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CHAPTER 1 Robotic Manipulation:

UNIT STRUCTURE:
1.1 Automation and Robots
1.1.1 Hard Automation
1.1.2 Soft Automation
1.2 Classification
1.2.1 Drive Technologies
1.2.2 Work Envelope Geometries
1.2.3 Motion Control Methods
1.3 Application
1.4 Specification
1.5 Notations

1.1 Automation and Robots

Definition of a robot:
A robot is a reprogrammable,multifunctional manipulator designed to move material,
parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks: (Definition by Robot Institute of America, 1979)
WHAT IS ROBOTICS?
 It is a Gadget which tries to mimics human behavior.
 A ROBOT IS
 An electromechanical device that is;
 Reprogrammable
 Multifunctional
 Sensible for environment
LAWS OF ROBOTICS:Science fiction writer Isaac Asimov proposed three “Laws of
Robotics”.
 First Law (Human safety):A human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
 Must obey orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law.
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 Must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
First or Second Law.
DEFINTION OF Automation:
Technology associated with electronic, mechanical and computer based system in
their process control operation and production environment.
1.1.1 Hard Automation
 It is a type of fixed automation .
 Periodic modification of the hardware may be required hence called as Hard
automation.
 Provides limited flexibility.
 Number of operations performed by the equipment are fixed.
 Useful for mass production manufacturing
 COST: Initial high investment
 Hardware set up useful for one kind of product manufacturing.
1.1.2 Soft Automation
 Preferred when production is high volume
 Different kind of products to be manufactured in a short time period.
 EX: Using computer control robotic manipulators can perform different
tasks such as spot welding, spray painting, etc.
 Can be termed as Programmable automation
 Preferred when different configuration of products to be designed and
manufactured.
 Following figure shows that when robotic systems are less expensive,
production volume range volumes [v1, v2] expands continuously at the
production end spectrum.
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1.2 Classification
1.2.1 Drive Technologies
 Most popular drive technologies:
1. Electrical
2. Pneumatic
3. Hydraulic

 Electric: all robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.

 Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraulic and pneumatic pressure.
 It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and
peripheral devices.
 In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are
electrically powered.
 Because electric robot does not require a hydraulic power unit, they conserve
floor space and decrease factory noise.
 No energy conversion is required.
 Pneumatic: these are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low
load carrying capacity.
 Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-to-
stop motions.
 It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are moderate.
 Hydraulic: are either linear position actuators or a rotary vane configuration.
 Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a given actuator.
 The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive
choice for moving moderate to high loads at reasonable speeds and moderate
noise level.
 Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of energy to achieve a
better performance, but they are expensive and generally less accurate.
1.2.2 Work Envelope Geometries
1. Cartesian coordinate robot
2. Cylindrical coordinate robot
3. Spherical coordinate robot
4. Articulate coordinate robot
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WORK ENVELOPE
 The volume in space that a robot‟s end-effector can reach, both in position and
orientation.

 In Cartesian, the endpoint of the arm is capable of operating in a cuboidal space,

called workspace.
WORKSPACE
 Represents the portion of space around the base of the manipulator that can be
accessed by the arm endpoint.
Axes Type Function
1-3 Major Position the wrist
4-6 Minor Orient the tool

TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS:

TYPE NOTATION Description Examples

Revolute R Rotary motion

about an axis
Prismatic P Translate
/Linear/Sliding
motion along an
axis

1. Cartesian coordinate robot

 The first type of robot is called the Cartesian robot.

 This type of robot uses the X, Y, Z three dimensional

coordinate system to control movement and location.
 PPP
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 Gantry Robot

 In a gantry robot, each of these motions

o are arranged to be perpendicular to each other and
o are typically labeled X, Y, and Z.
 X and Y are located in the horizontal plane and Z is vertical.
 A gantry robot can move things anywhere within this envelope or perform some
operation on an item within the envelope.
2. Cylindrical coordinate robot

Cylindricalrobots have a main axis that is in the centre of the operating envelope.

 It can reach into tight areas without sacrificing speed or repeatability.

 RPP
 If the first joint of a Cartesian- coordinate robot is replaced with a revolute joint to
form the configuration RPP, this produces a cylindrical-coordinate robot.
 The revolute joint swings the arm back and forth about a vertical base axis.
 The prismatic joints then move the wrist up and down along the vertical axis and
in and out along a radial axis.

