INTRODUCTION TO THE SACRED SCRIPTURES

General Introduction
I. The Priest and the Bible (Vatican II)
I.1 Primary task of Priests:
 To preach the Word of God (Presbyterium Ordinis, Decree on the Ministry and Life of
Priests # 4)
 Sacred Scripture: greatest importance in the liturgy (SC #24)
 More representative part of the Holy Scriptures will be read (SC #51)
 Sundays: Cycle A – Matthew
Cycle B – Mark (some John)
Cycle C – Luke
Advent, Lent, Easter – John
 Weekdays: Year I – odd number years
Year II – even number years
 Catechetics: based from the Bible to deepen the faith
I.2 A Solid Knowledge of the Bible
OT, Decree on Priestly Training #16: students to be formed in the study of the Bible as soul
of all theology
I.3 Principal Means of Sanctification for Priests
I.4 Summary: DV #21: support and vigor for the Church; strength for faith; food for the soul
DV #25: constant Sacred reading and diligent study

*exegesis: interpretation of the text (biblical) itself

*biblical theology: fruit of exegesis; which collects and elaborates the theological message of the Bible
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
I. Definition of the Bible
I.1 Collection of Books
 Written under the positive influence of God (divine element) by persons (human
element) chosen by God at various times and places[1200BC – 100AD; mostly in
Palestine] received by the Church (canon) as Word of God
I.2 Word of God in words of men for us and for our salvation
 Word of God : pray
 Words of men : study the language [OT in Hebrew; NT in Greek]; geography; history;
culture
 For us and for our salvation : live
II. Names Given
II.1 Bible : emphasis on its being a ‘book’ (biblion/ biblia)
 Different literary styles used: psalms, proverbs, historical narratives, gospel, letters, ect.
II.2 Sacred Scripture : emphasis on its being ‘written’
 Purposes as written: to make something legal and binding; to preserve for the future
 Purpose as sacred: sanctification and salvation
II.3 Testament/ Covenant : Old and New
 a. Testament: will or agreement
 b. Covenant: a formal agreement between two parties [God and Israel]
 Unconditional or Unilateral Covenant (Gen 15,5 and 2 Sam 7,8)
 Conditional or Bilateral Covenant (Deut 8,19 and Deut 28, 1-16)
 c. Covenant Pattern (Ex 20)
c.1 Preamble : God introduces Himself (Ex 20, 2a)
c.2 Historical Prologue : recall or review of what God has done for His people (Ex
20,2b)
c.3 Covenant Stipulations
General Stipulation : concerned with attitudes; statements about unreserved
loyalty to God (Deut 7, 11; Deut 4, 15)
Specific Stipulation : concerned with actions; statements about the details of
their loyalty to God (Ex 20, 17 Decalogue)
c.4 Tablet Clause : covenant on tablets of stone (Ex 25, 16)
c.5 Witnesses : Deut 30, 19; Deut 4, 26 = heaven and earth
c.6 Blessings and Curses : if people obey (Deut 5, 33) or disobey the commandment
of God (Deut 8, 19)
 III. Divisions of the Bible
III.1 Old Testament – 46 Books
a. Historical Books (21 Books) Genesis – 2 Maccabees
b. Didactic (Sapiential) Books (7 Books) Job – Sirach : intended to teach a moral lesson
c. Prophetic Books (18 Books) Isaiah – Malachi
c.1 Major: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel
c.2 Minor: 12 (Hosea – Malachi) + Lamentations 5 + Baruch Section of Jeremiah
* Pentateuch : Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy
: Torah (Hebrew)
d. Number of OT Books
1. 44 books if: Jeremiah + Lamentations + Baruch (1-5) + Letters of Jeremiah are = 1
2. 45 books if: Jeremiah + Lamentations = 1 ; Baruch(1-5) + Letters of Jeremiah = 1
3. 46 books if: Jer, Lam, Baruch (1-5) + Letters of Jeremiah as 1 separate books
4. 47 books if: Jer, Lam, Baruch (1-5), Letters of Jeremiah as individual books

III.2 New Testament – 27 Books

a. Gospels : 4 [ Mark was first to be written; Matthew presented discourse of Jesus and
community which were more useful for the people as guidelines for community life]
b. Acts : sequel of Gospel of Luke
c. Letters of Paul : 14 [ Ro Co Co Gal Eph Phi Col The The Ti Ti Tit Phil Heb]
d. Catholic Letters : 7 [ James 1Pet 2Pet 1John 2John 3John Jude]
e. Revelation
*longest book: Psalms *shortest book: Obadiah, 2nd Letter of John

IV. Arrangement of the OT according to the Jews = 24 Books

a. Torah [Law] : 5 Books
b. Nebiim [Prophets] : Former (Josh, Judg, 1-2Sam, 1-2Kngs) ; Later (Is, Jer, Ez, 12 Minor)
c. Kethubim [Writings] : 11 Books (Ps, Prov, Job, Ruth, Song, Eccles, Lam, Esther, Dan, Ez-Neh,
1-2Chron)
*TeNaK

V. Difference Between Catholic and Protestant Bible Editions/ Versions

a. Protestant edition does not admit 7 of catholic OT books
- Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, 1-2 Maccabees => deuterocanonical books
- First 39 books => protocanonical books
b. Protestant edition does not admit some parts of the OT
- Some parts of the book of Esther
- Some parts of the book of Daniel : 3 (Story of the Three Young Men)
: 13 (Story of Sussana)
: 14 (Story of Bel and the Dragon)
*Catholics’ deuterocanonicals are Proterstant’s apocryphal
*Catholic’s apocryphals are Protestant’s pseudopigraphia (false writing)

VI. Translations of the Bible

Criteria:
a. Accuracy – close to the original
b. Comprehensibility / Readability
c. No Doctrinal Bias (2 Mac 12, 43-46 ; Rom 3, 28 ; James 2,17)

Philosophy of Translations Used

 Translate words or meaning? = both, but, which do we prioritized?
- Good if there is one-to-one correspondence between words and meaning
- However, in idiomatic and poetic language, there is no correspondence between words
and meaning
2 Ways of Dealing with Language
 Is language (words, syntax, and structures) intrinsic or extrinsic to the meaning?
 “Perceiving Language”
1. Dynamic Equivalence Translation
- Not concerned with translating words and sentences’ structures but with IDEAS and
MEANING = not intrinsic to the words, they remain
 2. Formal Correspondence Translation
- Meaning and Ideas are intrinsic to the words used ; accuracy (literal translation)
*The two philosophies are not exclusive of each other but they complement each other for a better
understanding of a text…

*Some versions have ‘simplified translations’ – NIV, New Living Translation, Contemp. Eng. Version
- simple vocabularies ; sentences short ; elimination of subordinate clause ; use of explanatory
phrase ; avoiding too many ideas in a sentence

*Some versions are ‘politically correct’ (1Thes 2, 14-15 ; Eph 5, 22 ; Eph 6, 1)

