(b) Column Matrix (Column vector) :

MATRIX
 a11 
1. INTRODUCTION : a 
A rectangular array of mn numbers A   12  i.e. column matrix has exactly
 : 
(which may be real or complex) in the  
form of 'm' horizontal lines (called rows) a m1 
and 'n' vertical lines (called columns), is one column.
called a matrix of order m by n, written
(c) Zero or Null Matrix : (A = Om × n) An
as m × n matrix.
m × n matrix whose all entries are zero.
Such an array is enclosed by [ ] or ( ).
An m × n matrix is usually written as 0 0
A  0 0  is a 3 × 2 null matrix &
 a 11 a 12 a 13  a ln 
a 0 0 
a 22 a 23  a 2 n 
A
21

       0 0 0 
  B = 0 0 0  is 3 × 3 null matrix
a ml a m 2 a m 3  a mn 
0 0 0 
In compact form, the above matrix is
represented by A=[aij]m×n. The number (d) Horizontal Matrix : A matrix of order
a11, a12,.....etc are known as the elements m × n is a horizontal matrix if n > m
of the matrix A, aij belongs to the ith row
1 2 3 4 
and jth column and is called the e.g.  
2 5 1 1
(i, j)th element of the matrix A = [aij].
(e) Vertical Matrix : A matrix of order
1 2 3 m × n is a vertical matrix if m > n e.g.
e.g., A    is a matrix having
0 1 9 2 5
1 1 
2 rows and 3 columns. Its order is 2 × 3  
and it has 6 elements : 3 6
 
a11= 1, a12 = 2, a13 = 3, a21 = 0, a22 = –1, 2 4
a23 = 9. (f) Square Matrix : If number of rows =
2. SPECIAL TYPE OF number of columns  matrix is a square
matrix.
MATRICES :
If number of rows = number of columns
(a) Row Matrix (Row vector) :
= n then, matrix is of the order 'n'.
A = [a11, a12, ..........a1n] i.e. row
matrix has exactly one row. Note : The pair of elements aij& aji are
called Conjugate Elements.

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3. TRACE OF MATRIX : Properties of trace of a matrix :
The sum of the elements of a square Let A = [aij]n × n and B = [bij]n× n and  be
matrix A lying along the principal a scalar then
diagonal is called the trace of A i.e.
(tr(A)). Thus, if A = [aij]n × n, then (i) tr(A) = tr(A)
n (ii) tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B)
tr(A)   a ii  a11  a 22  ....a nn
i1 (iii) tr(AB) = tr(BA)
SQUARE MATRICES

Triangular Matrix Diagonal Matrix denoted as

A = diag (a11, a22 ……, ann
Where aij = 0 for i  j
 1 3 2  1 0 0
  ; B   2 3 0 
A  0 2 4 
 
0 0 5   4 3 3 Scalar Matrix Unit or identity Matrix
   
Upper triangular Lower Triangular
aij = 0 i > j aij = 0  i <j a 0 0  1 if i  j
0 a 0  a ij  
  0 if i  j
0 0 a  If a11 = a22 = a33 = 1
If a11 = a22 = a33 = a