3. Spherical coordinate robot

Spherical or polar robots are similar
to a cylindrical robot, but form a spherical
range of motion using a
polar coordinate system.
 RRP
 The first revolute joint swings the arm
back and forth about a base axis that can also be thought of as a vertical shoulder axis.
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 The second revolute joint swings the forearm back and forth about a vertical elbow
axis.
 Thus the two revolute joints control motion in a horizontal plane.
 The vertical component of the motion is provided by the third joint, a prismatic joint
which slides the wrist up and down.
Articulate coordinate robot

 Articulated arm robots have at least three rotary joints. They are frequently called an
anthropomorphic arm because they closely resemble a human arm.

 Note: 3 degrees of freedom are necessary for position (x, y, z) and 3 degrees of
freedom are necessary for orientation (α, β, ).

1.2.3 Motion Control Methods

Point-to-point: these robots are most common and can move from one specified point
to another but cannot stop at arbitrary points not previously designated.

Controlled path: is a specialized control method that is a part of general category of

a point-to-point robot but with more precise control. The controlled path robot ensures
that the robot will describe the right segment between two taught points. Controlled-
path is a calculated method and is desired when the manipulator must move in the
perfect path motion.

Continuous path: is an extension of the point-to-point method. This involves the

utilization of more points and its path can be arc, a circle, or a straight line. Because
of the large number of points, the robot is capable of producing smooth movements
that give the appearance of continuous or contour movement.
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1.3 Application
Robots in Automobile Industries
In the automobile industry, robotic arms are used in diverse manufacturing processes
including assembly, spot welding, arc welding, machine tending, part transfer, laser
processing, cutting, grinding, polishing, deburring, testing, painting and dispensing.
Robots have proved to help automakers to be more agile, flexible and to reduce
production lead times.Robots are ideal for doing precise, repetitive or dangerous tasks.
Around 90% of robots are used in factories with half of these being used in the
automobile industry.

1.4 Specifications
SPEED

 Speed is the amount of distance per unit time at which the robot can move, usually
specified in inches per second or meters per second.
 The speed is usually specified at a specific load or assuming that the robot is carrying a
fixed weight.
 Actual speed may vary depending upon the weight carried by the robot.

Load Bearing Capacity

 Load bearing capacity is the maximum weight-carrying capacity of the robot.
 Robots that carry large weights, but must still be precise are expensive.

Accuracy
 Accuracy is the ability of a robot to go to the specified position without making a
mistake.
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 It is impossible to position a machine exactly.

 Accuracy is therefore defined as the ability of the robot to position itself to the desired
location with the minimal error (usually 0.001 inch).
REPEATABILITY
 Repeatability is the ability of a robot to repeatedly position itself when asked to perform a
task multiple times.
 Accuracy is an absolute concept, repeatability is relative.
 Note that a robot that is repeatable may not be very accurate.
 Likewise, an accurate robot may not be repeatable.
PRECISION
 Precision is the „fineness‟ with which a sensor can report a value.
 For example, a sensor that reads 2.1178 is more precise than a sensor that reads 2.1 for
the same physical variable.
 Precision is related to significant figures.
 The number of significant figures is limited to the least precise number in a system of
sensing or string of calculations.
Number of Axes
Each robotic manipulator has number of axes about which its links rotate or alongwhich its
links translates.
The Major axes determine the shape of work envelope. The Minor axes determinethe
arbitrary orientation of the tool in 3D space. The Mechanism for activating thetool is not
regarded as independent axis, because it does not contribute to either theposition or the
orientation of the tool. The Redundant axes are useful for reachingaround obstacles in the
workspace or avoiding undesirable geometricalconfigurations of the manipulator.
Load Bearing Capacity
The maximum weight-carrying capacity of the robot.
Repeatability, Accuracy & Precision
• Accuracy: The measure of the ability of a robot to place the tool tip at anarbitrarily
prescribed location in the work envelope.
• Repeatability: The measure of the ability of the robot to position the tool tipthe same place
repeatedly.
• Precision: The measure of the spatial resolution with which the tool can positioned within
the work envelope.
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Tool Orientation
Position: The translational (straight-line) location of something.
Orientation: The rotational (angle) location of something. A robot‟s orientation is
measured by roll, pitch, and yaw
angles.
To specify the tool orientation, a
mobile
coordinate frame M= {m1, m2,
m3} is attached
to the tool and moves with the
tool. Initially,the mobile tool
frame M starts out coincident
with a fixed wrist coordinate
frame F
{f1, f2, f3}
Reach and Stroke
The horizontal reach maximum radial distance
be positioned from the vertical axis about which the robot rotates.
• The horizontal stroke defined as the total radial distance the wrist can travel.
• The vertical reach maximum elevation above the work
surface that the tool can reach.
The vertical stroke is defined as the total vertical distance the wrist can travel.
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1.5 Notations
Vectors:
The following is a column vector arranged in an
n X 1 array represented in square brackets.