VII. Others:
VII.1 Book Titles [chosen for different reason]
a. According to the Author
b. According to Contents
c. According to the Recipients
d. According to Literary
VII.2 Division into Chapters/ Verses => not the work of the original author
a. Stephen Langton (13th Cent) divided the Bible into chapters
b. Sanctus Pagnini : divided the OT into verses except the deuterocanonical books
c. Robert Estienre (16th Cent) : divided the NT and the OT books
VII.3 Some Useful Abbreviations
a. MT = Masonetic text : Heb of the OT
b. LXX = Septuagint : Gk trans of the OT
c. VL (Venus Latina) :
d. VG (Vulgate) : Latin trans by St. Jerome
e. MS = manuscript
f. UBS = United Bible Society
g. PBS = Philippine Bible Society
h. CBF: Catholic Biblical Federation
VII.4 Locating Biblical Texts
Name of book (abbreviation and no period) (Mt)
Chapter (then) comma for the verse (Mt 5, 1) – Chapter and Verse
Period means ‘and’ (Mt 5, 1.12) – Chapter, Verse and Verse
Semi-colon for another book of verse (Mt 5, 1.12; 25, 31) – Chapter and Chapter
Continuous Reading – Mt 27, 62 -28, 1-3

BIBLICAL INSPIRATION
A. ETYMOLOGY
a. ENGLISH: “Inspire”
i. Literal Meaning: Breathe in or Inhales
ii. Transformed Meaning:
i. To arouse a thought or feeling
o Example:
 “Darkness inspire e with fear.”
ii. Influence, Stimulate or Impel someone to a creative act.
o Example:
 Artistic Inspiration
b. LATIN: “Inspirare”
i. Literal Meaning: “to breathe into”
ii. Transformed Meaning: to arouse
iii. Transformed Christian Inspiration/Application
i. Generic Sense: prompting of God
ii. Specific Sense: promptings of God that binds a person to write the Scriptures
c. GREEK
- In English and Latin the same words are used to refer both to the book and the
human writer
- Inspired books, Inspired writers
 i. THEOPNEUSTOS
- God Breathed
- In reference to the inspired books
- Used in 2 Tim. 3: 16
ii. THEOPHORETOS (God-borne)
iii. PNEMATOPHEOS (Spirit-borne)
- In reference to the Inspired Writers
d. Hebrew
ruah : spirit, mind, breath

B. TECHNICAL MEANING
- A unique divine influence in virtues in which the man responsible for the OT and the NT
were so moved and enlightened by God that their work can be truly called the Word of God.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
I. THE FACT OF INSPIRATION
A. THESIS: There exist a collection of books which the Church recognizes as the Word of God
because they were written under the influence of the Holy Spirit and have God as their
author.

a. “A Dogma of Faith”
- Defined by Vatican (1870) and repeated by Vatican II (D.V. # 119)
- Written down under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

B. THE DIVINE ORIGIN OF THE BIBLE

B.1. Evidences in the OT
- Divinely-Inspired or Sacred Scriptures is not one of the primordial
themes of Israelite religion. This is so because they did not have any
knowledge of writing and they lived in a situation which was not all
conducive to writing.
- The idea of divine influence can be seen in the idea of the origin of the
prophetic writings. The prophets were under the influence of the
divine.
1.1.The Prophets were called by God
1.2.Isaiah 6: 6-7
o Its lips are cleansed by God
Jeremiah 1: 9
o I am too young; God placed His words on his mouth.
Ezekiel 3: 2
o Given a scroll to eat.

-
The Prophets were called by God. They spoke under the influence of
God. Sometimes they were also commanded to write. (Is. 30: 8 ; Jer.
30: 2). These books were held in high esteem.
- We have an implicit indication of the Divine origin of the Scriptures
- The people of the OT believed that God except leaders were under the
influence of God.
B.2. Non-biblical Jewish Writings
2.1Teachings of the Rabbi
- Laws was revealed by God to men by the divine instruction.
- Laws
2.2Letters of Pseudo-Ariteas
- A Hebrew scholar of the 2nd Century. In the letters he claims that the
LXX was done in Alexandria at the influence of the Greek ruler
Ptolemy II.
 - The LXX was written by 77 men in 70 days independently of each
other. However, when they came together they had similar
translations. Here, people believed that God was miraculously at work
in them in the LXX.
2.3.IV ESDRAS 14, 37-48
- Complained to God that in 587 B.C. during the destruction of Jerusalem.
The Torah was also destroyed and the people forgot the Word of God.
- God instructed Esdras to have writing materials trough his secretaries.
Esdras produced 94 books by 40 days but only 24 books were published and
these 24 books now are the Jewish Scriptures.
2.4.Philo of Alexandria
- A Jewish Philosopher, Theologian; lived in the diaspora.
- Demonstrated that the OT is compatible with Paganism. He explained the
Jewish beliefs in Greek philosophical terms.
- He explained the pre-existence of the Torah with terms of Platonistic Ideas.
-- First to adopt the Greek term “to inspire”
2.5. Flavius Josephus
- A Jewish Historian
- Gave the Hellenistic Roman World a better understanding of Judaism.
- Introduced the Greek noun for inspiration (EPIPNOIA)
B.3. New Testament Data
3.1. Conviction of the Jews and the Apostles
- Christ and the Apostles accepted the beliefs of the Jews regarding the origin of the
Scriptures
- These can be seen in the following:
- In the controversies of the Jews
a. - One finds eternal life in the Scriptures
- (Paul) The Holy Spirit at work in Isaiah
- David was inspired by the Holy Spirit
b. - In the way they quoted the OT (Introductory Formalae)
- Heb. 3: 7 quoting Ps. 95 -> “As the Holy Spirit says…..”
- Mt. 1: 22 quoting Is. 7: 16 -> “To fulfil what the Lord has spoken to
the prophets…..”
- Mt. 22: 43 quoting Ps. 110: 11 -> “David inspired by the Holy
Spirit…..”
c. - In the Authority they attributed to the word of the Bible.
- Mt. 4: 4 “It is written, one does not live by bread alone”
- Mt. 5: 18 “not a single letter will pass”
- Jn. 10: 35 “Scriptures cannot be broken.”
3.2.Two Most Important Passages
>Tim. 3: 17-17
- All in Scriptures are inspired by God. (OT)
- Θέονέΰ ό τό σ (THEOPNEUSTOS) – Greek term “inspired”
- A problem with Θέονέΰ ό τό σ (THEOPNEUSTOS)
- hapax legomenen, is, it appears only once in the Bible
- Meaning of the word cannot be counterpart or countercheck with the
other instances where it appears
- A verbal adjective has 2 sense of Θέονέΰ ό τό σ (THEOPNEUSTOS):
-active = breathing God = producing the thought about God
-passive = breathed by/ inspired by God
Arguments in understanding Θέονέΰ ό τό σ (THEOPNEUSTOS) in the passive sense:
- A verbal adjectives ending “tos”, when combined with a word
signifying God, even in the pre-Christian writing, the word
theopneustos has a passive sense
- In the Bible, the Spirit of God is always a subject that inspires persons
or things
 *In 2 Tim. 3: 16-17, scriptures is taken as living and efficacious reality for salvation
because it comes from the Spirit of God.

* SCRIPTURES HERE refers to the OLD TESTAMENT (Jewish Scriptures). It is only by

extension that the passage alludes to other writings which would be later on be part of the
OT writings as Scriptures.
- 2 Pet. 1: 19-21 = “Men moved by the Holy Spirit.”

B.4.Fathers of the Church

a.School of Alexandria, Egypt
i. Clement of Alexandria: Scriptures as the work of the “Divine Authors”.
ii. Origen: Sacred books derived from the Divine Inspiration.
b.School of Antioch
1. Theophilus: Authors of the Scriptures as “bearer of the Spirit”.
c.Cappadocian Fathers
2. Gregory of Naziahzen: Even the shortest scriptural text are attributes
to the Holy Spirit.

