Waxer - 2000 - Conga, Bongo y Campana-Rise of Colombian Salsa

"En Conga, Bonga y Campana:" The Rise of Colombian Salsa
Author(s): Lise Waxer

Source: Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana, Vol. 21, No. 2
(Autumn - Winter, 2000), pp. 118-168
Published by: University of Texas Press
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Lise
Lise Waxer
WaxerEnEn
Conga,
Conga,
Bongay
Bongay
Campana:'
Campana:'
The Rise of Colombian
Salsa
Salsa is a popular dance music developed

in the Latino barrios of New York City and urban centers of Puerto Rico
during the 1960s and 1970s. Based largely on Cuban styles of the 1930
1940s and 1950s (e.g., son, guaracha, mambo, chachacha), salsa also incorpo-
rated Afro-Puerto Rican elements and influences from North American
jazz and rock. Through the 1960s and 1970s, as salsa flourished in New
York and Puerto Rico, it also spread to other parts of Latin America, espe-
cially Venezuela, Panama, and Colombia. The term "salsa" literally means
"sauce," a culinary metaphor that evokes images of a spicy concoction-
somewhat mirroring the music's own hybrid origins and infectious appeal.2
Just as it suggests, salsa's musical "hot sauce" has different seasonings, de-
pending on who's cooking and where. Musicians and producers have their
own recipes for what sounds good, and their aesthetic choices are strongly
influenced by national and regional stylistic differences.
In the 1980s, Cali, a bustling metropolis in southwest Colombia, emerged
as an important new center for salsa performance and consumption. In-
deed, the city was labeled in some circles as the "world salsa capital"-a
debatable but potent claim that I examine at length elsewhere (see Waxer
1998). During my field work on salsa's rise in Cali, I had the opportunity to
chat with one particularly respected expert about such differences-the
Venezuelan trombonist, composer, arranger, and producer Cesar Monge,
who has been living in Cali since 1988.3 I was curious to know how local
orquestas compared to the New York and Puerto Rican bands with which I
was more familiar. I also wanted help in understanding the differences
between Colombian salsa and its counterparts elsewhere. Knowing that
live salsa had played a minor role in Cali's scene until the 1980s, I could
see clear links between the flourishing of local groups and the development
Latin American Music Review, Volume 21, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2000

? 2000 by the University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819
The Rise of Colombian Salsa : 119
of a distinct Caleno (Cali-based) sound over the past fifteen years, and asked
Monge to comment on this process.
According to Monge, four important contemporary schools or styles of
salsa have emerged from the Cuban base, centered in New York, Puerto
Rico, Venezuela, and Colombia, respectively. (Despite salsa's popularity
in Panama, only one prominent artist has emerged from that country-
singer-songwriter Ruben Blades-and he is considered to be part of the
New York scene.) New York and Puerto Rico were the prime centers for
salsa's development in the 1960s and 1970s, but, as I discuss elsewhere,
Venezuelan bands were also making important contributions to the
transnational salsa scene during this time (Waxer 1993). Colombian salsa,
in turn, is generally viewed as a newcomer to the world salsa stage, emerg-
ing as a significant force only in the 1980s. During this period, Colombian
salsa became largely identified with Calenio orquestas, owing in part to the
international success of Cali-based bands such as Grupo Niche and
Guayacan. The only non-Calefio Colombian salsa performer of note is
Barranquilla star Joe Arroyo, whose development as a band leader I do
not examine here. In this article I explore the emergence of Colombian
salsa, focusing on developments in Cali over the past thirty years.
The Early Years of Colombian Salsa
Contrary to the relatively recent emergence of most Colombian salsa bands,

the roots of Colombian salsa can be traced back to the 1960s, contempo-
rary to salsa's rise in New York, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. Monge recalls
that back in the late 1960s and early 1970s, it was easier to get imported
salsa recordings in Barranquilla than in Caracas. When he toured Colom-
bia, friends would request that he bring back copies of the latest releases
from New York. Compared to Venezuela, however, few Colombian musi-
cians took up salsa in the 1960s and 1970s-despite a large public, espe-
cially in Cali, Barranquilla, Buenaventura, and Cartagena. Why so few
salsa musicians, yet so many fans? Monge reasoned that in Venezuela dur-
ing this time, the pool of trained musicians was much larger than in Co-
lombia, hence stimulating the formation of salsa bands in that country.
Ruth Glasser similarly observes that the prevalence of musical education
in schools and conservatories in Puerto Rico at the beginning of this cen-
tury played a strong role in the development of a vibrant Puerto Rican
musical culture (1995, 22). Indeed, there is considerable evidence that in-
creased access to musical training in Cali during the 1980s had a positive
influence on the rise of the live scene. Yet, while the lack of formal music
education may partially account for the dearth of Colombian salsa bands
before 1980, more precise explanations are needed.
120 : Lise Waxer
When salsa arrived on Colombian shores in the 1960s, a strong national

style-mzisica tropical-already existed. Mzisica tropical, a cosmopolitan ball
room sound based on the traditional cumbias, gaitas, and porros of Colombia's
Atlantic Coast was an important vehicle for transitions in images of culture
and race at the national level during the mid-twentieth century (Wade 1998).
Although salsa's predecessor, musica antillana (music of the Spanish Antilles)
had already established a strong Colombian audience for Cuban-based
sounds, the majority of Colombian popular musicians in the 1960s per-
formed mzisica tropical.
The few Colombian bands that did start to play salsa were not strict in
their assimilation of the new styles emanating from New York and Puerto
Rico. Earlier Colombian groups who performed in the style of 1950s Cu-
ban ensembles such as the Sonora Matancera, in contrast, tended to follow
their models fairly closely. Colombian salsa recordings from the 1960s and
1970s are characterized by an eclectic, experimental quality, as musicians
adapted salsa to other popular currents of the time. During the 1960s and
early 1970s, musica tropical and its derivative, raspa, were still dominant
styles in the national media and recording industry. British and U.S. rock
bands also exerted an influence on Colombian youth, as did the nueva ola
(new wave) of Spanish pop crooners such as Rafael and Julio Iglesias.
Meanwhile, early New York salsa styles such as pachanga and bugalu were
popular on both the Atlantic and Pacific littorals of Colombia, as was the
salsa dura ("hard/heavy") style developed by Eddie Palmieri, Willie Col6n,
Richie Ray, and other salsa pioneers. These diverse musical influences are
evident in early Colombian groups, who fused salsa with elements of rock,
muisica tropical, and other styles.
The earliest extant example of commercial Colombian salsa that I have
been able to trace is the song "Pachanga del anio nuevo" ("New Year's
Pachanga," on Charangas con Pachangas, 1969), written by guitarist-com-
poser Julian Angulo and recorded by his own band, Julian y su Combo
(photo 1). This group made regular appearances on national television
throughout the 1960s, playing salsa and mzisica tropical.4 The tune was the
first pachanga ever composed and recorded by a Colombian and certainly
the first "home grown" salsa hit. Medardo Arias recalled that records of
the tune sold widely in Buenaventura in the late-1960s, and could be fre-
quently heard at family and neighborhood parties.5 Don Pablo Solano,
likewise, confirmed that the recording was also played at nightclubs in
Cali.6 Unlike the pachanga popularized by the charanga (flute and violin)
ensembles ofJoey Quijano, Johnny Pacheco, and other New York artists
earlier in the decade, however, this adaptation featured electric guitar in-
stead of piano, and trumpet and saxophone in place of flute and violins.
Besides the change in format, however, this recording is a good assimila-
tion of the New York pachanga style. The tempo is upbeat, and the open-
ing verses are brief, the emphasis being placed on sprightly call-and-response
Photo 1.Julian y su Combo (1969), with the first album of Colombian salsa ever
recorded.Julian Angulo is second from right.
vocals in the montuno. The combination of trumpets and saxophone in

the horn section, played with cheerful if unpolished enthusiasm (e.g., dis-
crepancies of intonation and somewhat sloppy entries), is characteristic of
early Colombian salsa.
Other salsa bands began appearing throughout the country in the late
1960s and early 1970s. Alexis Lozano, who later founded Grupo Niche
and then Guayacan, formed a group in his native Quibd6 in 1968, called
Los Tremenditos, which was modeled after New York salsa groups and
also early Venezuelan bands such as Nelson y sus Estrellas and Sexteto
Juventud (Perecheala 1992,32). Meanwhile, in Cartagena, trombonist Michi
Sarmiento formed a group that included the promising young singerJoe
Arroyo. Arroyo moved to Barranquilla in 1969, and joined forces with
Johnny Arzusa to form La Protesta, an orquesta modeled on New York groups
such as that of Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz, whose sound was character-
ized by brilliant trumpets, dynamic percussion, and punchy instrumental
122 : Lise Waxer
breaks.
breaks. Subsequently,
Subsequently,inin1971,
1971,
Arroyo
Arroyojoined
joined
Fruko
Frukoy sus
y Tesos.
sus Tesos.
Unlike
Unlike
their
their counterparts
counterpartsininNew
New York,
York,
Puerto
PuertoRico,
Rico,
andand
Venezuela,
Venezuela,
however,
however,
most
most Colombian
Colombianorquestas
orquestas remained
remainedin in
a chrysalis
a chrysalis
stage.
stage.
To my
To knowl-
my knowl-
edge,
edge, none
noneofofthese
theseearly
earlybands
bands
recorded,
recorded,andand
I doI not
do not
havehave
goodgood
data data
on on
how
how they
they sounded.
sounded.Furthermore,
Furthermore,none
none
seem
seem
to have
to have
achieved
achieved
muchmuch
promi-
promi-
nence outside their home towns.
Early Caleno Bands
Cali's first salsa bands date back to the late 1960s. As in other parts of the
country, local musicians were mainly self-taught. During this time, the only
institute for formal musical training was the city conservatory, which em-
phasized classical music and was mainly for the upper classes. Radio and
recordings both played a key role in this process. Since not everyone in
the working-class barrios could afford record playback equipment, how-
ever, radio became an especially important influence on aspiring young
musicians. By 1965, salsa could be heard on local airwaves, broadcast on
daily afternoon and evening programs that multiplied through the early
1970s. Wilson "Saoco" Manyoma (who joined Colombian salsa pioneer
Fruko), and his brother Hermes (who had his own salsa band, La Ley) told
me that they learned how to play by imitating sounds heard on radio,
substituting kitchen utensils and other household items for musical instru-
ments. When they were growing up in the 1960s, the family did not own a
record player, and the recordings they heard were either via the radio or at
friends' houses.
Hermes Manyoma: We have to speak of a process that began more or less

thirty years ago, we've lived here since 1962, we lived in this house. That
part where you see the kitchen was a terrace. It was a terrace where we had
a washtub, where we had some pots, and where we had things that we used
to replace the instruments that we didn't even know about. Because at that
time I didn't know what, more than having seen them on a record jacket,
what timbale drums were. I didn't know what timbales were, but I wanted-
Wilson Manyoma: Nor a trumpet.
Hermes: Nor a trumpet, because-
Wilson: We used a hose! [they laugh]
Hermes: So, there we began to interpret and try out, me as a timbales player
because I didn't sing, and Wilson played his tube, and sang the tunes from
that time, of Cortijo and his Combo [sings refrains of various tunes]. And we
spent every afternoon and night playing those tunes until Sefiora Esneda
[their mother] said, "Please stop!" But in any case, when she went to work
[washing laundry in the evenings] we kept going at night. That's where we
started to make music, assimilating what we might have heard on the radio,
or on the 78 r.p.m. records that friends had picked up, that we never had.7
Other musicians in Cali similarly learned through an empirical process of

listening and doing. Given that most young Calefios were investing their
creative talents in dance, however, and not music-making, the pool of bud-
ding musicians remained small.
During the 1970s, Cuban-style son conjuntos from earlier decades were
still active, such as the SonoraJuventud (literally, the Youth Sonora), which
was a successor to Tito Cortes' Sonora Cali. Los Hermanos Ospino (The
Ospino Brothers) also continued as a prominent fixture in the local scene.
These groups performed the newer salsa sounds in addition to their stock
of Cuban tunes. Both Hermes and Wilson Manyoma performed with the
SonoraJuventud. While Wilson left to join Fruko in 1973 (see below),
Hermes continued with the orquesta until they disbanded in 1979.
Between 1979 and 1980 the SonoraJuventud disbanded and regrouped
as the Octava Dimensi6n (Eighth Dimension), an orquesta that performed
cover versions of classic salsa dura in the style popularized by the Fania
All-Stars and by El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico. The Octava Dimensi6n
soon became one of the most popular local orquestas to hire for dances
and as a "warm-up" act for international salsa bands. Around this same
time, Hermes Manyoma founded La Ley (The Law), an orquesta that per-
formed in the heavier, rough-edged "barrio style" of Willie Col6n and the
Lebron Brothers. Other local bands included Formula Ocho (Formula 8)
and La Gran Banda Calenia (The Cali Big Band), which were mzisica tropi-
calbands that later shifted towards salsa. All of these bands are still active,
but have been obliged to adapt to recent currents and mainly perform salsa
romdntica (romantic salsa).8
With less than ten local bands active on the scene, there was frequent
work for everyone during the 1970s. According to Santiago Mejia and
Hermes Manyoma, a band might work as often as three, four, or even five
times a week, playing at grilles (nightclubs), salons, school dances, wed-
dings, baptisms, quinceafieras [girls' debutante parties] and other private
parties, in addition to occasional performances for patronal fiestas in nearby
towns. People would also rent a salon and hire a local band for a party, a
practice that later became too expensive for most to afford.9 Wilson
Manyoma recalls that the money from these performances was not a great
deal, but usually enough to cover basic needs.10 Most of Cali's early orquestas
performed a repertoire of salsa, musica tropical, Spanish pasodoble, and
other international ball room genres, no doubt finding that this mixed rep-
ertoire cut across class lines and hence maximized performance opportu-
nities. The salsa tunes played were cover versions of tunes already popular
in the record-centered scene: hits by famous New York and Puerto Rican
artists such as Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz, Hector Lavoe, Ray Barretto,
Cheo Feliciano, Adalberto Santiago, Roberto Roena, and Ismael Miranda.
Since performances by international orquestas were rare, there was not
124 : Lise Waxer
the same competition from

from these
these more
more prestigious
prestigious bands
bands as
as happened
happened later
later
in the 1980s.11 The fact
fact that
that these
these bands
bands performed
performed cover
cover versions
versions of
of hit
hit
recordings by international
international bands,
bands, however,
however, rather
rather than
than developing
developing an
an
original repertoire, suggests
suggests that
that recordings
recordings continued
continued to
to exert
exert an
an inordi-
inordi-
nate power over the local
local scene,
scene, determining
determining musical
musical tastes
tastes and
and shaping
shaping
the very tunes people expected
expected to
to hear.
hear.
"Piper Pimienta "Diaz: Los

Los Supremos
Supremos and
and Beyond
Beyond
The first prominent salsa

salsa band
band inin Cali
Cali was
was Los
Los Supremos,
Supremos, led led by
by singer
singer
Edulfamit Molina Diaz-more
Diaz-more commonly
commonly knownknown asas "Piper
"Piper Pimienta."
Pimienta." Born
Born
in 1939 in Puerto Tejada,
Tejada, Piper
Piper grew
grew up up in
in Cali's
Cali's Barrio
Barrio Obrero,
Obrero, thethe
city's most traditional zone
zone for
for mfisica
mfisica antillana
antillana and
and salsa
salsa fans.
fans. Through
Through
the 1960s, he performed
performed in in various
various son
son conjuntos,
conjuntos, before
before forming
forming LosLos
Supremos towards the end end of
of the
the decade.
decade. Piper
Piper Pimienta's
Pimienta's thick
thick and
and
growly voice was well suited
suited to
to the
the sonero
sonero style,
style, and
and his
his unusual
unusual and
and char-
char-
ismatic inflection of words further endeared him to local audiences. Los
Supremos performed regularly in Cali and the nearby port of
Buenaventura.
In 1970 Los Supremos was invited to Medellin to record an album for

Discosfuentes, the country's largest recording label. The album recorded
by Los Supremos was prophetically titled Atiza, Ataja (Push, Pull). Its rather
unorthodox blend of New York salsa with elements of tropical and rock
seems to reflect the push-pull of different forces that were shaping Colom-
bian popular tastes at the beginning of the 1970s.
"Atiza, ataja "(1970)

