274 International Journal "Information Content and Processing", Volume 2, Number 3, © 2015

ASPECTS OF STUDYING OF ENGLISH COLOR NAMES: COGNITIVE-DISCURSIVE

APPROACH

Liudmila Babina

Abstract: The article is devoted to the consideration of aspects of studying of English colour names
within the cognitive-discursive approach. As one of aspects of study, modeling of knowledge structures
defining creation and interpretation of the colour names, which are results of the secondary nomination,
is offered. The analysis of simple and parasynthetic words helps to come to a conclusion that their
meaning can be defined by the metonymic cognitive model WHOLE – PART (colour) and the
propositional cognitive models - HAVE QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE/AS QUALITY (COLOUR), HAVE
QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE OBJECT. Other aspect of studying of colour tone names assumes the
analysis of their functioning and the description of cognitive mechanisms of their interpretation.

Keywords: English colour names; secondary nomination; simple names; parasynthetic names;
formation of semantics; metonymic cognitive model; propositional cognitive model; cognitive
mechanisms; interpretation.

Introduction
The study of linguistic phenomena from the standpoint of cognitive-discursive approach, which
investigates "language as a cognitive process implemented in communication activities and provided by
special cognitive structures and mechanisms in the human brain" [Kubryakova, 2004: 406], is very
promising. The cognitive aspect is related to the study of language units through the activities during
which a person operates knowledge structures as a special mental representation. The discourse
aspect involves identifying how language units are used in the communication process that
presupposes speech production and perception.
In this regard, colour tone terms are of interest, because they form the "periphery" of lexical-semantic
field of colour, which is a fairly extensive and growing vocabulary layer. According to their structure
names of colour tones can be divided into simple (chocolate, amber, tomato), compound, parasynthetic
(blood-red, snow-white, stone-coloured), as well as word combinations (dusky pink, Siberian squirrel,
dark red). The object of study in this article is simple names formed by semantic derivation and
parasynthetic words formed on the model of N + colour + ed (wine-coloured, jade-coloured, sky-
coloured). The purpose of research is the analysis of cognitive models and cognitive mechanisms that
 International Journal "Information Content and Processing", Volume 2, Number 3, © 2015 275

may be used in the creation and interpretation of English names of colour tones in their functioning.
Methods of cognitive modeling, conceptual and contextual analysis are used in the study.

Cognitive models of creation and interpretation of colour tone names

Modeling in the study of the derivatives that arise as a result of secondary nomination involves
identifying cognitive models that determine their semantics.
The method of modeling is the basis of all science, as it is impossible to explore any abstract or material
object without research purposes to simulate it. The term "model" is an interdisciplinary, characterized
by ambiguity. However, after analyzing the definitions of the term "model" given in the encyclopedia, we
can derive a universal for all disciplines idea of what is a model. Model - a form, a gage for the
production of any product, it is more convenient for observation replica. The model represents a
schematized construct designed to mimic or "substitute" more complex and difficult to observe original.
Despite the simplicity and schematic nature the model makes it possible to identify and explore the most
important properties for the study of the original object, and therefore it is a productive way of knowing it
[Belyaevskaya, 2008]. The accuracy of the model developed for the studied object often determines the
outcome of the study. Different types of models are allocated, because models can be a means of
studying and describing the internal structure of the original (structural model), its behavior (functional
model) and development (dynamic model) [Piotrovsky, 1998].
The method of modeling is recognized to be a general linguistic one, but its understanding in different
paradigms of linguistic knowledge varies. It originated in the framework of structural linguistics in the 60
- 70-ies XX century thanks to the emergence of mathematical linguistics and penetration into linguistics
ideas and methods of cybernetics. Now the term "model" is used in various fields - in word formation,
syntax, and stylistics to describe linguistic phenomena regardless of processes underlying their
understanding.
Within the framework of cognitive linguistics it is important to show "the relationship and interaction of
linguistic units and their underlying knowledge structures, and based on the study of language
experience - the experience of using language units - to simulate as much as possible these structures,
their content and connections, making thus a contribution to the general theory of intelligence"
[Boldyrev, 2008]. This simulation of knowledge structures allows to study the process of accumulation
and processing of information in the human mind, and the way this knowledge is stored and activated.
The approach to modeling the semantics of language units proposed by George Lakoff is widely known
in cognitive linguistics. According to George Lakoff, one resorts to the use of cognitive models to
understand the world. He uses them in the theoretical understanding of the world, to create scientific
theories and theories for everyday use [Lakoff & Johnson, 2004]. The scientist introduces the concept of
an idealized cognitive model (ICM). ICM, correlated with mental-spaces, gives them inherent structuring,
276 International Journal "Information Content and Processing", Volume 2, Number 3, © 2015