* It was another thing about how they understood the divine inspiration:
o Theophilus – composed the prophets with the SIBYLS, meaning the
prophetesses who were possessed by the Holy Spirit.
o Atheragoras – the prophets in the ecstasy of their thought; the Holy
Spirit moved the prophets as a flutist would blow into his flute.
* These are kinds of ECSTATIC EXPERIENCE
d.Origen
- Against the view about the ECSTATIC EXPERIENCE at the origin of the
prophecy and Spiritual Inspiration.
- Greatest contribution: made an emphasis `on the inspiration of the text as different
from the previous stress on the inspiration of the prophet or author.
e.St. Augustine
- Stressed on the meaning of the Scriptures as intended by the author.
- Scriptures were dictated by the Holy Spirit through the human authors.
- He also spoke on the large role of the human authors who used all the forms of
expression in the composition of their work.

C. HUMAN ORIGIN
- Human brings contribute to the composition of scriptures, they made use of their
knowledge, faculties and skills in literary skills.
- Question on the exact role of these human authors.
AUTHORS:
- Mere channels or instruments
- 2 active contributors
C.1.Biblical Thought
- The Bible is generally silent on the role of human author
- Although there are some passages in the bible which part to the activity of human
author behind the composition of scriptures
a. Sirach’s / Ben Sira’s / Ecclesiasticus’ Prologue 2nd paragraph
- Writer speaks of the dilifent labor and pains that he divided in scriptures
likewise quest watchfulness and skill.
b. 2 Maccabees 2,24-32
- v.26 author lost much sweat and loss of sleep
2 Maccabees 15,38
- The author concludes by expressing what any human authors must truly feel
after finishing work “I did my best”
c. Luke 1,1-4
 - Luke writes of his own personal research which he incorporates to his
composition.
d. 1 Corinthians 1,14-16
- Paul corrects himself and that points the involvement of a human author.
C.2. Non-Biblical thought (Jewish thought)
a. Rabbinical thought
- The Torah is pre-existent; hence, the human agent is just a mere channel or
transmitter which contributing anything that is significant.
b. Philo of Alexandria
- Proposed the so-called mantic or ecstatic theory of inspiration. The human
factor is possessed by a spirit, uses his consciousness and surrenders himself to the
spirit was the one who operates in his communicating powers.
c. Christian thought
c. i. Patristic Era
- Athenagoras – who followed the mantic or ecstatic theory of Philo.
- Montists – also heed the similar view of the Mantics
- But the minister of Christian thought was rejected (Mantic inspiration of
scriptures)
* Examples:
- Hippolytus – the operation of the spirit would increase the vision or
understanding of the author.
- Origen – took the same position, that the writers doesn’t lose their
freewill but in fact to understand better the truth.
- Augustine – human authors drew upon their personal memories of
the events they recorded.
c.ii. Middle Ages
- So much complains in the divine origin of scriptures so that little attention
given to the human origin, except for the fact that they regarded the Mantic
Theory.
D. Relationship between the divine and human in the origin of the scriptures
- They are not in the same level
- There is an instrumental subordination of human to the divine.
- St. Thomas Aquinas
- Principal author the spirit and the Instrumental Author is Man.
_______________________________________________________________________
II. NATURE OF INSPIRATION
- Question:
- How do we see this cooperation between the divine and human? What does God do to
man so that what man writes is truly called the word of God?
A.Middle Ages
1. Henry of Ghent:
- The “solemn doctor”
- Student of Albert the Great
- He makes distinction between principal author and ministerial author
- Inspiration is common to the 3 divine persons but appropriated to the holy
spirit
2. Albert the Great:
- The “Universal Doctor”
 - Distinction between primary efficient cause and immediate efficient cause.
God is primary efficient cause and human authors is the immediate efficient
cause.

*Excursus* : SCHOLASTICISM
- Use the imagery of the instrument
- Aristotelian system of efficient causality which deals with the principal cause and
instrumental cause.

* Systems or Principles of Efficient Causality.

1. Principal cause acts of its own capacity, instrumental cause acts only to the motion
received you the principal cause
*Examples:
- Writer and Pen
- Human writer are the principal cause who acts on his own capacity. Pen
is the instrumental cause acts only when writer writes something.
2. The instrument, the pen, a double action can be distinguished.
a. One informs which the nature of the instruments
*Example:
- Pen has black ink – writing in black
b. One is elevated by the principal cause
*Example:
- Elevated by the principal cause, the writing of the boy depends on the
capacity of the writer, the principal cause.

- A beautiful poem written is not within the capacity of the poem but the writer
elevated the capacity of the pen to have a beautiful poem

3. The result of cooperation between principal and instrumental cause is attributed to

both. *Example:
- The beautiful poem came from the writer and the pen without the writer or
without the pen there is no beautiful poem.

4. This principal and instrumental cause are simultaneously act of the writer and the
pen.
*Example:
- The beautiful poem is produced by the simultaneously act of the writer and
the pen.

5. The capacity of the principal cause as the permanent character while that of the
instrumental agent is transient.
*Example:
- The writer will always have with him the capacity to write a poem while the
pen can only write a poem when the writer or poet uses it.
APPLICATION
- God principal author/cause, man is the instrumental cause.
- Difference is that the pen is inanimate while man is living, a rational being.
: Can the human author then be simply referred to as an instrument? This is the objection
to this principle
: At the same time, this principle of instrumental causality holds when we look at the
human author as the one who “functions” as the “instrument”
 : This means that the freedom and personal characteristics of the human author are part of
his nature and God considers them God uses man as man in his full capacity as a human
being including his freedom and will. The problem now boils down to the consideration on
how two freedoms work together so that one freedom (human freedom) is subordinate to
the other freedom (God’s freedom). We enter here into the realm of the relationship
between God’s absolute sovereignty and Men’s freewill. This again is a mystery
3. Thomas Aquinas
- God as the principal author and men as an instrumental author.

B.16th century to Vatican I (19th Century)

- Reflection on divine inspiration was occasioned by:

2 Factors:
a. Protestantism
- Emphasized on scriptures only or alone. Sure they reject tradition.
b. Problem of inerrancy

*DIFFERENT TRENDS
1. Verbal – Inspiration Theory (Dictation)
- Good communication (give to the human author both the ideas and the words
(Verbal expression)
- Human contribution is none other else than his conscious receptivity to what
God communicates

- Representatives of this view

a. Robert Bellarmin, SJ
- Everything in this scripture is dictated by the Holy Spirit.
b. Francisco de Suarez, SJ
c. Domingo Banez, Op

- Reasons for this theory (Verbal-theory)

a. To safeguard the primacy of divine activity
b. They did not consider the human activity
c. They did not consider the human author as rational instruments. They was
later abandoned by the church.
2. Non-verbal inspiration theory
Came as a reaction to the verbal-inspiration theory
2 Types:
a. Theory of negative assistance
- Inspiration is the guidance of the Holy Spirit which is primary given so that
the human author does not fall into error.
b. The theory of subsequent approbation
- By the church the human author? By an ecclesiastical approbation.
- The Holy Spirit will inspire the church so that the church will approve this book
as inspired.
*Subsequent Appropriation of the Church
- Representatives
a. Bonfrare
- (Theory of Negative assistance) some parts of the historical books were
assistance of the Holy Spirit.
b. John
 - (Theory of Negative assistance) extend it to the entire books of the Bible –
under the negative assistance of the Holy Spirit. This means that inspiration
is the absence of error in the scriptures
c. Daniel Haneburg (before the writings of the book)
- (Theory of the Subsequent Approbation of the Church) Speaks of
antecedent inspiration and concomitant inspiration (inspiration as the
author writes the book)
- Together with these antecedent and concomitant inspiration is the so called
subsequent inspiration; i.e., this is the subsequent approbation of the books
as inspired on the part of the church. The Holy Spirit inspirers the church to
approve the books inspired.