T superscript:Transpose of a vector, matrix

x= [ x1, x2, x3] T

Sets: Curly brackets or braces are used to enclose the components of vectors and matrices to
enclose members of a set.
Г = {x1, x2, …….,xn}
Matrices:
Represented by a 2 dimensional array with the scalar components as shown:
A= A11 A12
A21 A22
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Coordinate Transformation:
Coordinate frames are associated with the different parts of the robot arm, sensors and objects
in the workspace. RH orthonormal coordinate frame are associated with the links of the robot,
begins from 0 i.e. the base and ends with the link n, i.e. the tool as given
Lk = {xk,yk, zk} 0<k < n
 Column vectors are denoted with lowercase letters.
 Matrices and sets are denoted with uppercase letters.
 Single subscripts denote scalar components of column vectors
 Double subscripts denote scalar components of matrices.
 In the case of matrices:
 The first subscript is the index of the row
 The second subscript is the index of the column.
Entity Notation Examples

Scalars Subscripted a1, a2, α1, α2, A11, A12

Column vectors Lowercase a, b, c, α, β ,γ , x1 , x2

Matrices, sets Uppercase A, B, C, D, Г, Ω, Ψ, Υ

REFERENCES:

1.Robert Shilling, “Fundamentals of Robotics-Analysis and control”, PHI.

2. Fu, Gonzales and Lee, “Robotics”, McGraw Hill
3. J.J, Craig, “Introduction to Robotics”, Pearson Education
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CHAPTER 2 Direct Kinematics:

UNIT STRUCTURE:
2.1 Dot and cross products
2.2 Co-ordinate frames
2.3 Rotations
2.4 Homogeneous
2.5 Co-ordinates
2.6 Link co-ordination arm equation
2.7 Five-axis robot
2.8 Four axis robot
2.9 Six axis robot

INTRODUCTION:
Given vector of joint variables of a robotic manipulator, determine the position and
orientation of the tool with respect to a coordinate frame attached to the robot base.

2.1 Dot and cross products

Dot Product
Two vectors x and y in R n is denoted
x. y ∑
Following are the properties of dot product

Orthogonality
Two vectors x and y in R n are orthogonal if and only if x.y=0
Completeness:
An orthogonal set of vectors {x1, x2, x3,Xn} in R n is complete if and only if
y.xk = 0 for 1< k <n y=0

Norm:Norm of a vector x in R n is ||x|| , || x || (x . y)1/2 =( ∑ )1/2

Dot product
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Let x and y be the arbitrary vectors in R 3 and let theta be the angle from x and y

Cross Product:

2.2 Co-ordinate frames

Let p be a vector in Rn
Let X = {x1,x2,x3,….xn} be a complete orthonormal set for Rn.
The coordinates of p w.r.t X are denoted as [p]X
Can be defined as:

Coordinate Transformation:
F={f1,f2,f3,…fn}
M={m1,m2,m3,….mn}
F and M are coordinate frames for Rn
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Inverse Coordinate Transformation:

F and M = orthonormal coordinate frames in Rn
A= CTM maps M coordinates into F coordinates
A-1 = A T

2.3 Rotations
2.3.1 Fundamental Rotations
A fixed frame „f‟ is attached to the base of the robot, where as a mobile co-ordinate frame is
attached to the tool.
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The Rotation is represented by a 3x3 matrix

2.3.2 Composite Rotations

Multiplication of the number of fundamental rotation matrices together and the product which
contains a sequence of rotations about the unit vectors, such type of multiple rotations is
called as composite rotations.
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Equivalent Angle-Axis:
F , M= 2 orthonormal coordinate frames in R3
M initially coincident with F
U= unit vector
M is rotated about u by an angle ϕ The
equivalent angle axis rotation matrix R(ϕ ,u)
In which M maps coordinates into F
coordinates is

2.4 Homogeneous Coordinates

In 3-D space , a physical point is located and if we want to change from one coordinate to
another frame then we need to use 4 X 4 homogenous transformation matrix.
 It consists of 4 sub-matrices as given below:
 3 X 3 sub - matrix R is a rotation matrix
 3 X 1 column vector p is a translation matrix
 1 X 3 ηTis a perspective vector
 Scalar σ is a non-zero scale factor set to unity.
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Translations and Rotations:

Consider the two orthonormal coordinate frames F and M are initially coinciding with each
other.
Case11: Translate the mobile coordinate frame by a distance pk along the kth unit vector of
F. In terms of homogenous coordinates, we obtain the following 4 X 4 matrix called as the
fundamental homogenous translation matrix.

