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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

Republic Polytechnic
A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment

Worksheet 6: Dirt in Kettle

1. Recall the previous problems, i.e. coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and

filtration, what substances have been “taken out” from the raw water during the
treatment? What could be the “leftover” after these unit processes?
Substances such as suspended solids, dirt particles, sand, bacteria, viruses, large
particles like pebbles and certain dissolved substances could have been taken out
from the raw water during treatment.

Dissolved minerals could be the “leftover” after these unit processes.

2. In natural water, especially underground water, dissolved solids are found to

result in high soap consumption. On the other hand, high concentration of
dissolved solids in water can cause objectionable scale formation in heating
vessels and pipes as well.
[Hint: watch these two videos http://youtu.be/ebygQes5Wig &
https://youtu.be/bBYsfEHKYCk to understand more about hard water]

a. Complete the table below using “Low”, “Moderate” or “High” to indicate the
level of dissolved solids concentration for the different types of water.

Types of Water Dissolved Solids

Tap Low
Mineral Moderate
Surface (e.g. river) Moderate
Underground High

b. What are these dissolved solids? Where do they come from?

Dissolved solids refer to any mineral, salts, metal, cations or anions
dissolved in water. These dissolved solids come from many sources like
surface runoff, industrial discharge, natural rocks

c. How are dissolved solids measured?

Gravimetric analysis - Evaporating the liquid solvent and measuring the mass
of leftover residue
Conductivity - The conductivity of water is directly related to the concentration
of dissolved ions in the water, an approximate TDS concentration can be
determined using a conductivity meter that uses an electric current to
measure in ppm.

d. How do high concentrations of dissolved solids result in the problem stated

above?

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

Water with high concentrations of dissolved solids tends to result in scaling as

there is a high level of minerals like calcium carbonate and magnesium salts
that get deposited onto the surfaces over time.
Reduce efficiency as pipes can clog up
Take more energy to start the normal water
Hardness

3. Several definitions have been used for the phenomenon mentioned in Q2 in

water treatment, which includes carbonate hardness (CH), non-carbonate
hardness (NCH) and total hardness (TH).

a. Using link1 and link2, what is TH? How is it calculated?

Total hardness is defined as the sum of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium

ions(Mg2+)
Other ions do not play a part

TH ≈ [Ca] + [Mg]

b. What is CH? Why is it also known as temporary hardness? [Hint: write down
the relevant equations]
CH stands for carbonate hardness and it is known as temporary hardness
Carbonate hardness is named temporary hardness because Ca and Mg
carbonates precipitates as minerals upon heating

Carbonate hardness is directly related to alkalinity-(sum of bicarbonate and

carbonate)
CH in meq/L =[Alk in meq/L]
CH = TH - NCH
MUST be in calcium and magnesium

c. What is NCH? Why is it also known as permanent hardness?

NCH is known as non carbonate hardness and it is known as permanent
hardness because Ca and Mg associates with sulphates,chlorides or nitrates
do not precipitate upon heating
NCH = TH – CH

d. Using the link and knowing the values of CH and NCH, how would the value
of TH be calculated?
Total hardness:Carbonate Hardness(CH) + Noncarbonate hardness(NCH)

Alkalinity

4. The figure below shows the equilibrium for the inorganic carbon species
depending on pH values.
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3- ↔ 2H+ + CO32-

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

a. Based on the chemical equation provided, what is formed when carbon

dioxide dissolved in water at pH < 4.5?
Based on the chemical equation formula, bicarbonate ions.
H2CO3 or carbonic acid is formed when pH < 4.5

b. What happens when this formation dissociates further to the right side of the
equation/graph shown above? [Hint: What will be the carbon species found in
the water when 4.5 < pH < 8.3, and pH > 8.3?]

4.5 < pH < 8.3:

CO2, H2CO3-

pH > 8.3:

H2CO3-, CO32-

c. What are the common forms of carbon species found in natural water?