* Objection:
- the approval of the church is what gives the divine/inspired character of the
book but this is not out thinking of divine inspiration. This God who gives the
divine Character of the book.

C.Vatican I up to the present

1. John Franzelan, SJ
- Inspiration is limited only to the content of the scriptures. It does not extend to the
verbal expressions.
- This theory is based on the concept of literary author and apply this to God as
author of the scriptures.

*THERE ARE 2 ELEMENTS OF THE BOOK:

a. Formal Element
- Ideas, thoughts, concepts of the book
b. Material Element
- Refers to the words that express the thought and ideas of a book.

- A person is still the author of a book when he provides the thought and ideas and another
person express them in words. God’s author of scripture in as much he provides the formal
element (thought and ideas) He inspires now the human person so that he expresses them
in fulfilling in words. The sacred writer (Hagiographer - Hagio, Grapha) is also considered
an author because he contributes the material element (words and verbal expressions). He
expresses the “thoughts” of God properly and correctly.
2. Providentissimus Deus
- Issued by LEOXIII on November 18,1893
- 1st document issued by the church in its attempt to describe the nature of
inspiration
* 3 Stages that writer undergo in writing (human activity or human author)
a. Intellective phase
1. Author mentally conceives of the work
b. Volitive Phase
2. Writer decides to write down what he conceived in his
mind
c. Operative phase
3. Author writes down
*The sacred writer was inspired by the Holy Spirit in all of these 3 phase,
*Advantage
- describe the different phase in completing a literary work
 *Disadvantage
- does not tell exactly how the Holy Spirit inspires
- does not tell how God influences the human author in his freedom
and psychology
3. Lavergue (theory of Discrimination)
* Distinction between speculative intellect and practical intellect
a. Speculative intellect
– Ideas that are communicated
– Formal element
b. Practical element
– Words to express ideas

*These are the operations of human intellect writing a book.

- God directs the operation of the practical intellect in communicating ideas.

4. Marie Lagrange
- Commented on Franzelen’s theory who on formal element from material element.
- Human but this is not so because in human psychology we cannot separate thought
and language. A person cannot conceive a thought except in a deformed language,
thoughts by themselves does not exist. Thoughts exist in language. Language
necessarily express thoughts.
- When God inspires sacred writer, God does not only inspire hum with thoughts
(Ideas) but also with the words to express the thought.

5. Divino Afflante Spiritu

- Issued by Pope pius XII September 30,1943
- In favor of scientist, research interpretations of the scriptures against a freer
interpretation of the Scriptures.
*Examples:
- Study in the empirical language of scriptures

- Published to commemorate the 50th year of the publication of the Providentissimus

Deus
- Magna Carta of Biblical Studies

Final Remarks: Nature of inspiration

a. Awareness of human author
- was the human activity was being inspired.
- For some time the answer is “yes”, reason for this is to react
on the mantic theory of inspiration.
- More recently, theologians reacted toward the view that the human
author was not aware in the same manner that a recipient of God’s
grace is not.

b. Parallelism between the mystery of incarnation and inspiration.

INCARNATION
 Incarnation Inspiration
Holy Spirit Holy Spirit 2 Principles
Mary Sacred writer
Word became flesh Words of God in words Fruit
of men

Effects : impeccability Inerrancy (free form Effects

Divine condescension error.
(phil 2,7. 2 cor 8,9 . Divine condescension
12,9 (Gods was pecaable
words becomes
expressed in limited
human language
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
III. EFFECTS OF INSPIRATION
1. Revelation
- Inspiration is related to revelation
- Revelation is the self-disclosure of God
- In scripture, God discloses to man. Scripture bring us closer to God.
- What is communicated in Scripture is not a something, but a someone.
2. Unity
- From a human point of view, the Bible is a library or a collection of books but,
o From the judgement of faith the Bible is a single book because:
a. Bible has one originally source: God
b. The different books seek to disclose one central reality. The mystery of Jesus Christ
hidden in God from eternity, prepared for in the history of Israel, and manifested to
the whole human race in the fullness of time an will come again in glory at the end of
time.
3. Completeness
- The bible is a unity which is complete
- This means that the degree of disclosure / revelation that God placed to give in the Bible is
perfectly and completely achieved. Biblical revelation is already definitive. No other revelation
is needed to complete the picture of God and his ways.
4. Sacramentality of Scriptures
- Sacraments are encounters with God
- Bible also offers an opportunity of an encounter with God, hence, the sacramentality of the
Bible.
5. Truth of the Bible
- Negatively put this effect of inspiration is called the inerrancy of Scriptures, i.e, Bible is
protected from error.
- IMPORTANCE: why is it important for the Bible to be free from error? It is only when we
establish the inerrancy of the Bible that we can have it with the last authority and the firm
basis for our faith and morals.
- Vatican II (DV #11): speaks of the “”truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, crushed to
see confided to the sacred scripture.”
- Vatican II qualifies this truth as “truth for the sake of our salvation.”
o This is a result of the drafts of the council:
 1st Draft (1962)
 The scriptures in their entirety are absolutely immued from any error,
religions are people.
 2 Draft (1963)
nd

 The scriptures is immued from any error whatsoever.

 3 Draft (1964)
rd

 The entire books of scripture with all their parts teach truth without
error.
  4th Draft (1964)
 “the entire books of scripture teach saving truth”
5.a. THE PROBLEM
o The allegedly inerrant scripture contain statements which in other documents are
considered ______.
5.a.1. ERRORS IN NATURAL SCIENCE
- Ex: Copernicus & Galileo Galilei = earth moves around the sun (heliocentric= sun at
the center of the universe)
- belief during this times including the Church, was geocentric (earth at the center of
the universe.)
 Geocentric
 Everything revolves around the earth, including the sun.
 Heliocentric
 Earth which revolves around the sun.
 June 22, 1633
 Declared heretic by the Church for believing in and forward false doctrine
contrary to sacred scriptures
 Joshua 10, 12-14
 Some principles provided by Providentissimus Deus
a. There can be no contradiction between the natural & supernatural truth.
 Both physicist /scientist & theologian should remain within their own
line of teaching, check their evidences and even suspend judgement until
there is more evidences.
b. The fundamental intention of the hagiographers is a religious one. The Bible
is not a book of science even when it speaks about scientific things.
c. If the intention then of the sacred writers is a religious, when they speak of
scientific things, they are speaking according to sense appearance, or they
are using a figurative speech, or they are making use of popular ideas of their
time about the nature of things and the universe.
e.g. * Eccles 1,5 – the sun rises and sun sets
* Ex 16, 25 – the sun grows hot
o According to SENSE APPEARANCE
*Gen 1, 16 – sun & moon as the 2 great lights
* Josh 10, 12-16 – “Is this not written in the book of Jashar?
 author is in fact borrowing popular idea of his time
contained in the book of Jashar.
d. Role of Tradition
 In the interpretation of the Fathers of the Church, we must carefully note
what belongs to faith, other wise they are at liberty to have different
opinions.

