Apuntes Natura Zientziak TODO
Apuntes Natura Zientziak TODO
Apuntes Natura Zientziak TODO
PRIMARY EDUCATION
CLASSROOM II
Leire Coronado
1
Leire Coronado Arana
lcoronado001@ikasle.ehu.eus
In the picture we can see a rainbow. A rainbow is an arc of different colors in the sky
than can be seen when there is sun while or after falling rain. The different colors that can be
seen are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. This happens when sunlight
strikes raindrops in front of a viewer at a precise angle.
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INDEX
1st activity: Heziberri & Science 5
24th activity: Some problems related to atmospheric pressure and thermal expansion
and contraction 74
3
26th activity: Surface tension 82
4
1st activity: Heziberri & Science
1. zikloa Energy
● Energia. Energia-iturria. Erabilera eta kontsumoa. Euskal Herrian.
● Indar bat edoindar bat baino gehiago aplikatzeak dituen eraginak
hautemateko eta horrelako esperimentuak egitekojarraibideak.
2. zikloa
● Energia-iturriak eta lehengaiak: jatorria. Energia-iturri berriztagarriak
eta ez-berriztagarriak. Energia-garapen iraunkorra eta ekitatiboa,
Espainian eta Euskal Herrian
● Energia motak: energia-mekanikoa, argi-energia, soinu-energia, energia
elektrikoa, energia termikoa eta energia kimikoa.
● Elektrizitatea: korronte elektrikoa. Zirkuitu elektrikoa.
● Magnetismoa: lurraren magnetismoa.Imana: ipar-orratza.
● Fenomeno elektriko batzuk eta haren ondorioak (argia eta beroa)
aztertzeko jarraibideak. Karga elektrikoen arteko erakarpena eta
aldarapena.
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1. zikloa Technology and machines
● Objektu eta makina soilak: palanka, balantza, polea. Erabilerak eta
funtzionamendua.
● Arriskuak sor ditzaketen objektuen, makinen eta elementuen
erabilgarritasuna.
● Teknologien eta produktu teknologikoen onurak eta arriskuak.
● Ordenagailu baten osagaiak. Ordenagailuaren teklatua erabiltzen hastea,
esperimentuak, lanak eta ikerketak egiten ikasteko eta komunikatzeko
tresna digitalak.
● Elementu soilak dituzten makinak muntatu eta desmuntatzea.
● Makina soilen bat duen objektu bat eraikitzeko prozesu teknologikoaren
etapak.
● Baliabide informatikoak egoki erabiltzea.
2. zikloa:
● Makinak eta aparatuak. Eragile mekanikoak: ardatza, gurpila, polea,
plano inklinatua, engranajea, balazta… Haien funtzioak.
● Elektrizitatea makinen garapenean. Elektrizitatearen ondorioak.
Material eroaleak eta material isolatzaileak.
● Elektrizitatearen eta magnetismoaren arteko lotura eta haren
aplikazioa.
● Prozesu teknologikoaren etapak. Irizpideak problema bat ebazteko
eginkizuna duten edo horretarako baldintzak betetzen dituzten egitura
soilak eraikitzeko, pieza modulatuetan eta/edo eragile mekanikoetan
oinarrituta.
● Zirkuitu elektriko soilak edo hezkuntza-helburuko robotikako
elementuak dituzten egitura soilak diseinatu, planifikatu eta
eraikitzea
● Egiturak ekintza errazak egiteko erabiltzen diren diseinu-programak eta
ikusizko programaziokoa erabiltzeko jarraibideak.
● Ordenagailua/gailua edo terminala, tresna digitalak eta Internet lanak
egiteko eta jakinarazteko erabiltzen jakitea eta erabiltzea.
● Baliabide informatikoen erabilera arduratsua eta kontrolatua.
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2nd activity: The existence of air
a. Materials: Water, a ping pong ball, a beaker and a tall glass.
b. Procedure: Fill half of the beaker with water. Then introduce the ping pong
ball. Take the tall glass upside down and introduce the beaker (with the ping
pong ball inside). See what happens.
c. The experiment outcome:
i. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: Air
pressure: The air of the glass exerts pressure to the water, which has to
move to the side to relieve that pressure. Therefore, the glass doesn’t
get filled with water and an air camera is created. In this way, the level
of the water inside the glass goes down.
d. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
activity, we can explain the existence of the air. If the water moves
down is because there is something that pulls it and as the glass is full
of air is the responsible for the movement of the air. Therefore, the air
occupies its space.
ii. In terms of scientific knowledge: The air occupies its space in the
world, and it has its own mass.
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3rd activity: litres and dc3
a. Materials: Water, cardboard, tape, ruler, pen, scissors and a plastic bag and a tetrabrik
b. Procedure: Create a cube with a cardboard (each side has to be 1dm). Use the tape to
close the borders. Then, introduce the plastic bag in the cube, and hold it with the
tape. Finally, fill the tetrabrik with water and move the water to the cube. See how
much water fills.
c. The experiment outcome:
iii. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: The
relationship between the volume of the cube with its own capacity.
e. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With tihs
experiment, students can understand the relationship between 1L and
1dm3. Therefore, they will be able to understand the difference
between the volumen and the capacity.
ii. In terms of scientific knowledge: In a cube of 1 dm3 of volume we
can fill 1L of water.
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4th activity: Gold or pirita? Silver or tin?
a. Materials: A piece of “gold”, a piece of “silver”, weight, scales, a ruler, water and
test tube.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to realize if the materials that we have are gold
and silver or not. In order to achieve this, we are going to calculate the density of the
pieces of “gold” and “silver” that we have. First of all, we are going to calculate the
mass of the pieces using the weight and the scales. Then, we will calculate the volume
of the pieces using the test tube and water. In order to measure this, we are going to
fill the test tube with water. Then, we are going to introduce the piece of gold or the
piece of silver and see how much the level of water rises. Finally, we are going to
calculate the density taking into account the results that we have had in the previous
sections.
c. The experiment outcome:
iii. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When
we talk about density, we are talking about the mass of an object in a
determined space. If we want to calculate the density of different
products, we have to take into account the mass and volume of the
products.
iv. The quantitative results: The mass of the piece of “gold” was 40g,
3
and it’s volume was 8𝑐𝑚 . In this way, we know that the density of this
3
piece is 5g/𝑐𝑚 (we have calculate it using the following formula:
𝑚
𝑑= 𝑣
. In this way, we realize that as the density of gold is around
3
20g/𝑐𝑚 , it can’t be gold, so the piece of “gold” that we have in our
hands is pirita. On the other hand, we have done the same process to
calculate the density of the piece of “silver”. In this case, the mass is
3
34g and it’s volume is 4𝑐𝑚 . Using the formula of the density, we
know that the density of the piece that we have in our hands is of 8,5g/
3 3
𝑐𝑚 . As the density of silver is 10,5g/𝑐𝑚 , we know that that piece
can’t be silver, so it will be tin.
d. Conclusions:
v. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
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experiment, students can understand different concepts that are
interrelated. There are some concepts, like mass, volume and density,
that are quite abstract for children to understand, and with this type of
experiments they will be able to understand them in a practical and
visual way.
vi. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about density, we
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
volume. In this way, we will have to know the mass and volume of an
object to calculate its density. In order to do this, we will follow the
𝑚
following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
.
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5th activity: Calculating the density of a cork
a. Materials: A cork, weight, scales, water and test tube.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to calculate the density of a piece of cork. First
of all, we are going to calculate the mass of the cork using the weight and the scales.
Then, we will calculate the volume of it using the test tube and water. In order to
measure this, we are going to fill the test tube with water. Then, we are going to
introduce the piece of gold or the piece of silver and see how much the level of water
rises. As the piece of cork floats, we will use a weight in order to make it sink.
Finally, we are going to calculate the density taking into account the results that we
have had in the previous sections.
c. The experiment outcome:
vii. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When
we talk about density, we are talking about the mass of an object in a
determined space. If we want to calculate the density of different
products, we have to take into account the mass and volume of the
products.
viii. The quantitative results: The mass of the piece of cork is 5,5g, and
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it’s volume is 15,5𝑐𝑚 .In order to calculate its volume, we have had to
use a weight, because the cork floats in the water. Besides, we have
calculated the volume in a mathematical way. Then, we have
calculated the average of both volumenes for not making a big error
13+18 3
calculating the average: 𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
= 2
= 15, 5𝑐𝑚 . In this way,
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the density of the piece of cork is 0,35g/𝑐𝑚 (we have calculate it
𝑚
following the following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
).
d. Conclusions:
ix. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
experiment, students can understand different concepts that are
interrelated. There are some concepts, like mass, volume and density,
that are quite abstract for children to understand, and with this type of
experiments they will be able to understand them in a practical and
visual way.
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x. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about density, we
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
volume. In this way, we will have to know the mass and volume of an
object to calculate its density. In order to do this, we will follow the
𝑚 3
following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. The density of the water is 1g/𝑐𝑚 , so
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the objects that aren’t denser than 1 (in this case, the cork is 0,35g/𝑐𝑚
), will float. Otherwise, the ones that are denser than the water will
sink.
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6th activity: Some theoretical questions
v 3
𝑑𝑚 / 𝑐𝑚
3 The amount of space that
occupies an object
d 3
kg/𝑑𝑚 / 𝑔/𝑐𝑚
3 The mass of an object in a
determined space
mass g/kg
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3
6. A container holds 310𝑐𝑚 , how much water L are them? A container holds 5mL,
how much L are them?
In the first case, it will be 0,31L. In the second case, it will be 0,005L.
7. Which is the definition of matter?
Matter is physical substance in general, that exists, has mass and occupies a volume.
8. Are this objects matter? Why?
a. Temperature: It’s not matter, because although it exists, it has not mass and
doesn’t occupy a volume.
b. Oxigen: It is matter because it exists, has mass and occupies a volume.
c. Hate: It’s not matter, because although it exists, it has not mass and doesn’t
occupy a volume.
d. Time: It’s not matter, because although it exists, it has not mass and doesn’t
occupy a volume.
e. Nitrogen: It is matter because it exists, has mass and occupies a volume.
f. Friendship: It’s not matter, because although it exists, it has not mass and
doesn’t occupy a volume.
g. Air: It is matter because it exists, has mass and occupies a volume.
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7th activity: Method to calculate the volume of the piece of lead
a. Materials: A piece of lead, weight, scales, water and test tube.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to calculate the volume of the piece of lead.
First of all, we are going to calculate the mass of the piece of lead using the weight
and the scales. Then, we will find the density of the lead on the internet. Finally, we
are going to use the formula of density to calculate the volume of it.
c. The experiment outcome:
xi. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When
we talk about density, we are talking about the mass of an object in a
determined space. Knowing two of the three magnitudes that are
involved in the equation, we can know the third one.
xii. The quantitative results: The mass of the piece of lead is 59g. On the
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internet, we have find that the density of the lead is 11,34 g/𝑐𝑚 . With
this information, we can calculate the volume of the piece. We have
done the following mathematical operations:
d. Conclusions:
xiii. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
activity, students can understand different concepts that are
interrelated. There are some concepts, like mass, volume and density,
that are quite abstract for children to understand, and with this type of
experiments they will be able to understand them in a practical and
visual way.
xiv. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about density, we
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
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volume. In this case, we knew the mass and density, and we have
𝑚
calculated the volume using the following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
.
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7th activity: Density of sand
a. Materials: Sand, weight, scales, water and test tube.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to calculate the density of the sand. First of all,
we have taken some sand with a paper. Then, we have calculated the mass of the sand
using the weight and the scales. Then, we calculated it’s volume using the test tube
and water. In order to take out the air between the little pieces of sand, we have used
water. Finally, we have calculated its density.
c. The experiment outcome:
xv. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When
we talk about density, we are talking about the mass of an object in a
determined space. If we want to calculate the density of different
products, we have to take into account the mass and volume of the
products.
xvi. The quantitative results: The mass of the sand is 46,5g. It’s volume is
3
20𝑐𝑚 . Finally, we have calculated its density using the following
𝑚 3
formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. Its density is 2,3g/𝑐𝑚 .
d. Conclusions:
xvii. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
activity, students can understand different concepts that are
interrelated. There are some concepts, like mass, volume and density,
that are quite abstract for children to understand, and with this type of
experiments they will be able to understand them in a practical and
visual way.
xviii. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about density, we
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
volume. In this case, we knew the mass and density, and we have
𝑚
calculated the volume using the following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. In the
case of sand, we have to take into account that it’s a special object,
because it has air between the little pieces of sand, so when filling it
with water, we can eliminate the water that is in those little spaces.
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8th activity: Theoretical questions
1. We have a scale that is balanced with two objects. One of them is bigger than the
other one. Which one is gold? Which one is lead?
3
The little piece will be gold, due to its density is of 19,26g/𝑐𝑚 . The second one will
3
be lead, cause its density is of 5,2g/𝑐𝑚 . Knowing that they are balanced, the volume
of the lead has to be bigger than the gold’s one.
2. We have a little piece of gold and a big stone. Which one has more mass? And
volume? And density?
The stone will have more mass and volume, but the density of the little piece of gold
will be bigger, because in proportion, if they had the same volume, the gold will have
more mass .
3. Compare the weight of A and B. Should be the same or different? Explain with
reasons your standpoint.
Both cases will have the same weight. The case is that when we introduce the cork
inside the container, it will displace the volume of water that has its volume in the
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water. For example, if the mass of the cork is 1g and its volume is 2 𝑐𝑚 , we will
realize that it will displace 1g of water. This happens because the density of the cork,
3
in this case, will be of 0,5g/𝑐𝑚 , and we know that the density of the water is 1g/. For
this reason, the cork will be floating, and the part that is inside the water will be the
one that equals the mass of the cork in the water.
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4. Will there be the same mass in both cases?
As soon as in both situations the bottle is closed, the amount of atoms (matter) is
going to be the same, they are just going to be combined in a different way. For example, in
A case, the carbon is going to be in the match, and in the B case, it is going to be in the gas.
For this reason, the mass in both situations is going to be the same.
5. What will happen with the balance?
As the air is matter, it has its own mass. In this way, when the balloon is empty, the
amount of air has gone, and its mass too.
6. Which element will displace more water?
Both of them have the same volume, so they will displace the same amount of water.
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7. What happens when we open a soda container and leave in the sun?
The gas of the soda (𝐶𝑂2) goes away, so as we have less mas, the system goes to the
right side.
8. Will both of them have the same mass?
The amount of matter in the liquid wax and in the solid wax is the same, so the mass
in both cases is going to be the same.
9. How to paint an empty bottle in the classroom.
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elements.
Mass Charge
Proton + +
Neutron + ⊘
Electron ⊘ -
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9th activity: The potato experiment
a. Materials: A potato, water, a test tube, plastic film, a spoon, weights, a scale and
toothpicks.
b. Procedure: First of all, we must calculate the density of the potato. In order to
calculate that, we are going to use the scale, weights, water and a test tube. The
procedure is going to be the following one: first of all, we are going to calculate the
mass of the potato; then, we are going to calculate the volume of it using the test tube
and the water. In the second part of this experiment, we have to see what happens with
its floatability when we take out some mass of the potato and stick it with toothpicks.
In order to calculate its volume, we are going to use the plastic film. Then, we are
going to calculate the new density of the potato.
c. The experiment outcome:
xix. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When
we talk about density, we are talking about the mass of an object in a
determined space. If we want to calculate the density of different
products, we have to take into account the mass and volume of the
products.
xx. The quantitative results: The mass of the potato is 164g. It’s volume
3
is 150𝑐𝑚 . Finally, we have calculated its density using the following
𝑚 3
formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. Its density is 1,1g/𝑐𝑚 . The quantitative results of
the
d. Conclusions:
xxi. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
activity, students can understand different concepts that are
interrelated. There are some concepts, like mass, volume and density,
that are quite abstract for children to understand, and with this type of
experiments they will be able to understand them in a practical and
visual way. In order to explain this to students, we have to talk about
an interaction or fight between a liquid, in this case, water, and a solid,
in this case, the potato. In the first case, the potato wins because it
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occupies the place of the water. The volume that the potato displays is
the same that water is displaced. If we compare the weight of those
volumes, the potato’s one is bigger. In the second case, though the
weight of those volumes is bigger in the case of the water.
xxii. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about density, we
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
volume. In this case, we knew the mass and density, and we have
𝑚
calculated the volume using the following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. In the
case of the potato, we have to take into account that if we take out
some mass of the potato, it will sink.
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25
26
10th activity: The Play-doh experiment
27
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
volume. In this case, we knew the mass and density, and we have
𝑚
calculated the volume using the following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. In the
case of the play-doh, we have to take into account that if we have the
same mass, but we add some volume, the density of the play-doh will
change.
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11th activity: Theoretical questions
1. We have two different objects. One of them is 3g and 2cc and the other one is 3g
and 4cc. We know that one of them will sink, and the other one will float, but
which part of the one that it floats is going to be inside the water?
The surface of the second cube that is going to be inside the water is going to be 3cc.
In the B situation, when we put this cube inside the water, there is going to be an interaction
between the liquid (water) and the solid (the cube). The cube is going to displace some water,
that is going to be the same as displaced water. In this case, the mass that has the volume of
displaced water is bigger than the one that has the cube, so the water will win the fight, so the
cube will float. In order to know how much surface of the cube is going to be inside the
water, we have to take attention to the mass of the cube. The mass of the cube is 3g, so we
have to calculate how much volume of water are 3g of water. Knowing that the density of the
3
water is 1g/𝑐𝑚 , we know that the volume of the water that is 3g is going to be 3cc. In
conclusion, we will know that the volume of the cube that is going to be inside the water is
3cc.
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2. Experiment of the tangerine. Is it possible to make an object sink taking out
some mass? Can we make this object sink again?
Yes, it is possible. It happens with the tangerine. When we introduce the tangerine
with its own skin to the water, we will see that it will sink. Consequently, we can think that
the density of the tangerine is smaller than the density of the water. In the second case,
though, we take off the skin of the tangerine. It is usual to think that the only thing we are
taking off is some mass, but we are also taking off some volume. When we introduce it in the
water, we will see that it will float. We can conclude, then, that we have taken away more
volume than mass, due to the fact that in this new situation the density of the tangerine is
going to be more than water’s one.
The second part of this experiment consists
of making the tangerine float again. As we can’t
introduce more mass and volume to the tangerine
that has the skin already out, we are going to change
the properties of the water. And how can we make it?
Changing its density. A way to change the density of
the water is putting salt into it. We know that the
density of the tangerine is more than 1g/cc.
Consequently, if we put NaCl (common salt) in the water, we can reach into a situation where
the density of the water is going to be more than the tangerine’s one, so the tangerine will
float again.
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3. Iron does not float but ships are usually made up of iron. How is this possible?
In this case, we have changed the shape of an object and it has influence on its
3
floatability. We know that the density of common iron is less than 1g/𝑐𝑚 . When we change
the shape, we will not only take into account the iron to calculate the density of the boat. We
will have to take into account the following equation:
This happens because when we change the shape of the boat, we are changing its
volume. On the other hand, we have to take into account the volume and mass of the air that
is inside the boat.
4. Why do aerostatic balloons float in air?
We have to take into account that the Dead Sea has a big amount of salt inside it. In
this way, adults can float in the Dead Sea because the density of that sea is bigger than the
human body’s one, which makes people float.
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The amount of weight that the bottle has to support on the surface is 1 atm. The
amount of interaction that the air inside the bottle makes to the outside is tiny comparing to
the interaction than water makes to the bottle and, if we take into account that when we go
down 10m inside the water we will have another atm of weight, in 40m deep the bottle is
going to be totally deformed. This is because the interaction that the water does to the bottle
is much bigger than the ones that make the bottle to the water, which makes that the air of the
bottle compresses.
In the picture we can see a man diving. He is suffering different pushes in the water.
The pressure pushing him upwards is bigger than the pressure pushing him downwards. In
fact, the lower part of the body has a bigger interaction with the water than the upper side of
the body. The addition of all the arrows pushing him upwards is greater than the addition of
arrows pushing him downwards, so the man will go up.
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12th activity: The egg experiment
33
though, water wins the fight, because the weight of the volume that is
displaced is heavier than the egg’s one. Talking about the second part
of the experiment, we have to take into account that the fresh water and
the salt water aren’t mixed. This is the reason why the egg looks like
it’s floating, due to the fact that it has higher density than the fresh
water, but lower density than the salted water. When we talk about the
interaction between objects, we are talking about forces. When there is
a fight, water exerts a force to the object upwards. The egg is suffering
from the water and the air. Thanks to that, the egg will not move.
vi. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about density, we
have to take into account that this concept is related to mass and
volume. In this case, we knew the mass and density, and we have
𝑚
calculated the volume using the following formula: 𝑑 = 𝑣
. In the
case of the egg, it will sink in freshwater and float in salted water due
to we have changed the properties of the water, in this case, its density.
34
35
13th activity: The mind map
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us/viewer/cmap/1W971F2FS-67PHGF-18R69QN
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us/viewer/cmap/1W971Z0G2-17PV2DT-18RBNXN
36
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us/viewer/cmap/1W9740D05-XZLCG5-18RTYTL
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us/viewer/cmap/1W974X67M-1BWKS8J-18S192Q
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us/viewer/cmap/1W975H45Z-1YZYKMC-18S5LPP
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us/viewer/cmap/1W975ZWQ6-1KWM987-18S9P6H
37
14th activity: Some theoretical questions
1. What will mark the second scale? What is going to be the volume of the object in
the final scale we have 2g?
In the first situation, we can’t know what the second scale will mark due to the fact
that we don’t know the volume of the object, that is what the second scale would mark. If in
the final scale we had 2g, we have to take into account that the amount of water that is in the
plate of the scale of the second situation is the amount of water that the object displaces. As
3
the object is sinking, we know that the density of the object is more than 1g/𝑐𝑚 . In this
situation, the volume of the object is going to be two. When we introduce it into the jar, the
amount of water that is going to go away is the same as the volume of the object. If the
3
density of the object were less than 1g/𝑐𝑚 , the first scale will mark 0 and the second scale
will mark 2.
