
Configuration with Launch and Landing
Cables” displayed previously. Note the left
hand vertical scale representing the power or
“Reflected Signal Level” while the bottom
scale represents the length or “Distance”.
As we “walk” the trace, the first spike or

Reflective Event is the launch port of the
OTDR, the second reflective event is the “A”
or first connector of the fiber link under test.
Continue along the sloping line of the fiber trace until we come to the midway point where a
drop in the slope of the trace occurs. This is the typical signature of a non-reflective event such
as the fusion splice in our fiber link.
The fiber trace continues until the reflective event “B”, the second and last connector of the
fiber link is reached and continues until it reaches the end of the landing cable where a very
large reflective event occurs as the light pulse leaves the fiber and escapes into the air.
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When light traveling through the fiber reaches the end at a break or the actual end of the
segment the light ray exits the glass and enters into the air resulting in a high reflective event
followed by a drop to a field of noise as depicted on a trace. This occurs because of the
difference in the IOR of the glass into the IOR of air.
This noisy signature can also be a result of too low a power level, where the pulse width is set
so low, as it relates to distance of the link, that it doesn’t make it to the end of the link under
test.
OTDR – Dead Zone

The OTDR dead zone is classified in two separate
ways.
• First, an event dead zone (EDZ) is related to a

reflective optical event. In this situation, the
measured dead zone will depend on a
combination of the pulse length and the size of
the reflection.
• Second, an attenuation dead zone (ADZ) is related to a non-reflective event. In this

situation the measured dead zone will depend on a combination of the pulse length.
An event dead zone is specified as a distance that determines how close to the OTDR you can
detect and measure a splice loss. It also determines how close together two reflective events
can be measured. It is directly related to pulse width. Larger pulse widths produce larger dead
zones.
The attenuation dead zone determines how close together a reflective and a non-reflective
event can be measured.
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Basic Evaluation of a Practical Trace Exercise

Let’s analyze trace TP-CFI-Trace #1 and identify some of the individual events and determine
how the loss values are calculated.
Note: This is not an actual OTDR trace but one designed to help the student visualize how losses
are measured and practice reading the scales.
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OTDR Trace (Zoom Tab)
The image shows what looks to be a single event,

but under closer investigation (zoom) we see
three events which have attenuation dead zones.
The red box is a zoom of the reflective event
within the blue rectangle. In the red box we can
identify three separate reflective events which
are too close to interpret under the standard
zoom settings.
OTDR Trace– (Trace Info)

The image above is a screen capture of the trace
software which enables traces to be viewed by
computers. This is the general practice in the
documentation phase following the field work which
allowed us to capture our trace information. This
display highlights the information under the trace
info button in the lower left corner of the image.
The trace info option allows us to see all the
parameters under which the trace was generated.
OTDR Trace (Measure Tab)

This display highlights the information under
the measure button in the lower left corner of
the image. The measure option allows us to
move the A and B cursers and measure
specific points of interest.
OTDR Real Time Mode
The OTDR is set to emit a continuous wave trace that is updated quickly (> 1 update per
second).
In real time mode an OTDR can be used to monitor a system, acceptance a reel, align a splice as
it is being made, aligned or adjusted. Real-time mode is often used in the OTDR set-up
procedure to help fine tune into the link being tested.
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In a common OSP method, real time is often used in a bend-and-detect procedure. The central
office (CO) puts a real time wave on a fiber as the technician in the field gently bends a specific
fiber. The CO can immediately detect a change in the wave thus confirming that the technician
in the field is in fact working on the correct fiber.
OTDR - Distance Calculation
The formula used to calculate the distance to an event

is defines as:
d=ct/2n
Where:
d = Distance
c = Speed of Light
t = Time
n = Index of Refraction
This calculation is made by the OTDR then combined

with loss information to display the common OTDR trace/graph.
OTDR - Distance Considerations
Index of refraction (IOR) is important and needs to be set properly in order to measure fiber
distance accurately.
Stranded high fiber count OSP cables have more fiber contained within than the measured cable
length. This is especially true for the buffer tubes contained in the outer spirals. This is referred
to as a cable’s helix factor and is typically between 2 to 6%.
The helix factor is the value that takes into account the difference between the length of the
cable and the length of the fiber inside the cable; it does not vary with wavelengths.
Recording ground locations is most important it is necessary to compensate for loops & slack in
fiber and cable. Physical landmarks are important to correlate OTDR to ground distance.
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OTDR Trace - Report
Reports can be generated, but require some manual input.

Completion of all fields will assist with future restoration and
maintenance efforts. This information should be entered for each
trace. The image shown is a screen capture of the trace software
which enables traces to be viewed by computers. This is the general
practice in the documentation phase following the field work which
allowed us to capture our trace information.
Optical Return Loss (ORL)

Optical Return Loss (ORL) is calculated as the total amount of
light returning from the area between the cursors below the
trace line to the noise level. The ORL measurement includes
total backscatter and all reflections. It may also be defined as
a measure of power reflected from imperfections in an
optical communications link.
Review: Testing
1. For multimode testing with a power meter & light source, what is required to be
incorporated into the test cord?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What instrument tests only the attenuation of the fiber under test segment?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Tier 1 testing is required to be compliant with the standard and includes:
____________________________________________________________________
4. What is the meaning of the term OTDR?
_____________________________________________________________________
5. The OTDR is a very popular tool for testing fiber spans, and the most beneficial in
providing “distance to event” information. True/False? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Why is testing for segment attenuation using a power meter & light considered more
accurate than an OTDR?
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Module #2 Section 4
As this module continues with Section 2,
• Standards and Codes we’ll discuss various organization involved
• Trays Panels in setting industry standards and Codes,
• Enclosures Cabling components including inside and
Module #2 • OSP Enclosures outside Panels and enclosures along with
Section 4 • Installation Practices installation Practices and Cable
• Cable Management Management. We’ll then finish up this
Certified Fiber
• Restoration Planning
Optic Installer module with an overview of Emergency
Restoration.
Standards Organizations and Codes
OVERVIEW
Standards are considered to be guidelines while codes are enforceable by law.
A technical standard is an established norm or requirement. It is usually a
formal document that establishes uniform engineering or technical criteria,
methods, processes and practices. It can also be a controlled artifact or similar
formal means used for calibration. A technical standard may be developed
privately or unilaterally, for example by a corporation, regulatory body,
military, etc.
Standards can also be developed by groups such as trade unions, and trade associations.
Standards organizations often have more diverse input and usually develop voluntary standards:
these might become mandatory if adopted by a government, business contract, etc. A code, like
the National Electric Code (NEC), in the US, while it is not itself a U.S. law, it is mandatory as it is
commonly mandated by state or local law. Most jurisdictions in the USA adopted the NEC as
law.
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STANDARDS GROUPS
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a global organization
which publishes standards for the electronics industry. Within the IEC there
are various different committees. The TC86 is a sub-committee that is
responsible for fiber optics similar to the TIA-568 standards in the US.
Applicable standards include:
• SC86A: Fibers and Cables