More examples:
o Job 26, 11 = “the pillars of heaven tremble”
 Figurative language
These point to the ancient o Ps 104, 2f = “heavens spread out like a dust…”
view of the universe
 Poetic language

 UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO THE BIBLE

 Universe consists of 3 depths namely; HEAVEN, EARTH, &
NETHERWORLD
 Heaven & Earth are separated by a firmament which looks like an
inverted bowl or a tent.
  Sun and moon and stars are attached to the firmament and has fixed ways
in the firmament.
 Within the firmament are windows and store room for rain, snow, hail,
etc.
 Firmament reposes on two pillars.
 When God shakes these pillars then the sun and the stars will come falling
and down to earth (Mk 13, 25).
 Earth is a flat disk floating on waters.
 Netherworld is the abyss of waters below the earth.
5.a.2. ERRORS IN HISTORY
- problem in this field of study with regard to the inerrancy of scriptures is greater,
more important and more difficult.
a. The problem is greater because the bible contains a vast historical
material covering in great period from the beginnings of mankind (Genesis) to
Apocalypse.
b. The problem is even more important because on faith speaks of a definite
historical fact beginning with the supernatural elevation of man and his fall
(Genesis), the election of Abraham, Moses and Israel, the words and ministry of
Jesus, his death and resurrection.
c. The problem is even more difficult because there is no easy solution at hand.
 There are difficult ways of looking at history and history would look at
the facts as they exactly happened (when, where, how) while another
historian would look at the meaning of an event for the present
situation.
 There are difficult ways of history-writing (recording history):
modern scientific method VS. the ancient, less critical / scientific
method.
Examples of these errors in history:
o Dan 5,2 = Belshazzar is the son of Nebuchadnezzar
 History books say that Belshazzar is the son of Nabonidus.
o Jud 1,1 = Nebuchadnezzar rules over the Assyrians
 He was with Babylonians, not in Assyrian.
o Cleansing the temple = SYNOPTIC: towards the end of Jesus’
ministry (Mt 21; Mk 11)
= John: beginning (Jn 2)
 Some theories proposed:
1. Theory of apparent history and relative truth
 Some authors proposed that the sacred writers did not intend to give an
“objective” history by inly an apparent history.
 Again other authors proposed that the sacred writers wrote their
accounts according to the truth of their sources (written/ oral) without
judging their objective contents are they simply wrote what their
contemporaries thought to have happened.
 Hence, the accounts of the sacred scriptures writers are said to be
“relatively” true.
2. Distinction between the Primacy, Religious Element, and the Secondary,
Profane Element
 Sacred writers why intended the religious matters, hence, historical facts
were not their intention.
5.a.3. MORAL ERRORS
- “HEREM” = total destruction of an enemy as people or group as following the will
of God.
- Josh 11, 14-15
5.a.4. BIBLICAL SELF-CONTARDICTIONS
- Gen 7, 17: Noah’s flood lasted for 40 days
- Gen 7, 24: Noah’s flood lasted for 150 days
- Gen 7, 2ff: 7 pairs of each animals
- Gen 7, 9: 1 pair of each animals
= because of these problems some writers employed the allegorical sense of
scripture; i.e, the discrepancy of a scriptural text appears on the surface but this
discrepancy disappears when we look into the deeper meaning of the text.
e.g. St. Augustine: Jn 5,5
- is it possible for a man to be sick for 38 long years?
- Allegory: 40 is a perfect number. 40 less 2 is 38. This man who was 38
years old was lacking in the 2 most important.
- Commandments= love of God & love of neighbor
 SPIRITUS PARACLITUS
 Issued by Benedict XV on Sept. 15, 1920 at the 15 th century od St. Jerome’s
death.
 Recommends the use of modern, critical scientific methods in biblical
studies.

5.b. Traditional Attitudes

o Difficulties corrected wit the inerrancy of scriptures never caused any wavering in the
adherence to there doctrine od inerrancy.
o That the scriptures is inerrant in a constant element of Christian tradition.
5.b.1. JEWS
- the words of the Torah were put into the prophet’s mind by God to whom no
error can be attributed.
5.b.2. NEW TESTAMENT
- inerrancy is not explicitly referred to in the NT but this doctrine on inerrancy is
the foundation for some statements like the following:
 Jn 10, 35 = Scripture cannot be broken
 Lk 24,44; Ac 1, 16 = Scripture must be fulfilled
 Mt 5, 18 = Not an iota, not a dot…
 Mt 4,4; Ac 15, 15; Rom 1, 17; 1 Pet 2,6 = “it is written”
b.3. EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS
- inerrancy is a common teaching to them
- Clement of Rome: Scriptures are writings that are true.
- Justine: Scriptures cannot contradict itself
- Irenaeus: Scriptures are perfect
- Hippolytus: Scriptures do not deceive us.
b.4. MIDDLE AGES
- Thomas Aquinas: It is heretical to say that anything false is contained in
Scriptures
- Pope Clement VI: Scriptures teach unquestionable truth
b.5. MODERN TIMES
- Some solutions which were rejected by the Church
- August Rolling: Restricted/ limited inspiration only to matters of faith and morals
- Cardinal Newman: Assigned “obiter dicta” (words in passing) statements in
scriptures which are not inspired.
e.g. 2 Tim 4,13
Tob 5,16 = “and the young man’s dog was with them”
 LENORMANT = restricted inspiration to supernatural teachings.
 LEO XIII’s P.D. = teaches that it is wrong _______.
o To narrow down inspiration to certain parts only of scriptures.
 o To accept that inspiration regards only things of faith and morals and not
only to every part of scriptures
o To say that the sacred writer erred.
5.c. Some Considerations to a Relevant Solution
- There is a need to eliminate the term ‘inerrancy’ and substitute it for the ‘truth content’ of
the Bible or ‘truthfulness’ of the Bible
- What is meant by truth value of the Bible?:
i. applies to its original text
ii. to be looked for primarily in the Bible as a whole
-an individual proposition/ statement will find its truth value in the context
of the whole Bible ; because of the progressive growth of revelation.

5.c.1 Some of the acceptable views to a solution of the problem:

5.c.1.a. Literary Genre
DAS, Piux XII => accepted as valid the study of literary genres in understanding the Bible
DV #12 => literary forms; each literary genre as a way of presenting the truth; some texts
become/ consider erroneous because they are not read in the literary genre (ex: Jona

5.2. The Purpose of the Bible as a Book of Salvation

- The truth of a book is conditioned by its purpose. A book is written for a purpose and the truth of a
book is seen when it achieves its purpose.
- The Bible was written not as a book of science, history, or grammar. The Bible rather is first and
foremost a book which leads to salvation. We do not only find in the Bible matters which are free of error
but more than this are matters that lead to salvation.
5.3. The Meaning of Historical Truth
We tend to identify the truth with exact history, i.e, objective history. But in ancient times, not only in
the Bible, people were not so much concerned with “exact history” as in “true history”. True history
hinges on the interpretation of facts, not really on the exact, objective account.