The amount of water that will be displaced is going to be the amount of mass that the
scale will mark. The mass of the scale is going to be supported by the (poste)
When the density of the object is lower than 1, the amount of mass that the scale is
going to reflect is going to be is going to be related to the amount of mass of the volume that
is partially submerged.
2. What is the buoyancy force that is going to suffer this object when we introduce
it in the water?
38
3
As the volume of the object is 1𝑑𝑚 , it is going to experience the buoyancy force of
1, due to the fact that the buoyancy force is related to the volume of the object.
3. Taking into account that they have the same volume, which of them experiences
the greatest buoyancy force?
Taking into account that they have the same volume, and the density of these objects
3
is more than 1g/𝑐𝑚 , they will experience the same buoyancy force. However, they are going
to sink at different speed, as the Pb is going to do much more force against the water.
39
5. There is a person that goes to the swimming pool with two rocks. Is this person
going to suffer a greater buoyancy force?
The buoyancy force is related to the volume of the object and the mass of the volume
of liquid displaced. In this way, this person is going to experience a greater buoyancy force,
due to the fact that the volume of this person is going to be bigger. The buoyancy force is the
force that an object suffer from a liquid and it is related to the mass of the volume of liquid
displaced.
6. In which case there is a greater buoyancy force?
As the volume of both objects is the same and they are being introduced in the same
liquid, they will suffer the same buoyancy force. Remember that the buoyancy force is related
to the volume of the object and to the mass of the volume of liquid that is displaced.
7. Why does the balloon get smaller and smaller as it is getting down?
40
As the balloon is going down, it will compress due to the weight that is over him. The
amount of air that is inside the balloon hasn’t changed, what has changed is the amount of
matter surrounding the balloon.
41
15th activity: The experiment with a piece of lead
42
visual way. We know that there is an interaction between the fluid
(water) and the object (the piece of lead). When we introduce the piece
of lead in the water, the object is going to displace some water. The
a,punt of water that the object is going to displace is the same as its
3
volume. Knowing that the density of the water is 1g/𝑐𝑚 , and
therefirce the force made upwards is the same as the volume of the of
the water displaced by the object, we can conclude that the volume of
3
the object is 15𝑐𝑚 , as it is the same as the amount of water displaced.
Then, when we introduce it in salted water, we conclude that as the
density of the salted water is bigger, the buoyancy force is going to be
bigger as well, so the dynamometer will mark less amount of mass in
water. Finally, to make an experimental procedure about how to
calculate the density of the salted water, we have concluded the
following procedure:
Type of water Mass of the object Mass of the water Volume of water
inside the water displaced displaced.
Freshwater 145g 3
15𝑐𝑚 . 15𝑐𝑚
3
𝑚 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
−𝑚 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 160−142,5 17,5
𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝑣
= 15
= 15
= 1, 16𝑔
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
43
3
density of the fluid. As the density of the water is 1g/𝑐𝑚 , the volume
of water displaced is going to be the volume of the object.
44
16th activity: Some theoretical questions
1. Explain the reason because one of them floats and the other one sinks.
3 3
4Π𝑟 4Π (1,5) 3
𝑣= 3
= 3
= 14, 13𝑐𝑚
3
There is an object hanging of the column with a volume of 14,14𝑐𝑚 . Taking into
account that when we introduce the object it is going to displace some water, which is going
to be the same as the volume of the object; and considering that the density of the water is 1g/
3
𝑐𝑚 , the mass of the volume of water displaced is going to be the same as the volume of the
object, that is to say, 14,14g.
45
3. We have whole milk and skimmed milk. Do you know which one has more
density?
The difference between the whole milk and skimmed milk is that one of them has
cream and the other one not. Converting a whole milk in a skimmed milk is a
procedure where they take out the cream of the milk and replace it with water. Taking
into account that the density of the water is bigger than the density of the cream, the
skimmed milk is going to have heavier density than the whole milk. For every
3
100mL, the mass of the skimmed milk is 103,4g, so its density is 1,034g/𝑐𝑚 .
However, for every 100mL of whole milk, it’s mass will be 102,3g, so its density will
3
be 1,023g/𝑐𝑚 .
4. Explain how can a submarine float or sink in terms of density and the buoyancy
force.
If we want to explain this taking into account the density of the submarine, we
have to make sure that we understand that the volume of the object is the same in both
cases, and the thing that changes is the mass. When the mass of the submarine is
lower, that is to say, when is full of air, the density of the submarine is going to be
3
lower than 1g/𝑐𝑚 , and, consequently, is going to be floating. However, when we full
the submarine with water, the volume of the submarine continues being the same, but
3
its mass has increased, which makes that its density is bigger than 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚 , so it is
going to sink.
If we want to explain the process using the buoyancy force, we have to take
into account the Archimedes Principle, which says that the amount of strength that the
liquid does to an object (buoyancy force) is the same as the mass that the amount of
46
displayed water has. As the volume of the object is the same, we can conclude that the
buoyancy force is going to be the same in both cases. What has changed here is the
mass. When it is full of air, the mass of the object is low, so the submarine will float.
However, when the submarine is full of water, the mass of the object has increased, so
the submarine will sink.
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17th activity: The cartesian diver experiment
a. Materials: A straw, scissors, rubber band, bottle, ruler, clips and water.
b. Procedure: In this experiment, we have built a diver. First of all, we have measured
15 cm of straw and we have cut it. Then, we have folded with rubber bands, so it
maintains the shape, and we have attached clips to it. Next, we have filled the bottle
with water to the brim and put the straw inside, taking into account that it floats..
When we squeeze the bottle, we are going to realize that it will sink. Finally, we have
to explain the reasons behind it.
c. The experiment outcome:
xi. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When
we talk about the buoyancy force, we have to take into account
Archimedes Principle, which says that the amount of strength that the
liquid does (buoyancy force) is the same as the mass that the amount of
displayed liquid has. On the other hand, when we talk about Pascal’s
principle, we are talking about when a pressure change at any point in
a confined incompressible fluid happens, the force will be transmitted
throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere.
xii. The quantitative results: We know that the density of the water inside
3
the bottle is 1g/𝑐𝑚 . On the other hand, we know that the density of
the straw is lighter than the water.
d. Conclusions:
xiii. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this
activity, students can understand different concepts that are
interrelated. There are some concepts, like mass, volume and density
and force, that are quite abstract for children to understand, and with
this type of experiments they will be able to understand them in a
practical and visual way. Taking into account Archimedes' Principle,
we will know that the object will suffer an upper force (buoyancy
force) that is going to be related to the mass of the volume of the liquid
48
displaced. In this case, the mass of that volume is bigger than the mass
of the volume of the object, so it is going to be floating. Besides,
taking into account the Pascal’ Principle, we know that the force made
to a confined incompressible fluid will be transmitted throughout the
fluid, such that the same change occurs everywhere. In this way, the
straw will suffer this force too, so the air inside the straw will
compress, so water will go into the straw and the mass of the object
will be heavier. In this case, the mass of the liquid displayed is going to
be lighter than the mass of the volume of the object, and it will sink.
xiv. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about buoyancy force
(Archimedes Principle), we have to take into account that the upper
force suffered by an object in a liquid is the same as the mass of the
volume of the displaced liquid. On the other hand, when we talk about
Pascal’s principle, we know that the force made to a confined
incompressible fluid will be transmitted throughout the fluid, such that
the same change occurs everywhere.
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18th activity: Some problems about forces (Newton’s Third Law)
1. As shown in the picture, one student pushes the other (both chairs have wheels).
What will happen? Explain the forces that occur. If one of the students is much heavier
than the other, would this situation make any difference?
Both students will go separate ways. The students that is heavier will
move back less than the other one due to Newton's Third Law.
2. Explain the interactions occurring in the case of an object during a free fall.
There is an interaction between the earth and the object (known as gravity) that will do that
the object is going to fall. The same interaction is made in the earth, but the mass of the
object is not as heavy as to move the earth.
3. There is an object on the table. Explain all the interactions that occur in this
situation.
50
As the object and the table have mass, the Earth is attracting them towards the centre of the
Earth. We can’t forget that these objects are also attracting the earth. We can say that this
forces are opposite and equal.
5. Arrange in increasing order the force that the strong man in the picture endures.
In the first two cases both men are doing the same forces.
The man is suffering the same interaction from both sides.
The tree is standing the same amount of force that the horse
is doing. In the third case, the force is the double than in the
first two cases.
6. Describe how the person in the picture will move and, also, the reason that allow us to
understand the beginning of the movement.
The skater is going to move to the right side. This happens due to
Newton’s Third law. Newton’s third law says that for every action,
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
7. Spell out the interactions that allows us to justify how the sportspeople in the picture
below, can start to move.
51
In the first case, the oar exerts force backwards, so the canoe moves forwards (Newton’s
Third Law). The canoe is quiet at the beginning. The elements that take part are the water, the
oar and the canoe. When making a force to the right, the canoe will receive the same force to
the left, that is to say, forwards.
In the second case, there is an interaction between the ground and the swimmer. When
making a force downwards and to the left, the swimmer will receive the same force forwards
and upwards.
In the third case, there is an interaction between the runner and the floor. The runner pushes
the floor backwards and he receives the same interaction but in the opposite direction
(Newton’s Third Law). In order to transmit the push to the floor, it is required to have
friction.
0s 0m/s 10m/ 𝑠
2 0m
1s 10m/s 10m/ 𝑠
2 5m
2s 20m/s 10 𝑚/𝑠
2 20m
52
3s 30m/s 10 𝑚/𝑠
2 45m
4s 40m/s 10 𝑚/𝑠
2 180m
5s 50m/s 10 𝑚/𝑠
2 125m
8. . What weight will measure the spring scale in the picture? Why?
The spring scale will measure 2kg. The reason is because two kilograms are just holding the
dynamometer. The other weight is just making that the dynamometer doesn’t fall.
53
19th activity: Newton’s Scooter
Materials: Balloons, some cardboard, some wooden sticks, some unfolded sheets of paper,
some straws, scissors, ruler, compass, sticky tape, hot glue gun and a clock.
a. Procedure: In this experiment, we are going to build Newton's scooter. We have
created a scooter using paper, cardboard, wooden sticks and so on. Then, we have
stuck the balloon, so when blowing, the scooter will move forwards.
b. The experiment outcome:
g. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: When we talk
about the change in motion, we are talking about acceleration. Acceleration is
a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes its
velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
h. The quantitative results:
c. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this activity,
students can understand different concepts that are interrelated. First of all,
there is going to be a good opportunity to work on Newton’s Third Law. Then,
this activity gives the opportunity to take measurements in the Primary
54
Education classroom. First of all, there are some concepts that are going to be
worked: time, velocity and acceleration (change in motion).
ii. In terms of scientific knowledge: When we talk about Newton’s Third law, it
says that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. On the other
hand, when we talk about the change in motion, we are talking about
acceleration. Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at
which an object changes its velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing
its velocity.
55
20th activity: Check your knowledge
1. Explain with reasons what drives the boy forward in this unfortunate accident.
There is a person that suffers an accident and goes to the front. The
bicycle stops but something makes the person go forward.
It is related to Newton’s First Law. When there is an object or a person in a movement, if that
person doesn’t suffer a force that moves it to the opposite side, the person will continue
moving to the front.
The person will hit the ground because the Earth is attracting him to the ground. In this way,
the object is going to change its direction, due to the change in movement (acceleration). If
there wasn’t any force interacting in his movement, the person will continue moving frontally
forever.
2. Why did the pendulum swing when the train car began to move forward?
As the train begins to move, the pendulum will start moving in the opposite direction. The
reason why this object goes backwards as the train moves forward is because at the start, the
velocity of the object is the same (0km/h), but the train starts to move. The object remains in
the same place as it was in the first situation. What it moves is the train, not the object. There
is a second force that makes the object move, that is the rope. (Newton’s First Law). When
the rope exerts a force in the object the pendulum will continue the movement.
The objects will continue in movement or in no movement if there is not an interaction with
another object. Because of that it will be a movement.
3. As the balloon rises and Earth rotates we remain in the air. After several hours we
can descend and we will be in a different country! True or false? Why?
56
False. An object can have different velocities and movements at the same time. The balloon
has two different movements. One of them is upwards, and the other one is horizontally. The
object will be moving in the same direction of the movement of the Earth.
It's like if you are on a train and you throw a coin. You are going to move forward because of
the movement of the train, but the coin is going to fall in the same place.
4. How can we throw a glass bottle out of the window of a train car while it is moving at
40 km/h, and be sure that the bottle will not break?
If we know that the train is moving forwards with a velocity of 40km/h, we should throw the
bottle backwards in the same velocity. In this way, someone that is outside the train will see
that the bottle is falling in a straight line to the floor. In this way, the velocity of the object is
0km/h, because it will be balanced with the velocity that it has forwards. The velocity takes
into account the direction, but speed doesn’t take into account the direction. The train and the
bottle will have the same speed, however, the train goes forward but we should throw the
bottle backwards. So, the speed of the bottle will, in a way be, 0 from our point of view.
5. The children in the picture are running. Who will take the ball, after it is tossed
upwards? Explain carefully your answer.The same speed with the same direction.
57
Provided that there is no change in motion, the three people are moving in the same velocity.
When the first person throws the ball upwards the ball has two velocities, the velocity you
give while you are running (forwards) and the velocity you give it with your hand (upwards).
In this way, the ball is going to move upwards and forwards. The first person will take the
ball again. In the case that those people start to move faster or stop, the answer would be
different.
The object is going to experiment two different forces and velocities, one the one tha you
make while you run, and the other one the force that we have provoque making it going up.
6. How can we define what mass is? What is the difference between mass and weight?
What does this mathematical expression mean g = 9.8 m/s2?
7. Consider carefully the sequence of drawings below. Why is the dropped object falling
in a straight line?
58
8. Let’s imagine that there is a spacecraft that needs to go from A to B. Does it need to
turn on the engines to move? And if it would
need to move from B to C? Explain your
answer with reasons.
If it is at rest it will need to turn on the engine, because it will be necessary to have a change
in motion. If the object is already moving in that direction, to go from A to B there is no
necessary change in motion. But, to go to C we have to change the direction even if the speed
is the same. We need a change in motion to go from B to C, therefore, we need an interaction
with something that makes a force and according to that interaction there will be a change in
motion.
9. Suppose you are in space, away from the gravity created by any planet and suddenly,
you throw a stone. What will happen to the stone? how many meters would it take to
stop? How will it move? Why will it move?
The stone will start moving forward and with a constant motion, the speed will be always the
same. If there is no other interaction the stone will be moving forever.
10. A cannon shoots a ball forward (B) and at the same time a second ball is dropped
freely from the same height (A)? Which one will hit the ground first? Why?
Both balls are going to hit the ground at the same time. While the ball
(B) has a velocity both horizontally and vertically, the ball (A) moves
only vertically, however, the “velocity” it makes horizontally does not
influence the vertical one.
The horizontal velocity is because of the interaction it has with the cannon and the velocity
vertically is because of the attraction of the Earth. As the change in velocity is the same in
both cases, the time that will spend until it touches the ground is going to be the same.
59
11. The image on the left represents the Earth and its atmosphere (the drawing is not to
scale). Is the gravity in C equal to zero? Explain your answer.
Because of this, we can say that the gravity in the point C of the image
will not be 0.
We have an interaction between the object and the Earth that is gravity. We know that the
Earth rotates to one side so that object will have each own velocity + the force the Earth
exerts on the object. It will move to the same side of the Earth with the velocity of the object.
60
15. Read this advertising campaign: https://labur.eus/iceberg It mentions that as the
iceberg melts, beaches will also disappear underwater. Is it correct? Explain with
reasons.
“Center of Mass”
All the objects have a specific point that if we exert a force in the object and it is opposite to
gravity, the object will be in balance, without rolling. Sometimes this point can be outside the
object, in this case, the point in this object is the stick below, so it is outside the object. The
name of this point is called “Center of Mass”.
61
20th activity: Pulley system
a. Materials: An empty thread spool, an empty cardboard box, a hot glue gun, a piece of
rope, slape, cello tape, scissors, two fishing leads, cardboard, wooden sticks and cork
stoppers.
b. Procedure: In this experiment, we are going to build a pulley system. In order to
create it, we have followed the instructions that we saw in the presentation. Then, we
have figured out how a pulley system works.
c. The experiment outcome:
i. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: The net result
of using the pulley system is that you can lift a weight a certain height by
applying a force equal to only half the weight being lifted. However, we must
pull the rope twice the distance the weight is lifted. This way the product of
the force and the distance moved will be the same for the input force applied
by the person to the rope as for the output force exerted on the load. The
quantity force times distance is thus conserved (if frictional losses are small).
We call this product work, and the result for an ideal simple machine is work
output= work input.
ii. Videos explaining the phenomenon at issue:
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOQWhXAOQlE&feature=youtu.be
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBWAKZj0ZPg
As we can see in the videos, the diameter of the pulleys will not alter the
velocity of the pulley system.
d. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this activity,
students can understand different concepts that are interrelated. There are
some concepts, when talking about simple machines, that are interrelated, such
as distance, work and force.
ii. In terms of scientific knowledge: When talking about simple machines, we
have to take into account the concepts force, distance and work. In a simple
machine, the following equation happens:
Winput (f x d) = Woutput (F x d)
62
(in January).
63
21th activity: Some problems
1. Describe how we can teach pupils in Primary Education to differentiate the following
magnitudes: volume and capacity (and also the units to be used).
On the one hand, capacity makes reference to the amount of liquid a container can hold. We
can measure the capacity of anything that can hold something else. Its unit is L. On the other
hand, volume makes reference to the space an object takes up. It includes solids, liquids and
3
gases. Its unit is 𝑐𝑚 .
In order to explain to Primary Education students these two different magnitudes, there are a
lot of different experiments. For example, if you take a balloon and blow it to full it with air,
the space that will take that air would be the volume, and the air that is inside the balloon
would make reference to the balloon’s capacity to hold something inside it.
3
Fresh water’s density is 1g/𝑐𝑚 while salt water’s
density is bigger than fresh water’s one . This is
because salt water has salt and its density is bigger than water. So on, objects that have a
bigger density will go down and those objects which have a lower density will stay up.
3. Compare the motion that the following two objects make: an apple in
free fall and the Moon.
There is an interaction between the earth and the apple (known as gravity)
that will make the apple fall. The same interaction is made in the earth, but
the mass of the apple is not as heavy as to move the earth.
64
The moon, contrary to the apple, doesn’t fall due to it keeps in movement, which counteracts
the gravity and keeps in orbit. On the other hand, the Earth doesn’t attract the moon with the
same force as it does with the apple because it is farer.
All these motions are actually orbits in their technical sense, as they describe an elliptical
trajectory around a center of gravity but which is interrupted when it strikes the earth. If the
ball is fired with sufficient velocity, the ground curves at least as much as the ball when
falling, so the cannonball never hits the ground. He is said to be making an uninterrupted
orbit or circumnavigating. For each height above the centre of gravity there is a specific
velocity that produces a circular orbit (C). If the shooting speed increases beyond this speed,
elliptical orbits (D) are produced.
At a higher velocity, called escape velocity, which again depends on the height at which it is
fired, an infinite orbit (E) occurs, first of the parabolic type and with higher speeds of the
hyperbolic type. In both types of infinite orbits the result is that the object has escaped the
planet’s gravity and is moving into space.
In the case of sidereal objects revolving around other objects -planets; around stars, satellites
around planets, artificial satellites-, the centrifugal force, similar to that of the tied stone, is
counteracted by the attraction of the larger object, attraction or weight that comes to play the
role of string tension in the example used.
65
4. How can you apply Newton’s first law to make sense of the
phenomenon described below?
Iker tossed a coin upward while he was on board a plane. Despite the
fact that the plane flies at 400km/h, Iker catches the coin with the same
hand again.
66
6. Bearing in mind the information given in this document and making short concept
maps, synthesis the following topics: (a) What is a simple machine? (b) Some examples
of simple machines (c) What is work (W)? (d) How are simple machines and W related?
67
21th activity: The first simple machine
a. Materials: Scissors, a thin rope, a broom with a wooden handle, two kitchen chairs, a
strong tape, something that makes weight.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to understand how simple machines work.
First of all, we have to tape the ends of the broom handle down between the two
chairs. Then, we are going to stick one end of the rope to the handle of the weight and
lift the weight. The point is that we have to experience the force we need to lift the
weight without the pulley. Then, we are going to tie one end of the rope to the broom
handle and then, pass the rope through the handle of the weight. When we take the
other end of the rope and lift it, we are going to experience that less force is needed to
lift it. As in the previous attempt, tie one end of the rope to the broom handle and,
then, thread the rope through the handle of the weight. Repeat the previous step one or
even two times. Raise it up. You should experience that it takes less force to lift it but
you have to take much rope to pull up the weight (less force but for longer).
c. The experiment outcome:
i. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: A simple
machine is any mechanical device that multiplies the effect of an applied force
or simply changes the direction of the force.
ii. The quantitative results: The net result of using the pulley system is that you
can lift a weight a certain height by applying a force equal to only half the
weight being lifted. However, we must pull the rope twice the distance the
weight is lifted. This way the product of the force and the distance moved will
be the same for the input force applied by the person to the rope as for the
output force exerted on the load. The quantity force times distance is thus
conserved (if frictional losses are small). We call this product work, and the
result for an ideal simple machine is work output= work input.
d. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this activity,
students can understand different concepts that are interrelated. There are
some concepts, when talking about simple machines, that are interrelated, such
68
as distance, work and force.
iii. In terms of scientific knowledge: When talking about simple
machines, we have to take into account the concepts force, distance
and work. In a simple machine, the following equation happens:
Winput (f x d) = Woutput (F x d)
69
22nd activity: The second simple machine
a. Materials: Scissors, cardboard, compass, glue, wooden sticks, pen and paper.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to understand how simple machines work.
First of all, we are going to draw and cut the different parts of the machine. Then, we
are going to assemble the basic structure of the machine. Then, we are going to
continue with the wheels and the cram. Then, we are going to assemble the wheels
and the axes within the frame. Finally, we are going to fix the axles, build the
eccentric and connecting rod and see how the mechanism works.