• SC86B: Fiber Optic Interconnecting Devices and Passive Components
• SC86C: Fiber Optic Systems and Active Devices
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is an organization based in
Geneva, Switzerland, is the most important telecom standards setting body in
the world. In actual fact, the ITU has no power to set standards. But if its
members agree on a standard, it effectively becomes a world standard. Like the
IEC, the ITU also is divided into other organizations, or sectors.
There are 3 separate sectors that make up the ITU. They are:
• Radio communication Sector (ITU-R)
• Telecommunication Standardization Section (ITU-T)
• Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D)
IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

The IEEE is the world’s largest technical professional society. It is
designed to serve professionals involved in all aspects of the
electrical, electronic, and computing fields and related areas of
science and technology.
The IEEE is responsible for the family of LAN standards. The services and protocols specified in
IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (data link and physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking
reference model.
The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging,
and Virtual Bridged LANs. Standards define fiber distances as they relate to maximum distance.
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US Standards: TIA – Telecommunications Industry Association (Formerly EIA)

The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) was a trade organization composed as
an alliance of trade associations for electronics manufacturers in the United
States. The EIA ceased operations on February 11, 2011, but the former
sectors continue to serve the constituencies of EIA. The EIA
telecommunications sector operated as the Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA).
TIA is accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) to help
develop standard on electronic components, consumer electronics, electronic information,
telecommunications, and Internet security.
The TIA was the driving force behind the TIA-568 Commercial Building Telecommunications
Cabling Standard. TIA's Standards and Technology Department is comprised of ten technology
areas which sponsor more than 70 standards formulating groups.
The most relevant standards to this class include:

• TIA-526: Standard Test Procedures for Fiber Optic Systems
• TIA-526-7: Measurement of Optical Power Loss of Installed Single-Mode Fiber Cable
Plant
• TIA-526-14-C: Optical Power Loss Measurement of Installed Multimode Fiber
• TIA-568.1-D: Cable Types, Layout and Distances
• TIA-568.3-D: Optical Fiber Cabling Components Standard
• TIA-569-D: Commercial Building Standard for Telecommunications Pathways and Spaces
• TIA-598-D: Optical Fiber Cable Color Coding
• TIA-604-5: Fiber Optic Connector Intermateability Standards (“FOCIS-5”)
TIA-568.3-D
The purpose of the TIA-568.3-D standard is to specify
cable and component transmission performance
requirements for premises optical fiber cabling. Although
this standard is primarily intended to be used by
manufacturers of optical cabling solutions, other groups
such as end-users, designers and installers may also find
it useful.
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The TIA-568.3-D defines loss and performance standards. Carefully review the performance
data. Based on wavelength and fiber core diameters the standards include attenuation for cable
and mated pairs.
US Standards: NEC – National Electric Code

The National Electrical Code (NEC) or NFPA 70, is a United States code
for the safe installation of electrical wiring and equipment. It is updated
every three years and is part of the National Fire Codes series published
by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
While the NEC is not itself a U.S. law, NEC use is commonly mandated
by state or local law, as well as in many jurisdictions outside of the
United States. The NEC codifies the requirements for safe electrical
installations into a single, standardized source. The NEC specifies the
minimum requirements to safeguard persons and property from the
hazards of electricity and fire. Standards are considered to be guidelines while codes are
enforceable by law.
A few of the NEC Communications Articles are listed below:
• Article 100 – Definitions
• Article 250 – Grounding
• Article 300 – Wiring Methods
• Article 770 – Optical Fiber Cables and Raceways
• Article 800 – Communications Circuits
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Review: Standards and Codes
1. The organization governing cabling standards in the United States is the __________.
2. The optical fiber cabling components standard (US) is TIA-568.3-D True/False? _____
3. The IEEE is responsible for the family of LAN standards. True/False? ______________
4. The NEC specifies the minimum requirements to safeguard people and property
from the hazards of electricity and __________.
Trays Panels and Enclosures

There are two (2) primary types of enclosures: indoor and outdoor. Indoor enclosures can be a
splice enclosure, a patch panel or distribution panel. Outdoor applications can be aerial, burial
or pedestal design enclosures. If using either indoor or outdoor applications you must plan for
accessibility as well as for dust and dirt prevention.
Splice Panels
Splice panels have been designed to accommodate splice trays,
fusion splicing and mechanical splices. The optical splice panel is
designed to provide a convenient in-rack splicing and
interconnection point for outside plant (OSP) cable entering a
central office (CO), controlled environmental vault (CEV), head
end (HE), or customer location. Units are available with sliding,
telescoping drawer assemblies.
Patch panels
Patch panels provide a central point for cross connects.
They are also useful for the following reasons:
• Testing fiber circuits
• Control accessibility (locking)
The patch panel is used where cross connection of fiber ports is desired. Standard panels are
available in empty, loaded and pre-terminated versions. Loaded panels include adapters and
adapter plates. Patch panels can be ordered in several configurations to include rack mount or
wall mount enclosures. Some have the splice environment and cross connect environment side
by side, while others have them overlaying each other.
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Distribution Panels
Distribution panels allow for splicing and mating of connectors
within one panel. You can do both patching and cross
connecting using adapter panels. Fusion or mechanical splicing
using the appropriate splice tray will fit the distribution trays
also.
Distribution panels used in outside plant applications are typically called FDH or fiber
distribution hub.
Review: Panels and Enclosures
1. What are the two (2) types of enclosures?