(Piper Pimiento with Los Supremos)
Hay un dicho sabroso que There's a cool saying

se ha puesto de moda, that's brand new,
Unos dicen "atiza" Some people say "push"
Yotros contestan "ataja." and the others reply "pull."
Cuando yo les diga "atiza" When I tell you "push,"
ustedes contestan "ataja!" you all answer "pull!"
The title cut of the album is fast-paced for salsa, played at = 108, and it
emphasizes an energetic descarga or "jam-session" feel that has not contin-
ued in later Colombian salsa. The band uses instrumentation similar to
that used in New York salsa dura bands from that time: conga, timbal,
bongo, piano, bass, saxophones, trumpets, and vocals. The rhythm section
sounds almost like a New York band, with a hard-driving swing (see
Washbume 1998). Later Colombian salsa bands would be more clearly
influenced by musica tropical and Cuban guaracha, with a rhythmic attack
placed
placedsquarely
squarelyon on
toptop
of or
ofeven
or even
slightly
slightly
ahead of ahead
the beat,
of the
with
beat,
a lighter,
with a lighter,
bouncier
bouncierfeel.
feel.
Since
Since
thethe
tempotempo
is played
is played
so fast,sothe
fast,
percussionists
the percussionists
seem to seem to
have
havetrouble
troublestaying
staying
on top
on top
of the
ofbeat.
the The
beat.
band
Theis band
not very
is not
tight
very
as a tight as a
result,
result,and
andthe
the
timbal
timbal
patterns
patterns
are rather
are rather
sloppy.sloppy.
In the final
In the
section
final
ofsection
the of the
piece,
piece,the
therhythm
rhythmbriefly
briefly
switches
switches
to an to
unusual
an unusual
quasi-rock
quasi-rock
feel, withfeel,
steady
with steady
eighth
eighthnotes
notesplayed
played
on the
on the
high-hat
high-hat
and the
and
rest
the
of rest
the rhythm
of the section
rhythm section
emphasizing
emphasizing the
the
downbeats,
downbeats,
whilewhile
Piper Piper
does a does
call-and-response
a call-and-response
on the on the
words
words"Atiza!
"Atiza!Ataja"
Ataja"
with
with
the coro
the coro
singers.
singers.
After
Afterthis
thisrecording,
recording,
Piper
Piper
left left
Los Supremos
Los Supremos
owing to
owing
conflicts
to conflicts
over over
band
bandleadership.'2
leadership.'2Piper
Piper
remained
remained
in Medellin,
in Medellin,
joining joining
a new salsa
a new
bandsalsa band
by
by the
thename
nameofof
Fruko
Fruko
y sus
y Tesos
sus Tesos
(see below).
(see below).
FoundedFounded
by leading
by leading
Discosfuentes
Discosfuentes artistJulio
artistJulio
Ernesto
Ernesto
"Fruko"
"Fruko"
Estrada,
Estrada,
the bandthe
fused
band
elements
fused elements
of
of raspa
raspaand
androck
rockwith
with
salsa.
salsa.
Although
Although
Piper left
PiperFruko
leftinFruko
1972, he
in contin-
1972, he contin-
ued
ued to
toperform
performin in
Fruko's
Fruko's
eclectic
eclectic
style,style,
as is evident
as is evident
in the song,
in the
"Lassong, "Las
calefias
calefiasson
son
como
comolas las
flores"
flores"
(Calefia
(Calefia
women women
are likeare
flowers)
like flowers)
which be-which be-
came
camea asignature
signature tune
tune
for for
Piper.13
Piper.13
The tune
Thesings
tunepraises
sings to
praises
Cali's women,
to Cali's women,
idealizing
idealizingthem
them as beautiful
as beautiful
flowers
flowers
for contemplation.
for contemplation.
These perceptions
These perceptions
correspond
correspond toto
thethe
oft-heard
oft-heard
adageadage
that Calefia
that Calefia
women women
are the prettiest
are the in
prettiest in
all Colombia.
"Las calefias son como las flores"(1975)

(Piper Pimienta, with Fruko y sus Tesos)
Las
Lascaleias
caleias
son como
son como
lasfloreslasflores Caleias are like flowers
Que
Quevestido
vestido
van de
vanmilde
colores
mil colores That go clothed in a thousand colors
Ellas
Ellasnunca
nunca
entregan
entregan
sus amores
sus amores They never give love
Si
Sinonoestdn
estdn
correspondidas.
correspondidas. If it's not suitable.
Caminando
Caminando van por
vanlaspor
aceras
las aceras They go walking along the sidewalks
Contoneando
Contoneando llevanllevan
su cintura
su cintura Swaying at the waist
Ellas
Ellasmueven
muevenlas caderas
las caderas They move their hips
como
como laslas
canaverales.
canaverales. like the reeds.
(A la la la ...) (A la la la la...)
(Bis) (Repeat)
Montuno (Call-and-Response Section)
Las calenas son Calefias are

Como lasflores Like flowers
Las sencillas son The simple ones are
Como violetas Like violets
Las bonitas son The pretty ones are
Como gardenias Like gardenias
Las hermosas son The beauties are
Como la rosa Like a rose
Las negritas son The black ones are

Una ricura Smashing
126 : Lise Waxer
Las gorditas son The plump ones are

Sabrosura Delicious
Lasflaquitas son The skinny ones are
No hay cintura No waist
Las calenas son Calefias are
Como lasflores Like flowers
The most striking feature of this arrangement is the rugged tromb
which are clearly derived from the style developed by New York
Eddie Palmieri and Willie Col6n, and further popularized during the
1970s by Venezuela's Dimensi6n Latina. The verses are played over a
mic figure that emphasizes the piano chord on beat two and the arp
triad on beats one, three, and four in the bass line (figure 1):
Figure 1. Cumbia rhythmic figure from "Las Calefias."
Am E Am E
7cz J U j U - I ; -
This rhythmic accompaniment is typical of Colombian misic

and dance-band cumbia. At the montuno section, the rhythmic feel
salsa, with the interlocking anticipated bass pattern, piano guajeo
and percussion tumbaos typical of Cuban-based dance styles.14
accents on beats two and four, however, maintain the influence of
tropical (these kinds of accents are prominent in porro arrangeme
song culminates in a bugalf-influenced vamp, characterized by han
on beats two and four, with a rising chord sequence in the bass an
and a coro of "Con las mujeres de Cali me voy a gozar" (I'm goin
a good time with the women of Cali).
The Impact of Fruko in Cali
Fruko y sus Tesos was very popular in Cali, not least because two of
vocalists hailed from that city: Piper Pimienta (1970-72) and Wilso
Manyoma (1973-1980s). Costefio singerJoe Arroyo also perform
Fruko (1972-80), alternating lead vocals with Saoco. The combi
Saoco's deep sonero voice, similar to that of New York and Pue
salsa singers of the time, and Arroyo's unusual tenor proved to be a win-
ning combination for listeners throughout Colombia. In addition, songs
were frequently peppered with interjections such as "Viva Cali!" or "Viva
Cartagena!," along with dedications to traditional salsero barrios in Cali,
Cartagena, and Barranquilla.
Fruko was well known for combining salsa with elements of Colombian
mfsica tropical (i.e., dance-band cumbia) and rock in a unique style he
called salsibiri. Central to Fruko's sound was the tendency to juxtapose
different styles and rhythms in different sections of a piece. His 1973 hit,
"Tania," for example, starts out with a mfsica tropical (cumbia) rhythm in
the first part of the verse, switches to rock 'n' roll at the end of the verse,
alternates between salsa and rock 'n' roll for the coro, with cumbia used for
the mambo (horn chorus) parts between coro sections.15 Other tunes from
the early and mid-1970s are similarly eclectic in the use of different styles
for different parts of the arrangement. Fruko's fusions are similar to the
pop-oriented salsa-bugali-tropicaltunes that two international artists popu-
larized in Colombia during the early 1970s, Nelson y sus Estrellas (Venezu-
ela) and Alfredito Linares (Peru). In addition to his eclectic style, Fruko's
overall style was characterized by a bouncy, "on top of the beat" rhythmic
swing. This feel no doubt derives from the attack used in playing Colom-
bian misica tropical-indeed, most of Fruko's band (including Fruko him-
self) had grown up playing mfisica tropical.16
The unconventional musical style of Fruko y sus Tesos was underscored
by their public image, which was styled after North American youth cul-
ture: afro hairstyles, Indian paisley prints, love beads, and leather vests
(see photo 2). The very name of the band, which translates as "Fruko and
his Tough Guys," suggested a rebellious stance. Album covers depicted
Fruko in aggressive poses, fists raised or gun in hand, sometimes flanked
by Saoco and Arroyo in similar henchmen postures. The "tough guy" pos-
turing was no doubt also modeled on rising young New York salsa super-
star Willie Col6n, whose "bad boy" image and aggressive sound defined
the New York scene in the late 1960s and 1970s. According to Discosfuentes
publicist FelipeJaramillo, Fruko's first appearance in Cali in 1973 almost
did not materialize-the band was almost sent packing because concert
promoters thought they were shiftless hippies!17 Medardo Arias recalls that
Fruko's tough guy image was previously unknown in Colombian popular
culture.'8 Although Fruko did not gain much acceptance among purists of
the New York-Puerto Rican sound, he developed a strong following among
younger listeners, many of whom saw his band as a vital expression of
contemporary Colombian youth music. PianistJaime Henao, a founder of
La Misma Gente, acknowledges Fruko-along with North American rock
bands-as an important musical influence during his teens.19
128 : Lise Waxer
Photo 2. Fruko y sus Tesos, c. 1973. From

From left
left to
to right,Joe
right,Joe Arroyo,Julio
Arroyo,Julio Ernesto
Ernesto
"Fruko" Estrada, and Wilson "Saoco" Manyoma.
Manyoma. (Source:
(Source: El
El Tiempo,
Tiempo, reprinted
reprinted in
in
Arteaga 1992, 96).
The Live Scene Expands
During the late 1970s and into the 1980s,

1980s, Cali's
Cali's live
live scene
scene grew
grew consider-
consider-
ably, under the aegis of an empresario named
named Larry
Larry Landa.
Landa. A
A fashion
fashion
boutique owner who became involved in
in the
the cocaine
cocaine trade
trade during
during the
the mid-
mid-
1970s, Landa is fondly remembered as aa Robin
Robin Hood
Hood sort
sort of
of figure
figure who
who
ploughed most of his illicit profits into
into promoting
promoting famous
famous New
New York
York salsa
salsa
orquestas in Cali and nearby Buenaventura.
Buenaventura. He
He was
was responsible
responsible for
for the
the
debut of the Fania All-Stars in Colombia
Colombia in
in 1980,
1980, and
and he
he also
also brought
brought
several top New York artists to Cali, including
including Eddie
Eddie Palmieri,
Palmieri, Hector
Hector Lavoe,
Lavoe,
Willie Col6n, Ruben Blades, and more. Before
Before Landa
Landa appeared
appeared on
on the
the
scene, few salsa artists had performed in
in Cali:
Cali: only
only Richie
Richie Ray
Ray and
and Bobby
Bobby
Cruz (1968), Ismael Miranda (1972), and El
El Gran
Gran Combo
Combo (1975).
(1975). Besides
Besides
these visits, however, the sole contact that
that Calefio
Calefio aficionados
aficionados had
had with
with the
the
New York and Puerto Rico scene was via
via recordings.
recordings.
Landa's contributions to Cali's salsa scene were critical. He established
a glamorous and exciting ambiance for salsa that had not existed
previously, sponsoring international shows, mass public salsa concerts, and

opening Cali's first luxury salsa nightclub-Juan Pachanga, named after a
famous Ruben Blades' song. The appearance of internationally famous
orquestas, known previously only through their recordings, provoked tre-
mendous excitement in Cali, magnifying and reinforcing the cosmopoli-
tan sensibilities forged in previous decades through the consumption of
salsa recordings. This, in turn, had an enormous effect on local music-
making. With the opportunity to see New York bands in person, local
musicians were exposed to new sounds and techniques, especially the
members of Octava Dimensi6n and La Ley, who were frequently con-
tracted by Landa to open for or alternate sets with the New York orquestas.
Santiago Mejia, leader of the Octava Dimensi6n, recalls that such gigs were
a tremendous experience from which they learned a lot and also had the
opportunity to converse with the visiting musicians, exchanging musical
ideas and getting pointers.20 Visiting international orquestas also inspired
new musicians to take up salsa, and helped spur the formation of more local
bands. Although Landa's illustrious career was cut short in 1985, when he
died (some say assassinated) in a New York prison while serving a drug-
trafficking sentence, his legacy lived on in the boom of Cali's local live scene.
Another extremely important influence in the rise of the local scene was
the Festival de Orquestas, an annual marathon concert held during the
December Feria (annual fair). Featuring local, national, and international
salsa orquestas, the festival was launched in 1980 byJairo Sanchez, musi-
cal director of the Feria from 1980-1989. Created as a vehicle for exchange
between international and local orquestas, the festival was sponsored in an
effort to promote the viability and quality of local bands.21 Although ini-
tially ridiculed by critics, who saw local bands as little more than "filler"
for the international acts, the festival fulfilled its promise.Jairo Varela, for
example, notes that Grupo Niche began to pay greater attention to aspects
of band uniforms and choreography after performing opposite El Gran
Combo and Oscar D'Le6n during the 1984 Festival de Orquestas.22
Sanchez explained to me that the Festival de Orquestas has had its stron-
gest influence in providing local musicians with a highly visible perfor-
mance space each December. This became a strong motivation to stay
active throughout the year and keep improving. During the 1980s, the
number of local bands appearing in the Festival steadily increased, ear-
marking the event as a showcase for local talent. Significantly, Calenio bands
proved that they could put on as good a show as the international orquestas.
At no other time in the year does the Calefio public turn out in such large
numbers to listen, dance to, and cheer on its own orquestas. The opportu-
nity for local bands to perform in the limelight, hence, further stimulated
the growth of Cali's live scene.
130 : Lise Waxer
The Impact
Impact of
of Musicians
Musiciansfrom
fromthe
thePacific
PacificCoast
Coast
Colombian
Colombian salsa
salsa began
began to
toblossom
blossomduring
duringthe
the1980s,
1980s,with
withthe
the
appearance
appearance
of two
two groups
groups hailing
hailing from
fromthe
thePacific
PacificCoast,
Coast,Grupo
GrupoNiche
Niche
and
and
Guayacan.
Guayacan.
These
These orquestas
orquestas are
are Cali's
Cali'stop
topsalsa
salsabands,
bands,and
andare
areoften
oftenreferred
referred
toto
(erro-
(erro-
neously)
neously) as
as the
the progenitors
progenitorsof
ofCali's
Cali'sscene.
scene.Some
Someobservers
observersmaintain
maintainthat
that
these
these orquestas
orquestas are
are not
not "legitimately"
"legitimately"Calefio
Calefiobecause
becausemost
mostofof
their
their
mem-
mem-
bers are
are not
not natives
natives of
of the
thecity,
city,yet
yetno
noone
onecan
candeny
denythat
that
musicians
musicians
from
from
the Pacific Coast have been vital to the rise of Cali's salsa scene.
Niche and Guayacan trace their roots back to Quibd6, the capital of
Choc6 province. Although these two bands were actually founded in Bogota
and subsequently relocated to Cali, the original members of Niche and
Guayacan hail primarily from Quibd6. As in Cali, the Cuban-based sounds
of mzsica antillana had a strong influence in Quibd6 during the 1940s and
1950s, arriving via recordings brought down the Atrato River, the princi-
pal trade link of Quibd6 to the outside world. According to Guayacan's
leader Alexis Lozano, the local preference for Cuban son continued even
after New York and Puerto Rican salsa began to enter the country, estab-
lishing a strong foothold in areas such as Cali and Buenaventura.23 The
lighter, less strident style of Cuban son is evident in the sound that Niche
and Guayacan developed through the 1980s and 1990s, particularly no-
ticeable in melodic lines, texture, rhythmic phrasing and harmonic voices.
Another key element in the formation of Quibd6 salsa musicians was
the academy established in Quibd6 by Padre Isaac Rodriguez, a Catholic
priest who gave lessons in instrumental technique (keyboard and brass),
musical rudiments, harmony, and solfege. Padre Rodriguez founded his
academy in conjunction with the local cathedral, as a means of obtaining
trained musicians to play for Sunday mass and other Church functions.
AlthoughJairo Varela did not attend this school, Alexis Lozano and other
members of Niche and Guayacan studied there. The priest never did ap-
prove of his students' involvement with popular music, but his teaching
laid the groundwork for several musicians who became key figures in the
development of Colombian salsa.
The strong role of salsa musicians from the littoral-as vocalists, instru-
mentalists, bandleaders, songwriters, and arrangers-has been part of a gen-
eral surge in migration from the Pacific to Cali in the past twenty years.
This migration, which dates back to the links between the Cauca Valley
region (where Cali lies) and the Pacific Coast established during colonial
times, was stimulated during the 1970s and 1980s as people poured into
Cali seeking jobs cutting sugar cane or work in the expanding construction
and transportation industry. According to eminent local sociologist Gustavo
de Roux, newcomers to the city often followed relatives and neighbors,
setting
settingupup
strong
strong
"migratory
"migratory
chains"
chains"
that reinforced
that reinforced
economic economic
and social and social
links
linksbetween
betweenCali
Cali
andand
the the
Pacific
Pacific
littoral.24
littoral.24
The development
The development
of Niche of Niche
and
and Guayacan
Guayacan during
during
the the
1980s1980s
is rooted
is rooted
in suchin
migratory
such migratory
networks and
networks and
is
is similarly
similarlybased
based
on on
social
social
and familial
and familial
ties. ties.
Grupo Niche
Grupo Niche was founded in Bogota in 1978, with a debut record album
between 1979 and 1980. Like many young Quibdecefios, founding mem-
bers Jairo Varela and Alexis Lozano had moved to the nation's capital
during the 1970s in order to complete their education and seek employ-
ment. Varela, a songwriter and lyricist, contacted multi-instrumentalist and
arranger Lozano with the idea of forming a salsa band, which they chris-
tened with the colloquial term niche. In Colombia, as in other Hispanic
Caribbean nations such as Puerto Rico and Venezuela, this term refers to
someone who is of African descent. Although the word has somewhat nega-
tive connotations when used between whites and blacks (similar to the
U.S. term "nigger"), the term is often used affectionately between Afro-
Colombians, signifying "brother" or "pal." Since the group was formed
almost entirely of Afro-Colombians, playing an Afro-Caribbean genre
(salsa), Niche was no doubt seen as the appropriate name for the band.
Niche's first recording, AlPasito, was released in 1980 to little acclaim,
but their next album, Querer es Poder (1981), garnered much attention and
broke Fruko's monopoly on Colombian salsa. The album, in general, rep-
resented the new face of Colombian salsa. Instead of Fruko's eclectic fu-
sion of salsa with rock and raspa, Niche played salsa in the crisp,
straight-ahead fashion of Puerto Rican groups such as El Gran Combo.
The nasal timbre of the vocals was very much in the style of 1950s Cuban
bands such as the Sonora Matancera. Sometimes cited as Niche's best al-
bum, Querer es Poder is generally lauded for its combination of salsa with
musical and lyrical elements from the Pacific Coast. One example is "Mi
mama me ha dicho" (My Mother Told Me), which sets a traditional
Chocoano song in a catchy salsa arrangement. Another tune, "Digo Yo" (I
Say), refers directly to the Afro-Colombian religious practice of lighting
candles to invoke specific saints.25
The album's most successful tune, however, was "Buenaventura y
Caney," which became a national hit. The song is dedicated to the Afro-
Colombian population of Buenaventura-Caney is the name of a famous
canteen in the port. With lyrics and melody byJairo Varela and arrange-
ment by Alexis Lozano, the tune featured a structural coherence and pol-
ished execution not heard previously in Colombian bands.
132 : Lise Waxer
"Buenaventura
"Buenaventura y Caney"(1981)
y Caney"(1981)
(Grupo
(Grupo Niche)
Niche)
(Verso) (Verse)
(spoken: Para Chava con carino) (To Chava with love)
Que sepan en Puerto Rico So they know in Puerto Rico
Que es la tierra deljibarito Which is land of the jibaro (peasant),
A Nueva York hoy mi canto To New York today, let them pardon
Perdonen que no les dedico, that I don't dedicate my song to them,
A Panama a Venezuela To Panama and Venezuela
A todos todos hermanitos, To all, all the little brothers,
El Grupo Niche disculpaspide Grupo Niche begs pardon,
Pues no es nuestra culpa, But it's not our fault,
Que en la costa del Pacifico That on the Pacific Coast,
Hay un pueblo que la llevamos There's a town that we carry
En al alma se nospegaron. In our souls, they really struck deep.
Ycon otros lo comparamos, And with others that we compare it
Alld hay carino, ternura, Down there there's sweetness and
tenderness,
Ambiente de sabrosura, A scene with spice,
Los cueros van en la sangre The drums are in their blood
Delpequeno hasta el mds grande, From the little to the oldest,
Son niches como nosotros They're black like us
De alegria siempre en el rostro, Smiles always on their faces
A ti mi Buenaventura To you, my Buenaventura,
Con amor te lo dedicamos. With love we dedicate this.
Montuno
(Coro) (Chorus)
Del Caney al Bulevard From Caney to the Boulevard
Amigo dos pasos Friend, it's two steps
Ahi llegamos al pifial There we arrive at the pineapple grove
Luego nos tapiamos. Then we hole up.
Ahi tiene su monte There they have outback,