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23th activity: Changes in matter I
The activities of the following days are going to be related to the changes of matter. In this
C-map taken from eGela, we can see that matter can suffer chemical and physical changes. In
this first lesson, we are going to work on physical changes of the matter.
71
remains constant. If you keep the pressure constant, reducing the temperature
(T) also causes the gas to compress. On the other hand, during expansion, the
volume (V) of a gas increases. When this happens, the pressure (P) of the gas
decreases if the number of moles (n) of gas remains constant. If you keep the
pressure constant, increasing the temperature (T) also causes the gas to
expand.
ii. The quantitative results: First of all, when we put the fire in the candle, the
oxygen of the air is consumed by the flame of the candle. This is why it is an
acceleration in the water, as there is an interaction (force): Organic Matter +
O2 → CO2 + H2O. At the same time, there is going to be a thermal expansion
of the air. As we increase the temperature, the air molecules are going to start
moving faster and, while we are putting the glass in the candle, there is going
to be some air that will go out. There is going to be a moment that the flame of
the candle is going to be consumed. In this way, the air inside the glass will go
back to its original situation, but as there is some air that has gone out, the
amount of air that was at the beginning is not going to be the same, and it will
occupy less space than in a normal situation. Thus, the air will be expanded in
order to occupy all the space of the glass. As we know, when there is a thermal
expansion, the pressure of that gas will decrease, due to the fact that there is an
amount of matter that is occupying more space than what it is supposed to
occupy. The atmospheric pressure outside the glass will be higher than the
pressure that is inside the glass. In this way, some water will enter the glass,
the air inside the glass will recover to its original state and both atmospheric
pressures will be the same .
d. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: With this activity,
students can understand different concepts that are interrelated. There are
some concepts, when talking about the changes in the matter, that are
interrelated, such as thermal expansion and contraction, temperature and
atmospheric pressure. If we take into account Heziberri, with this activity
students will be able to understand different changes that can alter the state of
the matter. .
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ii. In terms of scientific knowledge: When talking about changes of the matter,
we will have to take into account that there are physical changes and chemical
changes. What is important to understand in this activity is that the
atmospheric pressure, temperature and thermal expansion and contraction are
interrelated. When we increase the temperature, there will be a thermal
expansion in a gas, and the pressure will decrease, whereas when we decrease
the temperature, there will be a thermal contraction in a gas, and the pressure
will increase.
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24th activity: Some problems related to atmospheric pressure and thermal
expansion and contraction
1. What is atmospheric pressure? How can’t we die if we are supporting the force
of an atmosphere? What is the relationship between atmospheric pressure and
Newtons?
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere, which
at sea level has a mean value of 101,325 pascals. The reason why we can support a pressure
of 1atm is that that pressure comes from all the way round, not only from upwards. The unit
of atmospheric pressure is Pa (pascal) or Atm (atmosphere). 1atm = 101,325 Pa.
On the other hand, we can compare a Newton with an apple. This apple has two
interactions. First of all, we have the Earth, attracting it to the surface of the Earth. On the
other hand, we have our hand, creating the same force in the opposite direction. Taking into
account that an apple has a mass of 100g, we could compare it with a Newton. In order to
counterbalance the atmospheric pressure that is suffering the apple, we are applying a force of
1N in order not to cause the apple to fall.
When we put an apple on the top of a 1m2 table, it is one Pascal. Taking into account
that a child can occupy the volume of 1m2 , he will be suffering the pressure of 100.000Pa,
which is 1000kg of apples. The reason why the child can support this pressure is that this
force is exerted in all directions.
1N = 1kg x 1m/s2
1P = 1N x 1m 2
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Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere, which
at sea level has a mean value of 1atm. In A situation, we can see a diver in the ocean. When it
comes to atmospheric pressure, every time we dive 10m, we will support the pressure of
another 1atm. On the other hand, in B situation, there is a climber in the mountain. As we
raise our altitude, the atmospheric pressure will decrease, as the weight that is above us is
lower. Comparing these two situations, we can say that the person of A situation is suffering
much more pressure than the person of B situation.
4. Note that the bottle is full of air. Explain what happens in the activity from a
macroscopic as well as microscopic point of view.
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From a microscopic point of view, what we see in these pictures is that, in the first
case, we have a bottle inside a container that has some water that is at 25ºC. In the second
picture, we see that the temperature of the water has increased, and there has been a thermal
expansion in the air of the bottle. As we know, thermal expansion is related to the rise in
temperature. When we raise the temperature, the air will occupy more space than it originally
did. In a normal situation, the air would go out the bottle, but as the bottle is closed, the only
way that the air has to go out is inflating the balloon. As time goes by, the water will decrease
its temperature and the air will go back to its original situation, and so will the balloon do.
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25th activity: Bloom taxonomy and objectives
Questions
1. Who did develop the Bloom taxonomy? When?
It classifies, in levels of increasing complexity, the activities of students with respect to three
domains: cognitive, psychomotor and affective.
Bloom’s ultimate aspiration was to create a common language on learning outcomes that
would facilitate communication between stakeholders; would serve as a basis for determining
course and curriculum objectives at different levels (local, regional, state) and help to
compare the achievement of courses and curricula already in place with desirable learning
outcomes.
The best known domain of Bloom’s taxonomy and, in fact, the one that was worked on in
greater depth by this author, is the cognitive one.
5. How many categories or levels does the Bloom taxonomy include in the domain
referred to in the previous question?
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In this domain, Bloom taxonomy recognizes 6 levels or categories of skill in the use of
thought and, therefore, 6 levels to which teachers can direct their attention, implicitly or
explicitly.
6. Can you pinpoint the criteria that the Bloom taxonomy uses to arrange the categories
or levels indicated in the previous question?
Bloom ordered his categories according to two criteria, the degree of complexity (from
simple to complex) and the degree of abstraction (from concrete to abstract). In addition,
taxonomy was cumulative, i.e., the domain of one category was a prerequisite for mastering a
more complex category.
c.) Check again the problems completed in the previous lesson (link) and indicate to
which Bloom category are each of the problems related.
1. Describe how we can teach pupils in Primary Education to differentiate the following
magnitudes: volume and capacity (and also the units to be used). 2nd level: Understand. We
are explaining ideas or concepts.
2. Explain why fresh water remains above the sea water without mixing (see the picture). 2nd
level: Understand. We are explaining ideas or concepts.
3. Compare the motion that the following two objects make: an apple in free fall and the
Moon. 4th level: Analyze. We are drawing connections between ideas.
4. How can you apply Newton’s first law to make sense of the phenomenon described below?
3rd level: Apply: We are using information in new situations.
5. Considering the point of view of science, assess the correctness of the piece of news
appearing in the picture. 5th grade: Evaluate. We are justifying a stand or a decision.
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2nd activity:
1st task
You have to carefully read the section 5.1. in paper 1. After the reading you have to
compare “educational purposes, “general objectives” and specific objectives (in
Spanish: “fines educativos”, “objetivos generales” y “objetivos específicos”).
Educational purposes: Educational purposes concretize the ideas to be realized, set the goal
to be achieved and are included in the basic principles of the countries or in the general
proposals of the basic laws of education. From a global point of view of the educational
system, the anthropological model for a society in a given context is reflected in its
educational purposes present in the legal texts. They are of a general nature and are in line
with the basic values of the educational environment to which they refer
General objectives: They are the first level of concreteness, they try to define different
aspects of the educational purposes, they are the framework of action to work in a generic
and global way in a specific area or level.
Specific objectives: They have a specific character, they facilitate practice, they are usually
operational. They represent a further realisation of the overall objectives and are
action-oriented. They guide and facilitate the teaching-learning process, especially in stages,
cycles, courses and classrooms.
2nd task
Read carefully the sections underlined in the second paper (the topic is related to the
parts that should be included in a specific objective).
1. List and explain the parts that specific objectives should contain to be adequate
educational objectives.
● Action to perform: What?: Also called "ability" is expressed by using a verb. It is a
fundamental element of any objective; it is the indicator that serves as a starting point
for organising learning experiences. This expression should be focused on the
student’s activity and not that of the teacher.
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● Content: Which?: Constitutes an important element for the formulation of the result
since it alludes to the object of knowledge concerned. It represents curricular elements
through which the skills expressed in the learning outcome are developed. It
determines the set of knowledge, attitudes and procedures that students acquire.
● Conditions of realization: How? and Why?: They respond to the circumstances or
situations in which the capacity must be carried out. They usually refer to the
resources and facilities available to the student. They also indicate the degree of
accuracy and precision of the task in a qualitative and quantitative manner. It indicates
the reason for which the action is performed.
2. Identify the part of the specific objective for which you should use the verbs
included in the Bloom taxonomy.
When creating an specific objective, the verbs included in the Bloom Taxonomy
should be in the part of the action performed, as they are the indicator that serve as a starting
point for organising learning experiences.
1st cycle:
● To describe the concept of density carrying out different experiments in the laboratory
in order to understand the physical properties of solids, fluids and gases.
● To design a recycling system in the classroom reusing different materials that students
have in their homes in order to develop critical thinking.
● To compare and contrast the different forces that are being exerted in an object that is
in a freefall working both individually and in pairs in order to be able to understand
Newton’s laws.
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2nd cycle:
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26th activity: Surface tension
a. Materials: A little test tube, a plate, a glass, a piece of paper and aluminium foil.
b. Procedure: The aim of this activity is to do an introduction to surface tension. In this
activity, we are going to do three different activities related to the same topic. First of
all, we are going to take the little test tube, fill it with water and tap it with one finger.
When we turn it around, the water shouldn’t fall. Then, we are going to do the same
thing with the glass. But as the mouth of the glass is much bigger compared to the
mouth of the test tube, we are going to use a piece of paper. In this case, we are going
to fill the glass with water, and turn it around in the plate, which has some water in
too. Then, we are going to take out our hand and try to lift the glass, and the water,
with the piece of paper in the mouth, will not fall again. Finally, we are going to take
the glass, put some water in and put aluminium foil in the mouth and do 30 little
holes.
c. The experiment outcome:
i. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon at issue: Surface
tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface
area possible. Surface tension is what allows heavier than water i.e., denser
than water objects such as razor blades, insects (e.g. water striders), to float
and slide on a water surface without becoming even partly submerged.
ii. The quantitative results: The reason why the water in these situations has
overcome the gravity is because of the surface tension, which is related to the
hydrogen bonds that are between the molecules of water.
d. Conclusions:
e. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: This activity can be the
introduction to a topic that usually is complex to students, as we can’t see the
molecules that are around us. Students can do this experiment and then receive an
explanation about atoms, molecules and bonds.
f. In terms of scientific knowledge: When talking about surface tension, we are talking
about the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force,
due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
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27th activity: Changes in matter II
1. Take an empty bottle of water, put a balloon inside and try to blow it up. What
happens?
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created inside the bottle when raising the temperature looks like it starts to rain.
The relationship between the temperature and the pressure is related to Gay-Lussac’s
Law. When the volume of gas remains constant, the pressure of the gas is directly
proportional to its temperature: If we increase the temperature, the pressure will increase. If
we lower the temperature, it’ll lower the pressure.
On the other hand, the air also goes up or down, movements that create or dissipate clouds.
When the air cools it becomes denser and lower, causing an increase in atmospheric pressure.
When the air heats up, it becomes less dense and rises, causing a drop in pressure. These
temperature differences cause the air to move laterally, and cause the wind. Air generally
moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. Air contains water vapour mainly from
the evaporation of the oceans. When a mass of humid air rises, it finds less temperature-it
cools-and less pressure-it expands. As it expands, it cools even more. The amount of water
that can be contained in the air decreases with the temperature; therefore, when cooled it
cannot contain as much water as before. It is then when the "leftover" water vapor condenses
into drops of water or ice crystals.
3. Explain the process of breathing taking into account the atmospheric pressure.
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gravity, we have to consider that the atmospheric pressure will also exert a force in each
direction.
However, in the case of the syringe, each part of it is covered, except from the little
mouth. In this case, the atmospheric pressure will battle against the gravity and will make the
liquid doesn’t fall.
5. You have to put a dented ping-pong ball in boiling water to fix it, why?
When we have a dented ping-pong ball, what we have to do in order to fix it is putting
it in boiling water. The temperature of the air inside the ping-pong ball will increase, and so
the pressure will do. In this way, there air inside the ping-pong ball will suffer a thermal
compression and it will recover its original position.
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that there will be good weather in the following hours. When the atmospheric pressure
decreases, the elastic cover will raise and the stick will go downwards.
7. We have a metal strip constructed with two different sheets. In the lower part,
an iron one, and in the upper part, a brass one (brass is an alloy of zinc and
copper). Give reasons for the observed results (see the picture).
In the first picture we can see that there are two different materials (brass and iron)
that are contracted due to the ice. In the second picture we can see these materials in
ambiental temperature. Finally, in the third picture, we can see that these materials are
suffering a thermal expansion as we are applying heat to them.
What we can conclude looking at these pictures is that brass has greater thermal
expansion and contraction coefficient than iron. In the first picture we can see how brass
contracts efficiently (more than iron). In the second picture, we can see that brass will expand
more than iron. To sum up, different materials behave differently talking about thermal
expansion and contraction.
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8. Coffee is made
We have to take into account that italian coffee machines have a security balbule.
Sometimes, we can put so much water, without taking into account the security line, so there
is a great risk of having an explosion.
9. Explain the phenomenon shown in the drawing below and relate it to the
concepts of thermal expansion and contraction.
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28th activity: Problems related to atmospheric pressure
When you put a straw inside the water, pressure will be higher in
the down part of the glass. The pressure that the straw has inside will be
bigger than the pressure that is in the water. In this way, the water will go
up in the straw in order to balance the pressure.
When we cover the straw that has water inside and lift it up, the
water will not fall because the finger cancels the effect of the atmospheric pressure in that
part of the straw, while in the other it does act and balances the weight of the water, which
prevents it from falling. If you remove the finger, on both sides, the atmospheric pressure
acts, which cancels its effect and the water falls due to its weight not compensated by the
pressure difference. Besides, the thing is that when we have a plastic or crystal tube and cover
it with our finger, pressure will only affect from downwards to upwards, and will be enough
to not let the water go down.
There are two things that can alter this experiment: the size of the hole and the
irregularities that are in the surface of the liquid. The second one affects in the way that if
there are irregularities, the pressure will affect differently in different parts of the surface and
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it will work better with little holes because the surface will be smaller and those changes in
pressure going upwards too.
3. Explain the reasons why water rises inside the straw while we drink.
We put our mouth in the straw and we expand our lungs, that will
make the pressure inside go down and the air come in.
4. How does a syringe work? Explain with reasons why water rises when we lift the
plunger and why water does not fall when water is inside.
When we lift the plunger, the air that is inside the syringe
expands so its pressure will decrease. In this way, water will rise as
the pressure that the air is exerting to the water (atmospheric
pressure) is bigger than the atmospheric pressure that is inside the
syringe. It happens the same with air, as the pressure outside the
syringe will be bigger.
We have to take into account the adhesion forces between the water and the syringe.
The narrower the hole is the easier it works, due to the fact that the forces between water
molecules and the interaction between water and plastic molecules works better.
When we stick the suction cup to the wall, we are taking all the air that is
inside the cup outside. Then, we take the suction cup to its position, so the little air
that is inside the cup will expand and its pressure will decrease. The atmospheric
pressure will be bigger than the pressure inside the suction cup, so it will get
stuck. In order to take the suction cup off, we will need to do a force that is bigger
than the pressure that the atmospheric pressure is exerting to the suction cup.
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6. The situation appearing in the picture is fiction and impossible to happen in real life.
Why?
When you are under the water, the pressure of your
surroundings will be greater than the force you can use to expand
our lungs.
In order to breathe underwater, there is an oxygen pump that will
make air go down with more pressure than the pressure that is
inside the water. On the other hand, you can take an oxygen tank
with you in order to breathe. The oxygen inside the tank is compressed, so it’s pressure will
be bigger than the pressure that is underwater.
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29th activity: Questions related to surface tension
Five experiences:
b.) Pour some water into a wide drinking glass and fill it
halfway. Put a pin pon ball on the surface of the water and
observe where the ball tends to move. Repeat the experience
when the glass is full to the brim and the water inside is about to
overflow the rim of the glass. Explain with reasons why the
movement of the ball differs in the two situations.
When we put the ping pong ball into a wide drinking glass and fill it
halfway, it tends to move to a corner. When it is field up to the brim, it is still on a corner.
When we put more water in, the ball moves to the middle of the drinking glass. This is related
to the shape that the water has obtained when it pases the level of the glass. In the first case,
water has a concave shape and, finally, it has a convex shape, due to the surface tension, that
is related to the properties of the water.
c.) You have to get a clip to float in water (even though the
clip is denser than water). You can achieve this goal with the
help of a piece of paper. Explain with reasons why the clip
“floats”.
The clip is not exactly floating, it is over the surface of the water.
The surface of the water is a little bit bent. This is something
related to the properties of the water, and it is related to the surface tension.
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Then take a cotton swab and touch some detergent and, afterwards, touch the surface of
the water that has the cip. Explain what happened.
In this case, the clip has sunk because we have broken the surface tension. For this
experiment, we have to be aware of the quality of the water. In a macroscopic level, surface
tension is related to the properties of water. In a microscopic view, we have to focus on
molecules of water. The atom of oxygen is 16 times bigger than the atoms of hydrogen and
they have an angle of 102º from the nucleus.
In order to explain how water can appear in nature, we have to speak about electrons that are
in the last layer of each atom. The hydrogen has 1 electron in its last layer, and it needs
another one to be stable. In the case of the oxygen, it has 6 electrons in its last layer, and it
needs another two to be stable. In this way, hydrogen and oxygen are going to share their
electrons. The electrons that the atoms of hydrogen have are not going to be the same. As the
oxygen is 16 times bigger than the atoms of hydrogen, it is going to do a bigger strength than
the molecules of hydrogen. As the electrons are going to be much more time in the oxygen
than in the hydrogen, the hydrogen will be changed positively compared to the other part, the
oxygen, that is going to be charged negatively.
Contrary charges attract each other, so the positive part of a water molecule (H) will be
attracted to the negative part of the other molecule (the oxygen), so they are going to be more
stable. This is the reason why water has more stability than other liquids. One molecule of
water is in relation with other molecules of water. The ones that are in the surface of the
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liquid have less bounds than the ones that are in the middle, and they are going to be pushing
to the middle. These hydrogen bonds are the explanation of surface tension.
Chemical bonds
● Covalent bonds: A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of
electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or
bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms,
when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. Covalent bonds appear with
nonmetal atoms.
● Ionic bonds: Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between
atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In
ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas
the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion. Ionic
bonds happen with one metal and other nonmetal atoms.
● Metal bonds: Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the
electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the form of an electron
cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively charged metal ions. It happens with
metal atoms.
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30th activity: Toilet Paper Roll Racer
a. Materials: 2CDs, toilet paper roll, a clip, sellotape, rubber bunches, paper, metal
washer.
b. Procedure: First of all, we have to glue the 2 CDs to the paper roll. Then, we have to
tie the rubber bands, so we have a big one, and introduce it in the clip. Then, we have
to insert the rubber band from one end of the toilet paper to the other, leaving the clip
on the outside of one end. On the opposite end, we pass the rubber band through the
metal washer’s hole and tie it to the paper stick. Finally,we have to stick the clip to the
disk with two pieces of tape.
● Clip and tape: It’s easy to forget the last step, but it’s very important, because
if we don’t do it the device won’t work.
● Amount of mass of the final device: Be aware! If the device is too heavy it
won’t work either.
c. The experiment outcome:
i. A detailed but short description of the phenomenon: When we spin the
paper stick several times, the rubber band will be twisted. Then, if we put the
racer on the floor and release it, it will start rolling. The racer moves due to the
energy accumulated by twisting the rubber. When we are twisting the rubber
bands, we are giving something to the object, a feature, that it didn’t have
some minutes ago. That feature is what scientists call energy.
ii. Quantitative results:
d. Conclusions:
i. From the educational perspective in Primary Education: Creating this
device with students is very interesting to help them understand the
differences between energy and force.
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31th activity: Presentations of energy
Energy Force
If something has energy it has possibilities Force is an interaction between two objects.
to create changes.
One object can have energy One object can’t have force because it’s an
interaction between two
v: 30km/h
1kg
3kg
v: 100km/h
What ball does have What car does have What ball does have
greater energy? The one greater energy? The one greater energy? The one
that is higher. that is faster. that is heavier.
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Explain how the racer works by using the following concepts:
● Energy: Energy is related to change. Something that has energy has the opportunity
to create changes.
● Storing energy: In order to store energy in the rubber bands, we have to spin the
paper. In this way, we are transferring energy to the object.
● Transference of energy: As we are twisting the rubber band, we are transferring
energy from our hands to the rubber bands. The same amount of energy that we lose
twisting the paper is the same energy that the rubber bands win. It is impossible to
create energy from a 0 point, we always need a source of energy in order to transfer it
to another object.
● Force: When we are twisting the paper, there is an interaction between our hand and
the paper.
● Work: Work is the energy that we are transferring to an object. As we are storing with
energy, we are also creating work. Work is the amount of energy that we transfer in
order to make a change. If there is no change in the object which receives the energy,
there is not work. If someone pushes a wall and there is no change due to the mass,
there is not work. If we move a chair, there is work, because the chair is moving.
Giving that the object is moving, it has energy because we are transferring it to the
object, so now, the object has the possibility to create changes.
● Potential energy: Potential energy is related to mass and height (or flexibility: in this
case, there are the elastic brands). In Primary education, we should name Potential
Energy Possible energy. Don’t only think about the height, because elastic brands can
also accumulate energy.
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● Kinetical energy: It is related to mass and velocity.
● Transformation of energy: It is the transformation from potential energy to kinetic
energy and otherwise.
To start with the explanation, we are going to repeat the definition of energy. Something that
has energy has the possibility to create changes. Now, taking into account the racer, we have
to store energy by spinning the piece of paper a lot of times, to create a change, in this case,
in its velocity. One thing we have to take in mind is that the piece of paper gives us a way to
twist the rubber band. If the object is storing energy is because it has rubber bands inside and
we are twisting them. We will see that it has energy when the rubber band is untwisted. The
important idea is that the energy is being stored in the rubber bands by twisting them.