_____________________________________________________________________
2. Which enclosures provide a central point of cross-connects?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Fiber distribution panels used in outside plant applications are typically called
________.
4. What indoor enclosure provides for splicing and patching in one enclosure?
_____________________________________________________________________
OSP Enclosures
Any time you have a splice in an optical fiber,
whether it is a mechanical or a fusion splice,
you must protect it from exposure and
strain. Splice enclosures take many forms,
depending on their location and specific
application. Some have been adapted from
electrical splice enclosures used in the
telecommunications industry for aerial and
underground cable, while others are designed specifically for optical fibers and are used for
indoor installations.
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Aerial / Burial Splice Enclosures

Weather-tight fiber optic splice closure is designed for small to
medium count fiber splicing in aerial and burial applications
and provides additional fiber bundle storage. Splice enclosure
entry may be in-line as shown or butt (cables enter and exit on
the same side). They provide air tight weather tight protection
and are re-enterable.
FTTx Splice Enclosures

FTTx enclosures are conventional splice closures configured to provide the
interconnect method for the demarcation of optical fibers for: Fiber-to-the-
Node (FTTN), Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH), Fiber-to-the-Premise (FTTP), and
Fiber-to-the-Curb (FTTC) applications.
Pedestal Optical Enclosures

Pedestal Enclosures provide for organizing, splicing,
and interconnecting fibers in broadband, distribution, and building
entrance applications. Each enclosure features an aluminum base and a
cover with a gasket.
Review: Outside Plant Enclosures
1. Name 3 applications for OSP enclosures.

_____________________________________________________________________
2. Enclosures where the cables enter on one side and exit on the other are considered
“in-line”. True/False?
____________________________________________________________________
3. Enclosures where the cables enter and exit on the same side are considered?
_____________________________________________________________________
4. FTTx are conventional splice closures configured to provide the interconnect method
for the demarcation of optical fibers for the Fiber-to –the x (FTTx) applications.
True/False? __________________________________________________________
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Installation Practices
DOCUMENTATION!
Documenting the fiber optic cable plant is a necessary part of
the design and installation process for any fiber optic network. It
saves time and material in the installation and allow better
planning for upgrading.
During installation, it will speed the cable installation routing and
terminations. After installation, the documentation can be
completed with test data for acceptance by the end user. During troubleshooting, proper
documentation is mandatory for tracing links and finding faults. Always build in slack cable to
your system for future changes and restoration.
The fiber optic cable plant, therefore, must be documented as to the path of every fiber,
connection, and test. Data that should be kept include the following:
• The cable manufacturer, type and length

• The fiber type and size
• Splice and termination points (at distance markers)
• Splice and connection data including losses
• Connections: record the type of splices and connectors
• Pathways: record where the link path goes in every cable
Standards and Codes

As a contractor you must consider all of the building codes both the national
codes and the codes in your area when installing fiber optic cable.
TIA-568-D Commercial Cabling Standards
Main specification details how to install cables using accepted industry
practices. The main standard of concern for a fiber optic installer is the TIA-
568.3-D which defines fiber optic cables and components. Also consider the
TIA-569-B Commercial Building Standards for Telecommunications Pathways
and Spaces.
The TIA-568C states that horizontal cables can be no longer than 90 meters that applies to fiber
and copper as well. Patch cords can be no longer than 5 meters. Either 62.5/125 µm or 50/125
µm multimode cordage may be used.
Backbone cables used for premise cabling also have limits. Multimode fibers cannot exceed
2,000 meters and single-mode cables cannot exceed 3,000 meters. However multimode fibers
above 1gb/s should not exceed 550 meters.
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Cable Pulling Guidelines

Fiber optic cables are pulled by attaching to their strength members. A breakaway swiveled
pulling eye is attached for the pull. Do not pull from the jacket.
Tight buffer cable can be pulled from the jacket if a large
(8 inch, 40 cm) spool is used as a mandrel. In every case
do not exceed the maximum pulling tension rating of the
cables.
On long runs proper lubricants may be needed including
using an automated puller with tension control and a
breakaway pulling eye. On runs greater than 2.5 miles or
4 km, pull from the middle out to both ends and use
figure-8 loops to prevent the twisting of the cable.
Bending
Do not exceed the cables bend radius!
It will cause a decrease in the tensile strength of the fiber and will
affect fiber performance.
If the minimum bend radius is not available from the manufacturer
the general rule during installation is 20X the cable diameter during
the install. After completion of the pull the bend radius should be
10X the diameter once in place. Excessive fiber bends due to
improper installation techniques within enclosures will cause
problems. Too tight tie-raps or failure to use transfer tubes with
splice trays are common problems.
Installation Loading – Short & Long Term

All cables are provided with a carefully calculated tensile loading
value which should never be surpassed. For optical fiber cables, the
tensile strength is the value that represents the highest load that
can be placed upon a cable before any damage occurs to the fibers
or performance. Most manufacturers specify two load values,
installation and long term.
The installation maximum load will be a higher value than the long-term load. The installation
or short term load is the load the cable can withstand during the actual installation process. It
includes additional stresses caused by pulling cable through, over or around stationary objects
such as ducts, corners and conduits.
After the cable has been installed it will be subject to lower loads. This value is referred to as
the installed, long term, static or operating load.
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OSP TO PREMISE TRANSITIONS

The NEC Article 770 states that “unlisted” outside plant (OSP) fiber must be
transitioned to “flame listed” indoor fiber as soon as the OSP fiber has
entered the building. It should be converted to indoor flame rated fiber
within the first 50 feet or 15 meters. Grounding of OSP armored cable must
be done within 50 feet or 15 meters of exposure when entering into a
building.
Installation - Air Blown Fiber