Natural water pH → 6.5 to 8.5 so common forms of carbon species is dissolved CO 2

and H2CO3-

d. The carbonate system is resistant to changes in pH as acids or bases are

added to the solution. What is this phenomenon usually referred to? Explain
how this phenomenon happens. [Hint: Read this link and correlate to the
figure shown in Q4]

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

Alkalinity (Buffering capacity). It is caused by the dissolution of calcium

carbonate from limestone sources. The dissolved CO 2 undergoes many
equilibrium reactions. Carbonate (CO3 2-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions help to
absorb the hydrogen ions to maintain pH change.
Buffering capacity -Ability to resist pH change
When pH is neutral bicarbonate ions=carbonate ions

e. What is the water quality parameter that measures the phenomenon

described in above question? What is the formula to determine the value of
this parameter?
Alkalinity
= Carbonate + Bicarbonate

5. At water treatment plants, chemical treatments are usually used to remove the
hardness of water. Before examining the chemical treatment processes, the
concentration of the ions is usually expressed as milliequivalents per liter (meq/L)
or mg/L as CaCO3.

Consider a water sample with the following concentration of ions with pH of 7.2.

Table 1

Ions Conc.
(mg/L)
Calcium (2+) Ca2+ 40
Magnesium (2+) Mg2+ 10.2
Sodium (+) Na+ 11.5
Potassium (+) K+ 4.2
Bicarbonate (-) HCO3- 106.1
Sulphate (2-) SO42- 67.2
Chloride (-) Cl- 10.8
Carbonate:CO3 2-
Number of equivalence for CaCO3:2
Complete Table 2 below by answering the following questions. [Hint: complete
the calculation by “cut and paste” this table to an Excel spreadsheet]

Table 2
Ions (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Conc. Molecular No. of Equivalent Conc. Conc.
Weight Equivalents Weight
(mg/L) (mg/mmol) (meq/mmol) (mg/meq) (meq/L) (mg/L
as
Concen CaCO3)
tration(
mg/L) * No of
valence meq *
charge/ 50

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

molecul
ar
weight
Calcium (2+) Ca2+ 40 40.1 2 20.05 =(40* 99.8
2)/40.1
=1.995
Magnesium (2+) Mg2+ 10.2 24.3 2 24.3/2 = 10.2/12. 0.83951
12.15 15 = x 50 =
0.83951 41.9755
Sodium (+) Na+ 11.5 23 1 23/1 = 23 11.5/23 0.5 x 50
= 0.5 = 25
Potassium (+) K+ 4.2 39.1 1 39.1/1 = 4.2/39.1 0.10742
39.1 = x 50 =
0.10742 5.371
Bicarbonate (-) HCO3- 106.1 61 1 61/1 = 61 106.1/6 1.73934
1=1.739 x 50 =
34 86.967
Sulphate (2-) SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 96.1 / 2 = 67.2/48. 1.39854
48.05 05 = x 50
1.39854 69.927
Chloride (-) Cl- 10.8 35.5 1 35.5/1 = 10.8/35. 0.30423
35.5 5= x 50 =
0.30423 15.2115
*magnesium cannot react with bicarbonate
a. What is molecular weight?
Molecular weight is the sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule

b. What is number of equivalents?

It is the number that defines how many electrons or ions may be transferred in
a chemical reaction

c. What is equivalent weight? Determine the number of equivalents and the

equivalent weight for the different ions.
Equivalent weight is the quantity of the substance that exactly reacts with or
is equal to the combining value

d. Convert the concentrations of the different ions from mg/L to meq/L.

Conversion between mg/L to meq/L:mg/L/equivalent weight

For magnesium:10.2/12.15 = 0.83951

For sodium:11.5/23 = 0.5
For potassium:4.2/39.1 = 0.10742
For Bicarbonate:106.1/61=1.73934
For sulphate:67.2/48.05 = 1.39854
For chloride:10.8/35.5= 0.30423

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

e. Convert the concentrations of ions from meq/L to mg/L as CaCO 3(2 charge)
[Note: Equivalent weight for CaCO3 = MW ÷ 2 = 100 ÷ 2 = 50 mg/meq]

For magnesium:0.83951 x 50 = 41.9755

For sodium:0.5 x 50 = 25
For potassium:0.10742 x 50 = 5.371
For Bicarbonate:1.73934 x 50 = 86.967
For sulphate:1.39854 x 50 69.927
For chloride:0.30423 x 50 = 15.2115

f. Hence, complete the following formula.

Conc. of ions (meq/L) = Conc. of ions (mg/L) / Equivalent Weight of ions

(mg/meq)

Conc. of ions (mg/L as CaCO 3) = [Conc. of ions (mg/L))/Equivalent Weight of

ions (mg/meq)] x 50
6. Based on your answers in Table 2, the hardness of water can now be calculated.

a. Calculate the total hardness in mg/L as CaCO 3. [Hint: see Q3a]

Total hardness: [Ca] + [Mg]
=99.8+41.9755
=141.7755mg/L

b. Calculate the carbonate hardness in mg/L as CaCO 3. [Hint: see Q3b. How
much of Ca2+ and Mg2+ would react with the HCO3- when heated?]