While we are doing that, the racer is charging with energy, so in that moment, we are making
a transference of energy as we are transferring the energy we have to the racer. So,
transference of energy refers to the concept that our energy “flies” to the device; it’s not
possible to create energy from 0, they have to take energy from other object. We have to take
into account that the energy we have, we receive it from the food we eat. So, the same
quantity of energy we make to charge the racer with energy, is the one that the racer is going
to have (the cal / Joules we lose are the ones we are transferring to the racer).
However, when we are storing energy, we are also making a force as we are creating an
interaction between our hand and the piece of paper. So, this is one of the differences between
the energy and the force: this object by itself hasn’t got any force, it needs another object, in
this case, our hands, to create an interaction, but this object can have energy. As we are
storing the energy, we are also creating a work, which is the amount of energy transferred by
the force to move an object, because when we finish storing the object with energy, the racer
starts moving.
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If we push the wall, we are creating an interaction between our hands and the wall, but we are
not creating work as we are not moving the wall. If we touch the racer, there is an interaction
between our hand and the racer, but it has no energy, because it isn’t causing any change.
So, now we have to explain to you two very important concepts: potential and kinetic energy.
First of all, we have to remember the factors that increase the energy of an object that were
the mass (the heavier the object is, the greater will be the change it will produce); the velocity
(the faster the object moves, the greater will be the change it will produce); and the height
(the higher the position of the object is, the greater will be the change it will produce). So,
Potential energy is the energy related to the mass and to the height (or to the use of some
elastic bands), while Kinetic energy is related to the mass and the velocity of the object.
It is also important to know that if we have potential energy, the object could transform into
kinetic energy. This change of energies is called as transformation of energy. So, when we
are storing energy, we are giving Potential energy, because we are twisting the rubber bands.
As we untwist the rubber bands (so that we stop storing the racer), the racer begins to gain
Kinetic energy, because of the velocity. At the final point, when it stops, we can create again
Potential energy. In this image, it has a different Potential energy, because at the beginning
the Potential energy was related to the elastic bands and now it is related to the height it has.
So, in conclusion:
1. Energy can be stored.
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2. Energy can go from one object to another object.
3. There are two main types of energy: potential and kinetic.
4. Energy can change (transformation of energy).
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32th activity: Some problems about energy - work - power
1. Does the rock in the picture have energy or force? Explain it with reasons.
Yes. It has potential energy due to the height, but also kinetic
energy. Energy is something that can create changes. It doesn’t
have force because an object doesn’t have any force. It is
suffering a force due to it’s in contact with Earth.
3. In which situation does the person in the image have to use more energy to lift the
rock? Why? (let's assume that there is no friction)
In each situation the energy is going to be the same, as the final height (vertical distance) is
the same in three situations
4. Can you explain the advantage of lifting objects using a ramp? (if
there was any advantage)
The amount of energy that the rock is going to get is the same, but the
force that we apply for it is going to be less for a longer distance.
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5. Explain with reasons how far the ball will arrive? (let's assume that there is no
friction)
It will reach c Point, as it is at the same height that the starting point. The potential energy at
those points will be the same.
6. The 5 spheres in the image will be dropped to the snow as indicated in the picture.
Which ball will sink the deepest? Which one will sink the least? Which of the balls A
and B will hit the ground first?
The first one will have more acceleration, as the distance will be smaller. Also the time is
shorter in the first case.
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a) 75J b)25J c) 25J d) 75J
When lifting an object, we have to take into account the time spent lifting the object. We are
not only considering the work that the person is doing, but also the work that this person is
doing by and unit of time. This concept is called power, that is the relationship between work
and time. Power = W/T (in J/s). The unit is going to be also called Watts.
10. Explain in which case the woman has done the least work. (let's assume there is no
friction) On the other hand, if the cube has a mass of 10 kg, indicate what the
dynamometer will read in each case.
In the first case, the only advantage that you have using the pulley system is that you can
change the direction of the force. You apply the force downwards, and the object goes
upwards. In the first case, the dynamometer will mark 100N.
In the B situation, the woman will have to lift the pulley herself, but as it is connected to the
ceiling, she will only lift the work of 5kg, that is to say, 50N, as the force will be divided into
2 (her and the ceiling). In this case, the force the woman does will be lesser than in A
situation, but the distance of the rope will be double than A.
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C situation will be the same as B situation in terms of the weight that the dynamometer will
mark, that will be 50N. The first rope will only change the direction of the force exerted,
from up to down, but the second rope will be the one that divides the force exerted, as it is
connected to the first pulley. If you want to lift the weight 1m, the person will need 2m of
rope, as the work is going to be the same.
11. How much force does the man in the picture have to exert? If the man pulls 60 cm
on the rope, how much does the block lift? How much work has he done? What is the
advantage of the pulley set used?
There are 6 ropes, as the last rope (the one which is next to the man) only
changes the direction. If the object is 600N, as the rope is divided into 6, the
man will lift 100N. If one person has to lift a weight (only a rope, as A
situation in the previous activity) 1 meter, the work will be W=600N X 1m =
600J. In this situation, as the person does the force of 100N, the distance (of
the rope) will be 6m, as the work will be 600J.
12. From the energy point of view, why does the ball reach less height after each
bounce?
It reaches less height because after each bounce it loses energy in terms of
heat and noise.
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33th activity: Calculating corn-flakes calories
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34th activity: Problems related to heat and energy
1.Suppose we heat containers with water A and B (see the picture) and we heat them
with very similar candles. What will be the temperature of the water in the second
container? Which container will receive more energy? How do the concepts of energy
and temperature differ, based on this experience?
Each container will receive more the same energy, as they are lighted
with a similar candle. The reason why the temperature doesn’t change as much as in the
second one is due to the amount of matter.
Heat will be the equivalent to energy, as it is measured in Joules. The amount of energy that
the container has received is
2. Look at these experiences (A and B). In the first case, A, what will be the final
temperature: 10oC, 20oC or 40oC? In the second case, however, what can be the final
temperature: 10oC, 30oC or 40oC?
3. Consider the following experiment. The weight hangs from a copper wire. What
happens as the candle heats the wire? Explain with reasons.
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As the copper wire will expand when heated, the object that is hanging from it will touch the
ground.
4. Can you help the child understand the answer? (see the picture)
The density of liquid water is 1kg/L. When we put it in the fridge, it gains volume, so the
density will be lower than the density of the liquid water. Therefore, 1L, regarding volume,
will less in the case of ice.
5. The woman in the picture touches a nail stuck in the ice. Is there an energy transfer?
Why?
Yes, as there is a change in temperature both in the finger of the woman and in the
nail that is stocked.
As metal is a good energy conductor, there will be a transfer from the warmer
object to the coldest object.
6. Analyse these two images. It is the same bird with the same weight in both. Why is it
more rounded when it is cold?
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7. Explain the thermoregulation strategies of the dog in the picture with reference to the
three situations depicted on the left. Explain the relationship between Heat and
Temperature.
1. First of all, the dog is sweating in order to lose energy (as it is a lot of energy), but is it
not a very efficient strategy
2. Due to the wind arrow, that is the. The biggest amount of energy that the animal is
losing is due to convection (sweating).
3. The wind is moving
4. The animal is transferring a certain amount of energy to the floor (conduction) as it is
in direct contact with the floor.
1: Radiation: heating a candle, etc.
2. Convection (one piece of metal when taking a bath).
3. Conduction: direct contact
8. How many calories are needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one
degree Celsius?
1 calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature
of 1g of water by 1ºC. So, it is going to be 1cal.
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9. The jars in the picture are filled with water. If they were placed under the sun for the
same amount of time, what would be the temperature of both jars? why?
The sun is giving colours of all the colours. The black jar is absorbing all
the colours. The white jar is reflecting all the colours. The black jar is
absorbing all the radiation that is receiving, all the energy that is receiving,
and receiving more energy means having more temperature.
10. The person in the picture feels more cold on one leg (the one on the tile) than on the
other (the one on the carpet).
All the objects have the same temperature, as they have spent a lot of time in the same place.
However, the materials are different, and there are ones that are more likely to transfer heat.
Both the carpet and the floor are at the same temperature. It is going to be easier to transfer
the heat to the floor than to transfer the heat to the carpet, as these two surfaces have different
abilities to transfer energy. Carpet is a much more isolating element than the floor, so it is less
efficient in heat transference.
11. Compare these two systems (similarities and differences). On the left Mitochondria
of the cell, on the right experience in the laboratory to determine the calories in food.
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35th Activity: Question of last day
1. Forces between molecules. When we speak about forces we speak about forces about
objects that we can see. Interactions also happen from a microscopic point of view,
that is to say, molecules. We have studied two types of forces between molecules: the
interaction that water molecules have between them (cohesion forces) and the
interactions that water molecules have with other types of molecules (adhesion
forces).
2. Energy and work. When elevating an object, the object receives energy, as the
person is giving energy to it. There can be different types of pulleys. However, the
work that the person does is different, due to the fact that the energy transfer is the
same.
a. Pulleys that change the direction of the force. The force that the person does is
going to be the same as the Newtons of the object has. The distance of the
rope is going to maintain the same. W= Fxd
b. Pulleys that are connected to the celine. The force that the person does is
going to be half of the Newtons of the object. The distance of the rope is going
to double. W=Fxd
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ANNEX 1. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Density: The density is the relation that exists between the mass and the volume of
something, so its formula is density = mass / volume. It is measured in g/cm3. As the density
of the freshwater is 1g/cm3 (mass of a substance per unit volume), if the density of an object
is greater than 1g/cm3 it is going to sink. However, if the density of an object is smaller than
1g/cm3 it is going to float.
Mass: Mass is the amount of kg of a body. It is measured in grams (g). We must not use the
amount of matter, because in matter we have no units. Mass is what we measure when we use
a balance.
Weight: Weight is the force that gravity exerts on a mass. It is measured in Newtons (N).
3
Volume: The volume is the space that an object takes. It is measured in 𝑐𝑚 .
Capacity: The capacity is the maximum amount of something that we can put inside
something. It is measured in litres (L).
Buoyancy force: The buoyancy force is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the
weight of a partially or fully immersed object. The buoyancy force is related to the mass of
the volume of the liquid that is displaced.
Pascal principle: We know that the force made to a confined incompressible fluid will be
transmitted throughout the fluid, such that the same change occurs everywhere.
Archimedes principle: we have to take into account that the upper force suffered by an
object in a liquid is the same as the mass of the volume of the displaced liquid. Physical law
of buoyancy, states that any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid)
at rest is acted upon by an upward, or buoyant force, the magnitude of which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Matter: Matter is physical substance in general, that exists, has mass and occupies a volume.
Physical changes: Remains in molecules and substances.
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● Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change,
increase, its shape, area, volume, and density in response to a change in temperature,
when we heat it, usually not including phase transitions.
● Thermal contraction: Thermal contraction is the length/size/volume of a substance
decreasing as it gets cooled.
● Expansion and compression: The same, but taking into account one gas (fluid) that
occupies the volume of a container.
● States of matter: solid, liquid, gas
Chemical changes:
● Combustion (oxidation): Org. Matter + O2 → CO2 + H20.
● Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere, which at sea level has a mean value of 101,325 pascals
Atmospheric pressure - Temperature - Volume and Altitude:
● During contraction, the volume (V) of a gas decreases and the density (D) increases.
When this happens, the pressure (P) of the gas increases if the number of moles (n) of
gas remains constant. If you keep the pressure constant, reducing the temperature (T)
also causes the gas to compress.
● On the other hand, during expansion, the volume (V) of a gas increases and the
density (D) decreases. When this happens, the pressure (P) of the gas decreases if the
number of moles (n) of gas remains constant. If you keep the pressure constant,
increasing the temperature (T) also causes the gas to expand.
● As the altitude increases, the pressure decreases, because you have less air above
yourself. As the altitude decreases, the pressure increases because you have more
water above yourself.
Barometer: In order to create a hand-made barometer, we have to take a tumbler and put an
elastic cover on the top. It is important to use an elastic cover in order to assure that the air
doesn’t escape. Then, we put a stick in the top of the tumbler and we have to take a reference
to know how the water will change. In order to do this, we need a ruler or a scale. The
barometer will work this way: when the atmospheric pressure increases, the stick will go
upwards, as the elastic cover will move downwards a little bit. This is a signal that there will
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be good weather in the following hours. When the atmospheric pressure decreases, the elastic
cover will raise and the stick will go downwards.
Surface tension: The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external
force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules. Surface tension is responsible for
the curvature of the surfaces of air and liquids. Surface tension is also responsible for the
ability of some solid objects to “float” on the surface of a liquid.
In a macroscopic level, surface tension is related to the properties of water. In a microscopic
view, we have to focus on molecules of water. The atom of oxygen is 16 times bigger than the
atoms of hydrogen and they have an angle of 102º from the nucleus.
In order to explain how water can appear in nature, we have to speak about electrons that are
in the last layer of each atom. The hydrogen has 1 electron in its last layer, and it needs
another one to be stable. In the case of the oxygen, it has 6 electrons in its last layer, and it
needs another two to be stable. In this way, hydrogen and oxygen are going to share their
electrons. The electrons that the atoms of hydrogen have are not going to be the same. As the
oxygen is 16 times bigger than the atoms of hydrogen, it is going to do a bigger strength than
the molecules of hydrogen. As the electrons are going to be much more time in the oxygen
than in the hydrogen, the hydrogen will be changed positively compared to the other part, the
oxygen, that is going to be charged negatively.
Contrary charges attract each other, so the positive part of a water molecule (H) will be
attracted to the negative part of the other molecule (the oxygen), so they are going to be more
stable. This is the reason why water has more stability than other liquids. One molecule of
water is in relation with other molecules of water. The ones that are in the surface of the
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liquid have less bounds than the ones that are in the middle, and they are going to be pushing
to the middle. These hydrogen bonds are the explanation of surface tension.
Cohesion forces:
● Covalent bonds: A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of
electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or
bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms,
when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. Covalent bonds appear with
nonmetal atoms.
● Ionic bonds: Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between
atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In
ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas
the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion. Ionic
bonds happen with one metal and other nonmetal atoms.
● Metal bonds: Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the
electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the form of an electron
cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively charged metal ions. It happens with
metal atoms.
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2. MACHINES
Simple machine: A simple machine is any mechanical device which multiplies the effect of
an applied force or changes the direction of a force we apply and the length in which we
apply the force which describes the work. For example, simple machines are levers, pulley
systems and inclined planes.
When we think about pulleys and machines, people usually try to concentrate on the wheel,
but, to understand what a pulley is, you have to concentrate on the ropes. The more ropes you
have to hang the object, the less force you will have to create to lift the object.
In this image, we have the ceiling, the two pulleys, the rope, a weight and a person who is
trying to lift. What is happening here is that the weight is maintained by two ropes (numbers
1 and 2), so the person just needs to create half of the force to lift the object, because the
other half will be maintained by the ceiling, as we have two ropes.
However, in this second image, the person will need to create a force greater than 500N to lift
it, as the mass of this object is of 50kg and we only have a single rope.
Nevertheless, there is a problem in the first situation. It is true that we need just half of the
force to lift this object, but we have to pay something. What we have to pay is that we have to
move two times the length of the rope that we need to lift the object. That is, if we consider
the force that we have to use in the first example, we have to create a lower force but for a
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greater distance. In the second example, we have to create a greater for but for a shorter
distance. At the end, if we consider “force x distance”, they are the same, but it is better for
us to create a lighter force during a longer distance than creating a huge force during a shorter
distance. This concept is called Work, which is a magnitude that is the result of considering at
the same time the force that you apply and the distance in which we apply the force. And, if
we have a machine, we have to consider that the machine does not create Work; Work is the
same in the first and in the second example.
Newton’s first law: Newton's first law states that, if a body is at rest or moving at a constant
speed in a straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant
speed unless it is acted upon by a force.
Newton's second law: Newton's second law states that the acceleration of an object is
directly related to the net force and inversely related to its mass. Acceleration of an object
depends on two things, force and mass. F=m *a
Newton’s third law: If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B must exert a
force of equal magnitude and opposite direction back on object A. This law represents a
certain symmetry in nature: forces always occur in pairs, and one body cannot exert a force
on another without experiencing a force itself.
Velocity: The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame
of reference, and is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an object's
speed and direction of motion. Unit: m/s
Acceleration (change in motion): In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the
velocity of an object with respect to time. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they
have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the
orientation of the net force acting on that object. Unit: m/s2
Gravity: the force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth, or towards any other
physical body having mass.
Center of mass: The center of mass of an object is the point where the mass of the object
balances itself, the object will maintain a balance, it will not rotate in any axis. Sometimes
this point can be outside the object.
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3. ENERGY, WORK, FORCE
Energy:
● It is a magnitude, because it could be measured. To measure energy we have three
units: Joules, Calories and Watt/h. If something has energy, it has the opportunity to
create changes. In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred
to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object.
● Energy is related to three factors: height, velocity and mass.
Energy Force
If something has energy it has possibilities Force is an interaction between two objects.
to create changes.
One object can have energy One object can’t have force because it’s an
interaction between two
v: 30km/h
1kg
3kg
v: 100km/h
What ball does have What car does have What ball does have
greater energy? The one greater energy? The one greater energy? The one
that is higher. that is faster. that is heavier.
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Store energy: When you store an object, you are charging the object with energy so that it
has the possibility to create changes, in the case of a racer, for example, we are creating a
change in its velocity.
Transformation of energy: When we are storing energy, we are giving Potential energy,
because we are twisting the rubber bands. As we untwist the rubber bands (so that we stop
storing the racer), the racer begins to gain Kinetic energy, because of the velocity. At the final
point, when it stops, we can create again Potential energy.
Transference of energy: It refers to the concept that our energy “flies” to the device; it’s not
possible to create energy from 0, they have to take energy from other object. We have to take
into account that the energy we have, we receive it from the food we eat. So, the same
quantity of energy we make to charge the racer with energy, is the one that the racer is going
to have (the cal / Joules we lose are the ones we are transferring to the racer).
Potential energy: Potential energy is energy that is stored – or conserved - in an object or
substance. This stored energy is based on the position, arrangement or state of the object or
substance. You can think of it as energy that has the 'potential' to do work.
Kinetic energy: In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due
to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest
to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains
this kinetic energy unless its speed changes.
Work: Work (W) is a force that causes the movement of an object.
Force: In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of
an object.
Heat: In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by
mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. The various mechanisms
of energy transfer that define heat are stated in the next section of this article. Q= m x ΔT.
Calorie: the amount of energy that you need to raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water
by one degree.
*Heat is always transferred from the hottest object to the cold one.
Temperature: The temperature of an ideal monatomic gas is a measure related to the average
kinetic energy of its molecules when moving. The hotter the molecules are, the quicker they
are going to move, and the colder they are, the slower they are going to move.
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“The howling
moon”
Hello, I am Andrea Hoya and I’m 21 years old. Some people don’t like the dark, it usually
scares them, but for me it’s a beautiful thing. At night I like to watch the moon, I stand staring
at it and I feel at peace, I think it’s awesome how the night shines. I have many passions,
including photography and dancing. I love going out with my camera and photographing the
beauty of nature.
Second lesson
1st Question
2nd Question
3rd Question
4th Question
5th Question
6th Question
Second lesson
Why does the boat float?
Balloon experiment
Dead sea
A bottle of water in the sea
Second lesson
1st Question
2nd Question
3rd Question
4th Question
5th Question
6th Question
Second lesson
1st Question
2nd Question
3rd Question
4th Question
Second lesson
Some problems about forces
A machine
Second lesson
1st task
Second Lesson
Problems:
1. Cycle -Matter
- Matter and energy
-Living things and inert matter: differences.
- The matter of a body
2. Cycle
-Criteria and guidelines for conducting
experiments involving chemical reactions
such as combustion, oxidation and
fermentation.
1. Cycle -Energy
-Energy. Energy sources. Use and
consumption in the Basque Country
- Energy sources and raw materials: their
origin. Renewable and non-renewable energy
sources. Sustainable and equitable energy
development in Spain and the Basque
Country
-Guidelines for detecting the effects of
applying one or more forces and performing
such experiments
2. Cycle
- Forms of energy: mechanical, lighting,
sound, electrical, thermal and chemical.
1. Cycle -Technology
-Technology, objects and machines
2. Cycle
2. Cycle
For this experiment we need some materials. They are four in total:
- One jug
- One ping pong ball
- Water
- One glass
Firstly, we must take the jug and we have to fill it with water halfway and then we must throw
the ball of pingpong inside it. Finally, we have to take the glass and we have to immerse it face
down in the water, putting the ping pong ball inside it.
On the one hand, through this experiment, we can observe how the water cannot enter the glass.
This is because when you put the glass in the full jug of water, oxygen enters and makes
pressure, so the water goes up and the ball falls down. It should also be mentioned that it is a
relation between the density of the glass and the water.
On the other hand, this experiment is a very good way for working in the classroom with
children, as it is fun, interesting and effective for them to learn things in a different way.
- One cardboard
- Scissors, sellotape, one pencil and a rule
- One milk box
- One plastic bag
Procedure
First of all, we have to create a cube with cardboard, using one rule, scissors, a pencil and
sellotape. Each side of the cube has to measure 10 cm and once the cube is created, we have to
put the plastic bag inside it. Finally, we have to fill the milk box with water and pour the water
inside the plastic bag that is inside the cube.
Explanation:
Once the experiment has been carried out, we can see how the liter of water in the milk box
fits perfectly into the cube. This is due to the relation between capacity and volume of objects.
This experiment from an educational perspective can be seen as a dynamic way to learn, in
addition, it allows children to conduct their research and check things out for themselves.
Gold experiment
Materials:
- Test tube
- Weights (1000g in total)
- Balance
- Nugget of “gold”
- Nugget of “Silver”
Procedure:
First, to check that the nugget of gold and silver are really gold and silver, let’s calculate its
density. To calculate the density, we have to measure the mass of the two nuggets and also the
volume. To calculate the mass, we have placed the nugget on one side of the balance and we
have calculated its weight using the weights.