Instead of pulling standard cable, air-blown fiber uses a patented
blowing method and a compact fiber bundle. The fiber bundle is blown
through a tube, the air source used is either compressed air or nitrogen,
at speeds of 100 to 150 feet per minute. At the heart of the system is a
highway of tube cable that is installed in place of traditional innerduct.
Air-blown fiber (ABF) is easy to install. Once the tube cable highway is in
place, the fiber installation takes only minutes, with minimal labor. The
blowing method and tube design allows you to change the network simply by blowing the fiber
out, rerouting the tubing at patching intersection points and blowing the fiber back into the
new network configuration. The fiber bundles have an aerodynamically designed jacket. The
specialized material that sheaths the fiber bundle provides an irregular surface, much like the
dimples on a golf ball that catches the air to propel the fiber through the tube. The equipment
and accessories need to install an ABF system include a blowing head, air source, tube cables,
and fiber bundles.
Review: Installation Practices
1. Using a breakaway ___________ provides a safe and effective way to eliminate over
pulling of optical cable.
2. As a contractor you must consider all of the building codes both national codes and
the codes in your area when installing fiber optic cable. True/False?
___________________________________________________________________
3. If the minimum bend radius is not available from the manufacturer the general rule
during installation are _____ times the cable diameter.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. If the minimum bend radius is not available from the manufacturer the general rule
after installation is ______ times the cable diameter.
137
Cable Management
A successful fiber network also
requires a well-built infrastructure
based on a strong fiber cable
management system.
Management of the fiber cables has a direct impact on network reliability, performance, and
cost. It also affects network maintenance and operations, as well as the ability to reconfigure
and expand the network, restore service, and implement new services quickly.
A strong fiber cable management system provides bend radius protection, cable routing paths,
cable accessibility and physical protection of the fiber network. If these concepts are executed
correctly, the network can deliver its full competitive advantages.
Cable Trays
A cable tray is an assembly of units made of metal or other
noncombustible materials that form a continuous, rigid support
for fiber cables.
Cable trays are used throughout the industry and they greatly
simplify the installation of fiber optic cables. Cable trays come in
several different types including ladder, mesh, spine, and snake.
Ladder Tray is a metal structure consisting of two side rails

connected by individual transverse members. The members
provide the support for fiber cables.
Trough type cable tray is also a metal structure. It consists of a

ventilated bottom and has closely spaced supports within
integral or separate longitudinal side rails.
Channel type cable tray consists of a one-piece ventilated or solid-bottom channel section.
Solid-bottom type cable tray is a metal structure that has no openings in the bottom. Integral or
separate longitudinal side rails provide the support for the fiber cables.
Cable trays are used as an alternative to conduit, cable trays can be installed to route your
cable. They provide a convenient, safe, efficient location in which to install optical-fiber cable
and an ideal way to manage a large number of horizontal and backbone runs. Cables simply lie
within the tray, so they are very accessible for to maintenance and troubleshooting.
138
Trays can be installed in ceilings, below floors and in riser shafts. Some trays are designed to be
aesthetically pleasing, so they can be placed below the ceiling and in the line of sight.
Center Spine Cable Tray is a unique center-hung cable tray

system, which provides organization and support for virtually
any cable or wiring installation. Available in both steel and
aluminum, spine tray redefines labor-saving with its versatile
"lay-in" feature.
Full side accessibility allows cable to be laid-in, as opposed to

the time consuming, and potentially damaging, effects of cable
pulling required with conventional trapeze supports. A full line
of quick fittings and accessories are available to complete any
installation.
Wire Mesh Trays provide point-to-point pathways for network

cabling in data centers, network equipment rooms and office
spaces. It installs quickly and can be field cut to form smooth
curved transitions around obstacles, under access floors or
above acoustic ceilings creating hidden pathways for cables.
Snake Tray® is a patented hand bendable design that allows installers to create turns in 10
seconds versus 20 minutes when
compared to wire mesh cable tray. The
hand bendable design combined with
built-in mounting hardware gives an
installation advantage over any other
cable tray systems.
139
Conduit, Duct and Troughs

Conduit, ducts and troughs are used in communication cabling
installations and use dedicated conduits for the cable runs.
Cables are pulled through a conduit with a fish tape, attaching to the
cable’s strength member to a pulling eye, and then pulling the cable
through the conduit.
Conduit may be run inside structures or underground, and in many

cases conduits may already be in place for other applications.
Underground conduits are also called ducts and consist of one or more
conduits spaced closely together. They are often buried directly in the
ground in concrete casing. Ducts often terminate in underground vaults
called manholes.
When you are installing cable in conduits, be sure that you have
allowed enough room in the conduit for the cable or cables you are
installing. If possible, account for future expansion by installing a cable with extra optical fibers.
When preparing for a conduit installation, you must be aware of the fill ratio for the conduit. If
you are installing cable in existing conduit already occupied by one or more cables containing
electrical conductors, you will need to determine the fill ratio of the conduit prior to selecting
your cable.
The NEC specifies the following maximum fill ratios by cross-sectional area for conduit:
 1 cable: 53 percent
 2 cables: 31 percent
 3 or more cables: 40 percent
Characteristics of a good conduit installation
1. Good mechanical properties to withstand the forces imposed by cable installations

2. Maintains the fiber optic minimum bending radius requirements
3. No sharp edges or bends touches the fiber optic cables throughout the route
4. Meets current and future expansion requirements
140
Innerduct
Innerduct is used for OSP (outside plant) fiber optic cable

installations. The challenge is different than indoor applications, in
that, you have to choose the correct inside diameter of the
innerduct.
Conduit or ducts are laid into the ground, and the innerduct is pulled through the conduit or
duct. Fiber optic cables are then deployed and pulled through the innerduct.
The most critical failure factor is the massive tension applied to these innerduct during the pull.
The eventual performance of the installed system is very critical since a failed innerduct or any
fiber within can be very expensive to repair.
Innerduct is semi-rigid plastic tubing commonly used in fiber optic

installations to subdivide the conduit or duct and to provide a path for
future cable pulls.
Three 1.25 inch I.D. (inner diameter) innerduct can usually be pulled into
a 4 inch duct.
Proper size and installation of the innerduct is critical for ease of cable installation. Innerduct is
available in ribbed, corrugated, and smooth-walled constructions of Polyethylene or PVC
materials
The fill ratio for 1 fiber optic cable in an innerduct should not exceed 65%. For multi-cable
installations, use the fill ratios in accordance with TIA-569-D, which is:
 ≤ 0.31 for two-cable installations