Ahi tiene su rey There they have their king
Como el melao tiene el mamey As molasses has its mamey [fruit]
Yuna negrita tambien. And a black woman too.
(Coro) (Chorus)
Donde el negro solo solito se liber6 Where the black all alone freed
himself
Rienda
Riendasuelta al suelta
sabor y al tambor
al sabor
le did. He gave
y al freetambor
rein to the drum
leand
d
(Coro) (Chorus)
Lo mismo que por tus calles T
Vi una morena pasar lay! que bel
what a beauty.
(Coro) (Chorus)
Nos tapiamos, nos emborrachamos
Por Dios que por ti, todito lo brindam
(Coro) (Chorus)
Cuando lejos de ti me encuentro W
Buenaventura siento ganas de llora
Por ti. For you.
The tune became an instant hit in th

town's second anthem next to Petronio Alvarez's currulao "Mi
Buenaventura." (Currulao is the marimba-based Afro-Colombian and Afr
Ecuadorian tradition that predominates in the southwest Pacific littora
Colombia and northwest coast of Ecuador.) Indeed, the song makes d
reference to local musical tradition by quoting the melody of the
Buenaventura." This quotation appears at the end of the first mambo se
tion (figure 2).
Figure 2. Melodic quote from "Mi Buenaventura"
e LTC, (Piaa)
p hO
lW et.
Figure 3. Inc
^My
^^jir^xr J r r ^Lr i
The melody of "Mi Buenaventura" is adapted from the compound duple
meter (6/8) of the original composition (see figure 3) to 4/4 time, in order
to work over the salsa arrangement.
The tune also features a catchy piano and bass vamp during the second
half of the piece, played beneath the coro (figure 4). This vamp uses a
descending stepwise chord sequence, common in Andalucian Spanish
genres such as flamenco (although this influence may have come more di-
rectly via Cuban songs that incorporate this device).
"Buenaventura y Caney" features many basic elements that have con-
tinued to define Niche's sound. Despite stylistic shifts through the years,
134 : Lise Waxer
Figure
Figure4. 4.
Vamp
Vamp
from
from
"Buenaventura
"Buenaventura
y Caney,"
y montuno
Caney,"section
montuno section
Dm C Bb A7 y Dm
-.7 c ' t- - L
Dm C Bb A7 .
Niche's style retains the influence of classic, tipico (typical, i.e. traditional)
orquestas such as El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico, and also Venezuela's
Oscar D'Le6n.26 Varela confirmed this observation, noting that this was
especially strong during Niche's early years.27 The tipico influence is quite
evident not only on Querer es Poder but also Niche's other recordings through
the mid-1980s. The arrangements are uncomplicated, with the bright, short
horn phrases reminiscent of El Gran Combo's style and also strongly influ-
enced by the horn writing characteristic of musica tropical. Most songs are
at mid-tempo (J = 98), a good speed for dancing. (By this time, Caleiio
dancers had abandoned the frenzied "double-time" step of the 1960s and
early 1970s and had returned to the standard salsa step common through-
out Latin America.)
Niche's overall sound in these early years is clean and uncluttered, rein-
forced by the crisp patter of the maracas and the steady pulse of the campana.
The overall swing of the band is lighter and more buoyant than Puerto
Rican and New York players (Washburne 1998). Percussion, bass, and pi-
ano provide a solid rhythmic foundation, but are not played as aggres-
sively as New York and Puerto Rican salsa dura bands. Indeed, the bass is
very relaxed in its placement behind the beat, sounding more laid back
than Puerto Rican and Cuban bands. The conga and timbal, on the other
hand, are played squarely on top of the beat, as in Fruko's earlier style.
The maracas and campana, for their part, are placed after the downbeat,
as in the Cuban and Puerto Rican style, and it is these two instruments,
ultimately, that propel the groove most strongly.28 Even though some of
the instruments in the rhythm section actually place their attack slightly
behind the beat, the overall feel of Colombian salsa is on top of the beat,
and this has become typical of all Colombian salsa. Producer and arranger
Jesus "Chucho" Ramirez observed that the rhythmic feel of Grupo Niche,
and later, Guayacan, relates to the influence of musica tropical on Colom-
bian players.
Colombian salsa took on the style of Niche and Guayacan, which is a style
that, since they're Chocoanos, they had some classic tunes. Even though
Jairo Varela has made many changes, the percussion has always identified
who we are. Why is the percussion different from that of Puerto Rico or New
York? Because we've become-musicians from here haven't played salsa
exclusively. They've played Colombian music, and that's why the attack is
different from those from over there.29
Despite the strong impact of Cuban-based music, the influence of Colom-

bian national styles has ultimately been a definitive factor in the Colom-
bian sound, compared to other styles of salsa.
Niche relocated to Cali in 1982, recording two albums before their land-
mark hit "Cali Pachanguero" was released on No Hay Quinto Malo in 1984.
During this period, co-founder Alexis Lozano left Niche to form Guayacan.
The lyrics of "Cali Pachanguero" pay tribute to Cali, evoking scenes from
popular life with references to salsa and soccer, linking these to a romantic
vision of Cali as "heaven's outpost."
"Cali Pachanguero" (1984)

(Grupo Niche)
(Coro) (Chorus)
Cali pachanguero, Cali pachanguero,
Cali, luz de un nuevo cielo Cali, light of a new sky
(bis) (repeat)
(Verso) (Verse)
De romdntica luna, From the romantic moon,
El lucero que es lelo The star that is stunned,
De mirar en tu valle To see in your valley
La mujer que yo quiero. The woman I love.
Yelgilquero que canta And the gilquero [bird] that sings
Calles que se levantan, Streets that rise up,
Carnaval enJuanchito, Carnival injuanchito
Todo un pueblo inspira! A whole town inspires!
(Coro) (Chorus)
Cali pachanguero, Cali pachanguero,
Cali, luz de un nuevo cielo Cali, light of a new sky
(bis) (repeat)
(Verso) (Verse)
Es por eso que espero It's for this that I hope
Que los dids que lejos That the days when [I'm] afar,
No, no duren mi ausencia, My absence is not prolonged,
Sabes bien que me muero, You know well that I die,
Todos los caminos conducen a tzi All roads lead to you,
Si supieras la pena If you knew the pain
Que un dia senti, That I felt one day,
Cuando enfrente de mi When in front of me
Tus montanas no vi! I did not see your mountains!
Que todo, que todo, That every, every,
que todo que! every, what!
Que todo el mundo te cante, That everyone sings to you,
136 : Lise Waxer
Que todo
todo el
el mundo
mundo te
te mime
mime That everyone
everyone indulges
indulges you,
you,
Celoso estoy
estoy pa'que
pa'que mires
mires I'm jealous that
that you'd
you'd look
look
No me voy
voy mds
mds nipor
nipor miles.
miles. I won't go one
one mile
mile further.
further.
Montuno
(Coro) (Chorus)
Que todo el mundo te cante, That everyone sings to you,
Que todo el mundo te mime That everyone indulges you
Celoso estoy pa'que mires I'm jealous that you'd look
No me voy mds nipor miles. I won't go one mile further
(Verso) (Verse)
Permita que me arrepienta Let me repent
iOh! mi bella cenicienta Oh, beautiful Cinderella
De rodillas mipresencia I'll bow down on my knees
Si mi ausenciafue tu afrenta If my absence was your outrage
(Coro) (Chorus)
Que noches, que noches tan bonitas What nights, what pretty nights
Siloe en tus callecitas Siloe with its alleyways
Alfondo mi Valle en risa, And beyond, my smiling Valle
iAy! todito se divisa! Ay! You can make out everything!
(Coro) (Chorus)
Un cldsico en el Pascual A soccer game in the Pascual [stadium]
Adornado de mujeres sin par, Adorned by women without equal
America, Cali, a ganar, America, Cali, to victory,30
Aqui no se puede empatar! Here you can't have a tie!
(Coro) (Chorus)
Barranquilla puerto de oro, Barranquilla, city of gold
Paris la ciudad de luz Paris, city of light
Nueva York, capital del mundo, New York, capital of the world,
Del cielo, Cali la sucursal! And in heaven, Cali is the outpost!
(Coro) (Chorus)
A millas siento tu aroma, From miles around I smell your aroma,
Cualquiera, justo razona, Whatever one, is just cause for
reasoning
Que Cali es Cali, senoras, senores, That Cali is Cali, ladies and gentlemen,
Lo demds es loma! The rest is hillside! [i.e., "boonies"]
Mambo (Horn Chorus)

(spoken interjections)
iC6mo, ahpues! What, oh yeah!
Oye Canandonga Hey, Caniandonga
Sepdrame la mesa! Put a table aside for me
Ah, pues! Oh yeah!
Manolo, escdndeme. Manolo, hide me. 3
iCali! Cali!
Photo 3. Grupo Niche after the success of "Cali Pachanguero," with their 1985
album Triunfo (Triumph).
Just
Just as
as"Buenaventura
"Buenaventuray Caney"
y Caney"became
became
an anthem
an anthem
of theofport,
the "Cali
port, "Cali
Pachanguero"
Pachanguero"became
becamethethe
popular
popular
hymnhymn
of Cali,
of Cali,
underscoring
underscoring
the city's
the city's
self-image
self-imageasas"world
"worldsalsa
salsa
capital."
capital."
The The
musical
musical
arrangement
arrangement
of "Caliof "Cali
Pachanguero"
Pachanguero"isissimple,
simple,
concentrating
concentrating
on the
on lyrics
the lyrics
and the
andtune's
the catchy
tune's catchy
refrain.
refrain.The
Thehorn
horn phrases
phrases
areare
short
short
and and
simple,
simple,
underscoring
underscoring
the emphasis
the emphasis
on
on vocals.
vocals.The
Thepinched,
pinched, nasal
nasal
coros
coros
of the
of tune
the tune
recalled
recalled
1940s and
1940s
1950s
and 1950s
Cuban
Cubangroups
groupssuch
suchas as
thetheSonora
Sonora
Matancera,
Matancera,
indexing
indexing
the sounds
the sounds
that that
were
were locally
locallypopular
popular in in
earlier
earlier
decades.32
decades.32
Public
Publicresponse
responsetoto"Cali
"Cali
Pachanguero"
Pachanguero" at the
at 1984
the 1984
Festival
Festival
de Orquestas
de Orquestas
helped
helpedtotocement
cementGrupo
Grupo Niche
Niche
as Colombia's
as Colombia's
premier
premier
salsa orquesta.
salsa orquesta.
Says Says
Varela,
It was a great experience because we finally had something to show....

Already we'd put together "Cali Pachanguero" and it was the theme of the
Feria, and of course, as the saying goes-how is it?, the voice of the people is
the voice of God, and they said that we were the best although that wasn't
the idea, it wasn't the idea to say we were the best or feel like we were the
best, but rather it was a definitive plug for what we were starting to do.33
Varela's ebullience in the wake of "Cali Pachanguero" was clearly evident