4. Note : (iii) Find minimum number of zeros in a

(i) Minimum number of zeros in diagonal matrix of order 6.
(iv) If
triangular matrix of order n = n(n–1)/2.
 2x  y 2 x  2y  3 2 4 
 a  b 2a  b 
3  4 1 3
(ii) Minimum number of zero in a
diagonal matrix of order n = n (n–1). 
, then find the value of x, y, a and b.
5. EQUALITY OF MATRICES :
Let A = [aij] & B= [bij] are equal if 6. ALGEBRA OF MATRICES :
Addition : A + B = [aij + bij] where
(a) both have the same order.
A & B are of the same order.
(b) aij = bij for each pair of i & j .
(a) Addition of matrices is
commutative : i.e. A + B = B + A
Do yourself-1: (b) Matrix addition is associative :
(i) Find 2 × 3 matrix [aij]2 × 3, where aij = i + 2 (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(ii) Find the minimum number of zeroes in a (c) Additive inverse :
triangular matrix of order 4.
If A + B = O = B + A, then B is called
additive inverse of A.
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 (d) Existence of additive identity : Properties of scalar multiplication:
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and O (a) If A and B are two matrices of the same
be an m × n zero matrix, then A + O = order and 'k' be a scalar then
O + A = A. In other words, O is the k(A + B) = kA + kB.
additive identity for matrix addition. (b) If k1 and k2 are two scalars and 'A' is a
(e) Cancellation laws : hold good in case matrix, then (k1+ k2)A = k1A + k2A.
of addition of matrices. If A, B, C are (c) If k1 and k2 are two scalars and 'A' is a
matrices of the same order, then matrix, then (k1k2)A = k1(k2A) =k2(k1A)
A + B = A + C  B = C
(left cancellation law) and 8. MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
B + A = C + A  B = C (Row by Column) :
(right-cancellation law) Let A be a matrix of order m × n and B
be a matrix of order p × q, then the
Note: The zero matrix plays the same role in matrix multiplication AB is possible if
matrix addition as the number zero and only if n = p and matrices are said to
does in addition of numbers. be conformable for multiplication.
Do yourself -2 : In the product AB, A is called
pre-factor and B is called post factor.
2 3 9
(i) If A  and   AB is possible if and only if number of
8 2 5
columns in pre-factor = number of rows
 5 7 2 in post-factor.
B  , then find a matrix C
 6 4 8 Let Am × n = [aij] and Bn × p = [bij], then
such that A – B + C = O and also find order of AB is m × p &
the order of the matrix C. n
(AB)ij   a ir b rj
 8 9 r 1
(ii) If A  7 / 2 8  , then find the additive

a a a13 
 1 1 e.g. A   11 12
a 23  23
and
a 21 a 22
inverse of A and show that additive
 b11 b12 b13 b14 
inverse of additive inverse will be
the matrix itself. B   b 21 b 22 b 23 b 24 
 b31 b32 b33 b34  34
7. MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX Then order of AB is 2 × 4.
BY A SCALAR : 3

a b c   ka kb kc 
(AB)11= a11b11+a12b21+ a13b31 = a
r 1
b
1r r l

If A   b c a  ; k A   kb kc ka 
  3

 c a b   kc ka kb  (AB)23= a21b13 + a22b23+ a23b33 = a

r 1
b
2r r3

3
In general ai1b1j + ai2b2j + ai3b3j = a
r 1
ir br j

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9. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX Do yourself -3 :
MULTIPLICATION: (i) If
(a) Matrix multiplication is not  2 9 1 5  9 7 
A  ,B    and C   ,
commutative: i.e. AB  BA  4 5 6 8  2 4 
then show that A(B + C) = AB + AC.
Here both AB & BA exist and also they
are of the same type but AB  BA.
 2 1  1 4
Example: (ii) If A    and B    , then
1 1  1 0   1 2   1 1 
Let A  & B  ; then prove that (A – B)2 A2 – 2AB + B2.
0 0 0 0 
1 0  1 1 
AB    ; BA    (iii) Find the value of
0 0  0 0   3 1 2 1 0 1  4 2 2
x : 2  x   
 AB  BA (in general)  1 3 4  3 4 5   8 14 2
(b) AB = O 
 A = O or B = O (in general)