 < 0.40 for an installation with three or more cables.
Innerduct often stretches during installation. Allowance must be made for the relaxation of this
stretch by planning for extra slack to be pulled into manholes.
At points where innerduct will be continuous through a manhole, allow sufficient slack so that
the innerduct may be secured on the manhole racks and maintain the cable’s minimum bend
radius.
141
Cable Slack
Typically, 10 meters of slack is sufficient for most

installations. The amount of cable slack and where the
slack should be stored depends on the installation. This
allows for future changes and restorations.
When brining non-fire rated OSP cable into a building,

the slack should be placed outside the building. While
indoor/outdoor fire rated cable slack would be placed indoors. Cables within a building and
between cross-connects should have slack on each end of the cable.
All cable slack should be stored in the form of a loop. Leave some slack in the ceiling above the
wiring rack in case re-termination is required or the patch panel must be moved. This is called a
service loop.
Review: Installation Practices
1. A strong fiber cable management system provides bend radius protection, cable
routing paths, cable accessibility and physical protection of the fiber network.
True/False? _________________________________________________________
2. Cable trays come in several different types including ladder, mesh, spine, and
____________________________________________________________________.
3. Cable trays are used as an alternative to ___________________________________.
4. Underground conduits are also called ______ and consist of one or more conducts
spaced closely together.
5. When preparing for a conduit installation, you must be aware of the fill ratio for the
conduit. True/False? __________________________________________________
6. Three 1.25 inch I.D. innerducts can usually be pulled into a 4 inch conduit.
True/False? _________________________________________________________
7. When non-fire rated OSP cable is brought into a building, where should the slack be
placed? ____________________________________________________________
8. The amount of cable slack and where the slack should be stored depends on the
installation, typically, ____meters of slack is sufficient for most installations.
142
Restoration Planning
The key to an effective, efficient restoration is planning and preparation. There
are three steps in an unexpected outage that need to be initiated.
1) Identify: What is the cause of my network failure?
2) Locate: Where is my network failure located?
3) Restore: Put the system back into operation.
Once the cause of the network failure has been determined, measures must be taken to restore
the cable network. Standard procedures for restoration should be established by the service
provider prior to the outage. It is important to have the agreement with the owner of the utility
pole line about priorities of restoration in the case of downed poles.
Additionally, the availability (or lack of) “slack” cable will usually dictate your course of action in
the field. Restoration can range from simply transferring from one fiber to spare fiber to a
complete replacement of a segment of cable.
If temporary mechanical splices are installed, to expedite restoration, then after the service has
been restored, permanent repairs with fusion splices should be made.
Speed and order of restoration are essential in keeping customers satisfied. The use of an OTDR
would help find the location of a break or cut in a fiber span. However, outages are often caused
by auto accidents or natural events. An emergency restoration
kit (ERK) is an important tool for fast and effective restorations.
Restoration - Emergency Restoration Kit

The ERK should be designed based on your requirements,
products used and techniques required for the restoration.
Review: Restoration Planning
1. The ________ _______ should be designed based on your requirements, products