in the title of Niche's following album, Triunfo ("Triumph," see photo 3).
138 : Lise Waxer
Grupo
Grupo Niche's
Niche'srise
risetotothe
thefore
fore
ofof
Cali's
Cali's
scene
scene
coincides
coincides
withwith
mounting
mounting
fervor
fervor among
amonglocal
localfans
fanstotodemonstrate
demonstrate thethe
legitimacy
legitimacyof Calefio
of Calefio
orquestas
orquestas
alongside
alongside international
internationalones.
ones.Although
AlthoughNiche
Niche
stillstill
hadhad
a far
a far
way way
to gotobe-
go be-
fore
fore achieving
achievingthethepolish
polishofoftransnational
transnational
bands
bands(which
(which
Varela
Varela
himself
himself
ad- ad-
mits),
mits), the
the group
groupcould
couldhold
hold itsits
own
own
andand
waswas
embraced
embraced by local
by local
fans.fans.
"Cali "Cali
Pachanguero"
Pachanguero"became
becamepopular
popularthrough
through
thethe
rest
rest
of Colombia
of Colombia
and and
eveneven
in in
New
New York
York andandBoston,
Boston,where
where salsa
salsa
bands
bands performed
performedcover
cover
versions
versions
of the
of the
song
song atat local
localdances.34
dances.34AsAs
a result
a result of of
thethe
song's
song's
impact,
impact,
Calenio
Calenio
radioradio
sta- sta-
tions
tions launched
launchedan anannual
annualcompetition
competition forforthethe
bestbest
original
original
salsasalsa
tunetune
by a by a
local
local orquesta,
orquesta,stipulating
stipulatingthat
thatthethe
song
songbe be
dedicated
dedicated
to Cali.
to Cali.
Despite
Despite thethebroad
broadappeal
appealofofNiche's
Niche'sfirst
first
hits,
hits,
however,
however,
critics
critics
havehave
be- be-
littled
littled Grupo
GrupoNiche
Nicheforforthe
thecrossed
crossed
clave
clave
in "Buenaventura
in "Buenaventuray Caney"
y Caney"
and and
"Cali
"Cali Pachanguero."
Pachanguero."InInsalsa
salsa
and
and
itsits
Cuban
Cuban
predecessors,
predecessors,
all the
all the
rhythmic
rhythmic
accents
accents ofof the
thewords,
words,horn
horn lines
linesandand
melodic
melodic
phrases
phrases
mustmust
coordinate
coordinate
with with
the
the accents
accentsof ofthe
theclave
clavepattern,
pattern, a two-bar
a two-barostinato
ostinato
thatthat
emphasizes
emphasizes
a 3-2aor
3-2 or
2-3
2-3 feel,
feel, depending
dependingon onwhere
where the
theline
line
starts
starts
(figure
(figure
5). 5).
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Clave
Clavepattern
pattern
"Three-two clave j 1 L I x
"Two-three" clave | | >t l '' :3
If the flow of the clave clashes with the rhythmic accents of the p
musicians say the clave is cruzado, crossed. This usually happens
line that should be played over a 2-3 clave is played over a 3-2
when a phrase with an uneven number of bars is repeated, hence "
over" the sense of where one is in the flow of the clave. In "Buenaventura
y Caney," for example, the descending piano/bass vamp is five bars long,
which results in the clave turning over from a 2-3 to 3-2 feel every time the
vamp is repeated. In "Cali Pachanguero," uneven phrase lengths result in
crossed clave to an even greater degree. During the instrumental fanfare
that opens the piece, the trombone repeats a simple, syncopated rhythmic
cell four times. The phrase bears an ambiguous relation to the clave. When
the entire passage is repeated, however (doubled by the trumpets), the
clave feel is turned around, but in this cruzada repetition, the accents of the
phrase line up with clave (figure 6). For the listener who is sensitive to
clave, the conjunction of cross-rhythmic accents with the erroneous cross-
ing of the clave is almost too much to bear!
Figure
Figure6. Crossed
6. clave
Crossed
from introduction
clavetofrom
"Cali Pachanguero"
introduction to
II( doubled
( doubled
by trp. ) by trp. )
clave: IJ t I I - I i l I I- I 1
9l
9l vvff7 7
IFIF
I I I; Ir7
; iIr
r7 riIr
7 pr
1 1 1 1 ; > Dl (' m6 F
Ii )I I7 . 1. rI
I 71 r t I r " I r I d I t
Towards the end of "Cali Pachanguero," after an extended
montuno, the piano and bass launch into a vamp in C m
of the descending piano/bass line that concludes "Buenave
The vamp is punctuated by hand claps on the second an
the bar, recalling 1960s bugali and also Fruko's use of
in his "salsibirfi style. This is followed by a twice repeated
in the horns and flute. The music then returns to the top
order to run these two sections again, but instead of lett
the mambo fully complete itself, as most salsa arrangers
the previous vamp enters on bar 8 of the mambo figu
clave around and makes the entire recapitulation of these
Varela defends himself by pointing out that well-know
have also recorded arrangements that cross the clave.35 In
Cesar Monge joined Grupo Niche in 1987, one of his f
write new arrangements of these and other Niche songs,
the clave and rewriting some of the horn parts and instr
The new arrangements were recorded as a commemora
entitled Historia Musical. This is an unusual vinyl palimpse
tried to "set the record straight," as it were, by re-releas
hits in versions that sounded essentially the same as the o
the bugs ironed out and the instrumental choruses given
revised version of "Buenaventura y Caney," for example,
the offending fifth bar so that the vamp lines up correc
every time. In "Cali Pachanguero," new parts replace the p
tions of the original. Even though the original "cruzado"
ones usually played in local nightclubs and at parties, the
are what Grupo Niche has performed in their live shows
decision to release a recording of the new arrangement
140 : Lise Waxer
wished to
to broadcast
broadcast aa new
new "improved"
"improved" image
imageofofGrupo
GrupoNiche,
Niche,asasa apol-
pol-
ished orquesta
orquesta on
on par
par with
with world-class
world-class bands
bandsfrom
fromPuerto
PuertoRico
RicoandandNew
New
York-and also
also indicates
indicates his
his belief
belief in
in the
the power
powerof
ofrecording
recordingasasa amedium
medium
in which toto accomplish
accomplish this.
this.
Since its inception,
inception, Niche
Niche has
has been
been under
underthe
thetight
tightartistic
artisticdirection
directionof
of
Jairo Varela.
Varela. Although
Although not
not formally
formally schooled
schooledininmusic,
music,Varela
Varelahas
hasan anin-
in-
nate ear and
and aa definite
definite concept
concept of
of what
what he
hewants.37
wants.37Despite
Despitehis
hislack
lackofof
training, Varela
Varela demonstrates
demonstrates an
an uncanny
uncannyinstinct
instinctfor
forwhat
whatwill
willgogoover
over
well with
with an
an audience.
audience. Jose
Jose Agiiirre,
Agiiirre, Niche's
Niche'scurrent
currentmusical
musicaldirector,
director,ex-
ex-
plained that
that Varela
Varela often
often writes
writes what
what most
mostcomposers
composersand
andarrangers
arrangerswould
would
never think
think of,
of, but
but which
which work
work despite
despite their
theirunusual
unusualor
orillogical
illogicaltwists.
twists.
Varela is meticulous
meticulous about
about details,
details, as
as II observed
observedduring
duringthe
therecording
recordingand
and
mixing of
of Etnia
Etnia in
in October
October 1995,
1995, and
and he
he works
worksclosely
closelywith
withhis
hisarrangers
arrangers
and musicians
musicians to
to obtain
obtain the
the final
final results
results that
thathe
heisislooking
lookingfor.
for.The
Theband's
band's
lead singers
singers during
during the
the 1980s
1980s were
were particularly
particularlygood
goodsalsa
salsavocalists,
vocalists,gifted
gifted
with thick,
thick, colorful
colorful vocal
vocal timbres
timbres and
and the
thesense
senseof
ofinflection
inflectionand
andphrasing
phrasing
typical of
of Cuban
Cuban and
and Puerto
Puerto Rican
Rican soneros.38
soneros.38InInaddition,
addition,Grupo
GrupoNiche
Niche
has also had
had aa succession
succession of
of strong
strong pianists
pianistssuch
suchasasNicolas
Nicolas"Macabi"
"Macabi"
Cristancho
Cristancho and
and Alvaro
Alvaro "Pelusa"
"Pelusa" Cabarcas,
Cabarcas, skilled
skilledinstrumentalists
instrumentalistswhose
whose
rhythmic
rhythmic feel
feel and
and elegant,
elegant, jazzy
jazzy solos
solos clearly
clearlyshow
showthe
theinfluence
influenceof
ofPuerto
Puerto
Rican maestro
maestro Papo
Papo Lucca
Lucca (leader
(leader of
of the
the Sonora
SonoraPoncefia).
Poncefia).
Niche was
was the
the first
first orquesta
orquesta to
to be
be identified
identifiedwith
withaanew,
new,distinct
distinctstyle
styleinin
the Cali scene.
scene. The
The band's
band's popularity
popularity inin the
thefirst
firsthalf
halfof
ofthe
the1980s
1980shad
hada a
strong bearing
bearing on
on the
the rise
rise of
of other
other local
local orquestas.
orquestas.Not
Notonly
onlydid
didGrupo
Grupo
Niche's success
success inspire
inspire other
other local
local players
playersto totake
takeup
upsalsa,
salsa,the
theband's
band'ssound
sound
also had aa considerable
considerable impact
impact onon the
the stylistic
stylisticorientation
orientationof ofmany
manysubse-
subse-
quent groups.
groups. Their
Their music,
music, diffused
diffused inin live
liveperformance
performanceand andalso
alsovia
viaradio
radio
and recordings,
recordings, played
played anan important
important role
roleininencouraging
encouragingother
othermusicians
musicians
to strive for
for aa polished,
polished, commercially
commercially viable
viablesound.
sound.Despite
Despiteinternal
internalrifts
rifts
through the
the late
late 1980s,
1980s, Niche
Niche has
has continued
continuedto tomaintain
maintainitsitsstatus
statusasasone
oneofof
Colombia's
Colombia's top
top salsa
salsa orquestas,
orquestas, both
both locally
locallyand
andinternationally.
internationally.
Guayacdn
Multi-instrumentalist and arranger Alexis Lozano founded Guayacan in

1983, after leaving Grupo Niche to pursue his own artistic vision.39 During
this period, Lozano was less interested in performing straight-ahead salsa
than in fusing this style with elements of traditional Colombian elements,
particularly Afro-Colombian genres from his native Choc6. Dubbing his
style salsa chocoana and even salsa folk, Lozano experimented with rhyth-
mic elements and horn lines from the chirimia ensembles of his native
Quibd6.40 The very choice of the band's name reflected the ethos of
Lozano's interest in traditional roots-the guayacdn is a hardwood tree that
Photo 4. Guayacan, with their 1985 debut album Lleg6 la Hora de la Verdad (The
Hour of Truth has Arrived).
flourishes
flourishesin
inColombia's
Colombia'sPacific
Pacific
littoral,
littoral,
prized
prized
for for
its strength
its strength
and durabil-
and durabil-
ity.
ity. Although
AlthoughGuayacan
Guayacansuccumbed
succumbed
to to
thethe
commercial
commercial
influence
influence
of salsa
of salsa
romantica
romanticain inthe
theearly
early1990s,
1990s,Lozano
Lozano
is still
is still
credited
credited
for for
his prior
his prior
innova-
innova-
tions,
tions, and
andthe
thestylistic
stylistictraits
traits
characterizing
characterizing his his
earlier
earlier
arrangements
arrangements
are still
are still
evident in his most recent tunes.
In a manner similar to Colombian salsa pioneer Fruko, Lozano's salsa
arrangements have featured dramatic rhythmic and textural contrasts from
one section to the next. In several Guayacan songs, for example, the ar-
rangement goes from salsa to a quasi-cumbia feel. This is quite evident in
the band's first hit, "Vas a llorar" (You'll Cry), from Lleg6 la Hora de la
Verdad (1985, see photo 4), where instrumental mambos are inserted be-
tween verses and vocal coros, switching to a cumbia feel with accented eighth-
note duplets on beats two and four, played by the cowbell.
Lozano's style represents one of the few concerted efforts, along with
142 : Lise Waxer
the
thesalsa-Costeiio
salsa-Costeiiofusions
fusions
of Barranquilla-basedJoe
of Barranquilla-basedJoe
Arroyo, to Arroyo,
develop a to develop a
uniquely
uniquely Colombian
Colombian salsa.salsa.
This isThis
especially
is especially
apparent in apparent
early recordings
in early recordings
such
suchasas"Son
"Soncepillao
cepillao
con minuet"
con minuet"
(1987), a(1987),
salsa tune
a salsa
based tune
on thebased
son on the son
cepillao
cepillao(a (a
traditional
traditionalChocoano
Chocoano
dance form)
danceand form)
also inand
"Cocorobe"
also in(from
"Cocorobe" (from
La
La Mds
MdsBella,
Bella,1989).
1989).
TheseThese
tunes tunes
use the use
short,
thebright
short,hornbright
phraseshorn
and phrases and
coros
corosthat
thathave
havebecome
become
characteristic
characteristic
of Guayacan's
of Guayacan's
sound. The lyrics
sound. cite
The lyrics cite
typical
typicalsayings
sayingsin the
in Choco
the Choco
region,region,
and the and
arrangements
the arrangements
are filled withare filled with
melodic
melodicreferences
referencesto traditional
to traditional
genres of
genres
the Choc6
of the
and Choc6
the Atlantic
and Coast.
the Atlantic Coast.
A
A good
goodexample
exampleof this
of this
style style
is "Cocorob6,"
is "Cocorob6,"
based on the
based
simple
on lyric
the simple lyric
structures
structures andand
melodic
melodic
patterns
patterns
of traditional
of traditional
Chocoano songs.
Chocoano
Much songs.
of Much of
the
thetune's
tune'sappeal
appeal
lies lies
in the
inrather
the rather
ingenuous
ingenuous
quality of quality
the lyrics,
ofwhich
the lyrics, which
emphasize
emphasize rhyming
rhyming wordword
play and
play
rhythmic
and rhythmic
flow moreflow
than they
moredothan
the- they do the-
matic content.
"Cocorobe" (1989)
(Guayacan)
(Coro) (Chorus)
Cocorobe, cocorobe, Cocorobe, cocorobe,
Bailan los hijos deJose, Dance the children ofJose
Cocorobe suena otra vez Cocorobe plays one more time
Mira no bailes al reves. Look don't you dance backwards.
(bis) (repeat)
(Verso) (Verse)
Es un ritmito It's a little rhythm
Recordadito, Remembered
Puedes gozarlo You can enjoy it
Buen alpasito Good for stepping
Si a ti te gusta If you like it
Apretaito Squeezed up
Puedes bailarlo You can dance it
Deslizaito. Sliding around.
Da su paso para'lante One step forward
Medio paso para atras Half a step back
Contoneando la cadera Swaying the hips
Taconeando con lo pie, Tapping with your foot
Los muchachospor la calle The boys in the street
Van saltando bien los ve' Go jumping, there we can see 'em
Cojidito de la mano All holding hands and
Cantando cocorobe. Singing cocorobe.
Montuno
(Coro) (Chorus)
Cocorobe, que bueno es Cocorobe, how good it is
Cocoronanga, baile pachanga Cocorofianga, dance the pachanga
Cocororico,
Cocororico, te besote
elpico
besoCocororico,
elpico I'll
Cocororico,
kiss your beak I'll kiss your b
Cocorobe,
Cocorobe, salta en
salta
un pie!
enCocorob6,
un pie! jump
Cocorob6,
on one foot!jump on one fo
Mambo
(spoken)
Dos viejitas se agarraron two women were grabbed
Por una churumbela by a whatchama-call-it
La una era tu mama, One was your mamma,
la otra, tu abuela! The other, your grandmother!
The tune is set in a simple arrangement, with much internal repetition of

verses and refrains. The mambo sections are based on the short phrase
structure and arpeggiated melodic cells of Chocoano and Costenio genres.
Indeed, the incipit of the famous cumbia "La Pollera Collera" is used as
the basic theme in the mambo section and then as a horn background
during the final coro (figure 7).
Figure 7. Opening measures of "La Pollera Colora"