Mass of gold→ 48,3g
Mass of silver→ 35,6g
Once we have calculated the mass of the nuggets, we have used the test tube to calculate the
volume. For this purpose, we have filled the cylinder with water up to 100ml, after that, we
have put each nugget separately into it and we have observed how many milliliters the water
went up. Those milliliters are the volume of the nuggets.
Volume of gold→ 10ml
Volume of Silver→ 4ml
Taking into account that the density of the gold is 19,32g/cm3-19,32g/ml and that silver´s
density is 10,49 g/cm3-10,49g/ml, we have calculated the density of the nuggets in order to
check that they are gold and silver.
Density→ Mass/Volume
Explanation
Seeing the results, we can argue that they are not gold and silver, as they do not have the same
density. With this experiment we can explain to students that minerals and objects in general
have one mass, one volume and one density. We can explain to them that those measures can
be calculated using those materials and that we can check if one thing is truly what it seems to
be since many times we can surprise ourselves.
Material:
- One cork
- Balance
- Weights
- test tube
Procedure:
This experiment consists in calculating the density of the cork. To do this, we have to
remember that the density is equal to the mass between the volume→ D=M/V. After
calculating the weight of the cork using the balance→ 3,6g, we have to calculate the volume.
Unfortunately, we realized that when we filled the test tube with water and put the cork in to
measure its volume, the cork did not sink and it was impossible to calculate its volume.
Nevertheless, we looked for other alternatives, so we decided to push the cork using one weight.
Because of that, we were calculating the volume of both objects together, so we calculated the
volume of the weight and rested it from the result of the two objects.
We have to highlight that this is not the only way to calculate the volume, as you can use the
mathematical formula→
Once we have calculated the mass and the volume, we calculated the density of the cork
Density→ 3,6g/20ml= 0,18g/ml
Explanation
With this experiment we can explain to our students why there are floating objects and others
that sink. The easiest way to explain why, would be to explain to them that the two objects
have different densities and that the density of the water is greater than cork´s density and
because of that cork does not manage to sink. But without using the word density, is going to
be easiest for them to understand, so we can explain them like a fight, in which the cork fights
to reach the bottom, but in this case the water wins the cork.
Lead experiment
Materials:
- Lead
- Balance
- Weights
Procedure:
In this experiment we have to figure out what the volume of the lead is. In order to know the
volume of a piece of lead without using the technique of the test tube, we have thought in a
new technique. For that we have searched on the internet the density of the lead and we have
calculated the mass of the lead with a balance.
Explanation:
When we want to find out the volume of an object, we first need to calculate its mass and
density. Since the volume of the object is equal to the mass divided by the density of the object.
Due to the fact that we did not have the materials to calculate its density, we searched the
internet for the density of the lead. By calculating the mass of the object using the balance, we
were able to find out how much the volume was. This experiment is a very good way for
reviewing some concepts such as volume, density and mass. So we can conclude that it is a
suitable experiment to work with children in primary school.
Sand experiment
Materials:
- Sand
- Balance
- Weights
- test tube
- Water
Procedure:
In order to calculate the density of the sand, we used the test tube. That is to say, first we
weighed the sand with the balance and then we introduced a little water into the test tube. Once
the water was in the test tube, the sand was poured in. Taking into account the millilitres of
water that we had added and the millilitres of water with sand, we finally used the density
formula, that is mass divided by volume.
Density=Mass/ density
We have calculated the mass of the sand with the balance and the weights. We have to take
into account that the paper we used to calculate the mass weights 4,5g so we have to rest it.
Mass of the sand= 49g
To calculate the volume, we have used the test tube. We have introduced the sand in the test
tube and the result was=32ml, then we have introduced in the test tube 20ml of water and the
volume was 39ml so we have rest the 20ml of water and the volume was 19ml.
Volume of the sand= 19ml
FAIL
Density of the sand= 49g/19ml→ 2,6 g/cm3
Explanation
Through this experiment, we have worked on the concepts of mass, volume and density. In
addition, we have calculated the density of sand, which has been different since in previous
experiments we used to calculate the density of objects. We can also conclude that making
errors as we can see in the image above, it is not necessary to get good results the first time,
but trying several times is a good thing as we also learn from it. It should be noted that this
experiment is very interesting to work with primary school children as it is a way for them to
learn the concepts mentioned above and to understand the relationship between them.
Second lesson
1st Question
Explanation:
If we have two different materials, which weigh exactly the same, no matter how much one
occupies more than the other does not mean it will weigh more. It is true, that at first glance it
seems that one will weigh more than the other but that is due to the volume of each and not to
its mass. One way to explain this to students is by setting the example of straw and iron.
Probably if we asked them which weighs more, telling them that both are 1kg and showing
them a photograph, they would say that it weighs more than a kg of straw.
2nd Question
In this situation, the match is inside a bottle and because of the sun and the magnifier the match
lights and a chemical reaction starts and everything burns. And once is finished, we have the
second situation:
We have one balance and on one side we have one balloon bound and on the other, one weight
of 2g.
4th Question
In this activity, we have one glass with water. We also have two balls, one is made of plastic
and the other is made of iron. The plastic one weighs 150g and the one of iron 73g.
¿If we put the balls inside the glass separate, which one is going to grow the water more
?
Due to the fact that they are balls of the same volume so they are going to push up the same
amount of water.
5th Question
In this activity, we have one balance and on one side we have one open coke bottle with some
coke and in the other one weight of 200g.
6th Question
We have one balance, on one side of the balance we have liquid wax and on the other side
200g.
¿What happens if the liquid converts into solid?
If the amount of liquid becomes solid, the mass would be the same since it has the same amount
and has only changed the form. So we can conclude that the balance will stay at the same
position.
Explanation:
With this activity we can explain to the students that when two object has the same mass, in
other words, they have the same amount of mass. No matter what state it is in, that is, no matter
whether it is in a liquid state or in a solid state, it will still weigh the same.
For example, if we have a liquid that weighs the same as a solid object and we convert the
liquid into solid, it will still weigh the same as the solid object. Similarly, if we have two solid
objects that weigh the same, and we convert one or both of them into a liquid, they will still
weigh the same.
Draw a bottle activity
In principle, we were asked to draw a bottle, I drew the first of them, that is, neither draw water
nor draw air. I assumed the bottle was full of air but I didn’t draw it because I didn’t think it
was necessary. We have to explain to students that air exists and that air has a mass, a volume
and density. The third version is the more exact one, but there is not a correct form to draw the
air, but it is important to give students the idea of how molecules are.
In the microscopic point of view drawing a bottle with water we would not have any problem.
In case of drawing a transparent bottle we would start to have a problem. But, drawing the air
deserves a bigger problem. It is important to take into account the microscopic and macroscopic
point of view even if they are not the same. This is related with what Aristoteles thought, he
thought that every matter is created by: air, fire, water and earth. But we can demonstrate that
if we take a piece of aluminium and we make it smaller and smaller it is still aluminium and
not air or water. We also have to take into account that the atom is the smallest unit of matter
and that all the atoms are displaced in the periodic table of elements.
¿What is the relation between atoms and molecules?
The relation between atoms and molecules is that atoms form molecules and molecules are
groups of atoms that can be mononuclear formed by just one atom like gold...
Secondly , to calculate the volume of the potato, I used the measuring cylinder or test tube as
in previous experiments. To do this, I filled the measuring cylinder with 300 ml of water and
inserted the potato. Since I had 300ml and when I introduced the potato, the water rose to
412ml, it can be concluded that the volume of the potato is the displaced water, 112ml.
The volume of the potato: 112ml
Thirdly, I have calculated the density of the potato using the density formula. I have therefore
taken into account all the data obtained previously (mass and volume).
Mass/volume→ the density of the potato:
131/112= 1,16g/ml
Task 2
Procedure
For this task 2, I had to divide the potato into two parts and scoop them out with a spoon. Once
the potato was hollowed out, I used a few small pieces of toothpick to join the potato together.
Because I had to calculate the density of the empty potato and say whether it will sink or float
in the water. Since I had removed mass from the potato, even though the volume would remain
the same, I had to use the scales again to weigh the potato. Finally, I wrapped the potato in
cling film so that when I put the potato in the water, the water would not enter the potato. In
this way, I could see that the potato floated, as when you remove mass from an object, you can
make it float.
The potato mass: 98,5g
Then, we have calculated the volume we have used the test tube and transparent filt in order to
be sure that the water does not enter inside the potato.
The volume of the potato: It is not possible to calculate the volume of the potato since the
potato floats when we put it in the test tube. In order to not enter water into the potato, we have
wrapped the potato with transparent kitchen paper.The reason why the potato floats is because
the density of the potato is less than the density of the water (1ml).
Explanation
Having finished the experiments, I think it is important to point out how important it is that
these kinds of experiments are carried out with primary school students. It is interesting to teach
children why some objects float and others do not, and how an object that was sinking can end
up floating. Also, we have to take into account that we have to explain to children those
fenomenos not using the words density, volume and mass, but explaining it in a simpler way
to understand it. Therefore, we could explain it as a fight between the object (the potato) and
the water.
Task 1:
● Take some play dough and divide into two pieces. Be sure that the two pieces have the
same mass.
● Make a solid cube with one of the pieces and with the second
● Make a second cube with a greater volume with the second
piece of play dough. To that end, first form the cube template
with the play dough (see the picture) and then, make a larger
cube.
● Determine the density of both cubes.
● Wrap the two cubes with plastic film and check their buoyancy in water.
Task 3
Explain the results of the experiment and clarify its educational implications.
Firstly, we have made two cubes with some pieces of plastiline. One of the cubes is solid and
the other one is empty. For this experiment we have to calculate the density of the two cubes.
Task 1
Materials:
- Play dough
- Balance
- Test tube
- One ruler
- Weights
- water
Procedure:
Firstly we have to take some play dough and cut it into two pieces of the same weight. To check
that they have the same weight we have used the balance.
Secondly, we have made two cubes, one of them is solid and the other is hollow inside.
Thirdly, we have calculated the density of the solid cube. For that we have calculated the mass
of the cube using the balance. Once we have calculated the mass, we have used the test tube to
calculate its volume and in this way to know the density.
The mass of the solid cube: 40,2 g
Fourthly, we performed the same process to calculate the density of the hollow cube. So we
have calculated the mass of the cube using the balance and the volume using the test tube. Also,
so that when you put the cube in the test tube does not get water, we have wrapped it in
transparent paper.
Because of the size of the cube, it did not enter the test tube so we filled a jar with 100ml. As
we can see in the next picture, it is impossible to know the volume with this technique since
the cube floats. As we have already experienced in other experiments, the reason that the
floating bucket is because its density is less than that of water.
Explanation
As we have seen with this experiment, in both cases there is an interaction between the cube
and the water, however, in both cases, the result and the winner is different. In the case of the
solid cube, when it fights against the water, the winner is the solid cube because its mass is
greater than the mass of the displaced water. On the other hand, in the interaction of the hollow
cube with the water, the hollow cube floats because it cannot beat the water due to the fact that
it has less mass than the displaced water.
● Determine, roughly. the density of the tangerine. Explain with reason whether or not it
will flout in water and check your assumption.
● Peel the tangerine and check that it is lighter. Find out whether the mandarin buoyancy
in water has changed.
● Add some salt to the water and drop in the salt water the peeled tangerine. Look at the
results of the experiment in terms of buoyancy.
Explain the results of the experiment and clarify its educational implications.
Materials:
- Tangerine
- Balance
- Test tube
- Salt
- water
Procedure:
Firstly, we have calculated the tangerine mass, and it gave us 100g. Once we have calculated
the mass, we have tried to calculate its volume with the test tube, the problem is that the
mandarin floated so you could not calculate the volume. That’s why we used a 100g weight to
get the tangerine to sink. We have filled the test tube up to 400 ml and the mandarin has risen
130ml and to know the volume of the mandarin we have calculated the volume of the
weight:15ml and we have subtracted the result of both objects to know the volume of the
tangerine 115ml.
Therefore, the density of the tangerine, which is the mass between the volume, is 100/115:
0.86g/ml. With this we can conclude that the tangerine floats as it is because the tangerine has
a lower density than the water.
We weighed the skinless tangerine and weighed 81.5g , and then we put the skinless tangerine
into the tube to check whether it floats or not, and it does not float. To verify that the peeled
mandarin floats in the water, we have put salt in the water and effectively floats as salt water
manages to change buoyancy. By adding salt to the water the density of the tangerine changes
to 1.2.
Explanation:
With this experiment we have discovered that when we remove mass from an object, we get it
to float. The floatability is related with the amount of mass. This is important because we can
see how density affects floatability. But I also discovered that the buoyancy of an object can
be changed by adding salt, because it changes the volume of the object in that liquid.
Explanation for students: As future teachers we have to find the simplest way to explain all
these different quantities to our students. Therefore, as we have seen in other experiments, we
could explain these interactions as a struggle between two things (the water and the object). In
this way, when an object sinks, it is the winner because it has beaten the water, but on the
contrary, when it floats, it is the water that has beaten the object.
Second lesson
One boat weights 100kg but it floats, this is because the density of the boat is smaller than the
density of the water. There are thousands of meters of air inside the boat. So we can conclude
that, for an object to float, it has to be less dense than the matter it floats on. Otherwise it sinks.
Furthermore, we have to take into account that the amount of liquid displaced by the object
depends on the shape of the object.
Balloon experiment
Balloons have one lighter that makes the balloon fly. The reason why balloon fly is that the hot
air has less density than the normal air, that is why when you rest some mass (sandbags) to the
balloon, the balloon goes up regardless of the weight of the balloon.
How can we go down if we are in the sky flying with the balloon?
All the balloons have one valve that opens and through which hot air escapes and cold air
enters. As we have said before the cold air has more density than hot air and that produce the
balloon slow down.
Dead sea
The reason we’re floating in the dead sea is that the amount of salt that has the water makes the
density of that water be greater than the human density. That makes people easier to float.
We have one bottle of water and we put it on the water and submerge it 10 meters and change
the shape, and then we submerge it 40 meters. The bottle changes shape because when the
bottle goes down, it has an amount of water under it, when it goes 10 meters down it has 2
atmospheres of pressure and when it is 40 meters down the bottle makes more thiner. That
makes the bottle flatten and become thinner.
5th Day in the lab
The egg experiment:
Task 1
Materials:
- One egg
- Salt
- Water
- Test tube
Procedure:
In this experiment, we have to check whether or not the egg floats in normal water. To do this,
we filled a container of water and introduced the egg. Once we have introduced the egg we
have realized that the egg does not float. Therefore, we have introduced salt to the water and
removed the salt in order to dissolve as much as possible, to check to see if the egg floats or
not in the water with salt. Once we have put the egg, we check that thanks to the salinity of the
water the egg floats.
Explanation:
According to Archimedes principle, in any liquid there is an upward force called buoyancy,
which is equal to the weight of the volume of the displaced liquid. The greater the density of
the liquid being displaced, the greater this buoyancy and therefore the easier it is to float.
In the first case, the egg sinks, that is because the relation between the volume and the mass of
the edd is greater than the relation between the volume and the mass of the water. This could
be one explanation without using the word density, but it could be better to explain to students
the reason using the word fight. We can explain to them that the egg is pussing the water, and
the egg wins because it sinks. In the other case, the egg floats and this is because the water with
salt displayed is heavier than the egg so the water wins the fight.
Task 2
In this section, with the objective that the egg floats in the middle of the tube, that is, having
water above and below, we have reused the salt water of the previous experiment and we have
poured water from the faucet slowly through the walls of the test tube. In this way, when
introducing the egg it has remained still in the middle of the tube.
Explanation: With this experiment, we can explain buoyancy. In this case, we can explain it
as a struggle between an object and a liquid. In the first experiment, the egg wins because the
egg is heavier than the displaced water. On the other hand, in the second experiment, that is,
the one in which we introduced salt, the displaced water is heavier than the egg, so the egg
floats.
In the last section, we can see that the egg remains floating in the middle of the test tube. It
neither floats on the surface nor sinks to the bottom. The explanation is simple, because the
egg was floating on top of the salt water and when fresh water is slowly poured over it, it does
not have time to mix. So, the egg is still floating on top of the salt water but it does not manage
to float on top of the fresh water so it does not rise upwards and stays in the middle.
Conceptual map
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us:443/rid=1W7XSMSDS-1HQZT22-11D3DXZ
Second lesson
1st Question
2nd Question
The buoyancy force is 1dm3 because the object is displaying the volume that it has. The object
has one volume of 1dm3 so that is going to be the buoyancy force. The objects always displayed
the volume that they have.
3rd Question
We have 2 blocks of identical volume, one of them is made of aluminium and the other is made
of lead. Aluminium block is 2g/cm3 and the other 11g/cm3.
The force that will make the lead block against the water is much greater than the one that will
make the aluminum. This is because the density of the lead is much higher than that of
aluminum. Instead, the two are going to pour the same amount of water since both have a
density greater than one. Therefore, they have more density than water and because of this they
sink. When an object sinks, it is clear to us that it casts out the same amount of water that the
object occupies. An example would be that if the object has a volume of 10ml/cm3, it will
throw out that amount of water. The density of objects does not influence, as they both have
the same volume.
4th Question
In the first situation, the man is swimming in fresh water and in the second situation in
sea water.
We have to take into account that the density of the waters are different, but that the
volume of the person is the same. Even if the volume of the water displaced (buoyancy force)
is the same, when we introduce one object in the sea water the water that is displayed is heavier
than the water of the freshwater. This is because the density of the sea water is greater than the
freshwater so the mass is greater. So we can conclude that it is easier to swim in the sea water
than in the freshwater.
If we try to swim in a swimming pool full of oil, it is absolutely impossible because the
density of the oil is so small so you sink.
5th Question
We have one man that thinks that if he introduces itself in the water with 2 rocks it
would produce one buoyancy force bigger.
Going into the swimming pool with two big rocks is going to produce a greater buoyancy force
because the amount of water displayed is going to be more than if he introduces only itself.
This is because the rocks have volume so the volume of the rocks and the volume of the man
would be bigger.
6th Question
They made the same buoyancy force. We have to take into account that both objects are
floating, so they are fighting with the water but they can win and they are suffering the same
buoyancy force. This happens because they have the same volume, the mass of the objects are
the same.
* With these activities, we have worked the concept buoyancy force. This concept is
an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed
object.
3.task
Think of the solution of the problem below:
Image that we make the cubes with play dough. The two cubes have
the same mass but one of the floats in water. The other cube sinks
in water.
a.) How may the cubes have different buoyancy if they have the
same mass?
b.) May we assume that the two cubes experience the same upward
force, as they weigh similarly?
Explain your answers with reasons.
Task 1
Materials:
- Piece of lead
- Water
- Set of balances
- Dynamometer
Procedure:
First of all, we have to weigh the chunk of lead using the dynamometer, which has been 50 g,
to verify that that was indeed the weight, we have used the digital scale and it has given us
58.5g. Therefore, we have had to adjust the dynamometer and finally it has given us very
similar . Once we knew the weight of the piece, We filled a container of water and inserted the
lead piece tied to the dynamometer to find out if the lead piece weighed more or not because
of the force of the water. The difference between the masses is equal to the volume of water
displaced by the object. If we take into account that the density of the water is 1cm3 there will
be no need to make any changes since it is multiplied by one.
Task 2
Materials:
- Piece of lead
- Water
- Set of balances
- Dynamometer
- Salt
Question:
Will the dynamometer give the same measure in fresh and saltwater?
In this picture we can see 3 situations. The first one is one object fighting with the air, the air
does not make force so the object is going to weigh more than in the others. In the second case,
the object is fighting with salt water because salt water makes a buoyancy force bigger than the
one that makes freshwater. So, in saltwater the mass of the object is less. Finally, we have the
object inside the freshwater, that makes a buoyancy force smaller than saltwater, making the
mass of the object a little bit bigger than salt water.
As we already know, the volume of the object is equal to what the object weighs when it is in
the water. Therefore, as we see in the drawings, the volume of the object is 15 cc. In addition,
we also know the mass of the object since in the first drawing shows us that it weighs 20g
without suffering any force. In salt water, the object, due to the force exerted by salt water,
weighs 13 g. To calculate the density of salt water, we have to perform the following formula:
Explanation:
To get the density of the salt water, as we see in the previous photo, we have to subtract the
two masses, that is, the mass of the water that has been expelled and the mass of the water that
is still inside the container. Once we do that, we get the mass of the volume of water displaced.
Finally, to get the density of the salt water we would only have to divide that mass of the
volume of water displaced by the volume of the salt water.
Procedure:
First of all, we have put a lot of salt into the container containing water and have removed it
well to dissolve. Next we have introduced the dynamometer with the lead piece in the water
with salt and despite all the amount that we have added, the dynamometer was still marking
the same thing.
Second lesson
1st Question
We have a container with water and we introduce two objects, one of them is a cork and the
other a piece of lead. The cork floats and the lead falls to the bottom of the vessel.
There is a fight and both ones have an objective, one has the goal of going to the bottom of the
water and the other to get you not to go inside. When a cork tries to enter the water, the water
makes a force that makes the cork float since the force that makes the cork is less. But for
example, a piece of lead is going to win the fight because the force that lead made is greater
than the force of the water. The amount of force that the liquid does is the same as the mass of
the displayed volume has.
2nd Question
We have a sphere with a diameter of 30mm and a radius of 15mm. As all the experiments we
do are going to do with meters, we move the mm to m. Because of this, we have a diameter of
0.003m and a radius of 0.015m.
To calculate the volume of this sphere we will use this formula: V=4/3 x numero pi x r3
Volume of the esfera= 4/3x numero pi x0,00153 = 0,00001414m3=14,14cm3.
There is another way to calculate the volume of the sphere. To do this, we put a container with
water on top of the digital scale and we will introduce the sphere into the water to find out what
its volume is.
The balance was adjusted so that the water and the container did not weigh anything and when
you put the sphere you get the volume. When we introduced the sphere it suffers a buoyancy
force and the amount of water that it displayed is the same as the volume of the object, and due
to the fact that the density of water is 1g/cm3, the result is going to be the same. Also, as we
know that the density of the water is 1g/cm3, we can know the mass of the water that is
displayed.