used, and techniques required for the restoration.
2. The key to an effective restoration is?
___________________________________________________________________
143
You have completed the Certified Fiber Optic Installer Training Modules 1 & 2. Please proceed to
the required final exam module TE-CFI. FiberOptic.com is an Authorized TFS Certification
Training Provider. As such this training has provided you the first steps in obtaining the valuable
TFS Installer Certification Credential.
• Next Steps!
• Complete your:
• Practical Exam Workbook
• Final Exam TE-CFI
• TR-CFI-TAM-RCT Guided Labs
Certified Fiber
Optic Installer
Training • www.thefiberschool.com
• 1-877-529-9114
Further information can be found at our www.thefiberschool.com website.
144
GLOSSARY
Active components Buffer
Active components rely on a source of energy In a fiber optic cable, a buffer is one type of
(usually from the DC circuit, which we have chosen component used to encapsulate one or more
to ignore) and usually can inject power into a optical fibers for the purpose of providing such
circuit, though this is not part of the definition. functions as mechanical isolation, protection from
Active components include amplifying physical damage and fiber identification.
components such as transistors, triode vacuum C-band
tubes (valves), and tunnel diodes. The C-band is a designation by the Institute of
Amplifiers Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for a
An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the
amp is an electronic device that can increase the microwave range of frequencies ranging from 4.0
power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or to 8.0 gigahertz (GHz). In erbium doped fiber
current). It is a two-port electronic circuit that amplifiers, the region of amplification
uses electric power from a power supply to approximately between wavelengths of 1530nm
increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its and 1580nm.
input terminals, producing a proportionally Chromatic Dispersion
greater amplitude signal at its output. Chromatic dispersion (CD) is a characteristic of all
Amplitude Modulation fiber optics. It is caused by the fact that different
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation wavelengths of light travel at different velocities
technique used in electronic communication, most within the glass.
commonly for transmitting information via a radio Cladding
carrier wave. Cladding in optical fibers is one or more layers of
Attenuation materials of lower refractive index, in direct
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as contact with a core material of higher refractive
transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of index.
the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance Dark fibers
travelled through a transmission medium. A dark fiber or unlit fiber is an unused optical fiber,
Bandwidth available for use in fiber-optic communication.
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper Dense wavelength division multiplexing
and lower frequencies in a continuous band of (DWDM)
frequencies. Bandwidth is a key concept in many Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)
telecommunications applications. In radio refers originally to optical signals multiplexed
communications, for example, bandwidth is the within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the
frequency range occupied by a modulated carrier capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber
signal. amplifiers (EDFAs), which are effective for
Bit error rates wavelengths between approximately 1525–1565
In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is nm (C band), or 1570–1610 nm (L band). EDFAs
the number of received bits of a data stream over were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH
a communication channel that have been altered optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators,
due to noise, interference, distortion or bit which they have made practically obsolete.
synchronization errors. Dielectric
Bit rate A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical
In telecommunications and computing, bit rate insulator that can be polarized by an applied
(bitrate or as a variable R) is the number of bits electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an
that are conveyed or processed per unit of time. electric field, electric charges do not flow through
The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second the material as they do in an electrical conductor
unit (symbol: "bit/s"). but only slightly shift from their average
equilibrium positions causing dielectric
polarization. Because of dielectric polarization,
145
positive charges are displaced in the direction of nm, 1550 nm and 1625 nm. A Fabry Perot laser
the field and negative charges shift in the opposite emits light at various discrete wavelengths which
direction. delivers spectral width between 5 nm to 8 nm.
Dispersion Ferrule
In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which The ferrule is the precision component of a fiber
the phase velocity of a wave depends on its optic connector and is what provides the precise
frequency alignment of the fiber core axis in the connector.
Distributed feedback Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
A distributed feedback laser (DFB) is a type of laser Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a
diode, quantum cascade laser or optical fiber laser standard for data transmission in a local area
where the active region of the device is network. It uses optical fiber as its standard
periodically structured as a diffraction grating. The underlying physical medium.
structure builds a one-dimensional interference Fiber link
grating (Bragg scattering) and the grating provides A fiber-optic link (or fiber channel) is a part of an
optical feedback for the laser. The reflection of the optical fiber communications system which
coating can be varied to make laser oscillate near provides a data connection between two points
the Bragg Wavelength. (point-to-point connection).
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) Fiber optic patch cords
Doped fiber amplifiers (DFAs) are optical A fiber optic patch cord is a fiber optic cable
amplifiers that use a doped optical fiber as a gain capped at either end with connectors that allow it
medium to amplify an optical signal. They are to be rapidly and conveniently connected to CATV,
related to fiber lasers. The signal to be amplified an optical switch or other telecommunication
and a pump laser are multiplexed into the doped equipment.
fiber, and the signal is amplified through Four-wave mixing
interaction with the doping ions. The most Four-wave mixing (FWM) is an intermodulation
common example is the erbium doped fiber phenomenon in non-linear optics, whereby
amplifier (EDFA), where the core of a silica fiber is interactions between two or three wavelengths
doped with trivalent erbium ions and can be produce two or one new wavelengths.
efficiently pumped with a laser at a wavelength of
980 nm or 1,480 nm, and exhibits gain in the 1,550
Frequency Modulation
nm region. In telecommunications and signal processing,
frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of
Ethernet information in a carrier wave by varying the
Ethernet is a family of computer networking instantaneous frequency of the wave.
technologies commonly used in local area
networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks
FTTx
(MAN) and wide area networks (WAN). It was Fiber to the x (FTTX) or fibre in the loop is a
commercially introduced in 1980 and first generic term for any broadband network
standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3, and has since architecture using optical fibre to provide all or
been refined to support higher bit rates and longer part of the local loop used for last mile
link distances. Over time, Ethernet has largely telecommunications.
replaced competing wired LAN technologies such Gallium Arsenide
as Token Ring, FDDI and ARCNET. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a semiconductor
Event dead zone material and a compound of Gallium and Arsenic.
Blind area known as an event dead zone which Gallium arsenide is used in the manufacture of
occurs at the launch of the pulse. light-emitting diode s (LEDs), which are found in
optical communications and control systems.
Fabry Perot (FP)
The Fabry Perot (FP) laser is the most common
Hartley's law
type of laser diode. It is used in OTDR design, is Hartley's Law (1928) In 1928 information theorist
cost-effective and has the ability to deliver high Ralph V. R. Hartley of Bell Labs published
output power level. It is used in single-mode OTDR “Transmission of Information,” in which he proved
applications at various wavelengths such as 1310 "that the total amount of information that can be
146
transmitted is proportional to frequency range applications (analog and ISDN telephony, various
transmitted and the time of the transmission." data communication standards, building control
IEEE systems, factory automation). It covers both
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics balanced copper cabling and optical fiber cabling.
Engineers (IEEE) is a professional formed in 1963 lashed
from the amalgamation of the American Institute Lashing is the process of taking any outdoor cable,
of Electrical Engineers and the Institute of Radio usually a tray or instrumentation cable, and
Engineers. As of 2018, it is the world's largest attaching it to a messenger wire so that it may be
association of technical professionals. Its used in aerial applications.
objectives are the educational and technical L-band
advancement of electrical and electronic The L band is the Institute of Electrical and
engineering, telecommunications, computer Electronics Engineers (IEEE) designation for the
engineering and allied disciplines. range of frequencies in the radio spectrum from 1
Index matching gel to 2 gigahertz (GHz). In erbium doped fiber
Index matching gel is a substance which has an amplifiers, the region of amplification
index of refraction that closely approximates that approximately between wavelengths of 1570nm
of another object. In fiber optics and and 1610.
telecommunications, an index-matching material Light amplification by Stimulated Emission
may be used in conjunction with pairs of mated of Radiation (LASER)
connectors or with mechanical splices to reduce Short for light amplification by stimulated
signal reflected in the guided mode (known as emission of radiation. A device that creates and
return loss). amplifies electromagnetic radiation of a specific
Index of refraction frequency through the process of stimulated
In optics, the refractive index or index of refraction emission. The radiation emitted by a laser consists
of a material is a dimensionless number that of a coherent beam of photons, all in phase and
describes how light propagates through that having the same polarization. Lasers have many
medium. It is defined as n=c/v, where c is the uses, such as cutting hard or delicate substances,
speed of light in vacuum and v is the phase reading data from compact disks and other
velocity of light in the medium. For example, the storage devices, and establishing straight lines in
refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning that geographical surveying.
light travels 1.333 times faster in vacuum than in Light source
the water. The refractive index determines how In fiber optics, a source of light (laser, LED, etc.) is
much the path of light is bent, or refracted, when used to emit electromagnetic radiation in order to
entering a material. perform a specific task, whether detecting faults,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics breaks and microbends, characterizing link-loss or
Engineers, see IEEE certifying LAN/WANs. As recommended by the
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) ITU-T (G.983.3), light sources are also used to test
An intelligent transportation system (ITS) is an PON networks at three different wavelengths
advanced application which, without embodying (1310/1490/1550 nm).
intelligence as such, aims to provide innovative Light-emitting diode (LED)
services relating to different modes of transport A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead
and traffic management and enable users to be semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction
better informed and make safer, more diode that emits light when activated. When a
coordinated, and 'smarter' use of transport suitable current is applied to the leads, electrons
networks. are able to recombine with electron holes within
ISO/IEC 11801 the device, releasing energy in the form of
International standard ISO/IEC 11801 Information photons.
technology — Generic cabling for customer Lightwave system
premises specifies general-purpose Communication system used to send pulses of
telecommunication cabling systems (structured light from one destination to another (e.g. fiber
cabling) that are suitable for a wide range of optic network).
147
Mechanical splice optical fiber. An OTDR is the optical equivalent of