1 1   1 1  10. POSITIVE INTEGRAL POWERS

Let A    &B   , then OF A SQUARE MATRIX:
 2 2  1 1
1 1   1 1  0 0 For a square matrix A,
AB      An  A.A.A
...............A , where n  N
 2 2  1 1 0 0   
upto n times
Note:
Note:
If A and B are two non-zero matrices (i) Am. An = Am+n
such that AB = O then A and B are
(ii) (Am)n = Amn, where m, n  N
called the divisors of zero. If A and B
(iii) If A and B are square matrices of same
are two matrices such that
order and AB = BA then
(i) AB = BA then A and B are said to n n n n n–1
(A + B) = C0A + C1A B +
commute n
C2An–2B2+……….+ nCnBn
(ii) AB = – BA then A and B are said to
anticommute Note that for a unit matrix I of any order,
(c) Matrix Multiplication Is Associative: Im = I for all m  N.
If A, B & C are conformable for the Do yourself -4 :
product AB & BC, then (AB) C = A(BC)  cos  sin  
(i) If A =   , then prove that
(d) Distributive:   sin  cos  
A(B C)  AB  AC 
 cos n sin n 
(A B)C  AC BC 
Provided A, B & An    where n is
  sin n cos n 
C are conformable for respective products
positive integer
 i 0
(ii) If A =   , where i  1 and x 
0 i 
N, then A4x equals-
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 0 i  0 0  1 2 3
(A)   (B)  
 i 0 0 0  (i) The matrix A   1 2 3  is
1 0   i 0  1 2 3
(C)   (D)   (A) Idempotent matrix
0 1  0 i 
(B) Involutory matrix
11. SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES: (C) Nilpotent matrix
(D) Periodic matrix
(a) Idempotent Matrix: A square
 x 1
matrix is idempotent provided (ii) If A    and A2 is the identity
A2 = A. For idempotent matrix  1 0
note the following: matrix, then find the value of x
(i) An = An  2, n  N.
(ii) Determinant value of 12. THE TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX:
idempotent matrix is (Changing rows & columns)
either 0 or 1 Let A be any matrix of order m × n. Then
(b) Periodic Matrix: A square AT or A' = [aji] for 1 i  m & 1  j  n of
matrix which satisfies the order n × m
relation Ak+1 = A, for some
Properties of transpose:
positive integer K, is periodic
matrix. The period of the matrix If AT & BT denote the transpose of A and B,
is the least value of K for which (a) (A + B)T = AT + BT; note that A & B
this holds true. have the same order.
Note that period of an idempotent (b) (A B)T = BT AT (Reversal law) A & B
matrix is 1. are conformable for matrix product AB
(c) Nilpotent Matrix: A square Note: In general: (A1.A2,……….An)T = A Tn
matrix of the order 'n' is said to
……………. AT2 .A1T (reversal law for
be nilpotent matrix of order m, m
 N, if Am = O& Am–1O. transpose)
(c) (AT)T = A
(d) Involutory Matrix: If A2 = I, the
(d) (kA)T = kAT, k is a scalar.
matrix is said to be an involutory
matrix. i.e. square roots of
13. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
identity matrix is involutory
matrix. A square matrix is said to be orthogonal
Note: The determinant value of matrix if A AT = I
involutory matrix is 1 or – 1. Note:
(i) The determinant value of orthogonal
matrix is either 1 or –1.
Do yourself -5 :
 a1 a 2 a 3 
(ii) Let A =  b1 b 2 b3 
 c1 c 2 c3 

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  a1 b1 c1  14. SYMMETRIC & SKEW
 AT =  b 2 b 2 c 2  SYMMETRIC MATRIX:
 a 3 b3 c3  (a) Symmetric matrix:
T
AA = A square matrix A = [aij] is said
 a a a
2
1
2
2
2
3 a1b1  a 2b 2  a 3b3 a1c1  a 2c 2  a 3c3  to be, symmetric if, aij = aji  i &
 
 b1a1  b 2a 2  b3a 3 b12  b 22  b32 b1c1  b 2c 2  b3c3  j (conjugate elements are equal).
 c1a1  c2a 2  c3a 3 c1b1  c 2b 2  c3b3 c12  c 22  c32 

Hence for symmetric matrix
A = AT.
If AAT = I, then
3 Note: Max. number of distinct
 a i2   bi2   ci2  1 and
i 1
entries in any symmetric matrix
n(n  1)
3 3 3 of order n is .
a b  b c  c a
i 1
i i
i 1
i i
i 1
i i 0 2

(b) Skew symmetric matrix:

Square matrix A = [aij] is said to
Do yourself - 6 : be skew symmetric if aij = – aji 
 4 2 5
(i) If A    and
i & j (the pair of conjugate
1 0 3  elements are additive inverse of
 6 7 0  each other). For a skew
B =  1 2 5  , then show that symmetric matrix A = – AT.
 1 0 3 Note:
(AB)T = BT.AT. (i) If A is skew symmetric,
 1 2  then aii = – aii aii = 0  i.
 2 3 4 
(ii) If A =   and B   3 4  , Thus the diagonal elements
 1 2 3   5 6  of a skew square matrix are
all zero, but not the
then find A + BT.
converse.
 9 3 6 
(ii) The determinant value of
(iii) If A   8 ½ 7  , then, show that odd order skew symmetric
 1 0 0  matrix is zero.
(AT)T = A.
(iv) Show that the matrix (c) Properties of symmetric & skew
 cos  sin   symmetric matrix :
A  is an orthogonal A is symmetric if AT = A & A is
  sin  cos  
(i)
skew symmetric if AT = – A
matrix.
(ii) Let A be any square matrix then,
A + AT is a symmetric matrix &