Take bicarbonate and carbonate

But in this case there is no carbonate so just take bicarbonate
according to the table ,bicarbonate is 86.967
Hence the carbonate hardness is 86.967mg/L

c. Calculate the non-carbonate hardness in mg/L as CaCO 3. [Hint: see Q3d]

Non- carbonate hardness

= TH - CH
= 141.7755 - 86.967
=54.085mg/L

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 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE
A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

d. Calculate the alkalinity (ALK) in mg/L as CaCO 3. [Note: assuming [OH-] = [H+]
since pH = 7.2 (nearly neutral)]
Alkalinity = carbonate + bicarbonate = 0 + 87.97 mg/L = 87.97 mg/L as
CaCO3

e. Comparing your answers in parts (b) and (d), what do you notice?

Carbonate hardness have the same value as Alkalinity, this means that CH =
Alkalinity.
*When TH is greater than alkalinity

7. The results of a water analysis in Table 2 can be shown in the bar graph below.

The length of each segment in the bar graph represents the ion concentration in
meq/L (or can be in mg/L as CaCO 3). The top row of the bar graph consists of
major cations arranged in the order of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium. Anions in the bottom row are arranged in the sequence of carbonate
(if present), bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride. The sum of the positive
milliequivalents per liter must equal to the sum of the negative values for water in
equilibrium.
*Read from the left to the right
*Carbonate is missing from the bar graph
a. Which segments in the bar graphs represent (i) total hardness (TH) and (ii)
alkalinity (ALK)?
i) Top row
TH = Ca + Mg = 2.83
ii) Bottom row

CH → HCO3 = 1.74
Alkalinity = CH = 1.74

NCH = TH - CH = 2.83 - 1.74 = 1.09

b. Hence, compare the values of alkalinity with carbonate hardness (CH). What
can you deduce? [Hint: use the table below to help your analysis]

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

TH CH NCH ALK
(mg/L as (mg/L as (mg/L as (mg/L as
CaCO3) CaCO3) CaCO3) CaCO3)
Calculation results
from Table 2 2.83 x 50 = 1.74 x 50 = 1.09 x 50 = 1.74 x 50 =
141.5 87 54.5 87
If ALK __is smaller - CH = ALK NCH = TH-CH -
than?__ TH

8. Consider the analysis of another water sample (pH = 7) as shown below.

a. Determine the relevant hardness and alkalinity in mg/L as CaCO 3. [Hint: use
the equations in Q5f]

Total hardness=Ca2+ and Mg 2+

based on the graph it is 2.71
Converting to mg/L as CaCO3: 2.71* 50
=135.5
Alkalinity-bicarbonate and carbonate ions)
In this case use bicarbonate ions only because there is no carbonate ions
Alkalinity=2.8
Converting to mg/L as CaCO3: 2.8 *50
=140

b. Similarly, what can you deduce from part (a)? [Hint: use the table below to
help your analysis]

TH CH NCH ALK
(mg/L as (mg/L as (mg/L as (mg/L as
CaCO3) CaCO3) CaCO3) CaCO3)
Calculation results 135.5 135.5 0 140
from part (a)
If ALK __<___TH - CH = ALK NCH = TH-CH -

If alkalinity is less than total hardness, carbonate hardness = alkalinity and non
carbonate hardness = total hardness - carbonate hardness

9. Summarize your findings for today. How do you explain the phenomenon
observed by Gary as given in problem statement?

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A348 Water and Wastewater Treatment Activity Owner: Benny Koh and Matthew Wong (Dr)
Module Chair: Chow Wai Ling Approved By: Lee Yeow Peng

The phenomenon observed by Gary was limescale build up. It is a hard chalky
deposit consisting mainly of calcium carbonate and builds up (due to magnesium
and calcium minerals in hard water) inside kettles especially for hot water. It can
reduce the performance of the kettle and also cause increased power
consumption and running costs.

# End of Worksheet #

Cracking is very crucial as it ensures proper combustion because combustion is only complete
when combustible gases are thoroughly mixed with oxygen.

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