Mechanical splices are simply alignment devices an electronic time domain reflectometer. It injects
and don't permanently join two fibers together, a series of optical pulses into the fiber under test
designed to hold the two fiber ends in a precisely and extracts, from the same end of the fiber, light
aligned position thus enabling light to pass from that is scattered (Rayleigh backscatter) or
one fiber into the other. reflected back from points along the fiber. The
Modal dispersion scattered or reflected light that is gathered back is
Modal dispersion is a distortion mechanism used to characterize the optical fiber.
occurring in multimode fibers and other Outside plant (OSP)
waveguides, in which the signal is spread in time In civilian (non-military) telecommunications,
because the propagation velocity of the optical outside plant (OSP) refers to all of the physical
signal is not the same for all modes. cabling and supporting infrastructure (such as
Modulation conduit, cabinets, tower or poles), and any
In electronics and telecommunications, associated hardware (such as repeaters) located
modulation is the process of varying one or more between a demarcation point in a switching
properties of a periodic waveform, called the facility and a demarcation point in another
carrier signal, with a modulating signal that switching center or customer premises.
typically contains information to be transmitted. Passive components
Multimode (MM) Passive components can't introduce net energy
Multimode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber into the circuit. They also can't rely on a source of
mostly used for communication over short power, except for what is available from the (AC)
distances, such as within a building or on a circuit they are connected to.
campus. Multimode fiber has a fairly large core Phase
diameter that enables multiple light modes to be Phase is the position of a point in time (an instant)
propagated and limits the maximum length of a on a waveform cycle. A complete cycle is defined
transmission link because of modal dispersion. as the interval required for the waveform to
Multiplexing return to its arbitrary initial value.
In telecommunications and computer networks, Phase Modulation
multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation pattern
a method by which multiple analog or digital for conditioning communication signals for
signals are combined into one signal over a shared transmission. It encodes a message signal as
medium. variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier
National Electric Code (NEC) wave.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) or NFPA 70, is a Photodiode
United States code for the safe installation of A photodiode is a semiconductor device that
electrical wiring and equipment. converts light into an electrical current. The
Optical coupler current is generated when photons are absorbed
A fiber optic coupler is a device used in optical in the photodiode.
fiber systems with one or more input fibers and Photons
one or several output fibers. Light entering an A photon is a tiny little particle of light, far too
input fiber can appear at one or more outputs and small to see individually. All light is made of
its power distribution potentially depending on photons.
the wavelength and polarization. Physical layer
Optical return loss The physical layer consists of the electronic circuit
Optical return loss is the loss of power in the signal transmission technologies of a network.[2] It is a
returned/reflected by a discontinuity in a fundamental layer underlying the higher level
transmission line or optical fiber. functions in a network. Due to the plethora of
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer available hardware technologies with widely
An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is an varying characteristics, this is perhaps the most
optoelectronic instrument used to characterize an complex layer in the OSI architecture.
148
Pigtails centers, thus allowing most telephones to

A fiber pigtail is a single, short, usually tight- communicate with each other. Originally a
buffered, optical fiber that has an optical network of fixed-line analog telephone systems,
connector pre-installed on one end and a length of the PSTN is now almost entirely digital in its core
exposed fiber at the other end. network and includes mobile[1] and other
Plenum networks, as well as fixed telephones.
Plenum cable (CMP) is electrical cable that is laid Pulse Code Modulation
in the plenum spaces of buildings. All materials Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is the process in
intended for use on wire and cables to be placed which analog signals (e.g. audio) are converted
in plenum spaces are designed to meet rigorous into digital, binary (0 or 1), coded pulses.
fire safety test standards. A plenum cable can Raman amplification
always replace riser cable, but riser cable cannot Raman amplification is based on the stimulated
replace plenum cable in plenum spaces. Raman scattering (SRS) phenomenon, when a
Point-to-Point lower frequency 'signal' photon induces the
In telecommunications, a point-to-point inelastic scattering of a higher-frequency 'pump'
connection refers to a communications connection photon in an optical medium in the nonlinear
between two Communication endpoints or nodes. regime. As a result of this, another 'signal' photon
An example is a telephone call, in which one is produced, with the surplus energy resonantly
telephone is connected with one other, and what passed to the vibrational states of the medium.
is said by one caller can only be heard by the This process, as with other stimulated emission
other. processes, allows all-optical amplification.
Power meter Reflective event
A device that measures the power of an optical A reflective event occurs when two fibers do not
signal in a fiber-optic system. When combined make direct contact with one another. There is an
with an optical light source (OLS), it becomes an air-gap present between the two fibers causing
optical loss test set (OLTS) and can measure end- the light to reflect.
to-end attenuation. It can also be used with a Repeaters
visual fault locator (VFL). By combining various A repeater is an electronic device that receives a
models, specific test setups can be created. signal and retransmits it. Repeaters are used to
Protocol extend transmissions so that the signal can cover
In telecommunication, a communication protocol longer distances or be received on the other side
is a system of rules that allow two or more entities of an obstruction.
of a communications system to transmit Ring architecture
information via any kind of variation of a physical A ring network or architechture is a network
quantity. The protocol defines the rules syntax, topology in which each node connects to exactly
semantics and synchronization of communication two other nodes, forming a single continuous
and possible error recovery methods. Protocols pathway for signals through each node - a ring.
may be implemented by hardware, software, or a Data travels from node to node, with each node
combination of both. along the way handling every packet.
Public Switched Telephone Network Risers
(PSTN) "Vertical riser" is a term for anything that rises
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is vertically through a building, although it normally
the aggregate of the world's circuit-switched specifically refers to vertical riser ducts, pipes or
telephone networks that are operated by national, conduits.
regional, or local telephony operators, providing Semiconductor diode
infrastructure and services for public A semiconductor diode, the most common type
telecommunication. The PSTN consists of today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave material with a p–n junction connected to two
transmission links, cellular networks, electrical terminals.[5] Semiconductor diodes
communications satellites, and undersea were the first semiconductor electronic devices.
telephone cables, all interconnected by switching
149
Slack cable Technologies (ICT) products, and currently