F C7 C7
~~~I,b~~~ ~ ~~~~ e *i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~etc.
In "Cocorobe," the piano plays a descending staccato arpeggio

notes of the bar, instead of the standard syncopated piano m
arpeggiated phrase matches the triadic character of the horn
scoring the flavor of traditional Colombian music. In addition
Chocoano children's rhyme is included in the middle of th
as an a cappella interlude between the mambo sections. Finall
first mambo section, the lead vocalist names two gentlem
Magdalena region-probably friends or patrons of the ban
of naming people in songs is common in vallenato, a popu
the Colombian Atlantic coast-wealthy patrons (often dru
the band money and gifts in exchange for the prestige of b
by the band.41
In 1987 Guayacan moved to Cali, dissatisfied with the lack
nities in Bogota and no doubt attracted by Cali's growing
the early 1990s, their local popularity grew, along with thei
international fame. Their sound caught on widely with local
in part because it had a freshness and simplicity that Niche's
sophisticated, transnational sound had abandoned. Guayac
this period is well illustrated by "Oiga, Mira, Vea" (on Sentim
a Punta, 1992), a very popular hit that is still a mainstay
repertoire. This tune appeared during the height of Guayaca
larity, released as contender for the best salsa song dedicated
144 : Lise Waxer
1992 Feria. The title comes from a common local expression (which roughly
translates as, "hear, look, see"), and just as "Cali Pachanguero" did eight
years earlier, the tune constructs and celebrates an image of Cali as a hub
of festivity and salsa music, especially during the Feria. Specific salsa hot-
spots are named, making the tune a self-congratulatory ode to the spirit of
the rumba [party] that rules Cali at the end of every year.
"Oiga, Mire, Vea" (1992)

(Guayacan)
(Verso) (Verse)
Si huele a cana, tobaco y brea, If you smell sugar cane, tobacco and tar,
Usted estd en Cali, ay, mire, vea. You're in Cali, hey, watch out.
Si las mujeres son lindasy hermosas, If the women are lovely and beautiful,
Aqui no hay feas, para que vea! Here there are no ugly ones, just look!
Mi Cali se estd adornando My Cali is getting dressed up
Para sufiesta mds popular, For its most popular fiesta
Con canfa dulce el melao With sweet cane and molasses
Hierve en la paila hasta amanacer, Boiling in the pan until dawn,
Habrd corrida de toros There'll be bullfighting
Ypor la noche, fiesta y rumba! And at night, fiesta and rumba!
En Cali mird, se sabe gozi In Cali, look, they know how to enjoy
En Cali mird, se sabe gozd In Cali, look, they know how to enjoy
De dia su sol ardiente By day its burning sun
hace que mi Cali se caliente, Makes my Cali hot,
de noche sus callecitas At night its little streets
confarolitos se ven bonitas, Looks pretty with its little lights,42
Afinen bien las orquestas Let the bands tune up
Que esta ano si vamo' a reventd, Because this year we're going to explode
La rumba empezd en la Sexta The party began on Sixth Avenue,
Vamo' aJuanchito es a rematd. Let's go toJuanchito to wrap it up.
Con salsa de aqui, con mucho mani With salsa from here, and lots of peanuts
Con salsa de aqui, con mucho mani With salsa from here, and lots of peanuts
Montuno
(Coro) (Chorus)
Oiga, mira, vea, Look, watch, listen
Vengase a Cali para que vea, Come to Cali to see,
Oiga, mira, vea, Look, watch, listen
Goce la Feria para que vea! Enjoy the Feria so you'll see!
As in "Cocorob6," the arrangement is constructed from basic elements-

simple phrase structures, bright, short horn phrases and catchy coros. Horn
lines are no longer than one or two measures and rely heavily on internal
repetition. Coros are sung in doubled thirds. The exclamation, "Qu6 que-
que-que-que quel" that punctuates that final mambo derives from an ex-
pression typical of the Pacific coast.43 This has been a signature exclamation
used
used bybyGuayacan
Guayacan since
since at at
least least
their
their
debut debut
recording
recording
of 1985.
of Also
1985.char-
Also char-
acteristic
acteristicinin"Oiga,
"Oiga, Mira,
Mira, Vea"Vea"is the
is the
use ofusesyncopated
of syncopated
rhythmicrhythmic
breaks breaks
at at
the
the end
endof ofa asection,
section,heightening
heightening the the
shiftshift
to thetonext
the section.
next section.
Finally,Finally,
the the
band
band hashasa adistinct
distinct and andrecognizable
recognizable soundsound
in theinhorns.
the horns.
Trumpets Trumpets
are are
placed
placed near
nearthethetop
topofof their
their register,
register, usually
usually
played played
in unison,
in unison,
and aug- and aug-
mented
mentedwith witha abitbit
ofofreverb
reverb andand compression
compression to give
to agive
particularly
a particularly
"live" "live"
and
and brilliant
brillianttimbre.
timbre. In Incontrast,
contrast, trombones
trombones are placed
are placed
in thein mid-
thetomid-
bot- to bot-
tom
tom of oftheir
theirrange.
range. SuchSuchwriting,
writing, absentabsent
in "Cocorobe,"
in "Cocorobe,"becamebecamea hall- a hall-
mark
mark of ofGuayacan's
Guayacan's sound
sound in thein the
early early
1990s.1990s.
Guayacan's
Guayacan'soverall
overallsound
sound is lighter
is lighterthanthanthat that
of Niche.
of Niche.
The rhythm
The rhythmsec- sec-
tion
tion isischaracterized
characterized byby a crisp,
a crisp, dry-almost
dry-almost "clipped"-attack
"clipped"-attackin the in tim-
the tim-
bales
bales and
andcongas,
congas, with
with patterns
patterns placed
placed
squarely
squarely
on toponoftoptheofbeat.
theTempos
beat. Tempos
are
are also
alsoaabit
bitslower
slower thanthan that thatof Niche,
of Niche, ranging
ranging
fromfromabout about
J=82 toJ=82 to
= 104.
104. The
Themoremorerelaxed
relaxed pace pace of 1950s
of 1950s Cuban Cuban
son probably
son probablyhas some has some
bearing
bearingon onthis
thispreference.
preference. Indeed,
Indeed,LozanoLozano
acknowledges
acknowledges the strong
the strong
influence
influenceof ofCuban
Cuban sonsonon on
locallocal
Quibd6
Quibd6culture
culture
and his
andownhiswriting,
own writing,
more more
than
than Puerto
PuertoRican
Rican and
and NewNewYork Yorksalsasalsa
styles.44
styles.44
The slightly
The slightly
slower slower
tempo tempo
might
might also
alsobeberelated
related to to
thethetempo tempoof traditional
of traditional
Chocoano
Chocoano
music music
as well,as well,
although
althoughI Ido donot
nothave
have goodgooddatadatato support
to supportthis conjecture.
this conjecture.
Reinforcing
Reinforcing
Guayacan's
Guayacan'slighter
lighter sound,
sound, thethe group's
group'svocalists
vocalists
have have
all been
all tenors,
been tenors,
with with
smooth but undistinctive voices.
More than Niche, Guayacan has maintained the hybrid eclecticism of
earlier Colombian salsa. When I interviewed Lozano, he proudly empha-
sized this quality in his arrangements, pulling out several tunes to illustrate
his point. One song, "Amor Traicionero" (Treacherous Love) from Con el
Coraz6n Abierto, 1993), combines elements of salsa, mariachi, bolero, and
vallenato-Lozano told me that this was his most "daring" tune ever.45
Lozano's writing is quite distinct from that of his predecessor, Fruko, but
his heterogeneous approach also reflects the great diversity of styles that
have influenced Colombian popular tastes for over half a century.
Consolidating the Cali Sound: La Misma Gente
The most important Calefio orquesta to emerge in the mid-1980s was

La Misma Gente (photo 5). Founded in 1978, the group hails from the
town of Palmira, located twenty miles to the east of Cali. La Misma Gente
(The Same People) is sometimes upheld as an exemplar of salsa born in
Cali (or at least in Valle province), in contrast to Niche's and Guayacan's
roots in the Choc6. The band grew out of a high school salsa/rock band as
modeled on Fruko y sus Tesos.
The group's first album, La Misma Gente en Su Salsa, was released to
much popular acclaim in 1986. Two tunes in particular, "Juanita Ae" and
"Titic6" caught on widely at both local and national levels. "Juanita Ae"
146 : Lise Waxer
Photo 5. La Misma Gente, 1989, from the back cover of their album La Misma
Gente en laJugada (The Same People in the Game).
won best song of the year at the Festival de Orquestas and established
Misma Gente as an important new Calefio orquesta. Founder and piani
Jaime Henao said that he did not really know why the song became such a
hit, but it is clear that the song's lyrics made a deep impression on th
public.46 "Juanita Ae" recounts the pathos of a father who is so poor that h
can't afford to give his teenage daughter her quinceanera (coming-out party
an important event in Latin American culture), so he gives her this song o
paternal love instead.
"Juanita Ae" (1986)

(La Misma Gente)
(Verso) (Verse)
Alla muy cerca del Cauca There near the Cauca River
En una humilde lugar, In a humble place
Vive una nina muy linda Lived a very pretty girl
Con su mamd y su papa. With her mom and dad.
Si quieres saber su nombre, If you want to know her name
Yo te lo voy a contar, I'll tell you it,
Juana Ae, Juana Ae,
Juana Ae, Juana Ae,
Fue
Fueque
quela la
hicieron
hicieron
buatizar.
buatizar. Is what
whatthey
theybaptized
baptized her.
her.
Sin
Sinmentira
mentiray sin
y sin
enganos,
enganos, Without
Withoutlies
liesorortricks,
tricks,
Habia
Habiapasado
pasadolos los
aios,aios, The
The years
yearspassed,
passed,
Los
Losquince
quinceibaiba
a completar
a completar She
She was
wasgoing
goingtototurn
turn
fifteen,
fifteen,
Oiganme
Oiganmemama
mamay papa,
y papa, Hey,
Hey, mom
momand anddad,
dad,
Con
Conunafiestica
unafiesticaquiero
quiero
celebrar.
celebrar. I'd
I'd like
like to
tohave
havea aparty
partyto to
celebrate.
celebrate.
Jose
JoseMaria,
Maria,su su
padre,
padre, Jose
Jose Maria,
Maria,her
herfather,
father,
Trabajaba
Trabajabahasta
hasta
bienbien
tarde,
tarde, Worked
Workeduntil untilvery
verylate
late
Su
Su madre
madretambien
tambiencosiacosia Her mother also sewed
Toda
Todalalanoche
nochey elydia,
el dia, All day and night,
Yque,
Yque,yyquefue
quefuelo quepasd?
lo quepasd? And what, what happened?
Que
Quelalaplanta
plantano no
alcanzaba
alcanzaba There wasn't enough money
Por
Pormds
mdsque
que
ellos
ellos
trabajaban.
trabajaban. No matter how hard they worked.
Oye,Juanita,
Oye,Juanita, porpor
DiosDios Hey,Juanita, for goodness sake
Tufiestica
Tufiestica se se
dano,
dano, Your party is cancelled
Lo
Lo siento
sientomijita,
mijita, I'm sorry, daughter,
Esa
Esaeseslalasituacion.
situacion. That's the situation.
Ya
Ya no
nollores
llores
hijahija
mia,mia, Don't cry, daughter of mine,
Le
Le dijoJose
dijoJoseMaria,
Maria, SaidJose Maria to her,
Que
Queaunque
aunque
no no
tengafortuna
tengafortuna Even though I don't have a fortune
Queda
Quedatoda
toda
la vida,
la vida, We have the rest of our lives,
No
No estis
estistriste
triste
hija,hija, Don't be sad, daughter
Por
PorDios
Diostete
regalo
regalo
estaesta
cancidn.
cancidn. For goodness sake I'll give you this song.
Juand
JuandAe,Juand
Ae,JuandAe, Ae, Juana Ae,Juana Ae,
Duerme
Duermeque
que
tienes
tienes
mi corazon
mi corazon Sleep, for you have my heart
(bis) (repeat)
Montuno
(Coro) (Chorus)
Juanita, duerme que te di Juanita, go to sleep,
La arrulladita, I sang you the lullaby
iae! iHey!
(bis) (repeat)
(Verso) (Verse)
Ya no llores, hija mia, Don't cry, daughter of mine,
Te lo pido porfavor, I ask you please
Vendrdn otros dias mejores Better days will come
Te regalo esta canci6n, I'll give you this song
iae! Hey!
(Coro) (Chorus)
Piano Break/Mambo/Piano solo/Mambo
Juanita Juanita,
Juanita Nana, Juanita Nana Juanita Nana,Juanita Nana
Juanita ea! Juanita ea!
iAe! Yeh!!
148 : Lise Waxer
Juanita Juanita
Si tienes sueno If you're sleepy
Bendita seas, bendita seas Blessed are you, blessed are
iAe! Yeh!!
The final refrain o

mas carol that is
Ae" was released d
forced the song's e
Ae" fit well into th
listening to recor
gos. Working-class
ery and shame a pa
things that those i
the tune registere
drunks be he could
also in local tango
"Titic6" spoke to
onomatopoetically
(large cowbell) dur
use this vocable wh
Figure 8. Campan
I i i f i. i
I] I t ;I I- 1; < IJ LJ-1 ipeis. S is hth
on side of bL I
lower srok:? is h
CO- tl- co- ti- ti- CO tl- tl-th of bell
(2-3 clave)
The significance of this vocable lies in its reference to the favorite "play-
along" instrument of Calenio salsa fans. My friend Sabina Borja explained,
"There's no self-respecting gang member who doesn't have his campana."
(Cali's street gangs have traditionally consisted of die-hard salseros.) Inex-
pensive to purchase and not requiring much skill to play, the campana
arose as a key item for working-class salsa fans in the 1980s. Early in the
decade, New York percussionistJose MangualJr. recorded a song called
"Campanero" (cowbell player), in which he plays a virtuosic solo on the
cowbell-virtually unheard of before that time. The tune was played widely,
on radio and also in the salsotecas (specialty bars for listening to salsa records).
The variety of tone-colors, hits, and fills that Mangual played in this re-
cording deeply impressed Calefio listeners, and inspired a rash of amateur
campaneros. Mangual was brought down to Cali by Larry Landa several
times (usually with Hector Lavoe), and at concerts his followers always
stood
stood right
rightatatthe
the foot
foot
of of
thethe
stage
stage
where
where
he was
he playing.47
was playing.47
Medardo
Medardo
Arias, Arias,
who
who had
hadseveral
severalopportunities
opportunities to converse
to converse
withwith
Mangual,
Mangual,
says that
saysMangual
that Mangual
always
always seemed
seemeda abit
bit
bewildered
bewildered
by by
his his
unexpected
unexpected
fame-in
fame-in
New York
New and
York and
Puerto
Puerto Rico
Ricoplayers
playersofof
this
this
instrument
instrument
are usually
are usually
unrecognized.
unrecognized.
The high-
The high-
quality
qualitybut
butinexpensive
inexpensivecampanas
campanas
manufactured
manufactured
locally
locally
by thebyworkshop
the workshop
of
of percussion-maker
percussion-maker Hector
Hector
"El "El
Piemas"
Piemas"
Rocha
Rocha
contributed
contributed
to theto
campana
the campana
mania,
mania, supplying
supplyinga readily
a readily
available
available
and and
affordable
affordable
source
source
for the
for
instru-
the instru-
ments.48
ments.48Rocha's
Rocha'scampanas
campanashave
have
a low
a low
and and
resonant
resonant
timbre
timbre
preferred
preferred
for for
salsa
salsa dura,
dura,similar
similartoto
the
the
Bronx-madeJCR
Bronx-madeJCR
bellsbells
that that
were were
used by
used
most
by most
New York salsa bands in the 1970s and 1980s. These bells use more iron
than do the tinnier, brighter-sounding bells favored in salsa romantica,
and received immediate acceptance among salsa dura fans. Aficionados
(almost always men) would play their instruments along to salsa record-
ings at family and neighborhood parties, and also bring their campanas to
accompany the music at salsotecas and live performances. Amateur
campaneros can still be seen banging along at concerts, but in deference to
annoyed customers this has been banned in most salsa bars. "Titic6," hence,
is dedicated specifically to this special subculture in Cali's local scene.
"Titic6" (1986)
(La Misma Gente)
(Verso) (Verse)
Campanero, Campana player
Oye. Listen.
Mi canto va dedicado My song is dedicated
A la gente como tui, To people like you,
Que toca el hierro afinado. That play tuned iron.
Si hay una rumba en el barrio If there's a party in the 'hood'
Festival en el Estadio Festival in the Stadium
Concierto en el Coliseo Concert in the Coliseum49
Tu siempre estds preparado You're always ready
Para hacer sonar el hierro To sound the bell
Yacompanar las orquestas And accompany the bands
Que llegan del mundo entero. That arrive from around the world.
Ella suena, titico, It sounds, titic6,
Ysu cadencia emociona And its cadence uplifts
Su ritmo nos apriciona, Its rhythm imprisons us
Inconfundible titico. Unmistakable titic6.
Por la Calle Quinta andaban Along Calle Quinta walked
Fernando y Carlitos Fernando and Carlos
Yen la Taberna Latina And in the Taberna Latina
Oyeron el ritmo They heard the rhythm
De una campana sonando Of a cowbell sounding
El viejo Gary tocando Old Gary playing,
Mas arriba en Imbanaco Further up in Imbanaco
Pillaraon al Negro Paco They saw Paco, the black man
150 : Lise Waxer
Que alistaba su campana Who readied his bell

Pa'gozar hasta manana. To get down until dawn.
Mambo
Montuno
(Coro) (Chorus)
En Caliya todos tienen In Cali everyone already has
Todos tienen su campana Everyone has their cowbell,
Titico, tico, titico, coco Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6
Pa'gozar hasta maiana! To get down until dawn!
(Verso) (Verse)
Primero fue "El campanero" First there was "El campanero"
Y "La Mayoral" llegd And "La Mayoral" arrived
Campaneros campaneros Bell players, bell players
Llego el ritmo titico. The rhythm titic6 arrived.
(Coro) (Chorus)
En Cali ya todos tienen In Cali everyone already has
Todos tienen su campana Everyone has their cowbell,
Titico, tico, titicd, coc6 Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6
Pa'gozar hasta manana! To get down until dawn!
Mambo II
(Coro) (Chorus)
Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6 Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6
Pa 'gozar hasta manana! To get down until dawn!
(Verso) (Verse)
En conga, bongo y campana On conga, bong6 and cowbell
Al amigo Piernas nadie le gana Our friend Piernas is second to none
(Coro) (Chorus)
Titico, tico, titico, coc6 Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6
(Verso) (Verse)
Vamonos todos todos a gozar Let's all go party
Con esta campana hasta elfinal With this cowbell, until the end
(Coro) (Chorus)
Titic6, tic6, titic6, coco Titic6, tic6, titico, coc6
MAMBO III & outro
Campanerooo! Campana player!
Like "Cali Pachanguero" had done two years earlier, "Titic6" celebrated
Cali's salsa scene. Central places and people in Cali's rumba are named:
Calle
CalleQuinta,
Quinta,
Imbanaco
Imbanaco (a corner
(a corner
where
where
manymany
nightclubs
nightclubs
are clustered),
are clustered),
the
the Taberna
TabernaLatina
Latinaandand
its owner
its owner
GaryGary
Dominguez,
Dominguez,
and so forth.
and so"Elforth. "El
Piernas"
Piernas"(Legs),
(Legs),
thethe
famous
famouslocallocal
percussion-maker,
percussion-maker,
is also named.