For ancient writing, history is still reflected even when facts and data are….as long as there changes
can bring meaning and message of the event more clearly and powerfully.
Concept of Biblical Truth
Truth for the philosopher is the essence/ being/ cause of things; truth is ascertained through reason.
-Truth for the historian is the exact recording of events in the past.
-Truth in the Bible is the personal dimension of an event for us and for our salvation. It is ascertained
through faith.
5.4. Bible to be Taken as a Unity
- Truthfulness of the Bible is applied to the books as a whole. It is when the Bible is viewed as a
whole that it proclaims the truth. We are bound to interpret the Bible and find “errors” if we view
individual texts independently of the whole Bible.
Ex. Revenge- limitless
-in proportion, no revenge at all
5.5 What is said and what is meant
Distinction is made between the message of the Bible and the instrumental statements used to convey
the message. For instance, a symbolic or metaphoric or apocalyptic language is used. This is not to be
taken literally.
Ex. A dragon of seven heads in the Book of Revelation
There are not to be understood literally but symbolically;
Dragon of seven heads refers to Rome.
Speaking serpent refers to a willy temptation
To distinguish between what is said and what is meant, it is important to know the intention of the
author.
Use of Criticisms
(ways of exhausting and judging the text)
a. Source-Criticism
b. Form-Criticism (library genre+ literary genre of a text)
c. Reduction-Criticism
 Editorial work of the author which involves a process of selecting, arranging, and modifying
materials)
Example of a reduction- criticism
See; Mt 18, 10-14
Lk 15, 3-7
5.6.Read an ancient work in its time, not over.
- Sacred writers wrote their compositions for a specific people of their time.
(Matthew-Jewish Christians, Luke-Gentile Christians, John-Christians of Asia Minor, Mark- Christians
of Rome)
-Sacred writers communicated to their readers according to their level of understanding and the
knowledge proper to them. Our knowledge in science and technology were beyond their knowledge.
-Even in terms of morality, they had a different view and mentality.
- Ex. Herem- not only the Israelites practiced this but everybody during their time in the name of their
God who lead them to victory. Hence, we do not need to judge them for their barbarity and cruelty.
5.7. Bible is inspired, hence, inerrant, in its great text.
- Validity of the Old Testament ;
-connected to the truthfulness of the Bible is the question in the validity of the Old Testament.
-Church teaches us that the Bible, both Old Testament and New Testament is the Word of God. (DV
#14)

5.c.2.Purpose of Old Testament in Scriptures

1. Dei Verbum no. 15
- The principal purpose of the Old Testament is to prepare for the coming of Christ.
a. Old Testaments prepares the New Testament by its affirmation of the futility of human
wisdom, power and effort, i.e., man’s inability to save himself
b. In the Old Testament, the failure of man (his ability to save himself) did not bring about
despair. It rather fostered his hope. The Old Testament is full of hope about a Savior and
this was sustained in the entire history of the Israelites.
c. The Old Testament gave Jesus and the Apostles a language that they could speak. The
concepts and ideas that Jesus brought already developed in the Old Testament.
2. It is not only the Old Testament which enlightens the New Testament. The New Testament also
illuminates the Old Testament. (Dei Verbum no. 16)
St. Augustine: “In the Old Testament, the New is Hidden. While in the New Testament, the Old is
made manifest.”
3. The Old Testament have many beautiful and solid divine teachings in;
- Living sense of God
- Human wisdom
- Ways and contents of prayer
- Respect and awe in front of creation
- Social and historical dimensions of salvation
- Various ways of responding and not responding to God

IV. THE EXTENT OF INSPIRATION

In the long genesis of the Bible, who among the various contributors were under the influence of
inspiration?
-All those positively and creatively contributed to the design and content of the book were inspired.
A. Authors
2 types of contribution
a. Material Contribution – material which the artist used for his work, e.g., kind of stone
or word, (sculptor/carver), the canvass (painter) and the stories (author).
In the Bible, the sacred writer also made use of material contributors, e.g., pagan stories
and sayings, history of Israel, actions and words of Kings.
b. Design and content contributions – materials supplied by the artists themselves in
the production of their work, e.g., talent of the painter in the use of brush, or of the
sculptor in the use of his chisel, ideas and style of a poet or author, the music in the
mind of the musician.
The Material contributors of the Bible:
- Pagan epics used in Genesis 1:11
- Babylonia Epic : Gilgamen who survived the flood
 - Cyrus of Persia: Emperor who wrote letters allowing the exiles to go back to their
country. These letters are mentioned in Ezra-Nehemiah.
- Egyptian hymn to Athens which is at the basis of Ps 104
The composers of these material contributors were not under the influence of inspiration but
nonetheless they were under the providential care of God.
Example: “A disciple writes down an oracle or saying of a prophet. Later his writing was taken
by an editor who incorporates it in the work of a prophet. This disciple has contributed
then to the content of the book and is considered to be under the influence of inspiration.”
B. Contents
Even when the biblical books became canonical, there were still theologians who limited
inspiration to certain parts of the Bible
e.g., Cardinal Newman – obiter dicta
Ronling – faith and morals
Lenormant – supernatural teachings
Holden – limited inspiration only to doctrinal matters

Reason: These theologians limited inspiration to certain parts of the Bible in their desire to
solve the difficulty connected with the inerrancy of the Bible.

*Church documents
o Council of Trent
 The Bible with all their parts are sacred and canonical
o Vatican I
 It repeats the pronouncement of Trent: The truths of the scripture with all
their parts are divinely inspired.
o Providentisimus Deus
 The entire contents of the Scripture is inspired
C. Words
Franzelin – limited inspiration to the ideas of scripture. Words or verbal expressions to
communicate the ideas are inspired.
Church – Inspiration is not only extended to the biblical ideas but also to the words.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

BIBLICAL CANON (INTRODUCTION)

1. Link with Inspiration

INSPIRATION: bible as a divine-human book
CANON: bible as book of the Church
2. What does Canonicity do to inspiration?
- It does not add anything to inspiration; it does not create inspiration. It only discover
inspiration.
3. Meaning
3.1 Canon
a. Latin canon is a publication of the Greek “kanon” which is derived from the scientific
word “gareh” which means “read”. Canon then means a straight rod/bar, an instrument for
measuring. (ruler)
b. transferred meaning > connotes a standard or norm of excellence.
c. Christian usage:
CANONS OF A COUNCIL: norms laid down by a church (council)
CANONS OF SAINTS: official lists of saints – who have reached standards of perfection.
Their life becomes a norm of Christian life and conduct.
CANON OF THE MASS: part of the mass which is not free to change.
CANON LAW
CANON OF THE BIBLE (BIBLICAL CANON): the Church has considered the bible as a
“standard” or “norm” of her life of faith and morals.
*DEFINITION:
> Collection or lists of books which the Church recognizes as divinely inspired and which
she considers as a norm or rule of faith and morals.
> From the definition, we distinguish active sense and passive sense of canon.
ACTIVE SENSE: Biblical canon as rule of faith and morals.
 PASSIVE SENSE: Biblical canon as collection/lists of books.
4. Canonical books
4.1 Protocanonical books
TELOTOS (FIRST) > Belongs to the first canon; books which are accepted by all or books
which are not contested/disputed.
DEUTELOS (SECOND) > from the second canon; books which for a time has difficulty in
being accepted by the Church; books which are contested/disputed
5. Non-canonical books
APOCRYPHAL BOOKS > apokruptos (hidden; accessible only to those who are initiated
into a sect or cult; later on, it became a designation to non-canonical books.
6. Inspiration and Canonicity > A close relationship between inspiration and canonicity
a. Canonicity essentially supposes inspiration. Canonicity adds one element, i. e.
recognition of the Church regarding the inspired character of the book.
b. Inspiration is simultaneously with the writing of the book. Canonization comes later (upon
the decision of the Church)
c. Inspiration is the work of God; canonization is the work of the Church.
d. Inspiration affects the inner nature of the book; canonization adds nothing.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

CANON OF THE OT

A. Preliminary Remarks

1. In the Pre-Christian era there existed a collection of books consisting of 3 categories:

a. (1) Laws of Moses, (2) Prophets, and (3) Psalms.
b. Prologue of Sirach > Laws, Prophets, and other books,
> Uniqueness in reference to the 3 rd category. It is a sign that Judaism
has not yet reached a stage/period of a designed collection. It can also be that the 3 rd category
did not enjoy the same level of respect given to the law and the prophets.
2. By the end of the 1st Century AD, there were in Judaism 2 sects of canon:
a. Palestinian/Shorter Canon: drawn by the rabbis in Jamnia around 90 AD. Written in
Hebrew and used by the Jews in Palestine. It is shorter because- no deuterocanonical books.
Canon followed by Jews and Protestants.
b. Alexandria/Longer Canon: Have deuterocanonical books. Written in Greek and used by
the Jews of the Diaspora. Followed by Catholics and Oriental Churches.
3. In the pre-exile period, it was the Torah (law of Moses) which was normative (active sense of
canon).