3rd Question
Results:
4th Question
The submarine has air and that is why it is floating, but when they want to go down they have
some cameras that blow the air out and fill those cameras with water and that makes it sink. In
order to rise to the surface again, they fill those chambers with air to press and empty the water
that makes it float again. Taking into account Archimedes' principle, there is a relationship
between mass and volume, but the submarine has the same volume both on the surface and in
the water, so when it floats or sinks depends on the mass it has. Thus, when the submarine is
filled with water it has more density and sinks, but when it is filled with air its density decreases
and it floats.
7th Day in the lab
Pascal principle says that pressure changes at any point in a fluid that is enclosed are transmitted
equally to all points of the fluid. For example, if we took a syringe and filled it with air, we
could compress the air to a point, but if we filled it with water, it would be impossible to
compress it. The heavier the liquid, the greater the force that is made.
d.) Explain the connections that the previous two principles have with “the diver”
experiment.
As for Archimedes' principle, we know that it says that an object in a fluid experiences an
upward force related to the mass of the displaced fluid. So if the mass of the displaced fluid is
greater than the mass of the object, the object will float. On the other hand, if the mass of the
displaced fluid is less than that of the object, the object will sink. This is why the "submarine"
floats when we put it in the water, because its mass is less than that of the displaced water. As
for Pascal's principle, if we squeeze the bottle, we are exerting a force on the water and
therefore creating a force on the fluid. In this way it affects all the water, causing the water to
enter the "submarine" and consequently causing it to sink.
Materials:
- Straw
- Rubber band
- Scissors
- Empty bottle
Procedure:
Firstly we have cut a straw to measure 15 cm. Once we have the piece of straw, we have folded
it in half and tied it with a rubber band. In the rubber band we have tied some clips to create
our submarine. Once we created the submarine, we took the water bottle and filled it up. In the
next step, we put the submarine in the bottle that was full to the top. We’ve closed the bottle
and tightened it so the object could go down to the bottom. At first our submarine was not
sinking, so we made another submarine and added another clip, because our clips were light.
Explanation:
The reason is that some magnitudes change, one of them is the pressure because we are
crushing the bottle. Note that at first the object floats because the density is less than that of
water. When we crush the bottle, the object sinks, this is due to the relation of mass and volume.
I mean, it’s because something changes on the object when we crush the bottle. We know that
the volume is still the same, but there is something that makes the mass bigger as the object
sinks. The reason is that the water enters the object and is heavier so it goes down and when
we stop squeezing the bottle, the object goes up.
Conclusion:
Students in primary education often think that oil, for example, is denser than water because it
is related to viscosity. On the other hand, this is false, the water is denser than the oil and that
is why the oil does not collect or pass through the water. So, we have to consider this
experiment as it is very efficient for children to work and understand this different perspective
of what density is.
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SC-
8PIv5WjtuIwNSRCJ3UqicitGjTn1f/view?usp=sharing
Second lesson
1. As shown in the picture, one student pushes the other (both chairs have wheels). What
will happen? Explain the forces that occur. If one of the students is much heavier than
the other, would this situation make any difference?
When we have an interaction between two objects, we have two forces. The first object will
exert a force on the other and the second will give the same force to the other but in the other
direction. This always happens in all the interactions of two objects. It’s called Newton’s third
law. In this case, the two students will move, probably one more than the other because one
weighs more than the other, but both move.
In this case, they are exerting two forces at once. On the one hand,
we have one interaction between the object and the earth. So we have the object exerting a
force on the earth, and the earth is exerting a force on the object. On the other hand we have
other interaction between the object and the table, so we have the object exerting one force on
the table and on the other side, the table is also exerting the same force towards the object. In
this way, as one is making force downward and the other upward, neither object moves.
First of all, we must be clear about the different objects that interact in this situation.
In total we have 4 objects, these are, the ball, the rope, the support and of course the
earth.
On the one hand, the ball has an interaction with the earth. Because the ball has a mass,
the earth is attracting the ball and the ball is attracting the earth. In other words, the ball is
exerting a force on the earth upwards and the earth is doing the same force on the ball
downwards.
On the other hand, the ball also has an interaction with the base that holds it. In this case, the
ball is exerting a downward force on the base because the ball has a weight. The base at the
same time is exerting an upward force on the ball. We have to keep in mind that the ball is
exerting that force through the string and that because the ground is attracting the ball and the
base is attracting the ball, the ball is stationary because the ground is exerting the downward
force and the base is exerting the upward force.
6. Describe how the person in the picture will move and, also, the reason that allow us to
understand the beginning of the movement.
The person in the picture will move to the opposite side of the ball.
This is going to be like that because the force that the person makes
to the object, is the same force that the object makes to the person
but in the opposite direction.
7. Spell out the interactions that allows us to justify how the sportspeople in the picture
below, can start to move.
First situation:
If we assume that the river is going at 10 kilometers per hour and that I want to go faster, in
that case, at the lake I would go at 5 kilometers per hour, so the amount of force that I do at
both the river and the lake is the same. The difference is that in the river I will go faster and
in the lake slower.
Second situation:
El hombre que se tira a la piscina, hace una fuerza hacia abajo, y la tierra le devuelve esa misma
fuerza pero hacia arriba. Por ello, cuando la persona se quiere tirar de cabeza a la piscina, debe
de ejercer una fuerza con un ángulo determinado para que la tierra le devuelva el mismo angulo
y pueda caer a la piscina bien.
Third situation:
The man is in interaction with the floor, so with the leg he is pushing the floor hacia atrás, y el
suelo le hace la misma fuerza hacia el lado contrario. De esta manera, la persona se mueve
hacia delante ya que la persona es incapaz de empujar a la tierra hacia atrás porque tiene mucha
masa. En esta interacción es esencial que haya fricción, ya que sin esa fricción sería imposible
que la persona avanzase. La fricción hace posible esa interacción entre la persona y la tierra.
The faster he is going the farther he will arrived.
8. What weight will measure the spring scale in the picture? Why?
It should be noted that one of the weights is only doing the action of holding the dynamometer,
so it is not weighing it. On the other hand, the other weight is hanging from the dynamometer,
so the weight will be 2 kg.
Materials:
- Sciecers
- Balloons
- Papers
- Celo
- Glue
- Cartoon
- Pajita
Procedure:
First of all, we created the Newton scooter using the materials and following the steps indicated
in the images above. Once we had created the object, we left the classroom and went out into
the corridor to test the scooter, that is, we put it into operation. To put it into operation, we
inflated the balloon that is built into the scooter with the straw and when we let go of the car
and the air came out of the balloon, the scooter moved forwards. We recorded and calculated
the speed, time and distance travelled by the scooter.
Result:
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/13A_2vqiY_-11pEP-
bLhduG2_vf5_uhOO/view?usp=sharing
Explanation:
This experiment has been carried out with the aim of understanding Newton's third law, that
is to say that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore, when we inflate the
balloon and release it, the scooter is propelled forward by the force of the air expelled behind
it.
Table:
One object falling
As time goes by, the velocity of the object increases. Every second that the object is in the air
the velocity increases 10m/seconds. So there is a change in motion because velocity is
changing. The change in motion that an object has when it is falling is for 9’8m/s2, which is
nearly 10m/s2. So, every second that the object is falling in the air, its velocity is increasing
10m per second, and due to the gravity, this unit is always constant for falling objects.
Formula:
V=S/T
S=VxT
S1=V1xT1→ S1=10x1=10m
S2=V2xT2→ S2= 20x2=40m
S3=V3xT3→ S3=30x3=90m
S4=V4xT4→ S4=40x4=160m
S5=V5xT5→ S5=50x5=250m
S=So+Vot+1/2at2
9th Day in the lab
Materials:
- threald spool
- Carton
- Cork stoppers
- Tape
- Glue
- scissors
Procedure:
First, we created and cut out the pieces that were necessary for the creation of the experiment.
Once all the pieces were cut out and created, we gradually assembled the pulley. Next, we have
assembled the mechanism that would make the wheel move and when the rope is pulled, the
system works.
Explanation:
It should be noted that the explanation why it works is because the measurements have been
taken correctly. So the parts were perfect for the operation. Otherwise, if some of the parts were
smaller or bigger, it probably would not have worked. It should also be noted that this
experiment is a very suitable experiment to do in primary education as it is a process that
children could do until they get the "machine" that will help them to learn in a different way.
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1wCskax60HPsR66dg96wKpNcg3XhQKYnT/view?usp=
sharing
In that situation, there are two different objects, on one side is the bicycle and on the other side
is the person. The bicycle has one speed and the person has a different speed, so when the
bicycle stops, because of the dog in the middle of the street, the person keeps moving because
of inertia. We can understand this as a force made by the earth on the person, which makes the
person stop. It should be noted that objects will always be in motion if there is no interaction
with other objects. In addition to all this, it should be mentioned that when the boy falls to the
ground, the velocity changes.
Why did the pendulum swing when the train car begins to move forward?
First of all, it should be mentioned that this situation is related to Newton's first law, which
explains that an object will have the same motion until it receives an interaction. In situation
A, the train carriage is stationary, so it receives no force, in fact, the velocity of the train and
the pendulum is 0. However, the object does not move until a second force is made, so as the
train carriage starts to move forward, it makes a force on the pendulum forward, so the
pendulum exerts the same force backwards. This is the reason why it moves backwards.
As the balloon rises and Earth rotates we remain in the air. After several hours we can
descend and we will be in a different country! True or false? Why?
Through this situation, we can see how, as the globe rises and the Earth rotates, we remain in
the air. After several hours we can descend and we will be in the same country we started in.
The reason why this happens is because the balloon moves upwards but also to the right, which
makes it fall in the same place where it was at the beginning.
How can we throw a glass bottle out of the window of a train car while it is moving at 40
km/h, and be sure that the bottle will not break?
If we want to throw a glass bottle through the window of a train while it is moving (40km/h)
and we want it to fall without breaking, it is necessary to throw the bottle towards the opposite
side of the train at the same speed at which it is moving (40km/h). In this way, the bottle will
fall in a straight line (it could still break), but this is the way to understand it.
The children in the picture are running. Who will take the ball, after it is tossed upwards?
Explain carefully your answer.
As long as there is no change of motion, they move in the same direction and at the same speed,
so if we imagine they are running at 2km/h, when the first person throws the ball upwards, the
ball has 2km/h in the same direction they are running, and a second speed upwards (the speed
it gives the ball). So we can conclude that the person who threw the ball will catch the ball
again.
How can we define what mass is? What is the difference between mass and weight? What
does this mathematical expression mean g = 9.8 m/s2?
First of all we can define mass as the number of kg of a body. Mass is what we measure when
we use weights or scales and is measured in g or kg.
Secondly we can define weight as the force that gravity exerts on mass and this is measured in
Newtons (N).
It is noteworthy that if we were on another, smaller planet, because the force it would exert on
objects would be less, our weight would also be less.
Consider carefully the sequence of drawings below. Why is the dropped object falling in
a straight line?
From that person's point of view, it looks like the object is falling in a straight line. However,
it is not falling in a straight line, the object is falling diagonally. Therefore, we can conclude
that movements depend on the point of view of the viewer, as we can often see something
that is not really true.
Let’s imagine that there is a spacecraft that needs to go from A to B. Does it need to turn
on the engines to move? And if it would need to move from B to C? Explain your answer
with reasons.
If the spacecraft does not move, there needs to be an interaction for it to move. So if the
spacecraft moves from A to B there would be no change of motion because there is a straight
line, but if it moves from B to C there would be a change of motion because the path is not a
straight line.
Suppose you are in space, away from the gravity created by any planet and suddenly, you
throw a stone. What will happen to the stone? How many meters would it take to stop?
How will it move? Why will it move?
We can assume that the stone will continue in a straight line without stopping. Also, the speed
will be continuous because there is no interaction with other planets. Therefore, the velocity
does not change and the object will keep moving without stopping.
A cannon shoots a ball forward (B) and at the same time a second ball is dropped freely
from the same height (A) Which one will hit the ground first? Why?
In this situation, both balls will hit the ground at the same time. This is because the downward
velocity is the same in both situations, even though the B ball moves vertically and horizontally
and the A ball only vertically. This is because since the horizontal speed does not influence the
vertical speed, they arrive at the same time. It should be noted that the vertical movement is
due to the attraction of the Earth and the horizontal movement is due to the interaction with the
cannon.
Equilibria experiment
Materials:
- One cork
- 3 wooden rods
- 2 pieces of plasticine
Procedure:
First of all, we nailed the two wooden rods we had to the cork. Then we made two balls with
the plasticine and placed them at the ends of the rods. Finally, at the bottom of the cork, we
nailed a small piece of a wooden stick.
Result:
Explanation:
All bodies have a centre of gravity where all
gravity forces are applied. The centre of
gravity of the system consisting of the sticks
and the plasticine balls passes through the support line. By supporting the weight in the same
direction by the principle of action and reaction they cancel each other out, i.e. the plasticine
balls attached to the stick are applying a force of equal direction, equal magnitude and opposite
direction to the weight of the system.
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1jwBnX8kCsCxh53iMdfTVFK_HlyH2sxQ0/view?usp=sh
aring
Six problems
1. Describe how we can teach pupils in Primary Education to differentiate the following magnitudes:
volume and capacity (and also the units to be used).
In terms of volume, we can say that it is the space that occupied any object. Referred to the
units that are used to measure the volume, they are cubic meters. When we talk about capacity,
we can say that is the amount of mass that an object has inside it. Referred to the units that are
used to measure the capacity, they are litres.
So, if we have to teach pupils in Primary Education, it will be better if we put one example in
order to make the explanation easier for understanding.
2. Explain why fresh water remains above the sea water without mixing (see the picture).
Firstly, we have to take into account that salt water has salt,
due to that, the water is denser than freshwater. So, we can
conclude that saltwaters density is heavier than freshwaters
density. As we know, if the density of one object is lower than
the density of the other, they can not mix. In other words, we
can say that the saltwater has more volume than the
freshwater. It will be interesting to do one experiment in
primary education as we have done in the lab, with salt water and the egg.
3. Compare the motion that the following two objects make: an apple in free fall
and the Moon.
On the one hand, every body attracts another body with a force, due to that, the
apple falls down, because the earth is attracting the apple. That is to say, the earth
makes one force on the object called gravity. On the other hand, something
different happens with the moon. The moon is in motion, which counteracts the force of gravity
and keeps it in orbit.
Differences Similitudes
- Movements - Gravity
The object is falling on the planet. Both, the trajectory and the sourface are curve and that is
why
4. How can you apply Newton’s first law to make sense of the phenomenon
described below?
Iker tossed a coin upward while he was on board a plane. Despite the fact
that the plane flies at 400km/h, Iker catches the coin with the same hand
again.
Due to the first law of Newton, any body will keep in motion until another
interaction takes part affecting the motion. Provided that there is not a
change in motions, it means that they are moving with the same speed and
the same direction (same velocity). So, the object has two velocities, the
velocity that has before throwing it that is the velocity of the plane and the velocity that the
hands of the person give to the coin. So that is why Iker catches the coin with the same hand
again.
5. Bearing in mind the information given in this document and making short concept maps,
synthesis the following topics: (a) What is a simple machine? (b) Some examples of simple
machines (c) What is work (W)? (d) How are simple machines and W related?
https://cmapscloud.ihmc.us:443/rid=1WL7SZR3N-1BXY72X-25QDNTN
A Pulley System
Materials:
- A thin rope (2 m, more or less)
- A broom with a wooden handle
- Two kitchen chairs
- Some strong tape
- Something that makes weight (between 2 and 4 kilograms) and has a handle to hang
It.
Procedure:
First of all, we have placed two kitchen chairs opposite each other. The chairs were a bit far
away from each other, as we put the broomstick through the holes in the chairs so that it went
through both chairs. Then we cut 2 metres of rope and tied it to the broomstick, more or less in
the middle.
Result:
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/15-
RvqJzq2YPHocy1D2DvB8VawBoZdEXY/view?usp=sharing
Explanation:
A pulley is a simple machine, which serves to transmit a force. In this case, the force we apply
when pulling the rope is equal to the force that would have been used to lift the object without
the use of the pulley.
Materials:
- Cartoon
- wooden rods
- Silicone gun
- Scissors
Procedure:
First of all, I followed all the steps indicated. On the one hand, I measured with the ruler the
measurements they asked for and I created all the pieces. Once they were created, I cut them
out and glued them together. After gluing all the pieces, I started to assemble the structure
using the silicone gun. I tried to fit all the pieces together so that the machine would work
properly.
Result:
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1vdL7BECqMcREYMCWeDTgeVy1cP7GcqOH/view?us
p=sharing
Explanation:
This experiment is very interesting as it makes us understand how the machines work and the
precision with which each part has to be created to make it work. So if we get all the pieces to
have the same measurements and when we place them in the right place, both wheels will rub
together when we turn the crank and we will get the sticks to turn and the flags to turn at the
same time. Therefore, it can be a good experiment to create in primary education, but it is quite
complicated and requires a lot of materials that could be dangerous to use with children.
C)In the following exercise, we are going to classify and indicate to which Bloom
category are each of the problems we solved in the previous class.
First problem: Describe how we can teach pupils in Primary Education to differentiate the
following magnitudes: volume and capacity (and also the units to be used).
Category→ In my opinion, this problem falls under the heading of remembering. Because,
what the problem asks us to do is remember the information we have learned in order to make
an efficient explanation about the differences between volume and capacity to primary school
children.
Second problem: Explain why fresh water remains above the sea water without mixing (see
the picture).
Category→ In my opinion, this problem falls under the heading of understanding. Because
we have to understand what the statement is telling us in order to give an explanation.
Third problem: Compare the motion that the following two objects make: an apple in tree
fall and the Moon.
Category→ In my opinion, this problem falls under the heading of the applying. Because the
problem asks us to compare two objects and also we have to use our knowledge to reach a
conclusion.
Fourth problem: How can you apply Newton’s first law to make sense of the phenomenon
described below?
Category→ In my opinion, this problem falls under the heading of the analyzing. Because, we
examine in detail and break down the information to understand the problem.
Fifth problem: Considering the point of view of science, assess the correctness of the piece
of news appearing in the picture.
Category→ In my opinion, this problem falls under the heading of the evaluating. Because,
we have to evaluate why it is wrongly said.
Sixth problem: Bearing in mind the information given in this document and making short
concept maps, synthesis the following topics: (a) What is a simple machine? (b) Some
examples of simple machines (c) What is work (W)? (d) How are simple machines and W
related?
Category→ In my opinion, this problem falls under the heading of the creating. Because it
asks us to create a conceptual map using the information available to us.
Second lesson
1st task
You have to carefully read the section 5.1. in paper 1.
After the reading you have to compare “educational purposes, “general objectives” and specific
objectives (in Spanish: “fines educativos”, “objetivos generales” y “objetivos específicos”).
On the one hand, educational purposes are the highest level of perception of the objectives. In
addition, the goals concretise the ideas you want to materialise and mark the goal you want to
achieve, among other things. On the other hand, general objectives, are the first level of
concreteness and attempt to define different aspects of the educational aims, among other
things. Finally, the specific objectives, facilitate practice and are often operational in nature.
They guide and facilitate the teaching process and are a further concretisation of the general
objectives and are action-oriented.
1st cycle
1. Be able to list the scientific contents studied in order to be able to relate them to
the new contents.
2. Remember the scientific contents with the aim of being able to give reasonable
explanations
3. Apply the knowledge in order to be able to do some practical work and
experiments in the laboratory, applying scientific knowledge.
2nd cycle
Candle Experiment
Materials:
- A plate
- A drinking glass
- A candle
- Some matches
- water
Procedure:
First, we took a deep dish and filled it with water. Once the dish was full of water, we placed
a candle in the centre. Using matches, we lit the candle and finally, we placed a crystal glass
on top of the candle.
Video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VxkJrRvhd9y5VpT1FSNi4j-2UX6lp-
T1/view?usp=sharing
Explanation
Before putting the glass into water, air goes upside the drinking glass. But when we put the
drinking glass on top of the candle, air goes out, but not all the air, there are some molecules
that can't escape. Those molecules of air, made pressure inside the glass that is going to be
weaker than the pressure that is outside the drinking glass. So, the air outside the glass is
stronger than the one inside, that is why one has more force that makes the water enter the
glass, because that pressure pushes the water.
- H2O
- A (Acceleration)
- Air
- Force
- T (Temperature)
- Q (Heat)
- Pressure
- TE (Thermal expansion)
- TC ( Thermal contraction)
Educational Conclusions:
We can conclude that with this activity we can work on the contents of matter and energy of
Heziberri. So it is very interesting to do experiments of this kind with primary school children.t
This activity is linked to the contents of matter and energy of Heziberri.
Second Lesson
Machines have two objectives:
- They multiply the interaction that you made
- To change the direction of the interaction that we make
Problems:
1. You have to put a dented ping-pong ball in boiling water to fix it, why?
When we put the ball in the water, the mass of the air inside the ping pong ball is the same.
Due to the fact that the water is boiling, that is, it has a higher temperature than the one that is
outside, there is a thermal expansion. So, the molecules of air inside the ball are faster and
occupy more space. Due to that, the ball inflates, so the volume of the air inside the ball is
bigger.
¿Why is there more mass in the cold one than in the hot one?
Because, the number of molecules of the hot bottle and the cold bottle are the same at first, but,
when the water boils, the temperature makes the molecules go faster in the hot bottle while the
cold bottle’s molecules remain moving slower. Therefore, the movement of the molecu.es of
the hot bottle makes them go out from the bottle so as soon as we put the balloon in the neck
of the bottle, some molecules have escaped, hence there will be less molecules, so less mass.
We have to take into account that in both bottles the amount of air is the same.
In the H bottle, there are a big amount of molecules, the air has suffered a thermal contraction.
When the bottle is cold, the molecules are the same but they occupy lower volume. Because of
that, when we put the balloon in the H bottle, the balloon inflates outside. In this case, as we
have sayed before, thermal contraction is happening.
In the bottle C, the balloon is also inflated but inside. This is because, when we heat the bottle,
the temperature is bigger and the amount of mass is the same, but the molecules are moving
faster. Due to this, they occupy a higher volume. In this case, thermal expansion of the air
inside is happening.