is also named.
Importantly,
Importantly, the
the
lyrics
lyrics
uphold
uphold
a positive
a positive
image image
of the of
amateur
the amateur
campanero
campanero
who
who isisready
readytoto
accompany
accompany
the the
famous
famous
international
international
orquestas
orquestas
visiting visiting
town.
town.Rather
Ratherthan
than
portraying
portraying
this this
person
person
as ridiculous
as ridiculous
or annoying
or annoying
to other to other
people,
people,the
thelocal
local
campanero
campanero
is idealized
is idealized
as a figure
as a figure
who represents
who represents
the the
participatory
participatory ethos
ethos
that
that
permeates
permeates
Cali's Cali's
scene. scene.
At oneAt
level,
onethis
level,
can this
be can be
understood
understoodasas
simply
simply
being
being
gregarious
gregarious
and wanting
and wanting
to get in
toon
get
theinfun.
on At
the fun. At
aa deeper
deeperlevel,
level,
however,
however,
thisthis
practice
practice
simultaneously
simultaneously
expresses
expresses
and also and also
structures
structuresa acosmopolitan
cosmopolitan sensibility.
sensibility.
By playing
By playing
along with
along
visiting
with orquestas
visiting orquestas
the
the campanero
campanero quite
quite
literally
literally
articulates
articulates
his concern
his concern
with being
with "inbeing
sync""in sync"
with
withworld-class
world-classsalsa
salsa
musicians.
musicians.
In Cali,
In Cali,
playing
playing
along with
along
thewith
bandthe
is band is
not
not considered
considereddisrespectful
disrespectful
(as it(as
is it
in is
Puerto
in Puerto
Rico),50
Rico),50
but rather
butserves
ratheras serves
a as a
way
way of
ofplacing
placingoneself
oneself
symbolically
symbolically
in theinrealm
the realm
of internationally
of internationally
promi- promi-
nent
nentorquestas-and
orquestas-andhence,
hence,
symbolically
symbolically
placing
placing
oneselfoneself
as a participant
as a participant
in in
world
worldculture.
culture.
Needless
Needless
to say,
to say,
the popularity
the popularity
of "Titic6"
of "Titic6"
among Calefios
among Calefios
was
was instantaneous.
instantaneous.TheThe
members
membersof the
offamous
the famous
Puerto Puerto
Rican orquesta
Rican orquesta
La La
Sonora
SonoraPonceiia,
Ponceiia,
which
which
performed
performed
at Cali's
at Cali's
Feria in
Feria
1986,
inwere
1986,
so were
im- so im-
pressed
pressedby bythe
the
local
local
reception
reception
of the
of tune
the that
tunethey
thatquoted
they the
quoted
song's
there-song's re-
frain
fraininintheir
theirmusical
musical
tribute
tribute
to the
to city,
the city,
"A Cali."51
"A Cali."51
Both
Both"Juanita
"JuanitaAe"Ae"
andand
"Titic6"
"Titic6"
feature
feature
elements
elements
that became
that became
trademarks
trademarks
of
of La
LaMisma
MismaGente's
Gente's
style.
style.
MostMost
notable
notable
is the is
pachanga-like
the pachanga-like
rhythmicrhythmic
feel,
feel, played
playedonon
toptop
of of
thethe
beatbeat
as with
as with
earlierearlier
Colombian
Colombian
bands such
bands
as such as
Fruko,
Fruko,butbutwith
witha distinct
a distinct
"spring"
"spring"
to it. to
This
it.feel
Thisis feel
achieved
is achieved
by havingbythe
having the
giiiro
giiiroplay
playa aquarter
quarternote
note
and and
two two
eighths
eighths
pattern,
pattern,
while both
while
theboth
campana
the campana
and
and the
thesmaller
smaller cencerro
cencerro(timbales
(timbales
cowbell)
cowbell)
play open
playaccents
open accents
on the first
on the first
and
and third
thirdbeats.
beats.Overall,
Overall,
thisthis
creates
creates
a rather
a rather
vertical,
vertical,
bouncy bouncy
effect, ineffect, in
contrast
contrasttotothe
the
relaxed
relaxed
groove
groove
of Grupo
of Grupo
Niche,Niche,
which which
was closer
wastocloser
Cuban to Cuban
and
and Puerto
PuertoRican
Rican
styles.
styles.
TheThe
pinched,
pinched,
nasal nasal
coros are
coros
another
are another
prominent
prominent
feature
featurethat
thatmarked
marked thethe
band's
band's
sound.
sound.
Musician/arranger
Musician/arranger
Jaime Henao
Jaime Henao
said
said these
thesewere
wereoriginally
originally
inspired
inspired
by Conjunto
by Conjunto
Clasico Clasico
andJohnny
andJohnny
Pacheco Pacheco
(important
(importantNewNew York
York
bands),
bands),
who who
in turn
in turn
derived
derived
this sound
thisfrom
soundclassic
from classic
Cuban
Cubangroups
groups ofofthethe1940s
1940s
and and
1950s.1950s.
The arrangements
The arrangements
also feature
also feature
Henao's
Henao'selegant,
elegant,jazzy
jazzysoloing
soloing
on the
on piano.
the piano.
Curiously,
Curiously,
"Titic6" "Titic6"
highlightshighlights
its
its two
twosaxophones
saxophones during
during
the the
mambo mambo
section,
section,
a sounda that
soundwasthat
discontin-
was discontin-
ued
ued not
notonly
onlyinin
later
later
recordings
recordings by Laby Misma
La Misma
Gente,Gente,
but indeed
butin indeed
the in the
local
local scene
sceneinin
general.
general. (Niche's
(Niche's
earlyearly
recordings
recordings
also feature
also feature
the saxophone,
the saxophone,
which
whichwas wasdropped
dropped in later
in later
years.)
years.)
By theByend
theofend
the of
1980s,
the most
1980s,Calefio
most Calefio
salsa
salsa bands
bandsbegan
began to to
emphasize
emphasize trumpets
trumpets
and trombones,
and trombones,
emulatingemulating
New New
York and Puerto Rican bands.
La Misma Gente's early arrangements reveal the strong influence of
Puerto Rican orquestas during the first years, which was gradually subli-
mated as they developed their own style. The strongest influence for the
152 : Lise Waxer
band
bandduring
duringthis
this
period
period
was was
the Sonora
the Sonora
Ponceina.
Ponceina.
Henao told
Henao
me told
that early
me that e
in
in his
hiscareer
careerheheheard
heard
a recording
a recording
of theofPoncefia's
the Poncefia's
tune "Canto
tuneal"Canto
amor" al
on
on the
theradio,
radio,and
andthethe
experience
experience
was decisive
was decisive
in shaping
in shaping
his stylistic
his stylistic
orien- o
tation.
tation.The
Thehorn
hornparts
parts
are are
clearly
clearly
modeled
modeled
after those
afterofthose
the Sonora
of thePoncena,
Sonora Po
with
withdynamic
dynamic trumpet
trumpet lines
lines
written
written
in closed
in closed
voicings
voicings
and placed
andhigh
placed
in hig
the
the instrument's
instrument's register,
register,
giving
giving
a brilliant,
a brilliant,
compressed
compressed
sound. (The
sound.
Poncefia
(The Po
is
is typified
typifiedbybya horn
a hornsection
section
of four
of four
trumpets,
trumpets,
and even
andthough
even La
though
Misma La M
Gente
Gentealso
alsohad
hadtwo
two
saxophones
saxophones
and aand
trombone,
a trombone,
these instruments
these instrument
are
clearly
clearlysubordinate
subordinate to the
to the
trumpets
trumpets
in nearly
in nearly
all the all
band's
thearrangements.)
band's arrangem
Henao
Henaoalso
alsoexplained
explained
that
that
his piano
his piano
playing
playing
was very
wasmuch
veryinfluenced
much influenced
by
Sonora
SonoraPoncefia
Poncefia band
bandleader
leader
and and
pianist
pianist
Papo Lucca.
Papo Lucca.
This is clear
This from
is clear
the
the band's
band'srecordings,
recordings,
notnot
onlyonly
in the
inway
the Henao
way Henao
voiced and
voiced
phrased
and his
phras
piano
pianomontunos,
montunos, butbut
alsoalso
in his
in use
his of
use
virtuosic
of virtuosic
fills and
fills
complex,
and complex
jazz-
oriented
orientedsolos.
solos.The
The
synthesizer
synthesizer
effects
effects
in 'Juanita
in 'Juanita
Ae" areAe"
another
are another
borrow- bor
ing
ing from
fromthe
theSonora
Sonora
Poncenia,
Poncenia,
experimenting
experimenting
with the
with
newthe
keyboard
new key
technology
technologyofof
the
the
day.
day.
When
When
La Misma
La Misma
GenteGente
released
released
this tune,
this
synthe-
tune, synt
sizer
sizersounds
soundswere
wereconsidered
considered
to betoquite
be quite
innovative,
innovative,
especially
especially
the use of
the
stereo
stereoseparation
separation andand
thethe
bending
bending
of pitches
of pitches
that are
that
deployed
are deployed
throughoutthroug
the
the tune.
tune.InIn
addition,
addition,
somesome
of the
of band's
the band's
early tunes
early use
tunes
instrumental
use instrumental
in-
terludes
terludesthat
that are
are
played
played
in Brazilian
in Brazilian
sambasamba
rhythm,
rhythm,
following
following
the innova-
the inn
tive
tive use
useof
ofsamba
sambain in
well-known
well-known
songssongs
by NewbyYork
Newand
York
Puerto
andRican
Puerto R
artists
artistssuch
suchasas
Willie
Willie
Col6n,
Col6n,
the Sonora
the Sonora
Poncefia,
Poncefia,
and Roberto
and Roberto
Roena.52 Roen
Jaime
JaimeHenao
Henaoexplained
explained
to me
to that
me that
his imitation
his imitation
of influential
of influential
role mod-role m
els
els was
wasalmost
almost
subliminal.
subliminal.
To illustrate,
To illustrate,
he pulled
he pulled
out "Tfi
out
no "Tfi
sabes no
amar"
sabes am
(You
(You Don't
Don'tKnow
KnowHowHow
to Love),
to Love),
another
another
tune from
tune the
fromband's
thedebut
band'sal-deb
bum.
bum.Although
Although La La
Misma
Misma
Gente
Gente
did not
didnormally
not normally
use baritone
use baritone
sax, this sax
instrument
instrument was
wasused
used
in the
in the
arrangement
arrangement
of theof
tune,
thefollowing
tune, following
Puerto Rican
Puerto
artists
artistssuch
suchasas
Bobby
Bobby
Valentin
Valentin
and Willie
and Willie
Rosario.
Rosario.
Henao drew
Henaomy
drew
atten-
my
tion to the solo bari sax line that introduces the mambo section.
Listen-Bobby Valentin. It came out of me right there! [pause to listen] You

don't realize where those influences came from, but it was the first recording
and so, part of being immature is to try and exploit all those styles that you
knew from wherever. It's very funny, I like listening to those first recordings
a lot because now you see them from a different perspective. 53
Henao's remarks point to the impact that Puerto Rican and New York salsa
artists had on the artistic formation of local musicians. Since musical influ-
ences were picked up and learned primarily through recordings, it is clear
that records were as central to the development of local live music as they
were to creative expression in the earlier record-centered dance scene.
In comparison to arrangements produced by Niche and Guayacan, La
Misma Gente featured more elaborate arrangements, with longer horn lines,
and more complex, jazz-influenced voicings. In this respect, the band is
much closer to Puerto Rican and New York bands than Niche and
Guayacan,
Guayacan,which
whichfollow
follow
the the
less complicated
less complicated
style ofstyle
classic
ofCuban
classic
son.
Cuban son.
The
The harmonic
harmonicprogressions
progressions
and horn
and horn
parts parts
in La Misma
in La Gente's
Misma tunes
Gente's tunes
include
includehalf-diminished
half-diminishedminor
minor
seventh
seventh
chords,
chords,
ninths, ninths,
and evenand
the even
dra- the dra-
matic
maticV7#
V7#1111
chord-voicings
chord-voicings
not used
not by
used
Colombian
by Colombian
arrangers
arrangers
before this
before this
time
time(according
(accordingto to
Henao),
Henao),
but prominent
but prominent
in Newin
York
Newand
York
Puerto
andRican
Puerto Rican
salsa
salsaby
bythe
theearly
early
1980s.54
1980s.54
A good
A good
example
example
is the tune
is the
"Rosalia,"
tune "Rosalia,"
from the from the
band's
band'seponymous
eponymous1987
1987
album,
album,
La Misma
La Misma
Gente.Gente.
BetweenBetween
the versethe
andverse and
montuno
montunoofof
the
the
song,
song,
there
there
is aniseight-bar
an eight-bar
passagepassage
that is played
that is
first
played
by first by
the
the trumpets,
trumpets,without
without
anyany
accompaniment,
accompaniment,
and then
andrepeated
then repeated
with the with the
rhythm
rhythmsection
section
(figure
(figure
9). 9).
Figure
Figure9.9."Rosalia,"
"Rosalia,"instrumental
instrumental
breakbreak
with jazz
withharmony
jazz harmony
Dm G13 C F Bmr O7 E7([b5) Am 13
^ i rLrt ;lp^I? -r Jlh

F . 1 2.
Dm G9 CM7 F 12
DCM7 , _(bgo.) Bm 7 tL7
rhyth section * _
(timbal) I ? T
Says Henao, the piercing V13#

phrase was an innovation in C
become more characteristic
among younger arrangers inf
sound, at the time it was unu
sounds.
As arrangers and co-directors of La Misma Gente, Jaime Henao and
Jorge Herrera have also paid close attention to the clave. Henao explained
to me that the band's music has always had "a lot of clave." Not only do
they avoid crossing the clave, but as with the best New York and Puerto
Rican salsa bands, the vocals and horn lines really emphasize the clave
pattern, so that the music swings harder. He said that this was accomplished
through a combination of good musical arrangements and diligent rehearsal,
but noted that this also relates to years of careful listening to records by
Puerto Rican and New York salsa bands.
Other influences that La Misma Gente incorporated into their style dur-
ing its early years included the use of funky bass slaps on electric bass in
tunes such as "Titic6," which echo lines introduced by Willie Col6n and
the Fania All-Stars in New York's scene during the 1970s. In late 1989 La
Misma Gente began to use a short break after the mambo sections, where
the whole band pauses before kicking into the following section with extra
vigor. According to Henao, this was inspired by Venezuelan artist Oscar
D'Le6n-"Eso nos impact6 tanto que alli qued6" (it made such an impact
154 : Lise Waxer
on us that it stayed).55 This break first appears in their song "Chica de

Chicago" (from La Misma Gente en laJugada, 1989), and was used in several
tunes thereafter. Other local orquestas have also picked up on the use of
this break, possibly via the aegis of band leader Jorge Herrera, who did
arrangements for a number of other Calenio bands in addition to La Misma
Gente. The orquesta was also attentive to contemporary developments in
other popular music styles, being the first Colombian band to incorporate
rap into a salsa tune with their 1990 hit, "Perfume de Paris." They recorded
another salsa-rap tune, "El Loco," the following year, but seem to have
tired of the gimmick thereafter.56 Although still one of Cali's steadfast
orquestas, La Misma Gente has not sustained the popular impact of its
peak years between 1986-90.
Style and Repertoire into the 1990s
When I asked local musicians, composers and arrangers, "What makes

Colombian salsa sound 'Colombian'?" the unequivocal response from most
was "su sencillez" (its simplicity). While New York, Puerto Rican, and even
Venezuelan orquestas are characterized by a driving percussive force and
dynamic, punchy arrangements, Colombian salsa owes much of its appeal
to catchy melodies, piquant lyrics (filled with Colombian slang), and short,
uncomplicated horn lines-elements that derive from cumbia, currulao, and
other Colombian genres. Following the parameters established by Niche,
La Misma Gente, and Guayacan, as well as Atlantic Coast orquestas such
asJoe Arroyo y la Verdad and Raices, Colombian bands are characterized
by a light texture, a crisp percussive attack, and an on-the-beat rhythmic
feel. Interestingly, this manner of rhythmic phrasing is similar to the way
Colombians dance the basic short-short-long salsa step, in contrast to Puerto
Rican and Cuban dancers, who tend to step just slightly behind the beat.
The feeling of gravity or "heaviness" in the latter style, as opposed to the
sprightliness of Colombian salsa, is a central distinction between these dif-
ferent schools. According to Felix Shakaito, leader of Los Bronko, Colom-
bian percussionists tend to have a slower technique, which adds to this
feel. For example, when a Colombian percussionist plays an abanico (short,
sharp drum roll) on the timbales, individual hits can be heard. Puerto Rican
percussionists tend to be smoother and faster, so that this roll sounds like
one line, instead of "dub-i-dub-i-dub."57
During the late 1980s and 1990s, attentive to shifts in the international
salsa scene, Calenio orquestas began playing salsa romintica, also referred
to locally as salsa balada. Maintaining its position at the vanguard of the
local scene, Niche became the first Colombian salsa group to take up the
new romantica style with their 1988 release Tapando el Hueco. From that
album, the song "Nuestro suenio" (Our Dream) became a popular hit,
fusing pop-balada lyrics, melody, and harmony with a salsa rhythmic base.
While avoiding the explicit sexuality of then-popular Puerto Rican singers
such as Eddie Santiago and Lalo Rodriguez, the lyrics of "Nuestro Sueio"
are marked by an erotic romanticism, in keeping with contemporary com-
mercial trends. The shift to romantic themes marks a strong break from
earlier Calefio salsa songs, which were based more on scenes and images
from daily life.
"Nuestro Suefio" (1988)

(Grupo Niche)
(Verso) (Verse)
Estoy viviendo un sueno I'm living a dream
Me siento iunico dueno del amor! I feel like I'm the only master of love!
Una mirada bast6, asisucedi6, A look was enough, that's how it happened
Ausente de palabra, mi cuerpo vibro. Without words, my body trembled,
Cuando su mano tome, el ciclo mire When I took (her) hand, I saw the cycle
El brillo de sus ojos, sus labios bese. The brilliance of (her) eyes, I kissed
(her) lips.
Asi como sefie, asi vendrd That's how it was, that's how it will come
En alas de dicha, el viento traerd. On wings of prophecy, the wind will
bring it.
Hoy te espero, Today I await you,
Porque el sueno que mi vida imagin6, Because the dream envisioned by my
life
Es el mismo sueno que tu amor me Is the same dream that your love
inspire, inspired in me,
Que mi amor te enseno. That my love taught you.
Cuando vendras, se que vendrds When you come, I know you'll come,
A vivir nuestro sueno, a hacerlo verdad! To live our dream and make it real!
(bis)
Montuno
(Coro 1) (Chorus 1)
Quiero que tzi me quieres, I want you to want me,
Quiero que tuz me lleves, I want you to lead me,
Yque tu nunca me dejes And never leave me,
por siempre, siempre. For ever and ever.
(etc.)
The I-VI-IV-V harmonic progression and block chord accompaniment

echoes North American doo-wop tunes of the 1950s and 1960s, adding to
the song's pop ballad flavor. Although the band maintains the crisp sound
and forward propulsion of Niche's earlier sound, the rhythm section is
played down in order to emphasize the intimate sentiment of the lyrics.