B. History of the OT Canon Among the Jews

1. Period of Formation
THESIS:
o The Jews possessed from older times sacred traditions and writings of normative
authority, distinguished from profane writings.
o Origin of these writings are attributed to men who writes under the influence of Holy Spirit
o The First and central part of the OT is the law of Moses, followed by the Prophets and
writings.
1st THESIS (TIME OF ORIGIN): from the oldest to the 1st C AD composition took over
1000 years
2 THESIS: inspiration was recognized by man of the Spirit, books of normative
ND

authority.
3RD THESIS (DIVISION OF THE OT): law of Moses, prophets, and writings.
1.1 THE LAW (Torah)
a. Name: Law of Moses, called Torah by the Jews (also Pentateuch)
b. Content: not only laws but also the history of the covenant, its preparation and
conclusion up to the death of Moses.
c. History
c.1 At beginning is Moses > who led the Israelites out Egypt; covenant of Sinai.
 c.2 Early traditions about the history of Israel’s ancestors were collected (history of
Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, etc.)
c.3 Oral tradition prevailed during these times and this was cultivated at the sanctuaries
where the people gathered.
c.4 This tradition (Mosaic tradition) developed into different forms which were
eventually written down.
i. Yahwist/ic Tradition (Y) = Oldest tradition, rooted in Judah, written on the 10-9 thC
BC, mostly narratives.
ii. Elohist/ic (E) = Pararelled to Y tradition; has its roots in Northern Kingdom; 9-
8thC BC; both tradition were combined (Y=E).
iii. Deuteronomist/ic = Collection of laws; started first in the Northern Kingdom but
moved to the Southern Kingdom after the fall of Samaria
iv. Priestly Tradition (P) = A latter collection of laws, connected with the priesthood
of the temple, written in the 6-5th C BC; Pentateuch was completely by 400 BC.
c.5 Some references to the history of the law:
= Deut 31, 9.11.26 and Josh 24, 26 and 1 Sam 10, 25
c.6 Discovery of the book of the law
= 2 Kgs 2, 8f > An important event in the reconstruction of the history of the
Pentateuch.
= 622 BC, a copy of the book of the law was discovered during repair works in the
temple by the priest Hilkiah. This copy most probably is Deut 12-26 .
= This copy of the law was brought to King Josiah who then ordered all of Israel to a
renewal of the covenant. He, likewise, ordered the centralization of the cult in Jerusalem.
c.7 Time of Exile (587-538 BC)
= Israelites have lost their temple with their worship and sacrifices. Only then they
realized the importance of their law (Torah). It was their only treasure left. It was then a time of
reflection. Then they started collecting documents and traditions of the past.
= The scribes or “man of the book” appeared for the first time during this period of
exile.
c.8 Ezra and Nehemiah (Return from exile: Rebuilding of Jerusalem)
= Last great event connected to the formation and collection of the law mentioned
in the book of Ezra and Nehemiah.
= Ezra was a priest and scribe who worked in the religious sphere and religious
instruction of the people. He brought with him a copy of the law (Ez 7, 6-14) about 430 BC.
= Nehemiah worked in the political field.
1.2 THE PROPHETS (Nebiim)
a. Name: 2nd group of in OT
b. Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings
b.1. Contents: = continue the sacred history of the covenant from Joshua to the last King of
Jerusalem or from the conquest of the country (Palestine, Promised Land) which is lost during the
Babylonian exile
= certain passages from prophets like Samuel, Nathan, Elijah, Elisiah and others
b.2. Composition: = contain partly old popular traditions and partly excellent historical
tradition
= received the final form during the exile
= 2 Mac 2,13 => Nehemiah was credited with collecting the books about the
kings and prophets and writings
b.3. Besides the Historical material that entered this collection, there were still no other
ancient Israelite writings which did not survive and did not enter the canon.
Ex: Josh 10, 13 – back to Jashar
1 kgs, 14-29 – Book of Annalas (chronicles) of the kings of Judah.
c. Later Prophets: = Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 12 Minor Prophets
c.1. Contents: = oracles of prophets ; biographical activity and material
c.2. Time of Composition: = 750 BC (Amos) ca 400-300BC
= minor prophets: Malacchi, Joel, Jonah, Deut-Zech
*Proto Isaiah: 1, 39
 *Deutro Isaiah: 40 (TT)
* Jesus Ben Sirach. *190BC” = collection of prophets; it was customary to speak of
the 12 prophets. This means that by the time.
c.3. Some References to the History of the Prophetic Books
- Jer 36 = Jeremiah is commanded to write
* late prophets working use of the words of earlier precepts.
1.3 WRITINGS (KETHUBIM)
A. Name = Most miscellaneous and which caused must dispute; Probably post- exilic
= Latest are Daniel and Esther (2nd B.C.)
This explains its generic name as writings
- Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Songs, Ecclesiastes, lamentation ,Esther, Daniel, Ezekiel- Nehemiah, 1-2
chronicles.
* some belongs to “historical” books others are sapiential and prophetic and eve the sequence is
different.
= Dispute- some belongs to deutero- canonical books.
B. History = By the end of the 2nd BC the Jews already spoke of the Law, prophet and a third group.
= Foreword to Sirach - “the rest of the books of our ancestors.”
= 2Mac. 15,9 “law and prophets”
In the first AD we find a little specification of these books - Lk. 24, 44
Philo - the law, the prophet, hymns and other works by which knowledge and piety may be
increased and perfected.
Josephus - speaks of the 5 books of law , 13 books of the prophet and 4 books of hymns to god
and precepts for the conduct of human life
Most probably these 4 books would be psalms, songs, proverbs, and Ecclesiastes.
This vagueness of reference to these books shows that by the 1st century Judaism had not
yet reached a stage of a defined collection of books.
C. Some references to the history of writing
= 2 Chron. 29, 30 -by 700 there was a collection of psalms of david and asaph
= Prov. 25, 1 - speaks about the proverbs of solomon
= 2 mac. 2, 13-14 - nehemiah , books about kings and prophets, writings of David and letters of kings.