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 A – AT is a skew symmetric Then, adj A = [Cij]T
matrix. T
 C11 C12 C13 
(iii) The sum of two symmetric 
adj A = C23 C22 C23 

matrix is a symmetric matrix and
the sum of two skew symmetric  C31 C32 C33 
matrix is a skew symmetric Theorem: A (adj. A) = (adj. A).
matrix. A = |A| In.
(iv) If A & B are symmetric matrices Proof :
then,  a11 a12 a13  C11 C21 C31 
(1) AB + BA is a symmetric   
A.(adj A) =  a 21 a 22 a 23  C12 C22 C32 
matrix a a 33  
 31 a 32  C13 C23 C33 
(2) AB – BA is a skew
symmetric matrix. | A | 0 0  1 0 0
   
(v) Every square matrix can be  0 | A | 0   | A | 0 1 0
 0 0 | A |  0 0 1
uniquely expressed as a sum or   
difference of a symmetric and a  A.(Adj. A) = |A| I
skew symmetric matrix. (whatever may be the value only |A| will come
1 1 out as a common element)
A  (A  A T )  (A A T )
2   2  A.(adj.A)
symmetric skew symmetric If |A| 0, then = I = unit
|A|
1 1
and A  (AT  A)  (AT  A) matrix of the same order as that of A
2 2 Properties of adjoint matrix:
If A be a square matrix of order n, then
Do yourself -7 : (i) |adj A| = |A|n–1
 2 1 1  (ii) adj(adj A) = |A|n – 2 A, where |A|  0
(i) If A =  1 7 4  be symmetric
(iii)|adj(adj A)| = | A |(n 1) , where |A|  0
2

 1  x 3 (iv) adj(AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

matrix then find the value of x. (v) adj(KA) = Kn–1(adjA), K is a scalar
2 5 7 (vi) adj AT = (adj A)T
(ii) Express matrix A = 9 7 2  as a Method of find adjoint of a 2 × 2
1 1 0  square matrix, directly:
sum of a symmetric and a skew Let A be a 2 × 2 square matrix. In order
symmetric matrix. to find the adjoint simply interchange the
diagonal elements and reverse the sign
15. ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX: of off diagonal elements (rest of the
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n elements).
and let Cij be cofactor of aij in A then the p q   s q 
adjoint of A, denoted by adj A, is e.g. If A =    adjA   r p 
r s  
defined as the transpose of the cofactor
matrix.
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Do yourself -8 : Note: If A1, A2,………….An are all
(i) For any 2 × 2 matrix, if A(Adj A) invertible square matrices of
15 0  order n then (A1A2………An)–1
=  , then |A| is equal-
 0 15 = An1An11 ………. A21A11
(A) 20 (B) 625 (ii) If A be an invertible matrix, then
(C) 15 (D) 0 AT is also invertible & (AT)–1
(ii) Which of the following is/are incorrect? = (A–1)T.
(A) Adjoint of a symmetric matrix is skew (iii) If A is invertible, (a) (A–1)–1 = A
symmetric matrix. (b) (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k = A–k; k  N
(B) Adjoint of a diagonal matrix is a (iv) If A is non-singular matrix, then
diagonal matrix. |A–1| = |A|–1
(C) A(Adj A) = (Adj A) A = |A| I (v) If idempotent matrix is invertible
(D) Adjoint of a unit matrix is a diagonal then its inverse will be identity
matrix matrix.
(iii) If A be a square matrix of the order 5 (vi) A nilpotent matrix will not be
and B = Adj(A) then find Adj(5A). invertible because its determinant
(iv) If A be a square matrix of order 4 and value is zero.
|A| = 3 then find adj(adj A). (vii) Orthogonal matrix A is always
invertible and A–1 = AT.
16. INVERSE OF A MATRIX
(viii) A = A–1 for an involutory matrix.
(Reciprocal Matrix):
Cancellation law : Let A, B, C
A square matrix A said to be invertible if
be square matrices of the same
and only if it is non-singular (i.e. |A| 0)
order 'n'.
and there exists a matrix B such that,
If A is a non-singular matrix,
AB = I = BA.
then
B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A
(a) AB = AC B = C
and is denoted by A–1. Thus
(Left cancelation law)
A–1 = B  AB = I = BA
We have, A.(adj A) = |A| In (b) BA = CA B = C
(Right cancellation law)
A–1. A(adj A) = A–1 In |A|
Note that these cancellation laws
In(adj A) = A–1 |A| In
hold only if the matrix 'A' is
(adjA) non-singular (i.e. |A|  0).
 A 1 
|A|
Note: The necessary and sufficient Do yourself -9 :
condition for a square matrix A to be (i) If 'A' is a square matrix such that A2 = I
invertible is that |A|  0 then A–1 is equal to-
Properties of inverse: (A) A + I (B) A
(i) If A & B are invertible matrices (C) 0 (D) 2A
of the same order, then (ii) If 'A' is an orthogonal matrix, then A–1
(AB)–1 = B–1A–1. equals-
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 (A) A (B) AT Note : This theorem is helpful to find the
(C) A2 (D) None of these inverse of any non-singular square
matrix.
3 2 i.e. a0An + a1An–1 + ..... + an–1A + anI = O
(iii) If A    , then (A–1)3 is equal to-
0 1 On multiplying by A–1 on both the sides
1 1 26  1 1 26  of above equation, we get
(A) 
27  27 0 27 
(B 1
27 0 A–1 = – (a0An–1 + a1An–2+…..an–1I)
an
1 1 26    1 26 
27 0 27 
(D) 
27  0 27 
(C)
Do yourself -10 :
17. MATRIX POLYNOMIAL: (i) Determine the characteristic roots of the
matrix A. Hence find the trace the
If f(x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2+…..+
determinant value of A. Where
anx0, then we define a matrix polynomial
f(A) = a0An + a1An–1 + a2An–2 +….+anIn.  8 6 2 
Where A is the given square matrix. If A   6 7 4  and also prove that
f(A) is the null matrix, then A is called  2 4 3 
the zero or root of the polynomial f(x.)
A3 – 18A2 + 45A = O.
18. CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION:
Let A be a square matrix. Then the 20. SYSTEM OF EQUATION &
polynomial |A – xI| is called as CRITERIA FOR CONSISTENCY
characteristic polynomial of A & the
equation |A – xI| = 0 is called as Gauss-Jordan method:
characteristic equation of A. After a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
solving the characteristic polynomial the
values of 'x' are said to be characteristic a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
roots of the polynomial.
Note: a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
(i) Sum of the roots of the characteristic