Both in lyric content and stylistic rendition, this is a typical salsa romdntica
tune. In contrast to the strong percussive drive and assertive tone of classic
156 : Lise Waxer
salsa
salsadura,
dura,latelate
1980s
1980s
salsa salsa
romantica
romantica
was aimed
wasat aimed
conveying
at conveying
romantic romantic
intimacy,
intimacy, notnot
dynamic
dynamic
energy.
energy.
Following
Following Niche's
Niche's
lead,lead,
La Misma
La Misma
Gente and
Gente
otherand
bands
other
began
bands
to in-began to in-
corporate
corporate salsa
salsa
romantica
romantica
tunes tunes
and theand
newer,
themuted
newer,
style
muted
of performance.
style of performance.
Niche's
Niche'snext
nextalbum
album
Sutily
Sutily
Contundente
Contundente
(1989) continued
(1989) continued
to break ground
to break ground
for
forlocal
local
orquestas.
orquestas.
In this
In recordingJairo
this recordingJairo
Varela experimented
Varela experimented
with lush with lush
synthesizer
synthesizer overlays,
overlays,
and through
and through
the early
the1990s
early
other
1990s
Calenio
other
bandsCalenio
had bands had
incorporated
incorporated syrupy
syrupy synthesizer
synthesizer
tracks into
tracks
theirinto
arrangements.
their arrangements.
In con- In con-
trast
trasttotoLaLa
Misma
MismaGente's
Gente's
use ofuse
synthesizer
of synthesizer
for dynamic
forfills
dynamic
and breaks
fills
in and breaks in
earlier
earliertunes
tunes
such
such
as 'Juanita
as 'Juanita
Ae," the
Ae,"
instrument
the instrument
was employedwastoemployed
give a to give a
thick
thickwash
washof of
sound,
sound,
in imitation
in imitation
of an orchestral
of an orchestral
string section.
string
Localsection.
audi- Local audi-
ences
encesseemed
seemed
disaffected
disaffected
by this
bysound,
this however,
sound, however,
and most bands
and most
aban- bands aban-
doned the effect between 1992 and 1993.
Notably, salsa romantica tunes by Calenio orquestas have had to main-
tain a somewhat danceable edge in order to gain acceptance among local
audiences.58 Calenio bands have been more successful with cleaner arrange-
ments that do not obscure the rhythm section. In addition, although heavy
synthesizer tracks lend themselves to slower tempos where pieces are geared
more towards listening than dancing (as in some Puerto Rican salsa
romantica between 1989 and 1991), they do not work for more upbeat
tempos. Caleiio salsa romantica tends to be mid-tempo, neither too slow
nor too fast, in order to appease the local zeal for dancing.
Through the early 1980s and 1990s, other key traits distinguished Calefio
orquestas from their counterparts abroad. One characteristic has been the
emphasis on vocals, rather than instrumental arrangements or solo impro-
vising. Part of this relates to the predilection of Colombian audiences for
catchy lyrics and refrains. Composers and arrangers know this and keep
the listener's focus on the words. Importantly, in Cali's orquestas, most of
the lead vocalists have similar vocal timbres and ranges, which has led to a
homogeneous vocal style in the local scene. Cheo Angulo, director of
Proyecto Omega, criticizes the lack of distinctive vocalists in local orquestas,
claiming that this was one of his first concerns when he founded the band
in 1992.
Here, the problem with Colombian bands, maybe, is that all the singers
have almost the same vocal timbre. They don't differ very much. So I said, I
need singers that people, when they hear us, will say "That's the singer from
Omega."59
Calefio singers tend to be "crooners" with smooth tenor voices well suited
to the intimate and lyrical melodic style of salsa romantica.
Another trait of Calefio salsa bands is the relatively simple horn parts.
In most Colombian salsa arrangements, horn lines are less contrapuntal
and harmonically complex than they are in Puerto Rican salsa romantica
tunes. Some musicians and melomanos (fans) explained to me that
Colombian
Colombiansalsa
salsahas
hasless
less
complicated
complicatedhorn
horn
lineslines
owing
owing
to the
todearth
the dearth
of of
players
players who
whocancanexecute
executetechnically
technically
challenging
challengingparts,
parts,
but it
but
is probable
it is probable
that
that aesthetic
aestheticpreferences
preferences
forfor
a lighter
a lighter
texture
texture
and and
basicbasic
harmonic
harmonic
progres-
progres-
sions
sions have
havealso
alsoinfluenced
influenced
this
this
style.
style.
Grupo
Grupo
Niche,
Niche,
for example,
for example,
has highly
has highly
accomplished
accomplishedhorn
hornplayers,
players,
butbut
thethe
band's
band's
arrangements
arrangements
have have
remained
remained
simple.
simple. Jesus
Jesus"Chucho"
"Chucho" Ramirez,
Ramirez,
a prominent
a prominent
record
record
producer
producer
and ar-
and ar-
ranger
ranger in
inthe
thelocal
localscene,
scene,
pointed
pointed
outout
to me
to me
thatthat
the town
the town
band band
tradition
tradition
(bandas
(bandas del
delpueblo)
pueblo)has
hasbeen
been
an an
important
important
influence
influence
in Colombian
in Colombian
music.music.
This
This has
hasshaped
shapednot
notonly
onlythethe
development
development
of musica
of musica
tropical
tropical
in thein1940s
the 1940s
and
and 1950s,
1950s,but
butalso
alsothe
the
style
styleof of
horn
horn
parts
parts
in Colombian
in Colombian
salsa salsa
during during
the the
1980s and 1990s.60
Calenio arrangers and orquestas have also incorporated elements from
the current international salsa sound, which is centered in Miami and Puerto
Rico, in order to produce songs that are up-to-date and commercially vi-
able on the global salsa market. Chucho Ramirez explained that through
the late 1980s, Caleiio salsa became more closely aligned with transnational
standards. An extremely important influence in this regard has been Cesar
Monge. Monge, who has performed with and/or written for nearly every
major salsa orquesta in Cali, introduced basic principals identified by Calefio
musicians as "the Puerto Rican sound," through arrangements that were
more cerrada, or "tight"-that is, free of extra hits or fills-and pared down to
the basic rhythmic flow for a cleaner, more polished sound.6'
During the early 1990s, with the advent of arrangers well-attuned to
international currents, the tunes recorded and performed by local bands
became more sophisticated, employing a richer harmonic vocabulary in-
fluenced by jazz and pop ballads. This harmonic language features major,
minor and dominant 9th, 11th, and 13th chords, modulation of keys by
rising semi-tone, and stock harmonic progressions built upon secondary
dominants and chord substitutions. Other aspects of the streamlined Calefio
sound through the early 1990s include smooth and lyrical lead vocals, a
polished delivery by the orquesta, compression and reverb in the horns,
and tight execution. This sound owes much to technological improvements
in the national recording industry, and the use of professional studio musi-
cians on recording sessions.
Local musicians have become increasingly constrained by the mecha-
nisms of the international music industry and the star system it promotes.
Calenio bands find that they must compete with recordings and appear-
ances by current stars from Puerto Rico, New York, and Miami. Although
Colombian salsa can be characterized as "simple," local salsa musicians
and audiences do operate within larger globalized aesthetics that define
what a "good" salsa tune is. Hence, a successful band cannot be too experi-
mental or idiosyncratic, or else it will fail to meet the expectations of salsa
audiences and other musicians. Well aware of this condition, the national
and international music industries manipulate public taste and often place
158 : Lise Waxer
considerable
considerablepressure
pressureonon
local
local
musicians
musicians
to conform
to conform
to those
to those
tastes.
tastes.
Local Local
musical
musical style,
style,hence,
hence,has
hasbecome
become
closely
closely
entwined
entwined
withwith
larger
larger
national
national
and transnational currents that determine the choices of Calefio salsa mu-
sicians and composers at the same time as they offer resources and ideas
for musical creation.
Apart fromJairo Varela and Alexis Lozano, who arrange and produce
for their own bands (Niche and Guayacan), only five other people are
active as arrangers and/or producers for almost all of the other salsa re-
cordings made in Cali: Chucho Ramirez,Jose Aguirre, Andres Biafara (a
disciple of Cesar Monge), Dorance Lorza, andJorge Herrera. Often, these
men will work together on the same album, completing the arrangements
for different tunes. Lorza explained that, for example, salsa romantica tunes
will often be farmed out to Ramirez or Biafara, while more dance-oriented
or traditional Cuban-based arrangements will be sent to him.62 These men
boast diverse talents and ideas, and have emerged to the fore of the scene
on the basis of their talent and musical expertise. Yet, the effect of having
such a small nucleus of people in the critical creative processes of the local
scene limits the potential for greater musical diversity. Although Cali boasted
over sixty orquestas by 1995, the richness and variegation of local styles
did not exist. Even the unprecedented emergence of eleven all-women
salsa bands (orquestasfemeninas) in the early 1990s did not make a signifi-
cant impact on local salsa style-rather, the orquestas femeninas followed
the sound established by other Calefio bands (Waxer, n.d.).
Some Caleiio bands began to move away from the path of Niche and
Guayacan to develop a sound that is closer to contemporary Puerto Rican
bands that have maintained the salsa dura vein. One such local orquesta
was Proyecto Omega. This group was strongly influenced by Puerto Rican
artists such as Willie Rosario and Bobby Valentin, who have adapted con-
temporary salsa romantica to the driving 1970s salsa dura style. The song
"Que le piquen cana" (1994) represents a significant step for Calenio salsa
bands. The tune is very much in the dynamic style of 1970s New York
salsa. Beto Caicedo, whose rich, expressive voice is ideal for this sound,
sings lead vocals. The title and lyrics of "Que le piquen cafia" derive from
a common Calefio phrase, "let them cut cane for him/her," which people
use when they want to put down someone who is already well off but
wants more. In Cali, cut sugar cane is used to feed horses. The allusion is,
when someone has everything going for them but still is dissatisfied, he or
she is no longer "human" but more like a voracious animal, hence let them
eat cut cane. The song's lyrics can be interpreted as a subtle criticism of
Cali's "new rich," the cocaine mafiosos, and their egoistic display of wealth.
"Que le piquen cania" (1994)

(Proyecto Omega)
Montuno63
(Coro) (Chorus)
El que quiere mds que le piquen, He who wants more, let them cut
que le piquen, que le piquen cana. let them cut, let them cut cane for him.
(bis) (repeat)
(Verso) (Verse)
Ese chico no trabajapero vive como This guy doesn't work but lives like a
un rey king,
Sus paseos son a Europa 23 dias He takes trips to Europe 23 days of the
por mes. month,
Como colecciona trajes, asi colecciona He collects love affairs as he collects
amores, suits,
Se guilla de campeon, el mejor entre He thinks he's the champ, the best
los hombres. of men.
(Coro) (Chorus)
El que quiere mds que lepiquen, He who wants more, let them cut
que lepiquen, que lepiquen cana. let them cut, let them cut cane for him.
(bis) (repeat)
(Verso) (Verse)
Goza de buena salud y como pescador He enjoys good health and like the
que reza, praying fisherman
Hizo su empate en la vida y ya ha He made his deal in life and has paid
pagado su deuda. his dues.
No le duele ni una muela y se rie a Not even a molar hurts him and he
carcajadas cackles
Yaunque le sobra de todo, no le hace And although he's got everything in
falta nada. abundance, he doesn't need anything.
(etc.)
Omega's instrumentation followed that of Rosario and Valentin in its use

of a baritone saxophone, trombones, and trumpets. In this tune, the sono-
rous qualities of the low-pitched bari sax are used in effective contrast with
the trumpets, which are placed high in their register. The overall groove of
the band was much harder and heavier than that of typical Calefio bands.
The tune is compelling, with catchy coros and forceful mambo sections.
Even though the horn parts approximate the dynamism of Puerto Rican
arrangements, however, the actual lines played by the horns retain the
short, bright phrases characteristic of most Colombian salsa tunes. "Que le
piquen caina" gained strong acceptance amongst salsa dura purists in Cali.
Unfortunately, since Angulo refused to bow to pressure to provide pay-
ola64 (paid favors) radio air play, the recording received very little support
from local stations. As a result, the band's impact was limited, and the
group folded in 1998.
160 : Lise Waxer
Current Trends
By the mid-1990s, Calenio audiences had tired of salsa romdntica. Local

orquestas and radio alike had glutted the city with slick romantic tunes,
and listeners clamored for a change. The viejoteca revival was one response
to the monopoly of salsa romantica, bringing back the classic salsa and
Cuban-based sounds that Calefios had enjoyed in the 1950s, 1960s, and
1970s (Waxer 1999). During this same time, local orquestas and audiences
also became receptive to sounds that were strong in other parts of Colom-
bia, such as vallenato and merengue. Vallenato, the accordion-based cumbia
derivative of the Atlantic Coast region, became an important genre nation-
ally during the late 1970s, financially supported by the marijuana cartels of
Santa Marta. The Dominican merengue became hugely popular through-
out Latin America during the 1980s, establishing a large following in New
York's Latino community and also in Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Central
America, and Colombia's Atlantic Coast. Calefios, however, held firmly to
their salsero self-image during this period, and vallenato and merengue
were rarely heard on local airwaves (Ulloa 1992, 480). By 1996, however,
popular tastes had shifted, and up to a third of radio programming on
"tropical music" stations was vallenato and merengue. Reflecting this tran-
sition, local salsa orquestas worked merengue tunes into their repertoire
and also experimented with pseudo-vallenato tunes, using synthesized ac-
cordion sounds to index this style. Notably, as of this writing, Colombians
still have not picked up on the vogue for Dominican bachata that has swept
Puerto Rico and U.S. Latino communities.
Most significantly, however, Calefio musicians began to pick up on the
national pop tropicalboom, incorporating Colombian genres such as cumbia
and even currulao into their repertoire.65 The impact of the pop tropical
boom even spread to the international scene, with Miami-based Gloria
Estefan incorporating "salsafied" vallenato and cumbia arrangements into
her Grammy award-winning 1995 album Abriendo Puertas (Opening Doors).
Not since the 1970s had Colombian rhythms played such a strong role in
national salsa. Although some groups, such as La Misma Gente, performed
a handful of tunes that featured a contrasting section in cumbia rhythm,
reference to national styles was rare in Colombian salsa of the 1980s and
early 1990s. In 1995, Cali's top three orquestas-Niche, Guayacan, and
Son de Azucar-released albums that juxtaposed cumbia, merengue, and
currulao with salsa.
Paralleling the diversification of styles at the local level, the transnational
salsa scene itself has opened up to new currents. Puerto Rican and New
York arrangers, while retaining the lyric and melodic-harmonic aspects of
salsa romantica, have returned to the percussive roots of the salsa tradi-
tion, and are recuperating what Calefio musicians refer to as golpe, or
"punch," into contemporary salsa. According to Chucho Ramirez, this trend
was
was initiated
initiatedbetween
between1993
1993
and and
1994,1994,
spearheaded
spearheaded
by NewbyYork
Newproducer
York producer
and
and arranger
arranger Sergio
Sergio
George,
George,
and and
Puerto
Puerto
Rican Rican
producer
producer
Gunda Merced.66
Gunda Merced.66
Sergio
SergioGeorge
George hashas
hadhad
an especially
an especially
strong
strong
impactimpact
on the on
international
the international
scene,
scene,being
beingthe
theproducer
producer
behindbehind
current
current
stars La
stars
IndiaLaand
India
Marcand
Antony.
Marc Antony.
Notably,
Notably,hehehas
hasadopted
adopted
elements
elements
fromfrom
contemporary
contemporary
Cuban timba,
Cubanwhich
timba, which
uses
uses elements
elementsofoffunk,
funk,
jazz,jazz,
and and
rock rock
over the
overtraditional
the traditional
son base,son
andbase,
this and this
development
development has
has
influenced
influenced
Caleiio
Caleiio
musicians.67
musicians.67
George's
George's
direct contact
direct contact
with
withColombian
Colombianbands
bands
(he (he
has has
toured
toured
frequently
frequently
to Colombia)
to Colombia)
has no doubt
has no doubt
been
been an
animportant
important influence
influence
on national
on national
tastes.68
tastes.68
ParallelParallel
to this, to
Cuban
this, Cuban
timba
timbahashasbecome
becomequite
quite
popular
popular
in Cali
in among
Cali among
aficionados
aficionados
of 1970sofsalsa
1970s salsa
dura.
dura.This
Thistrend
trend
hashas
been
been
reinforced
reinforced
by the
bygrowing
the growing
local presence
local presence
of im- of im-
migrant
migrantCuban
Cubanmusicians
musicians
whowho
havehave
recently
recently
left the
left
island.
the Characteristic
island. Characteristic
bass
bass drum
drumkicks
kickson on
beats
beats
three
three
and four
and four
of theof
barthe
(Z J
bar
J some-
(Z J J some-
times
timesvaried
variedwith
with
Y J.YJJ.J)J are
J) the
are most
the most
easily easily
recognizable
recognizable
feature feature
of
of timba
timbastyle,
style,
and
and
thisthis
trait
trait
has begun
has begun
to make to its
make wayits
into
way
tunes
intoper-
tunes per-
formed
formedby byCalefio
Calefio
bands
bands
after
after
1995.1995.
Ramirez
Ramirez
explained
explained
that he that
was very
he was very
much
muchtaken
takenwith
with
this
this
sound
sound
and and
has begun
has begun
incorporating
incorporating
the bass the
drumbass drum
kicks
kicksinto
intoarrangements