Slack, or extra, cable intentionally installed in represents nearly 400 companies.
order to make future cabling-system changes Token Ring
easier and less time-consuming. Token Ring local area network (LAN) technology is
SONET a communications protocol for local area
SONET is the American National networks. It uses a special three-byte frame called
a "token" that travels around a logical "ring" of
Standards Institute standard for workstations or servers. This token passing is a
synchronous data transmission on optical channel access method providing fair access for all
media. The international equivalent of stations, and eliminating the collisions of
SONET is synchronous digital hierarchy contention-based access methods.
(SDH). Total internal reflection
Sphalerite Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which
Sphalerite ((Zn, Fe)S) is a mineral that is the chief occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium
ore of zinc. It consists largely of zinc sulfide in boundary at an angle larger than a particular
crystalline form but almost always contains critical angle with respect to the normal to the
variable iron. When iron content is high it is an surface. If the refractive index is lower on the
opaque black variety, marmatite. It is usually other side of the boundary and the incident angle
found in association with galena, pyrite, and other is greater than the critical angle, the wave cannot
sulfides along with calcite, dolomite, and fluorite. pass through and is entirely reflected.
Miners have also been known to refer to Transistors
sphalerite as zinc blende, black-jack and ruby jack. A transistor is a semiconductor device used to
Spurious amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical
Produced at an undesired frequency by a power. It is composed of semiconductor material
transmitter, causing interference, etc usually with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit.
Steiner Tunnel Test
The Steiner tunnel test is a widely used method of
VCSEL
testing building interior wall and ceiling finishes The vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) is
for their ability to support and propagate fire, and a type of semiconductor laser diode with laser
for their tendency to emit smoke. beam emission perpendicular from the top
surface, contrary to conventional edge-emitting
Telcordia semiconductor lasers which emit from surfaces
Telcordia Technologies, Inc., doing business as formed by cleaving the individual chip out of a
iconectiv, is an American subsidiary of the Swedish wafer.
telecommunications company Ericsson. The
company provides interconnection technology and
Wavelength
clearinghouse solutions for numbering plan, A wavelength is the spatial period of a periodic
routing, call billing, and technical standards wave—the distance over which the wave's shape
coordination between competing repeats. Wavelength is usually determined by
telecommunications carriers. considering the distance between consecutive
corresponding points of the same phase, such as
Telecommunications Industry Association crests, troughs, or zero crossings and is a
(TIA) characteristic of both traveling waves and standing
The Telecommunications Industry Association waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns.
(TIA) is accredited by the American National Wavelength depends on the medium (e.g.
Standards Institute (ANSI) to develop voluntary, vacuum, air, or water) that a wave travels through.
consensus-based industry standards for a wide
variety of Information and Communication
150
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151
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Remote Certification Training

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TM-CFI V.01.01.19 RCT Version www.thefiberschool.com

Demonstrate Gain valuable

CERTIFIED FIBER OPTIC INSTALLER (TR-CFI)

THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS ______________________________________ 4

Module #2 Section 3 ............................................................................................................ 101

THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS

Technical Exam: TE-CFI

This exam is 50 questions encompassing a combination of multiple-

This exam is to be completed on-line as part of this Certified Fiber

Practical Exam Exercises Workbook

TR-CFI-TAM-RCT Guided Labs

MODULE #1 FIBER OPTIC BASIC THEORY

Section #1 encompasses a brief history of

History of Fiber Optics

Using light signals as a means of communication is not new, consider

In 1880: Alexander Graham Bell invented the

1970: Corning developed fiber that had an attenuation of .5dB/km at

1995: Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) development begins.

• Transmitter (optical converter)

The receiver (photo detector) converts the optical domain back to an

Too much power can be addressed by using an optical attenuator, a passive

There are 3 common modulation techniques:

As a comparison, amplitude modulation (AM) is

For example, changes in signal strength may be used

For example, the maximum Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) backbone

How much will it cost?

Fiber Optic Applications

Introduction - Applications Overview

Review: Fiber Optic Applications

Advantages of Fiber Optics

Size and Weight

Negligible Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

Low Loss and Distance

Lack of Cross-talk between Parallel Fibers

Extremely Wide Bandwidth

Greater Security - Difficult to Tap Into

High Quality Transmission

Disadvantages of Fiber Optics

The use of optical fibers is perceived to have several disadvantages

Fiber Optics is an Evolving Technology

Review: Fiber Verses Copper

1. List 4 advantages that fiber has over copper?

Fiber Fundamentals (Measurements)

Let’s start with discussing some fiber fundamentals.

Common Units of Measure

The metric terms an installer must be familiar with are:

• Nanometer (nm) = a billionth of a meter - Used to measure wavelengths (λ).

Here is a list of standard to metric conversions as used in fiber optics:

• 39.37 inches (in.)

• One thousandth (1/1,000) of a meter

• One millionth (1/1,000,000) of a meter

• One thousandth (1/1,000) of a millimeter

• One billionth (1/ 1,000,000,000) of a meter

Bit vs. Baud

It wasn’t long ago that Bytes and

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of