Results:
2. We have a metal strip constructed with two different sheets. In the lower part, an iron one,
and in the upper part, a brass one (brass is an alloy of zinc and copper).
Iron and brass compounds behave differently when heated or cooled. Thus, if brass becomes
longer when heated, it expands, because it suffers thermal expansion. On the other hand, if we
cool them, brass becomes smaller than iron because it undergoes thermal contraction when it
is cooled.
A teaching unit is composed of a table of contents, which should be neat and clear and indicate
the pagination. It should also contain the presentation of the research problem, that is, what
is the problem and for which course will it be addressed. The third point that the unit must
contain is the justification, the argumentation and explanation of the problem and the choice
of the course. In addition, it should also be related to the official curriculum. The fourth point
that the unit have to contain, are the aims of the unit: the objectives and competencies. At
this fourth point, the competences to be worked on, will be explained and specific and general
objectives will be set. The fifth point, will be school content, everyday content and social
scientific content. This point consists of two main sources: the pupils' everyday content and
scientific content, in addition to socially relevant, experiential and socially interesting issues,
and on the other hand, what scientific content the teacher should know and handle in an
adequate and optimal way in order to be able to work on it in class. Sixth point, is based on
Activities and Sequencing, that is, the activities to be done during the unit are stated and
explained (What, what for and how long). The unit activity also has a seventh point that is the
methodology, where it explains how the work has been done and what the relationships have
been like. After methodology comes evaluation as the eighth point. In this part of the unit, the
teaching and learning processes are assessed by means of evaluation criteria, which can be
done e.g. with a rubric. The final point, is the reflection, that is, reflecting on the difficulties
encountered and, in general, on the process of designing the unit.
- What the so-called “school research problem” is and the role that it plays in the didactic
design.
The research problem is the reason why it has been decided to make a unit and to work on
certain topics and competences. I can say that the problem is what causes the unit to be created
and therefore has a fundamental role in the process.
- What “school knowledge” is and the differences between “school knowledge” and
“science knowledge”.
■ Example 1: Understanding the buoyancy phenomenon in terms of a
“struggle” between fluids and solids is an example of “school
knowledge”. Why?
■ Adibidez(2): Understanding pressure as a “push” that a certain gas does
is an example of “school knowledge”. Why?
The competences broadly define the skills, abilities, aptitudes and knowledge that our students
can and should achieve, while the objectives specify these competences within our teaching
unit, depending on the contents we are working on and for whom we are designing our
activities. Outline: the parts that should comprise a teaching unit (this is the teaching unit
template).
Like I have explained before, the teaching unit has some parts that comprise it. Firstly, there is
a table of contents, where all the points are present in a list way with the pagination. Then,
there is the presentation of the research problem, that is, the cause of creating the teaching unit.
It also has the justification of the problem and of the course decision. After that, there are the
competences that they are going to work on and the objectives that they want to achieve. The
next point, are the contents (school, everyday and social scientific contents) and after this point
the activities that are proposed and the sequency (activities will be explained and the objectives
of the activities as well). Methodology used will be also an important point of the unit and the
evaluation (the criteria that has been taken). Finally, there will be a reflection of the whole
process.
On site activities-3a
1. Why does it have a small hole? 2. Why does not water inside the straw fall?
The pens have a small hole because of the The fact that when we put water into the tube
pressure. When we use the pen and the ink and when we plug it, it does not fall out, is
wears out, the ink goes down and leaves a because there is a force that we are exerting
hole, making the space inside the pen bigger downwards (through the air inside the tube),
and therefore the air molecules expand and but there is another force that is exerted
there is much less pressure. When this upwards (the air outside). Because both
happens, if there were no hole in the pen, it pressures are equal, the water stays inside.
would stop painting.
3. Explain with reasons 4. How does a syringe work? Explain with
why we water rises inside reasons why water rises when we lift the
the straw while we drink. plunger and why water does not fall when
water is inside.
Through this experiment, we can explain the reason why when we put a tennis ball into a glass
half-filled with water, the ball goes to the corners and never to the middle. On the other hand,
when we fill the glass up to the top with water and it forms a kind of "sphere", the ball goes to
the centre. In the first case, because the glass is half full, a concave shape is created. Knowing
that the ball is positioned at the highest points, it will move sideways but never towards the
middle. In the second case, the shape that is created, as I mentioned before, is convex, so the
highest point is in the middle.
Coin Experiment
As we have seen in this experiment, the surface of a coin can be covered by many droplets that
accumulate to create a kind of "sphere" of water. This is due to the fact that the water molecules
join together to create droplets that sink to form a sphere. This is due to the cohesion of the
droplets, which are sinking together to create a single large droplet.
ENERGY
Energy is the possibility that objects has to create change.
Objects can have energy for different factors, situations… The position of the object is very
important because for example if one object is on the flour it could not have energy.
The reasons why the objects have energy are:
Positions
Movement
Masa del objeto
Composición quimica del objeto
Some problems
Does the stone has energy?
El objeto tiene una gran amount of energía, because the object can create changes
2. Explain the connection among the units below and indicate the magnitude related to each of the
units:
When we heat the air, hot air goes up because there is air with different temperatures. When
the air goes up, is the air that is going to interact with the cup. The cup is going to move because
there is a change in motion. The phenomena that has happened is the thermal expansion, that
is a chemical change that makes the air molecules move faster and that is why the cup moves.
Why do tectonic plates move? Because the materials that are in the earth make thermal
expansion, so make the tectonic plates move.
Calories=
3. Consider the following experiment. The weight hangs from a copper wire. What happens as the
candle heats the wire? Explain with reasons.
Si le damos calor a la cuerda que está hecha de copper, el material va a sufrir una termal
expansion que hará que se haga más gorda y más larga por lo que el objeto va a tocar al
suelo.
4. Can you help the child understand the answer? (see the picture)
Which is
heavier: 1l water
or 1l ice?
El litro del agua va a pesar más porque el hielo cuando tiene menos cantidad de agua. Para
entender este problema, nos tenemos que imaginar una botella de un litro de agua llena hasta
arriba. Cuando metemos esa botella en el congelador, debido a que el hielo tiene más
volumen, parte del agua de la botella sale de la botella, por lo que cuando se derrite el hielo
de la botella, habrá menos cantidad de agua ya que se parte del agua esta fuera. Debido a esto
podemos concluir que a pesar de ser 1l, el agua pesa más que el hielo.
9. The jars in the picture are filled with water. If they were placed under the sun for the same amount
of time, what would be the temperature of both jars? why?
La jarra que se va a calentar mucho más es la jarra de color negro ya que el color negro coge
todos los colores, en cambio el color blanco rechaza todos los colores.
1.GAIA DIDAKTIKA
1.partea
1.Zer da konpetentzia edo gaitasuna?
Eskaera konplexuei aurre egiteko eta mota askotako lanak zuzentasunez egiteko
gaitasuna.
Ahalmen praktikoen, ezagutzen, motibazioaren, balio etikoen, jarreren, emozioen
eta beste gizarte- eta jokabide osagai batzuen konbinazioa da, eta horiek guztiak
elkarrekin mugitzen dira egintza eraginkorra lortze aldera.(DeSeCO, 2003)
Horrenbestez, gaitasunek beren barnean hartzen dituzte trebetasun praktikoak,
ezagutzak, motibazioa, balio etikoak, jarrerak, emozioak eta gizarte-arloko nahiz
portaerazko elementuak, eta pertsonek batera erabiltzen dituzte horiek guztiak, lanak
modu eraginkorrean egiteko
Hauek dira gaitasunen ezaugarri nagusiak: “egiten jakitea” da berez, hau da,
errealitatean aplikatzen den jakintza, askotariko testuinguruetara egokitzeko aukera
eman eta izaera integratzailea duena, jakintzak, prozedurak eta jarrerak biltzen baititu.
Edukiak elkarri lotuta ulertzeko modu horrek aldatu egiten du kontzeptuzko,
prozedurazko eta jarrerazko edukiei buruz sarri erabili izan den ikuspegi zatitzailea.
2. Zer da PISA?
Metodo zientifikoa
1) Behaketa baten bitartez eta azalpen posible baten proposamenarekin hasten da.
2) Azalpen horrek HIPOTESIA du izena
3) Testagarria eta faltsugarria (testatu eta ezeztatu daiteken teoria)
• Hipotesiak testatu egiten dira, eta erabili ere sistema konkretu baten portaeraren
inguruan predikzioak egiteko
Hitz gakoak
Gaur egungo mundua ulertu eta ganorazko erabakiak hartzeko gai izango
diren pertsonak hezitzeko. Gizaseme arduratsuak izateko gaitasun
zientifikoa ezinbestekoa da!!
5.Nola irakatsi?
Modeloa eraiki
Konpetentzia zientifikoa
Helburuak
- Ikasteko kooperatu: ezagutzaren eraikitzea
- Efektiboagoa da beste kideekin elkarrekintzan gauzatzen bada
- Kooperatzen ikastea: elkarrekin lan egitea
6.Aurre ideak
• Natur Zientzien Didaktikaren historian une garrantzitsuak daude,
horietako bat Laurence Viennoten tesi doktorala da (1979). Bere
ikasleak unibertsitate mailakoak ziren (urte askotan zientzien
irakaskuntza jaso zutenak), eta mekanikako problemak ebazterakoan
ikasleek zituzten ideiak aztertu zituen.
• Ikasleek erabiltzen dituzten ideiak, zientziak onartutakoarekin
konparatuz nahiko ezberdinak zirela konturatu zen, hasieran eta
irakaskuntzaren ondoren erabiltzen zituzten ideiak berdinak izanik
(nahiko aldaezinak).
• 80. hamarkadaren hasieran ikerketa didaktiko berriak egiten dira,
emaitzak konfirmatzen direlarik. Garai horretan Rosalind Driver,
Marta Nussbaum, André Tiberghien eta abarrek lanean dihardute.
• Gaur egun ikasleen aurretiko ideiak eta naturako gertakizunak
interpretatzerakoan elaboratzen dituzten ezaguerak
(interpretazioak) garrantzia handia dutela onartzen da
Aurreideien ezaugarriak:
- Barnekoa-erliebea sortu
- Kanpokoa-erliebea deuseztatu erliebea leundu
KANPOKO AGENTEAK
1.ATMOSFERAREKIN ERLAZIONATURIKOAK
1.1.Euria/elurra/erreka…
Meteorizazioa
- Tenperatura aldaketakdilatazioa/kontrakzioa
- Faktore antropikoak
• KIMIKOA
-Disolbapena: konposatu batzuk errez disolbatzen dira uretan: gatz arrunta (Cl
Na), igeltsua (CaSO4 .2H2O), Kaltzita (Ca CO3 ) kasu.
1.2.Haizea: Basamortua
HAIZEAREN HIGADURA
MEKANIKOA
- DEFLAZIOA. – Selektiboa da: partikularik finenak (limo-buztinak) oso
ondo izango dira garraiatuak (suspentsioz); lodiagoak badira (hareak)
haizearen energia handiaz bakar-bakarrik mugituko dira, eta kasu
honetan ere ez dira normalean suspentsioz joango, lurretik saltoka
edo bueltaka baizik
- KARRUSKADURA. – Haizeak garraiatzen dituen partikulek egindako
higadura. – Karruskadura gogorragoa gertatzen da behealdean,
lurretik hurbil, goialdean . Adb,gertatzen dena, Egiptoko piramidetan,
kasuz. Harri bigunen kasuan higadura bereizgarria gertatzen da,
gogorrago eta ahulago diren zatien artean: albeolo-higadura (Algorta).
- MATERIALEN MUGIMENDUA
– Suspentsioz
– Saltoka
– Bueltaka
Haizeak potentzia galtzen duenean, oztopo batekin topo egiten
duelako edo, gertatzen da partikulen depositua. Depositu hauek
nabarmenak dira haize gogorrak eta landaretza eskasa diren lekuetan,
i.e. basamortuak i.
HAIZE- DEPOSITUAK
- Dunak: haizeak depositatutako edozein harea-mota. Dunak,
batzuetan, isolatuta azaltzen dira; beste batzuetan, ordea, elkarren
ondoan lurralde zabal-zabalak estaltzen. Azken kasu honetan ERG
2.HIDROSFERAREKIN ERLAZIONATURIKOAK
Lehorraldeko higadura sortarazten duten eragilerik nagusienak. Izan ere, eta planetako
zenbait alde kenduta (basamortuak eta lurralde glaziarrak), grabitateak mugitu erazten
dituen ur-korronteak ditugu harrien higatzaile nagusiak. →Munduko ibaiek urtez urte
ozeanoetaraino garraiatzen duten materialen pisua 30.000 milioi tonatakoa.
Ibaien dinamika ezagutzeko lau faktore aztertu behar ditugu: abiadura, potentzia,
higatzeko ahalmena eta ibilguaren forma.
- IBILGUAREN FORMA
Garraiatzeko erak
– Disoluzioz
– Flotazioz
– Suspentzioz
– Saltoka
– Narrastez
– Bueltaka
2.2.Lurpeko urak
•Beste aldetik, erliebea karstikoa izateko harria masiboa izan behar da (bestela
tartekatuta dauden kapa iragaztezinek ez lukete ura pasatzen utziko) eta ez tolestuegia.
. •Erliebe karstikoa ura sartzen uzten duen harri puru eta gogor bati dagokio. Ura
sartzen ez bada, ez dago disoluziorik
Multzo karstikoa
MULTZO KARSTIKOA
Hiru zonalde bereizten dugu:
Alde honetako forma karstikoak bi motatakoak dira, nagusiki: itxiak eta irekiak, lehenengoetan
ura apurka-apurka sartzen da, eta irekitan, ostera, arrapaladan.
KONDUKZIO-ALDEKO FORMA
Ura modu desberdinetan iragazten da multzo karstikoaren barruko aldera. Halere, ur gehiena
faila edota zartadura handiei lotuta dago. Barruan egonda ura galerietatik zirkulatzen da,
disoluzio-lanak aurrera doazelarik. Barneko zirkulazioa, beraz, guztiz heterogeneoa da, galeriak
beraiek ere uniformeki hedatuak ez baitira. Zer esanik ez, zirkulazioa multzoaren estrukturak
(arraildurasistema) mugatzen du. Uraren kanporatzea ere berak kontrolatzen du.
DRENAL-ALDEKO FORMAK
Uraren kanporatzea sorgunetan (iturburuetan) gertatzen da. Sorguneok itxura ikusgarria izaten
dute sarri askotan, oso ur-emari handia ateratzen baita hortik. Gure inguruko karstetan ere ba
da horrelakorik; horra hor Artetako sorgunea Urbasako karstean, non milaka litro segundoan
ateratzen baitira (Iruñeko hornidurarako ur bakarra izan da orain gutxi arte
2.3.Itsasoa
Itsas dinamika
Itsas-hondoaren bat-bateko
mugimenduz (lurrikarak,
bolkanketa, failak…) sortzen
diren olatuak.
Abiadura itzela izaten da (600
km/ordu) eta sakonera txikiko
aldeetara heltzean “altxatu”
egiten dira izugarriro (30 m)
Itsas dinamika: mareak
Itsasgora batetik hurrengo itsasgorara 12 1/2 ordu pasatzen dira, eta itsasgoratik
itsasbeherara horren erdia, hots, 6 1/4 ordu.
Bestetik, mareen gehieneko intentsitatea hilabetean bitan gertatzen da, hiru astroak
(Eguzkia , Lurra eta Ilargia) lerrotuak diren uneetan.
Haizeak: Gulf Stream dugu hauetarikoa. Hauen kausa munduan diren haize
nagusien eraginean datza. Beraz, haize nagusien zirkulazioa eta itsas
korronteena batera dator. Hauek beroa eramaten duten Ekuador aldetik
latitude altuko aldeetarantz.
Beste korronte nagusiak hondokoak dira. Hauen mugimendua termohalinoa
da, hots, ur-masen tenperatura (termo) eta dentsitate (halinoa) desberdinak
dira batetik besterako desplazamenduaren sortzaileak. Korronte hauek hotzak
izaten dira eta gainazalekoen aurkako zentzuan mugitzen dira (latitude altuko
aldeetatik Ekuador alderantz), era honetan nolabaiteko oreka mantentzen dela
ozeanoetan.
Itsas higadura
2.4.Glaziarrak
Glaziarren dinamika
Elurra metatu egiten da goiko altueretan, zirkoetan, goiko elurraren pisuz behekoa
izotz bihurtuz doa, azken honen portaera oso plastikoa izanik. Elurraren metaketa
gertatzen deneko aldea "elikadura aldea" deitzen dugu. Zirkoetako behealdeko izotza
jariakorra denez, masa osoak "laban" egiten du, hau da, aldapaz behera abiatu (mihi
glaziarra). Beheranzko martxa honetan
edozein oztopo aurkitu eta mihia zartatu
egiten da tentsio-indarrez; azaltzen diren
frakturak "seracs" izenaz ezagutzen dira.
Morfologia glaziarrak
2.2.GAIA. BARNEKO GEODINAMIKA
Lur barneko egitura: Ikasleek zer pentsatzen dute?
- Gehienek hiru geruza jartzen dute, geruzen kopurua handitzen da adinaren arabera
- Ez dute kontuan hartzen geruzen proportzionalitatea edo eskala
- Lurrazala astenosfera gainean jartzen dute
- Lurrazala eta litosfera ez dute ezberdintzen
Plaken mugimenduak
Arroken zikloa
– Kanpo-eragileek arrokak higatu,
garraiatu eta metatu egiten dituzte
Arroka Sedimentarioa eratuz.
– Arrokek presio eta tenperatura oso
altua jasaten dutenean, betiere urtu
barik, metamorfismo prozesuak paira
ditzakete, Arroka Metamorfiko
bihurtuz.
– Baldintzak aldatu eta arroka urtu egiten
bada (magma), magma hori
hozterakoan Arroka Igneoa edo
magmatikoak eratzen dira.
– kontuan izan behar dugu mota bateko arrokak, prozesu desberdinak jaso eta
beste motako arroka bihur daitezkeela
Arroka motak
1. Arroka igneoak edo magmatikoak
Magma batean urtuak izan diren arrokak dira.
Lur-barnean 50-60Km-ko sakonera: T altuak baina gehienetan harriak
solidoan (dagoen presioagatik) →sumendiak eta harri igneoak ez direla
edonon agertzen eta plaken ertzetan dagoela sumendien agerpena
probabilitate handiena.
Magma guztiek kanpora ateratzeko joera dute (dentsitatea<ingurukoa);
beraz, gorantz doa lurra presionatuz eta apurtuz edota arroketan
dauden arraildurak aprobetxatuz
Sumendiaren atalak
Sumendi motak
- Hawaianoa: laba isurkorra kolada zabaletan, zeinetan gasak
poliki askatzen diren. Hawai-ko sumendietatik hartzen da
izena, adibide tipikoak Kilauea eta Maunaloa izanik.
- Estrombolianoa: laba ez da aurrekoan bezain isurkorra.
Honetan kraterrean eztandak gertatzen dira, eta gasa
askatzeaz gain piroklastoak (arroka puskak) ere botatzen
ditu, labeko koladekin txandakatuz. Izena, Lipari (Sicilia)
uhartetako Stromboli sumenditik hartzen da.
- Bulkanianoa: isurkortasun txikikoa eta azkar solidotzen den
labekoa da; Gogor samarrak diren eztandetan askatzen dira
gasak; eztanden artean atseden tarte luzeak izaten dira.
Hodei piroklastiko handiak eratzen dira. Vulcano bolkanetik
hartzen du izena. Etna, Sicilia-koa, mota honetakoa ere bada.
- Besubianoa: aurreko antzekoa, baina askoz ere gogorragoa.
Oso atseden luze bat izan ondoren, zeinetan tximinian laba-
tapoi bat eratzen den, pilatuta egon diren gasak bat-batean
ateratzen dira, material solidoak herrestan, oso altuera
handienera eramaten hodei erraldoi batean. Honen ostean,
magma urtuaren ateratzea (guztiz gogorra ere), hodei sutsu
eran, gertatzen da. Izena dator 79.eko Vesubio-ren
erupzioarengatik zeinetan Pompeya eta Herkulano hiriak
desagertuak izan ziren.
- Peleanoa: oso likatsua den laba tximini barnean solidotzen
dena, gasen ateratzea eragotziz; hauek zeharki bilatzen dute
irtenbidea laba urtuak herrestan eramaten. Oso dentsitate
handiko masak ateratzen dira maldetatik eztandaka jario
direnak, hodei sutsuak eratuz. Adibide tipikoena Mont Pelé,
Martinika (Antillas) uharteko sumendia da.
- Eztandatsua edo freatikoa: itsasoko ura kamara
magmatikoaren zartadunetatik edo magma bere igoeran urez
betetako materialetatik pasatzen denean, izugarri indartsuak
diren erupzioak ematen dira. Ur masa handi baten bat-bateko
lurrinketa, ia instantaneoa, lurrin bolumena itzela presioz
eratzen da, izugarri eztanda emanez; Esaterako, 1815.eko
Tambora sumendiaren erupzioak 800 megatoi energia izan
zuen. (Hirosimako lehergailua 0,02 megatoi-ekoa zen).
2. Sedimentarioak
Arroken jatorria kontutan harturik honela sailkatzen ditugu:
Detritikoak: solido moduan garraiatutako puskaz osotutako harria. Pusken
tamainaren arabera sailkatzen dira:
TAMAINA SEDIMENTUAK HARRI
(mm) SEDIMENTARIOA
> 256 BLOKEAK KONGLOMERATUAK
(ertz biribilak)
GRABAK
2 ERREKARRIAK BRETXAK (ertzak
angeluan)
1/16 HAREAK (HONDARRA) HAREHARRIA
1/256 LIMOAK LIMOLITAK
< 256 BUZTINAK BUZTINITAK
3. METAMORFIKOAK
Lurraren barnean dauden harriek presio eta tenperatura altuak pairatzen
dituzte, eta hauen ondorioz, arroken barne egitura eta konposizio
mineralegikoa aldatu egin daitezke, egoera solidoan. Arroken kanpoko
itxura ere aldatu egiten da, birkristalizazioa emanez edota laminak sortuz
(eskistositatea). Prozesu hauen multzoei metamorfismoa deitzen zaie,
eta harriei, harri metamorfikoak.