thus organizing our consciousness. In general, the ICM can be understood as a generalized set of
conceptual structures, which is conventional for speaking people belonging to a particular language
community [Lakoff, 1987]. In the conceptual system Lakoff distinguishes four types of models: image-
schematic, metonymic, metaphorical, and propositional.
The cognitive study of the above-mentioned British colour names allows to reveal cognitive models that
determine the formation of their meaning. Thus, the meaning of derivatives is determined by metonymic
cognitive model WHOLE - PART (colour), which may have the following varieties: WHOLE (object of
inanimate nature) - PART (colour): sand, rust, straw, etc; WHOLE (object of flora) - PART (colour):
thistle, wisteria, myrtle, etc; WHOLE (object of fauna) - PART (colour): canary, teal, egret, etc; WHOLE
(gem, mineral, metal) - PART (colour): jade, malachite, opaline, etc; WHOLE (paint and colour) - PART
(colour): indigo, manganese, pastel, etc; WHOLE (product) - PART (colour): coffee, marshmallow,
caramel, etc. The essence of cognitive metonymy is that any area of the conceptual content can serve
as a means of representation of the whole concept. Within the conceptual framework one of its
constituent concepts may represent other related concepts, or the entire structure as a whole. The
meaning of parasynthetic words with an element -coloured is formed with the help of metonymical
cognitive model WHOLE - PART (colour) and propositional cognitive model, which can be represented
in two varieties.
Among parasynthetic words formed by word-formation model N + colour + ed, according to V.V.
Bolkhovitinov, there are two semantic groups [Bolkhovitinov, 1967].
1) parasynthetic words, including the first element, which is a noun having the meaning of
«colour» (emerald-coloured, ruby-coloured, claret-coloured, ivory-coloured). Let’s identify a
propositional cognitive model that determines their meaning. As it is known, the suffix -ed joined to the
base words forms adjectives with the following meaning «having characteristics of» [Meshkov, 1976:
76]. On the basis of this derivational meaning the proposition HAVE QUALITY (COLOUR) can be
revealed. The element QUALITY (COLOUR) of the proposition HAVE QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE / AS
QUALITY (COLOUR) is represented by the word colour; the element LIKE is revealed through
inference.
2) parasynthetic words, including the first element, which is a noun that does not have the
meaning «colour», but calls an object that has a specific colour (coal-coloured, flame-coloured, fox-
coloured, etc.). The meaning of the derivatives is determined by the propositional model HAVE
QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE OBJECT. The element OBJECT of the proposition HAVE QUALITY
(COLOUR) LIKE OBJECT, is represented by a noun, and the element LIKE is revealed through
inference. We believe that the formation of meaning of these words is originally determined by the
propositional cognitive model HAVE QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE OBJECT, and then metonymical
 International Journal "Information Content and Processing", Volume 2, Number 3, © 2015 277

cognitive model WHOLE – PART is used. However, not only cognitive models, but also cognitive
mechanisms are used during the interpretation of colour tone names in the process of their functioning.

Cognitive mechanisms that determine the interpretation of colour tone names

The discursive aspect of research of colour names involves investigation of their functioning in texts, in
this case, literary ones. To find out a meaning (sense) of colour terms under consideration one can refer
to the cognitive domain underlying the noun that denotes the object of fauna, flora, inanimate nature,
etc. This allows to activate complex associations that are connected not only with the colour of an
object, phenomenon. In addition, such cognitive mechanisms as "composition", "completion",
"elaboration" are used. Cognitive mechanisms "composition", "completion", "elaboration" have been
proposed in the framework of the theory of conceptual integration by G. Fauconnier and M. Turner
[Fauconnier & Turner, 1998]. The use of cognitive mechanism "completion" allows to reconstruct
characteristics that are necessary to create a concept underlying a derivative colour name. It occurs
through reference to the information in long-term memory - cognitive domains underlying the
components from which a derivative is formed. Among such cognitive domains may be plant, animal,
food, stone, metal, and others. The use of cognitive mechanism "elaboration" leads to the appearance
of new characteristics in the concept represented by a derivative colour term as a result of activation of
inference and encyclopedic knowledge. The cognitive mechanism of "composition" provides the
coordination of all characteristics of the concept represented by a derivative colour name.
Let’s refer to the examples demonstrating functioning of semantic derivatives:
(1) Only when she lifted her head the radiance of her eyes could stun any man, for she had bright,
emerald eyes, eyes that sparkled like twin stars [LC].
In the example (1), comparing the shine of eyes with the brilliance of the stars (sparkled like twin stars,
bright), the author is trying to convey the idea of their beauty to the reader. The meaning of the
derivative word emerald is determined by the metonymical cognitive model WHOLE (gem - emerald) -
PART (colour). The dictionary article gives the following definition of the colour term: clear green colour
of an emerald [AL]. However, the context makes us consider not only the knowledge reflected in the
definition, but activate background knowledge about the features of the precious stone - emerald.
Through the mechanism of "completion" we borrow characteristics 'luminous', 'vivid', 'sparkling',
'shining'. The mechanism of "composition" allows to combine the above-mentioned characteristics and
characteristics associated with the colour of an emerald: 'vivid green', 'sparkling green', 'shining green'.
Next, the mechanism of "elaboration" helps to deduce a positive connotation in the sense of colour tone
name. Therefore, the use of colour term emerald allows to depict an unusually beautiful colour of eyes
of the heroine, to emphasize their brightness and radiance.
278 International Journal "Information Content and Processing", Volume 2, Number 3, © 2015