Case11: Rotate the mobile coordinate frame by an amount angle ϕ about the kth unit vector
of F. In terms of homogenous coordinates, we obtain the following 4 X 4 matrix called as the
fundamental homogenous rotation matrix.

Composite Homogenous Transformations

A Homogeneous transformation matrix represents both a rotation and a translation of the
mobile frame with respect to the fixed frame. A product of fundamental homogenous
transformation matrices is a sequence of individual rotations and translations. But the order
as well as the axis of rotation (F or M) is important since AB is not equal to BA in matrix
multiplication. Hence the following algorithmis used:
1. Initialize the transformation matrix to T = I, which corresponds to the orthonormal
coordinate frame
2. F and M being coincident. (No rotation and no translation)
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3. Represent rotations and translations using separate homogeneous transformation matrices.

4. Represent composite rotations as separate fundamental homogeneous rotation matrices.
5. If the mobile coordinate frame M is to be rotated about or translated along a unit vector of
fixed coordinate frame F, pre-multiply (multiplication on left)
6. If the mobile co-ordinate frame M is to be rotated about or translated along one of its
own unit vectors,past-multiply (multiplication on right).
7. If there are more fundamental rotationsor translations to be performed, go to step iv; else
stop.
INVERSE HOMOGENOUS TRANSFORMATION:

Screw Transformations:
The threading and the unthre3ading operation is called as a screw transformation in which
there is a linear displacement along an axis in combination with an angular displacement
about the same axis.

2.5 Co-ordinates (Kinematic Parameters)

Link and Joint Parameters
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• Joint angle: the angle of rotation from the Xi-1 axis to theXiaxis about the Zi-1 axis. It is the
joint variable if joint i isrotary.
• Joint distance : the distance from the origin of the (i-1)coordinate system to the intersection
of the Zi-1 axis andthe Xi axis along the Zi-1 axis. It is the joint variable if joint I is
prismatic.
• Link length : the distance from the intersection of the Zi-1axis and the Xi axis to the origin
of the ith coordinatesystem along the Xi axis.
• Link twist angle : the angle of rotation from the Zi-1 axis tothe Ziaxis about the Xi axis.

Normal, Sliding and Approach vectors:

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 In rectangular coordinates the orientation of the tool is expressed by a Rotation matrix R

={ r1,r2,r3}
 3 columns of R coordinates correspond to the normal, sliding and approach as shown in
the above diagram.
 r3= approach vector i.e. it is aligned along with the Tool Roll axis and always point away
from the wrist.
 r2= sliding vector i.e. orthogonal to the approach vector, align to the opening and closing
of the gripper.
 r1= normal vector i.e. orthogonal to the plane defined by the r3 and r2 and to complete
Right –handed Orthonormal coordinate frame.

2.6 Link co-ordination arm equation

2.6.1 D-H algorithm
0. Number thejoints from 1 ton starting with the base and ending with the tool Yaw, pitch
and roll in that order.
1. Assign a right handed orthonormal coordinate frame L0 to the robot base, making sure
that z0 aligns with the axis of joint 1. Set k = 1.
2. Align i with the axis of joint k+l.
3. Locate the origin of L, at the intersection of the i and i·1 axes. If they donot
intersect, use the intersection of zk with a common normal between i and i·1•
4. Select x" to be orthogonal to both i and zk-i _ If i and i-1 are parallel, pointxkaway
from zk-1
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5. Select yk to form a right handed orthonormal coordinate frame Lk.

6. Set k = k + 1. If k < n, goto step 2; else continue.
7. Set the origin of L, at the tool tip. Align zn with the approach vector, y with sliding
vector, and x"with the normal vector of the tool. Set k = 1.
8. Locate point bk at the intersection of the xk and zk-1 axes. If they do not intersect, use
the intersectionof x" with a common normal between xk and i·1.
9. Compute as the angle of rotation from xk-l toxk measure dba out zk·l .
10. Compute dk as the distance from the origin of frame Lk-1 to point bk measured along
i·1•
11. Compute ak as the distance from point bk to the origin of frame Lk measured alongxk.
12. Compute akas the angle of rotation from zk-1 tozk measured about x'',
13. Set k = k + I. lf k s n, go to step 8; else, stop.