arrangements he writes
he writes
for local
for bands.
local bands.
Jairo Varela
Jairohas
Varela
also has also
made
madeuse
useofofthis
this
same
same
figure,
figure,
beginning
beginning
with Niche's
with Niche's
1995 release
1995Etnia.
release Etnia.
At
At local,
local,national
nationalandand
international
international
levels,
levels,
thus, salsa
thus,began
salsatobegan
open up
to open up
from the commercial romdntica mainstream to more diverse influences.
Calefio composer-arranger Doranc6 Lorza pointed out to me that by 1996
salsa romdntica was already over a decade old and it was time to find a new
sound.69 (The first salsa romdntica production ever was Noches Calientes, pro-
duced by New York musician and composer Louie Ramirez in 1982.) Both
Lorza and other musicians expressed to me their interest in developing a
new Colombian style that would blend salsa with elements from tradi-
tional Colombian music. When I asked Chucho Ramirez his opinion about
the current state of Colombian salsa, he simply replied, "fusiones" (fusions).70
The shift towards a more heterogeneous repertoire after the period 1994-
95 marks a return to the same spirit of eclecticism that characterized Co-
lombian popular bands in earlier decades. Such diversification is not a
rejection of salsa, but rather a widening of the salsa scene in order to recog-
nize the diversity of other styles popular in Colombia. Geographically po-
sitioned at the gateway of South America, Colombia has been exposed to
international influences since the early 1500s. The impact of numerous
influences on national culture and identity was heightened during the twen-
tieth century, enabling salsa and its Cuban predecessors to gain a strong
foothold in Colombia in the first place. Some may be tempted to view the
recent trend towards eclecticism as a sign that postmoderism has finally
swept the nation. The international salsa scene, particularly in New York
and Puerto Rico, has also been transformed by increasing diverse musical
influences, including other Caribbean tropical genres (e.g., merengue,
bachata), hip-hop, techno, and pop music. Yet, the development of
162 : Lise Waxer
Colombian
Colombiansalsa
salsareveals
revealsdeeper
deeperhistorical
historical
patterns,
patterns,
borne
borne
out of
out
and
ofcon-
and con-
tinually
tinually shaped
shapedbybythe
thethirst
thirst
of of
modern
modernColombians
Colombians
for diverse
for diverse
musical
musical
sounds,
sounds, both
bothnational
nationaland
and
international.
international.
Notes
1. "On conga, bong6, and campana," some of the principal percussion

instruments of salsa. This is a line from the song "Titic6," an extremely
popular tune recorded by local band La Misma Gente in 1986, which
is analyzed later in this article. My fieldwork on Colombian salsa was
conducted between November 1994 and June 1996, with follow-up
visits inJanuary 1997 and 2000. Financial support for this project was
provided by generous grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada, the Wenner-Gren Foundation for An-
thropological Research, the American Association of University
Women, the Nellie M. Signor Fund, and the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, all of which I gratefully acknowledge.
I am grateful to Thomas Turino, Alejandro Lugo, Charles Capwell,
Bruno Nettl, and Christopher Washbure for their helpful comments
on earlier versions of this paper. Thanks also to Pablo Delano for his
assistance in preparing the photographic images used in this article.
Dates and discographical information are as accurate as has been pos-
sible for me to ascertain. Interview excerpts and song texts have been
translated from Spanish by myself.
2. Cuban musicians in the first half of this century frequently used to say
"toca con salsa!" (roughly, "hit it!" or "swing it") when the excitement
and energy of the music began to rise. In 1927, Ignacio Pifieiro com-
posed the famous son "Echale Salsita, "popularized by his group, the
Septeto Nacional. Observers generally agree that a Venezuelan radio
disc jockey was among the first to use the term "salsa" to denote Latin
popular music, in the early 1960s, although New York publisher Izzy
Sanabria claims to have coined the name himself, at the end of the
decade (Roberts 1979, 187). Certainly, by the early 1970s, salsa had
become the standard term of reference throughout Latin America,
owing in large part to its use by Fania Records as a commercial label
with which to market this music.
3. Monge has been an active performer since the 1960s. Founding the
influential group Dimension Latina along with the well-known vocal-
ist Oscar D'Le6n, he helped define the Venezuelan salsa sound during
the early 1970s. Before this, he played with one of Venezuela's first
salsa bands-Federico y su Orquesta-with which he toured to Colom-
bia in the late 1960s. In the 1980s, he moved to Cali to join top orquesta
Grupo Niche, as trombonist and arranger. More recently, he has been
aa member
memberofofGuayacan,
Guayacan, another
another
famous
famous
CalenioCalenio
band. Since
band. moving
Since moving
to
to Cali,
Cali,Monge
Mongehashas
alsoalso
beenbeen
one of
oneColombia's
of Colombia's
top salsa
toparrangers,
salsa arrangers,
writing
writingfree-lance
free-lance forfor
several
several
different
different
orquestas,
orquestas,
in addition
in addition
to his ex-to his ex-
tensive
tensivework
work as as
a record
a record
producer
producer
for Codiscos,
for Codiscos,
an important
an important
national national
salsa
salsalabel.
label.The
Thecomments
commentsin the
in following
the following
pages are
pages
taken
arefrom
taken
ourfrom our
interview
interviewonon 1414
August
August
19951995
(Col. (Col.
95-22).
95-22).
4.
4. Angulo
Anguloisis
a native
a nativeof Guapi,
of Guapi,
a town
a town
on theon
Pacific
the Pacific
littoral that
littoral
is well
that is well
known
knownfor
foritsits
currulao
currulao
marimba
marimba
players.Julian
players.Julian
y su Combo
y su continued
Combo continued
performing
performing through
throughthethe
mid-1980s,
mid-1980s,
as theashouse
the band
house ofband
the luxury
of the luxury
Hotel
HotelIntercontinental
Intercontinentalin Medellin
in Medellin
(1969-1971)
(1969-1971)
and Caliand
(1971-1986),
Cali (1971-1986),
and
and recording
recordingseventeen
seventeen
LPs LPs
during
during
this time.
this time.
5.
5. Personal
Personalcommunication,
communication,31 December
31 December
1996. 1996.
6.
6. Personal
communication,
23 January
23 January
1997. 1997.
7.
7. Personal
communication,
24January
24January
1997 (Col.
199797-70).
(Col. 97-70).
8.
8. Salsa
Salsaromdntica
romdnticawaswas
developed
developed
in Puerto
in Puerto
Rico and
Rico
promoted
and promoted
by the by the
Miami-based
Miami-based Latin
Latin
music
music
industry
industry
duringduring
the late
the
1980s
lateas1980s
a commer-
as a commer-
cial
cial style
stylefusing
fusingromantic
romanticpop pop
ballads
ballads
and salsa
andrhythms,
salsa rhythms,
replacingreplacing
the the
"hard"
"hard"oror"heavy"
"heavy"
sound
sound
and and
the socially
the socially
conscious
conscious
messages
messages
of the of the
earlier 1960s and 1970s roots salsa.
9. Personal communication, 20 March 1996 (Col. 96-53).
10. Personal communication, 24January 1997 (Col. 97-70).
11. Hermes Manyoma, personal communication, 24 January 1997 (Col.
97-70).
12. "Piper Pimienta" Diaz, personal communication, 8 May 1997, (inter-
view Col. 96-62).
13. Re-released on Homenaje a Piper "Pimienta"Dia (DiscosFuentes 10701).
14. Montuno refers to the second portion of a salsa tune, characterized by
call-and-response vocals, solo instrumental improvisation, driving
rhythmic ostinati, and punchy horn choruses. The term is also used to
refer to the piano guajeo or vamp (e.g., Maule6n), especially by Co-
lombian players.
15. Recorded on La Fruta Bomba, (Discosfuentes 200739).
16. Fruko performed in Los Corralejos de Majagual, one of the most popu-
lar tropical bands in Colombia of the 1960s, before embarking on a
career as a salsa musician.
17. Personal communication, 6 March 1995. This observation was con-
firmed by Wilson Saoco himself (personal communication, 24 Janu-
ary 1997, Col. 97-70).
18. Personal communication, 3 August 1997.
19. Personal communication, 21 December 1994 (Col. 94-1).
20. Personal communication, 20 March 1996 (Col. 96-53).
21. Personal communication, 5 February 1996 (interview Col. 96-46). The
event was modeled on the famous Festival de Orquestas of Barranquilla,
held during that city's carnaval celebrations. Sanchez was able to
164 : Lise Waxer
procure
procure thethe
international
international
orquestas
orquestas
by appealing
by to
appealing
the empresarioswho
to the empresarioswho
had
hadcontracted
contractedthemthem
for performances
for performances
at the city's
atcasetas
the city's
(dance casetas
halls)- (dance halls)-
he
heasked
askedforfor
a free
a free
appearance
appearance
at the Festival
at thedeFestival
Orquestasde
in Orquestas
return in return
for
fornot
notcharging
charging
tax from
tax from
the casetas.
the casetas.
22.
22.Personal
communication,
9 April 9
1995
April
(Col. 1995
96-57).(Col. 96-57).
23.
23.Alexis
AlexisLozano,
Lozano,
personal
personal
communication,
communication,
6 February 6 1996
February
(interview1996 (interview
Col. 95-4).
24. Personal communication, 23 January 1997 (interview Col. 97-67a).
Whitten notes a similar pattern of familial and social networks as a
cultural strategy in the Pacific region generally (1974).
25. Lighting candles for specific saints is also done in other parts of Latin
America, such as in Afro-Cuban santerfa, Afro-Brazilian candomble, and
makumba. Surprisingly, the practice of lighting candles for saints (i.e.,
outside of a church) is not very strong in the rest of Colombia.
26. Jose Agiiirre, personal communication, 4 February 1996 (Col. 96-45).
27. Personal communication, 9 April 1996 (Col. 96-57).
28. Charles Keil's suggestive commentaries about "on-the-beat" and "be-
hind-the-beat" grooves is particularly helpful in conceiving the differ-
ences between Colombian salsa and other styles (1966). These rhyth-
mic subtleties, of course, comprise minute distinctions that are
extremely difficult to convey through written description, but which
are immediately perceived upon hearing.
29. Personal communication, 22 February 1996 (Col. 96-51).
30. A reference to Cali's two main soccer teams, America and Deportivo
Cali. Both teams have an enormous popular base in Cali's working
class, and this scene is closely tied to salsa.
31. During the last section of the tune, allusion is made to two very popu-
lar nightclubs in the 1980s scene: Cafiandonga and El Escondite (owned
by a fellow named "Manolo").
32. Varela acknowledges the influence of the Sonora Matancera and
other Cuban groups in a 1984 interview (El Occidente, 24 Dec. 1984,
page 14).
33. Personal communication, 9 April 1996 (Col. 96-57).
34. Christopher Washburne, personal communication, 30 October 1996;
Salim Washington, personal communication, 16 February 1999. "Cali
Pachanguero" is also enshrined in celluloid, performed by Grupo Niche
in the forgettable Hollywood movie Salsa (1988).
35. Interview with Umberto Valverde, 'Jairo Varela: La moda pasa la salsa
queda," La Palabra No. 34 (November 1994): 8-9.
36. Personal communcation, 14 August 1995 (Col. 95-22).
38. The singers during this period were Alvaro del Castillo (1980-84) and
Moncho Santana (1984-1987). When Santana left to form his own salsa
band, Varela contacted Puerto Rican vocalist Tito G6mez, (former
vocalist
vocalist with
withthe
theSonora
SonoraPoncefia),
Poncefia),and
and
G6mez
G6mez
fronted
fronted
Niche
Niche
from
from
1987-1990.
39. Personal communication, 6 February 1995 (interview Col. 95-4).

40. Lozano's involvement with chirimia music dates back to his childhood,
where he danced in traditional folklore groups. Since the late 1980s he
has produced record albums and also a television documentary fea-
turing old chirimfa maestros from Quibd6.
41. This practice is also common in West African popular styles such a
Yoruban juju (Waterman 1990).
42. Every December 7 (Dia de la Virgen), colored lights are strung up
throughout the streets of Cali, and remain there until after the Three
Kings Day (January 6). A
43. In rhythmic transcription the figure rea
Que que que que que qque!
44. Personal communication, 6 February 1995

45. Personal communication, 6 February 1995
46. Personal communication, 12 May 1995 (Co
47. On one visit to Cali, Mangual led a percuss
conservatory, which attracted a large number
ing to learn more from him. (Personal comm
48. Indeed, Rocha's workshop has acquired a s
New York and Puerto Rican salsa orquestas,
above other models (personal communication, C
25 August 1999).
49. The Coliseo del Pueblo (Coliseum of the Peo
concert venue through the 1980s. This is wh
performed in 1980.
50. Ricky Rodriguez, Puerto Rican salsa arrang
Mulenze, personal communication 18June 19
51. Sonora Poncefia, On theRight Track (1988, Inc
during the montuno, when the Poncena nam
bands, and sings "La Misma Gente, con su 'Co,
52. These include "Plastico" (Willie Col6n and
Carambomba" (Sonora Poncefia), and "Mi
Roena). These tunes are from the late 1970s an
very popular among Calefio salsa fans.
56. From, respectively, Perfume de Paris (1990) a
Sabes (1991).
57. Personal communication, 23 November 1995 (field notes 11/95:13).
58. Jesus "Chucho" Ramirez, personal communication, 20 February 1995
(field notes 2/95:12).
166 : Lise Waxer
59.
59. Personal
Personal communication,
communication,10 November
10 November
1995 (Col.1995
95-32).
(Col. 95-32).
60.
60. Personal
communication,
22 February
22 February
1996 (Col.1996
96-51).
(Col. 96-51).
61.
61. Personal
communication,
22 February
22 February
1996 (Col.1996
96-51).
(Col. 96-51).
62.
62. Dorance
Dorance Lorza,
Lorza,
personal
personal
communication
communication
18 February
18 February
1996 (field notes
1996 (field notes
2/96:10).
63. In this tune, following one style that is part of the mzisica antillana tradi-
tion, the piece starts with a montuno, instead of using the two-part
verse/montuno structure.
64. "Payola" is music industry slang for money and favors that are paid
illicitly to radio stations or directly to disc jockeys in return for airplay
and promotion of a certain song. Payola is often viewed as a form of
extortion and blackmail, tied to criminal control of the entertainment
industry (see Dannen 1991).
65. The pop tropicalboom was launched after the success of Carlos Vives'
Cldsicos de la Provincia (Sonolux 0103101937), which revamped classic
vallenato songs with contemporary pop/rock arrangements. After the
release of this album in 1993, a number of Colombian bands began
recording pop arrangements of old Colombian chestnuts, particularly
from mzisica tropical and vallenato.
67. Timba is the style of dance music popularized in Cuba during the late
1980s and 1990s. It is derived from songo, a rhythm that fuses Cuban
son with elements from funk, rock, and rumba, and was developed in
the 1970s by Los Van Van. Another strong influence on timba's devel-
opment has been the Afro-Cuban jazz style of Irakere. The hallmarks
of timba include a dynamic polyrhythmic base, virtuoso horn lines,
jazz-influenced solos, and emphatic bass and drum kicks. The most
representative exponent of timba is NG La Banda.
68. Personal communication, Christopher Washbure, 25 August 1999.
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"En Conga, Bonga y Campana:" The Rise of Colombian Salsa

Author(s): Lise Waxer

Salsa is a popular dance music developed

Latin American Music Review, Volume 21, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2000

The Early Years of Colombian Salsa

Contrary to the relatively recent emergence of most Colombian salsa bands,

When salsa arrived on Colombian shores in the 1960s, a strong national

vocals in the montuno. The combination of trumpets and saxophone in

Early Caleno Bands

Hermes Manyoma: We have to speak of a process that began more or less

Other musicians in Cali similarly learned through an empirical process of

the same competition from

"Piper Pimienta "Diaz: Los

The first prominent salsa

In 1970 Los Supremos was invited to Medellin to record an album for

"Atiza, ataja "(1970)

Hay un dicho sabroso que There's a cool saying

"Las calefias son como las flores"(1975)

Montuno (Call-and-Response Section)

Las calenas son Calefias are

Las negritas son The black ones are

Las gorditas son The plump ones are

Figure 1. Cumbia rhythmic figure from "Las Calefias."

This rhythmic accompaniment is typical of Colombian misic

The Impact of Fruko in Cali

Photo 2. Fruko y sus Tesos, c. 1973. From

The Live Scene Expands

During the late 1970s and into the 1980s,

previously, sponsoring international shows, mass public salsa concerts, and

Ahi tiene su monte There they have outback,

The tune became an instant hit in th

Figure 2. Melodic quote from "Mi Buenaventura"

Despite the strong impact of Cuban-based music, the influence of Colom-

"Cali Pachanguero" (1984)

Mambo (Horn Chorus)

It was a great experience because we finally had something to show....

Varela's ebullience in the wake of "Cali Pachanguero" was clearly evident

"Two-three" clave | | >t l '' :3

Multi-instrumentalist and arranger Alexis Lozano founded Guayacan in

The tune is set in a simple arrangement, with much internal repetition of

Figure 7. Opening measures of "La Pollera Colora"

~~~I,b~~~ ~ ~~~~ e *i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~etc.

In "Cocorobe," the piano plays a descending staccato arpeggio

"Oiga, Mire, Vea" (1992)

As in "Cocorob6," the arrangement is constructed from basic elements-

Consolidating the Cali Sound: La Misma Gente

The most important Calefio orquesta to emerge in the mid-1980s was

"Juanita Ae" (1986)

Piano Break/Mambo/Piano solo/Mambo

The final refrain o

CO- tl- co- ti- ti- CO tl- tl-th of bell

Que alistaba su campana Who readied his bell

MAMBO III & outro

Campanerooo! Campana player!

Listen-Bobby Valentin. It came out of me right there! [pause to listen] You

Dm G13 C F Bmr O7 E7([b5) Am 13

^ i rLrt ;lp^I? -r Jlh

Says Henao, the piercing V13#

on us that it stayed).55 This break first appears in their song "Chica de

~I,b~ ~ e *i ~~~~~~~~~etc.