equation is equal to trace of the matrix.
(ii) Product of the roots of the  a1x  b1y  c1z   d1   a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
characteristic equation is equal to the  a x  b y  c z   d   a b2 c 2   y   d 2 
determinant value.  2 2 2   2  2
(iii) The degree of characteristic  a 3x  b3 y  c3z   d 3   a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 

equation is same as the order of the
matrix.  AX = B …(i)
Multiplying adj A on both the sides of (i)
19. CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM:
Every square matrix A satisfy its 
characteristic equation  (adjA) AX = (adj A)B
i.e. a0xn + a1xn–1 +…..+ an–1x + an = 0
is the characteristic equation of A, then  |A|X = (adj A) B
a0An + a1An–1 +….+ an–1A + an I = O

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 |A| X = (adjA)B

If |A|  0 If |A| = 0
(adjA) B
X
|A|
(adjA)B = null matrix If (adjA)B  O
or
X  A 1B
Infinite solutions Inconsistent (no solution )
(unique solution)
or no solution
Do yourself -11 : 3: (iii) x=–2
(i) The system of equations x + 2y – 3z = 1, 4: (ii) C
x – y + 4z = 0, 2x + y + z = 1 has- 5: (i) C (ii) x=0
(A) only two solutions 1 6 9 
(B) only one solution 6: (ii) 1 6 3
 
(C) no solution
7: (i) –4
(D) infinitely many solutions
   
 2 7 4   0 2 3 
(ii) The system of equations x + y + z = 8,    
x – y + 2z = 6, 3x + 5y – 7z = 14 has- (ii) 7 7 1    2 0
3
 2  2
(A) Unique solution    
1 3
(B) infinite number of solutions 4 0   3  0
 2   2 
(C) no solution
8: (i) C (ii) A
(D) none of these
(iii) 625 B (iv) 9A
9: (i) B (ii) B
ANSWERS FOR DO YOURSELF (iii) A
10: (i)  = 0, 3 and 15 tr(A) = 18, |A| = 0
3 5 7 11: (i) D (ii) A
1: (i) 4 6 8
 
(ii) 6
(iii) 30
(iv) x = 2, y = – 1, a = 1, b = – 3

 7 10 7 
2: (i)  2 6 3 
&2×3

 8 9 
(ii)  7 / 2 8
 
 1 1 
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