2.6.2 ARM Matrix

In order to construct the homogenous transformation matrix we require to map the frame of
the coordinates k into the frame of the coordinates k-1 and this steps are related to the four
kinematic parameters given in the table as shown below:
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Operation 1: To make xk-1 with || to xk

Operation 2: xk-1 is aligned to xk
Operation 3: origins of Lk-1 and Lk coincides with each other
Operation 4:axis zk-1 aligns with axis zk
Operations 1 and 2 = gives screw transformation along the axis zk-1
Operations 3 and 4 = gives screw transformation along the axis xk-1
Composite Homogenous Transformation is the combination of 2 screw transformation :

Link Coordinate Transformation matrix

[q]k-1 = [q]k

Inverse Link-Coordinate Transformation :

2.6.3 Joint coupling

From the above arm

matrix equation, we
get the following
equations repeatedly.
Ɵ23 = Ɵ2 + Ɵ3
Ɵ234 = Ɵ2 + Ɵ3 + Ɵ4
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Ɵ23 = Global Elbow angle measures relative to the x0 y0 work surface.

Ɵ23 = 0 i.e horizontal arm pointing outwards
Ɵ23= Π/2 i.e vertical arm pointing in the upward direction.
Ɵ234 = vertical tool pointing in the downward direction
Ɵ234= horizontal tool pointing outward straight.
In some of the robots the joints such as shoulder, elbow, and tool pitch joints are coupled in
order to control the robot at the joint level.
But the D-H algorithm consists of the joint control which are independent and the joints are
not dependent on each other i.e no coupling exists.
In order to some mechanical coupling we need to use software with the following parameters:

= joint movement command

= provides the number of encoders

C = coupling matrix
P = precision
Example: Rhino XR-3 robot , following is the encoders count need to produce in order obtain
the movement of theta degrees as shown below:

2.7 Five-axis robot

Following is the link coordinate diagram based on the Denvait Hartenberg algorithm.
Using the steps from 0 to 7 we obtain the link coordinate diagram for the Rhino XR-3 robot.
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Using the D-H algorithm steps 8 to 12 we obtain the following set of kinematic parameters.
d5 = tool length which can vary from robot to robot depending on which tool is installed.
Values for the joint distances d and link length a of the Rhino XR-3 robot are as follows:
d1=26.04cm, d5= 16.83 cm
a2=22.86 cm, a3= 22.86 cm, a4 = 0.95cm

The arm matrix equation is divided into 2 parts:

and
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The arm matrix from base to the tool for the 5-axis articulated – coordinate robot is as
follows:

The final expression depends on all the kinematic parameters and if we evaluate the arm
matrix with the soft home position we obtain the following:

2.8 Four axis robot

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Following is the link coordinate diagram based on the Denvait Hartenberg algorithm.
Using the steps from 0 to 7 we obtain the link coordinate diagram for the four-axis SCARA
robot.

Next we need to apply D-H algorithm steps 8 to 13 in order to obtain the kinematic
parameters as shown below:

d1-877 mm, d4= 200mm

d3 = d3 because it‟s a joint variable where value can range from 0 to 195 mm
a1= 425 mm, a2= 375 mm
The vector of joint variables q= { ,d3, }
= revolute variables for the tool position p
D3= prismatic variable
revolute variable controls the tool orientation R

ARM Matrix equation for the SCARA robot is as given below:

There is no need for portioning and we calculate the arm matrix equation as follows:
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Such robots are mostly used in applications of assembly operations where components are
required to insert in the circuit boards.
2.9 Six axis robot
Following is the link coordinate diagram for the six axis Intelledex 660 manipulator which is
a high precision light –assembly industrial robot used for applications like assembly, material
handling applications,etc.

By applying the D-H algorithm steps 0 to 7 we construct a link coordinate diagram as shown
below:

Next we need to apply D-H algorithm steps 8 to 13 in order to obtain the kinematic
parameters as shown below:
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d6= tool length varies which depends on the type of tool installed.
d1= 373.4 cm, d6= 228.6 mm
a3=304.8cm, a4=304.8 mm
In order to obtain the arm matrix equation, we divide the arm equation into two parts:
and

= Transformation provides the position and orientation of the L3 frame i.e. elbow
relative to the L0 frame i.e. base frame.

= provides the position and orientation of the tool –tip frame to the elbow i.e. from L3
frame to L6 frame
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Following equations are for the position and orientation of the tool frame relative to the base
frame for a 6-axis articulated –coordinated robot

REFERENCES:

1.Robert Shilling, “Fundamentals of Robotics-Analysis and control”, PHI.

2. Fu, Gonzales and Lee, “Robotics”, McGraw Hill
3. J.J, Craig, “Introduction to Robotics”, Pearson Education