2. Period of canonization of OT
2.1. Thesis: Towards the end of the 2nd AD the jews had a definite collection ofbooks I.e. proto-
canonical
2.2. Testimonies
a. Flavius Josephus- speaks of 22 books align with the letters of jewish alphabet , by combining
books: ruth with Judges and Lamentation with jeremiah.
b. Ezra - in 40 days 94 books were written but only 24 books were published . These 24 books would
be the OT books.
c. Jamnia - here the rabbii gathered in a council to close the Jewish canon in the OT in which they
followed the Palestinian Canon
3. Norms and Canonization of OT
Canonization - the work of the church . It is a process of selecting and rejecting according to some
principles and Norms.
Why, for instance, was Judith admitted and some parts of Esther was not admitted although both
narative story of women heroine who saved Isarael
3.1.ANTIQUITY
Most important norm/principle. It concerns the time of composition and inspiration is limited
from the time of Moses to thnetimes of Ezra 400 BC
Books of later origin were excluded . e.g. Sirach, Macc, Wisdom.
Daniel - Though it originates in the 2nd century BC it was admitted because of claims to have been
written by a prophet of the 6th BC.
3.2.HEBREW LANGUAGE
Deutero- canonical parts of Esther and Daniel are excluded because they are written in Greek
Wisdom and 2 macc also did not qualify based on this norm.
3.3.Origin in Palestine
- G. Baruch , emancipate to Babylon w/ Jeremiah hence, it was not accepted . The problem
is with Ezekiel who wrote in Babylon, but some give it a Palestinian origin.
3.4.Conformity with the Torah.
4. Motives for Canonization
4.1.Self defense against Apocryphal books - in 200 BC many Apocryphal Books appeared which
contained teachings contrary to their tradition (who seek approval by public). To claim greater authority
the authors wrote under the name of their old past ancestors. E.g. Adam, Enoch,the 12 patriarch. These
Books were apocalyptic in content.
- also claims secret and revelation which until such time remained hidden or sealed.
- The Act of canonization was an act of the truly revealed word of God against the growing literature
which threatens to take place of the the traditional holy books.
4.2.Defense against Hellenistic Influence - this period was marked by Hellenistic influences and
infiltration which became a danger to the Jewish faith and religion.
- attempts of the syrian kings to hellenize th ejewish people even by force and not only cultural
matter but even their faith and religion.
- Time of maccabean revolt.
- the greatest obstacle to this hellenization was the Torah and the sacred books of the jews.
- On the part of Jews their greatest weapon against hellenistic infiltration was their Torah and
Traditional customs.
- leading in this fight against this hellenistic were zealous Jews who emphasized the strict
observance of the Torah and who came later to be known as “pharisees”

C. History of the OT Canon among the Christians

 5 periods
1. Apostolic Time
-period of acceptance – 1st c AD
-Christ and the apostles accept the OT as Word of God
 -the only difference was that the decisive authority was not just anyone the Jewish law forbid
but also the life and example of Christ and the apostles.
-there was no problem with the protocanonical books. But what about the D.C. books? What was
their attitude and position regarding them?
-they did not leave any explicit statements regarding a list of OT books.
-results of a study made regarding the OT books during the apostolic time:
a) The NT uses the OT more frequently in its LXX form(written in Greek and contains the DC
books); [5/6 of the quotations are from the LXX and not from the Masoretic Text(OT
Hebrew)]
b) There are no explicit quotations of D.C. books as “SCRIPTURE” but they made use of them.
-eg. Romans 1 use Wisdom 1-3; Heb 1, 3 uses Wisdom 7, 25
c) NT sometimes alludes to or quotes from apocryphal books
-eg. Jude 9> assumption of Moses
14> Enoch
d) No warning the NT regarding the DC Books. The Apostles and the early Christians used the
LXX freely
 If they had objections against the DC books then they would have given a warning.
2. The Early Patristic Time
-Time of Simple Possession – 2nd c AD
-Xtians simply continued with the practice of the apostolic time, ie, a free use of the LXX
a) LXX, not the MT, was read universally in the Church. (what difference when nobody know
the Hebrews)
>2nd half of the 2nd c the Vetus Latina began to replace the LXX since the Knowledge of
Greek decreased. The VL also contains the D.C books
b) The Fathers of the Church also alluded to and quoted from the DC books
c) In the catacombs there are pictures taken from the DC books.
Eg. Dan 14 > David in the lion’s den as a symbol of the resurrection of the Jew
d) Some apocryphal books also enjoyed a high esteem among the fathers of the church
eg. 3 and 4 Ezra/Esdras
3 Mac
>this shows that at this time there was no official or defined list of the OT Books
e) This practice was universal in the Church
3. The Fathers between 200-400 AD
-time of Crisis
-a time of confusion and discussion
-some incomplete canons (short canons; Palestinian canon) were proposed
- this started in the East which would also influenced later the West
-Occasion and Reason for this confusion and discussion (uncertainty)
a) The short canon among the Jews
- by this time the Jews had already fixed the canonical books, ie, the short
Palestinian canon
- this must have started the Xtians and wondered whether their position was correct
after all, ie, the acceptance of the DC books since the OT books originally belong to
the Jews
b) Appearance of Apocryphal Books
- because of the spread of apocryphal books the church cautioned to discern
between books and the fake ones
c) No official declaration of the Church yet.

 Fathers in the Eastern who followed a short or incomplete canon:

-Melito of Sardes>22 books
-Origen
-Athanasius
-Cyril of Jerusalem
-Gregory of Nazianzua
  Fathers of the Western Chruch who followed a short or incomplete canon:
-Hillary of Poiters
-Rufin of Aquilera
-Jerome
4. Victory of Tradition and First Ecclesiastical Decisions
-while in the East the short canon prevailed and while Jerome also proposed the short canon, in
the west the tradition of following the longer canon remained. This was due to the influence of
St. Augustine
a) St. Augustine and Provincial Councils of Africa
-Augustine upheld the principle of ecclesiastical tradition. This also includes the fact
that these individual books were read in the church
-Council of Hippo, 393 AD, a list of books following the longer canon was drawn
-this was followed up by the 3rd and the 4th councils of Carthage in 397 and 418
respectively
b) Pope Innocent I agreed with the African Bishops. In his ‘Consultenti Tibi’, he repeated
the list drawn by the African Councils
c) Decretum Gelasii (decree of Pope Gelasius) > the Long canon was given
... after Augustine opinions again became divided.
d) General Council of Florence, Decree for the Jacobites (1442)
-this document states that for the Jacobites to rejoin the Church, they should accept
the list of Scriptures which includes the DC Books
5. The Formal Definition of the Canon at the Council of Trent, 1546
5.1) Necessity for the Definition
-several reasons:
a) Opinions of the Humanists
-with their great interest in ancient literature, they discovered the difficulties
and crisis with the regard to the Scriptures since the beginning. The Church
had to give an answer and clarify the doubts.
b) Protestants
-from the outset Protestants already rejected some books which were
contrary to their teachings
Eg. 2 Mac 15, 14> intercession of spirits
12, 43-45> prayers of the dead (hence, purgatory)
c) Sources of Faith
-the council had to determine the sources of faith in order to have a firm and
clear basis for their dogmatic decisions, ie, Scriptures and traditions.
5.2) The Decisions
a) Dogmatic Decision
a.1) Scripture and Tradition
-Divine Revelation is contained in scripture and tradition; they are the
so-called ‘sources of faith’
a.2) List of Canonical Books
-council decided to give the long canon
-this is binding in conscience [ie, whoever does not believe;
“Anathema Sit” (let him be condemned)]
-council did not decide on the question of the literary authorship of
the Books. Names are just there to identify the books clearly.
b) Disciplinary Decision
-the Council prescribed the Vulgatta as the standard version
-Vatican Council I in 187 renewed the decision of Trent.