(2) There, with the rest of the family, drinking whisky, smooth, dapper, silver hair gleaming, face
glowing, teeth shining, was Uncle Karl. ‘My dear fellow!’ As glossy as a fashion-plate, Karl jumped up,
grasped Herr Nordern's hand, and beamed into his face [LC].
In the second example, colour term silver is also used to describe the appearance of the character,
namely, the colour of his hair. The meaning of the derivative word is determined by the metonymical
cognitive model WHOLE (metal) - PART (colour). The dictionary article gives the following definition of
the colour term: of or tending towards the colour silver - a soft grayish-white metal that is very valuable
and is used to make jewelry, coins, knives, forks, etc. [MW]. The context determines whether to activate
background knowledge about the features of the metal. Through the mechanism of "completion"
characteristics 'lustrous sheen', 'sparkling' are borrowed from cognitive domain METAL. The mechanism
of "composition" allows to combine the above-mentioned characteristics and characteristics associated
with the colour of silver: 'lustrous sheen', 'sparkling grayish-white'. Next, the mechanism of "elaboration"
lets display an ironic connotation that the word acquires in this context. Therefore, the use of the colour
term silver gives an idea of the character's quest to gloss, his wish to make a brilliant impression on
others.
Let’s consider some examples of parasynthetic words:
(3) Strether had become acquainted even on this ground with short gusts of speculation — sudden
flights of fancy in Louvre galleries, hungry gazes through clear plates behind which lemon-coloured
volumes were as fresh as fruit on the tree.
(4) His great hands (which can sprawl over half a piano, and produce those effects on the instrument for
which he is celebrated) are encased in lemon-coloured kids, new, or cleaned daily.
(5) Her bright eyes, brown hair, flowery bonnet, lemon-coloured gloves, and flush beauty, were like an
irradiation into the apartment, which they in their gloom could hardly bear [Wordnik].
It seems that in the proposed passages, along with the colour, there is an idea of brightness, splendor
of described objects. Let’s refer to the word lemon - an oval-shaped fruit with a thick bright yellow skin
[CCELD, 1993: 828]. This view is supported by the context: in the examples (3) and (5) the comparison
is used, in the example (4) - adjectives. The sense of considered derived words is formed not only with
the help of the aforementioned cognitive models. The background knowledge underlying the word
lemon is activated with the help of mechanism of "completion". This allows to borrow the characteristic
'bright', which is due to the mechanism of "composition" combines with the characteristics that give an
idea of the colour. The mechanism of "elaboration" lets deduce a positive connotation of colour terms.
(6) The roofs overhead were engulfed in the soot-coloured sky that seemed to be descending on the
heads of the passengers.
(7) They used to come trotting the five miles from Loughrea, little fellows with blue eyes shining out from
soot-black faces, wearing little soot-coloured smocks [Wordnik].
 International Journal "Information Content and Processing", Volume 2, Number 3, © 2015 279

The sixth example gives an idea not only about colour, but also makes us understand that the air is not
clean, there is soot in the air. In the example (7) it is obvious that faces and clothing of people were
black because of soot. Compare soot - black powder which is carried into the air in the smoke from a
fire, and which is left on the sides of chimneys and on other surfaces [CCELD, 1993: 1390].
Thus, the colour terms are widely used in literary texts, performing a variety of functions: they give a
detailed description of landscapes, portraits, acquire a symbolic importance being a component of
metaphors and comparisons, playing the role of keywords in the literary text, helping to reveal the
author's thought. To a large extent this contributes to their ability to transfer complex ideas about the
described object, including not only information about colour.

Conclusion
The investigation shows that the use of cognitive-discursive approach that takes into account knowledge
structure underlying linguistic units, mechanisms of their generation, opens new perspectives in the
study of meanings and functioning of colour tone names. The research of colour tone names involves
determining cognitive models and description of cognitive mechanisms used in the process of creation
and interpretation of colour terms.
The analysis of colour names (simple words) reveals a metonymical cognitive model - WHOLE - PART
(colour) and its variants. The study of colour names (parasynthetic words) leads to the conclusion that
their meaning can be determined by the metonymical cognitive model WHOLE - PART (colour) and the
propositional cognitive models HAVE QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE / AS QUALITY (COLOUR), HAVE
QUALITY (COLOUR) LIKE OBJECT. The application of cognitive mechanisms provides an opportunity
to identify additional senses that colour tone names get in the process of their functioning.

Acknowledgements
The research is executed with the financial support of Russian Research Foundation (Project № 15-18-
10006 "Study of the anthropocentric nature of language in cognitive context") at Tambov State
University named after G.R. Derzhavin.

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Authors' Information

Luidmila Babina – Department of Foreign Philology and Linguistics, Tambov

State University named after G.R. Derzhavin, Tambov, Russia,
Major Fields of Scientific Research: Cognitive Linguistics, Semantics, Word-
building, Text Linguistics.
e-mail: ludmila-babina@yandex.ru