Nutrizioa
- ura
- gatz mineralak
- karbono dioxidoa
- eguzki energia
Animalen nutrizioa
Bizidun heterotrofoek ezin dute, beren kabuz, elikagairik sortu, hau da, molekula
organikorik ekoitzi.
Beraz…
Transformatzaileak: konposatu
inorganikoak eraldatzen dituzte, eta
ekoizleek aprobetxatzeko moduko
substantzia bihurtzen dituzte. Maila horretakoak dira bakterio batzuk.
Ekoizleak:Ekoizleak organismo autotrofoak dira. Materia inorganikoa organiko
bihurtzen dute fotosintesi-prozesuaren bidez. Horretarako, eguzki-energia
erabiltzen dute. Adb,landareak, algak eta zenbait bakterio
Kontsumitzaileak: organismo heterotrofoak dira.Kontsumitzaile primarioak
ekoizleak janez elikatzen dira. Talde horretakoak dira berlarjaleak.Kontsumitzaile
sekundarioak kontsumitzaile primarioak janez elikatzen dira. Animalia haragijale
guztiak dira kontsumitzaile sekundarioak; esaterako, belatza eta azeria. Batzu
orojaleak dira (landarez eta belarjalez elikatzen dira)Hirugarren mailako
kontsumitzaileak : Animalia haragijaleak eta belarjaleak jaten dituztenak
(marrazoak, sugeak, arrano sugejalea ..)
Deskonposatzaileak: Deskonposatzaileek aurreko mailetako organismoen
hondakinetako materia deskonposatzen dute materia inorganikoa ekoiztuz. Maila
horretakoak dira bakterioak eta onddoak.
Deskonposizioaren ondorioz, materia berriro lurzorua pasatzen da eta handik
beste ekoizleek hartuko dute, horrela materiaren zikloa itxiko da.
Bizidunen artean elikadurari dagokion lotura Elika-katea deitzen da. Bizidun
batzuek beste batzuk jaten dituzte eta horiek, era berean, beste bizidun batzuen
elikagai dira
Deskonposizioaren ondorioz, materia berriro lurzorua pasatzen da eta handik beste
ekoizleek hartuko dute, horrela materiaren zikloa itxiko da.
Izaki bizidunen harreman funtzioa
• Erlazio funtzioak organismoaren oreka kontrolatzen du, bizi baldintzak egokiak
izan daitezen.
• Funtzio honetan bi prozesu bereizten dira, gutxienez:
o inguruko aldaketak antzematea
o aldaketa horiei erantzutea. Bi mota: hormonak jariatzea eta mugimendua.
Izaki bizidunen ugalketa-funtzioa
• Oinarrizko funtzioa. Ugalketaren bidez, izaki bizidunek beren talde bereko beste
izaki bizidun batzuk sortzen dituzte →espeziearen iraupena.
• Zenbait autoreren arabera, ugalketa da biziaren funtziorik funtsezkoena. Edonola
ere, ugalketa da bizi jarduerarik duen egitura orok egiten duen funtzio bakarra
(birusek ere bai).
• Bi ugalketa mota dira oinarrizkoak, eta bakoitzak berezko ezaugarriak ditu:
o ugalketa asexuala, agamikoa edo begetatiboa
o ugalketa sexuala, gamikoa edo sortzailea.
• Ugalketa asexualak ez du zelula sexualek edo gametoek parte hartzerik behar.
Ugaltze prozesua oso bakuna da: banako batengandik atal bat askatzen da, eta atal
hori beste izaki bat bihurtzen da, genetikoki progenitorearen berdina. Ugalketa
asexuala: Organismoen hazkuntzan, zelulak berritzeko, birsorkuntzan…
Mitosia
• Ugalketa sexuala, berriz, horretan espezializatutako zelulen bidez egiten da. Zelula
horiek gametoak dira eta, oro har, espezie bereko baina sexu desberdineko bi
gurasoenak izaten dira.
o Gametoak ernalketan elkartzen dira eta zigotoa sortzen dute.
o Gero, zigotoa garatu eta garatu egingo da, beste banako bat sortu arte.
o Bi izakien material hereditarioa konbinatzen denez, ugalketa sexualak
genetikoki desberdinak diren banakoak sorrarazten ditu
Ezaugarriak:
Izaki bizidun guztiek ugalketa funtzioa betetzen dute:
Ugalketa sexuala:
- Gametoak
- Zigotoa
- Meiosia
HARREMANAK
ESPEZIEBARNEKO HARREMANAK
Askotan, harremanak organismoen arteko lehiaren bidez gauzatzen dira; banakoak borrokatu
egiten dira, baliabideak lortze aldera: janaria, bikotekidea, espazioa…
ESPEZIEARTEKO HARREMANAK
Horrela, mutualismoan eta sinbiosian, bi espezieek lortzen dute onura (+,+); harrapakaritzan
eta parasitismoan, batak onura lortzen du eta besteak kaltea (+,-); komentsalismoan, batak
onura lortzen du, bestea kaltetu gabe (+,0), eta, azkenik, lehian, bi espezieek jasaten dute
kaltea (-,- ), neurri batean.
• Zelulak ingurune batean libre bizi daitezkeen materia biziaren alderdirik txikienak dira. Zelula
bakar batek osatutako organismoei organismo zelulabakarrak esaten zaie, eta bizifuntzio
guztiak bete behar dituzte.
• Maila zelulanitza: zelula batek baino gehiagok osatutako izaki bizidunak egongo lirateke
honen barruan. Zenbait konplexutasun-maila edo azpi-maila bereiz daitezke. Konplexutasun
txikienetik handienera, hauek dira:
• Populazio-maila: inguru berean eta momentu jakin batean bizi diren espezie bereko
indibiduoen multzoak osatzen dituzten populazioak biltzen ditu. Espezie bereko organismoak
ez dira indibiduo zehatz bezala hartzen, baizik eta horien artean denboran eta espazioan
ezartzen diren harremanen arabera.
Taxonomia
Biodibertsitatearen ordena bilatzen duen
sailkapenaren zientzia da. Organismoak identifikatu eta
izendatzen ditu. Bizi forma guztien begirada orokor bat
eskaintzen duen sailkapen sistema bat.
Nomenklatura Binomiala
Organismo guztiei izena emateko sistema
(Linneo). Espezie bakoitzari bi izen ematen
zaizkio latinez, adibidez:
Izen Arrunta Izen zientifikoa Esanahia
gizakia Homo erectus gizaki zutuna
Erregelak
MONERAK
Organismo eukariotikoak
Ugalketa esporen bidez (sexualak nahiz asexualak)
Elikadura heterotrofoa
Adb. Legamiak, onddoak eta zizak
MIKROORGANISMOAK:
– Edo mikrobioak; ñimiñoak. Lurreko ia edozein lekutan daude.
– Zenbait mikrobio onuragarriak dira; aldiz, beste batzuk kaltegarriak izan daitezke
gizakientzat (germenak).
Birusak:
- Txikienak dira, eta, oro har, gizakientzat kaltegarriak.
- Bizirauteko eta ugaltzeko, zelula «ostalari» bat behar dute
Onddoak:
- Organismo zelulabakarrak eta multizelularrak dira.
- Onddoak deskonposatzen ari den materia organikoz edo ostalari baten parasito
gisa biziz elikatzen dira.
- Onddoak gizakientzat kaltegarriak dira infekzioak sortzen badituzte edo jatean
toxikoak badira. baina, kaltegabeak edo onuragarriak ere badaude, adbz:
Penicillium (penizilina) , Agaricus (txanpinoia).
Bakterioak:
- Organismo unizelularrak dira, eta esponentzialki ugal daitezke 20 minutuz
behin.
- Patogenoak: batzuek substantzia oso kaltegarriak sortzen dituzte
gizakientzat (toxinak) eta gaixotasunak eragiten dizkigute.
Adib.:estafilokokoak.
- Beste batzuk (>70%) kaltegabeak dira gizakientzat, edo erabilgarriak
edota beharrezkoak direnak ere badaude. Adb.
Lactobacillus elikagaien industrian
beharrezkoak, landareen hazkundean parte hartzen dutenak
(Rhizobacterium).
EAE-gure dibertsitatea?
Gure dibertsitatea?
Gehiegizko ustiapena
Habitat-aren suntsiketa, moldapena, eta zatiketa.
Kanpo espezieen sarrera
Biodibertsitatearen galera EAEn eta narraiaduraren kausa:
Oxigenoa
Ura
Elikagaiak
Antibiotikoak
Uzten polinizazioa
…
Aldaketa globala
- Populazioaren hazkundea
- Espezieen desagerpena
-Basamortutzearen handitzea
-Zerbitzuen galera
Irtenbideak??
2. Loreak? bai/ez
1.Briofitoak: Sinpleenak. Txikiak izaten dira eta ez dute baso eroalerik ezta lorerik ere→
Goroldioak eta Hepatikoak
Hepatikoak zapalagoak
Goroldioak harroagoak
Ingurune hezeetan
Ez daukate elikagaiak hartu eta
garraiatzeko organo berezirik, ezta
gorputzari eusteko ere
Ugalketa:
o Sexuala (gametoak)
o Asexula (esporak)
2.Pteridofitoak: Baso eroaleak dituzte baina lorerik ez.→ Azeribuztanak eta Iratzeak
o Angiospermoak (angion:
edalontzia; sperma: hazia)
-lore ikusgarriak
-haziak fruituen barruan bilduta eta babestuta egoten dira
-250000 espezie
kotiledoibakarrak
Haziak kotiledoibakarrak
Sustraia faszikulatua
Zurtoina ez da adarkatzen
Landare belarkareetan zurtoina hutsik
dago
Hostoek zurtoina inguratzen dute eta
nerbioak paraleloak dira
Loreak hiru elementuz (sepaloak,
petaloak) eraturik daude
65.000 espezie
kotiledoibidunak
Haziak kotiledioibikoak
Sustrai nagusia oso gogorra eta
landarearen bizitza osoa irauten
Zurtoinak barneko hodiak ditu eta
zirkuluak eratzen dituzte
6.2.GAIA.ANIMALIEN ERREINUA
Sailkapena:
Ornodunak
o Arrainak
o Anfibioak
o Narrastiak
o Hegaztiak
o Ugaztunak
Ornogabeak
o Poriferoak
o Knidariaok
o Aneliodak
o Moluskuak
o Artropodoan
o Ekinodermatuak
Ornodunen ezaugarriak
Ugaztunak
Gehienak lurtarrak badira ere, badaude espezie urtarrak (zetazeoak, fokak
...)
Ilea
Odol beroak
Lau gorputz-adarrez osatuta daude gehienetan
arnasa beti biriketatik hartzen dute.
Bibiparoak, kumeak egiten dituzte eta eradoski
Hegaztiak
Lumak
Erraz hegan egin ahal izateko hezurdura arina dute eta aire-zakuak
Hegazti talde batzuek hegan egiteko ahalmena galdua dute, eta lasterkari
bilakatu dira (ostrukak eta beste batzuk igerilari (pinguinoak).
Hegaztiek odol beroa dute eta zirkulazioa bikoitza.
Obiparoak dira, alegia, arrautzak erruten dituzte
Narrastiak
Odol-hotzekoak dira;
Biriken bidez arnasa hartzen dute.
Azala ezkataz estalia dute
lau hankak endurtuak edo motzak dituztelako herrestan ibiltzen dira.
Obiparoak gehienak,
Anfibioak
Larruazala biluzia dute: Zakatzen bidez (hasierako faseetan); baina
larruazalaz eta biriken bidez arnasten dute anfibio helduek.
Hanken bidez mugitzen dira (tetrapodoak dira, lau hanka dituzte), eta
normalean aurreko hankak atzekoak baino txikiagoak dira.
Anfibioak obiparoak dira.
Metamorfosia egiten dute
Arrainak
gehienetan poikilotermoak ("odol hotzekoak") dira.
Hegatsak izaten dituzte.
Gehienek gorputz ezkataduna
Arnasketa zakatzen bidezkoa izaten da.
Obiparoak
Ornogabeen ezaugarriak
Knidarioak
Itsatarrak •formaren arabera bi:
-Aterki motakoakmarmokak
- Zaku-itxura-polipoak
Poriferoak
Gehineak itsatarrak
Gorputz biguna eta
Moluskuak malgua
Uretakoak zein lehorrekoak
Oskolaz babesturiko gorputza
Anelidoak
ODOL BASOAK: lodiera askotariko hodiak dira, odola zirkulatzen duen zirkuitu itxi
bat da.
Bereizten dira:
Arteriak: odola bihotzetik gorputzeko organo guztietara daramate
Zainak (benak) : odola gorputzeko atal guztoetatik bihotzera daramate.
ODOLA: odol basoetan zirkulaten duen likidoa da, oxigenoa garraiatzen du eta
hondakinak biltzen ditu
Bi osagai ditu
Plasma: likido horixka da, eta hemen zelula guztiak daude
Odol zelulak: globulu gorriak, globulu zuriak eta plaketak
Alergiak
Hipersentiberatasun mota bat →kaltegarriak ez diren zenbait antigenoren
(alergenoren) aurkako neurriz gainek inmunitate erreakzioa da.
Eritasun autoinmuneak, organismoaren inmunitate sistemak bere zelula
edo molekula batzuk kanpotartzat hartu eta horien kontra erantzuten
duenean gertatzen dira.
Organo jakin batzuei eragiten diete edota
gorputzeko atal askori.
Faktore genetikoak, TS-linfozitoen gutxitzea eta adina aipatu izan dira
disfuntzio hauen arrazoitzat.
Sintomak
Elikagaia hartu ondoko bi orduetan agertzen dira, oro har lehenengo 30-60
minutuetan.
Larritasuna :alergeno-kopuruaren, pertsona alergiadunaren
sentsibilitatearen eta kaltetutako organoaren erreaktibitatearen
araberakoa da. Larriagotzen dituzten beste faktore batzuk :jarduera fisikoa,
analgesikoak, alkohola, asma edo arnasaaparatuko
infekzioak.
Azalekoak (ohikoenak): urtikaria, azkura, azala gorritzea, dermatitisa;
ezpainak, ahoa, mingaina, aurpegia eta/edo eztarria handitzea .
Digestiboak: goragalea, gorakoa, kolikoak, beherakoa, azkura aho eta
eztarrian, handitzea eta mina sabelaldean.
Arnasakoak: errinitisa (muki-jarioa, kongestioa eta/edo doministikuak),
eztula, txistu-hotsa
Anafilaxia: elikagaia (edo horren trazak) hartu eta minutu gutxira agertzen
den alergia-erreakzio orokorra da. Oso arin egiten du aurrera, organo
guztietan izaten du eragitena eta honako hauek dira bere sintomak: azkura
orokorra, urtikaria, angioedema, laringeko edema, bronkoespasmoa,
sabelaldeko mina, gorakoa, beherakoa, bihotzeko arritmiak, hipotentsioa
eta txokea.
Intolerantziak
intolerantzia da metabolismoak berak, sistema immunologikoak parte
hartu gabe, elikagai edo elikagai baten osagai jakin baten aurrean ematen
duen kontrako erantzuna . Salbuspena :glutenarekiko intolerantzia-sistema
immunologikoak bai hartzen duela parte
Kasu gehienetan, digestioan edo elikagaiak metabolizatzean gertatutako
alterazioen ondorio dira: jatorri genetikotik edo hainbat urtean pilatu
ondoren, elikagaiek dituzten zenbait substantzia digeritzea, asimilatzea eta
baliatzea ekiditen dute.
Sintomak
Ez dira berehala agertzen. Gaixoak ez daki intolerantzia sortu denik, ez
delako berehala agertzen negal, gorako, beherako edo urdaileko min
handien bidez.
Hortaz, honako sintoma hauek agertzeko denbora gehiago behar da, eta
alergiek eragindako digestiboen parekoak izan daitezke: goragalea,
beherakoa, hesteetako mina, kolikoa, zefalea, bero-sentsazioa.
Alabaina, ez dira ordu batzuk aurretik edo oro har hartzen diren
elikagaiekin lotzen. Horrela, ezagutza faltagatik, elikagai horiek dietan
mantentzen dira, eta osasunak apurka-apurka egiten du txarrera. Horren
ondorioz, digestio-sistemak ezin duenean elikagaia toleratu, arazo
gastrointestinal larri edo arina sor daiteke.
Alergien kasuan ez bezala, elikagaiaren edo elikagaiaren osagai-kopuru
txikiak kontsumi daitezke sintomarik agertu gabe.
8 GAIA: GAIXOTASUNAK (INFEKZIOEN)
PREBENTZIOA ETA MEDIKAZIOA: TXERTOAK ETA
ANTIBIOTIKOAK:
TXERTOAK:
- Prebentiboak dira. Indibiduoa babesten dute gaixotu aurretik Indibiduoak
txertoa hartzen duenean, sistema immunologikoaren prozedura batzuk
aktibatzen dira, prozesu natural batean bezala. Hauek dira: antigenoaren
errekonozimendu, antigorputzen produkzioa eta erantzunaren memoria.
- Prozesu horiek gaixotasunak eragiten dituen sarraskirik gabe gertatzen
dira, txertoak duen gaixotasunaren antigenoa edo toxinaren bertsio ;
inaktiboak daude. Agente infekzioso horiek desaktibatuak izan dira:
akabatuak edo desnaturalizatuak beroarekin, erradiazioarekin…
- Txertoek sistema inmunologikoa estimulatzen dute antigorputzak sorrarazi
ditzan. Antigorputz horiek gorputzean diraute eta berau luzaroan babesten
dute.
- Antigorputzek infekzio edo toxina jakin baten aurka dihardute antigeno
jakin bat identifikatzen dutelako, zeintzuk toxina edo patogenoaren
gorputzean topatzen diren estruktura zehatzak diren.
IMMUNITATE MOTAK:
Txertatu gabeko indibiduo batek gaixotasunarekin topo egiten badu, nolabaiteko
immunitatea garatuko du. Dena den, gaixotasun horrek eragiten duenen arriskua
jasaten du.
• Immunitate aktibo artifiziala txertoa edo inokulazioaren bitartez gertatzen
da.
• Immunitate pasiboa antigorputz aktiboak jaso ezkero gertatzen da,
normalean injekzioa edo odol produktuen transfusioaren bitartez edo baita
amak haurrari haurdunaldian edo eradoskitzerakoan,
- Batzuetan artifizialki bermatzen da. Indibiduoak bere antigorputz
propioak sortarazteko aztirik ez dagoenean. Adb tetanoaren txertoa,
tetano antitoxina da.
KOMUNITATEAREN IMMUNITATEA
- Populazio nahikoak txertoa hartzen badu, komunitatearen immunitatea
lortzen da eta infekzio baten hedapena ekiditen da.
- Garrantzitsua da komunitatearen immunitatea mantentzea indibiduo
batzuk ezin baitituzte txertoak jaso, adb. Immunoeskasia dutenek, alergiak
dituztenak edo oso txikiak diren umeak.
ANTIBIOTIKOAK:
• Meningitisa, tuberkulosia eta pneumonia moduko infekzioak tratatzeko erabiltzen dira.
Infekzio birikoen gain ez dute eraginik.
• Bakterien propioak diren egiturak deuseztatuz dihardute, ez diete giza-zelulei minik
egiten eta ez dituzte birusak akabatzen.
• Izan daitezke:
• Izan daitezke:
– Espektro estukoak: bakteria espezie bakar bat edo pare bati eragiten diotelarik.
ANTIBIOTIKOEKIKO ERRESISTENTZIA:
• Bakterioak egokitzen dira, antibiotikoen bitartez akabagaitz izateko, beraien ADNean
mutazioak gertatzen dira.
Antibiotikoak medikuek errezetatuta bakarrik har daitezke eta beraiek errezetatutako moduan
eta gaixotasunarentzat.
GALDERAK
2.Bakterio baten zelula marraztu eta antibiotikoek eragin ditzaketen areak zirkulu batekin
markatu.
3.Birusak eta bakteriak zertan dira ezberdinak? birusak egitura sinpleagoak dira, oinarrizko
zera bat da, birusak ezin dutela bere kabuz ugaldu, behar dutela hostalari bat, bere baitan
hartu behar ditu izaki bizidun bat ugaldu daitezen, aldiz, bakterioak bai, ugaldu daitezke eta
zelularki hitz egiten askoz ere garatutagoak daude. Aipatu behar dugu baita ere, birusak beti
txarrak direla eta bakterioak berriz, ez beti.
Konjugazioa da: zelula batek beste bateri bere informazio genetikoa ematen diola eta
transformazioa da, muturreko egoeretan, zelulen geneak aldatzen direla, egoera horri
erresistentea bilakatzeko.
5.Zelan hedatzen dira bakteria erresistenteak komunitatean zehar? Esan burura datozkizun
modu guztiak.
higiene txarra, mukiak, doministikua, txisa zikindutxa, edo txarto garbitu duzu, eskuekin
ikutzen ditugun gauzak direla eta, operazioetan nola garbitzen dute eskuak medikuak.
2. Ez duzu antibiotikoen zikloa bukatu behar hobe sentitzen bazara. GEZURRA, ZIKLOA
BUKATU BEHAR DUZU
Aurkibidea
Zientziaren izaera........................................................................................................................ 3
1. GAIA: Materia ...................................................................................................................... 47
➢ ATOMOA ...................................................................................................................... 52
➢ MOLEKULA ................................................................................................................. 55
➢ MATERIA ..................................................................................................................... 56
➢ MATERIAREN ALDAKETAK .................................................................................. 59
➢ DILATAZIOA ............................................................................................................... 61
➢ ERREKUNTZA ............................................................................................................. 64
➢ KAPILARITATEA ....................................................................................................... 66
2. GAIA: flotagarritasuna ........................................................................................................ 69
➢ DENTSITATEA ............................................................................................................ 70
➢ FLOTAGARRITASUNA ............................................................................................. 72
3. GAIA: Newton-en legeak ...................................................................................................... 81
➢ INERTZIA ..................................................................................................................... 83
➢ GRABITATEA .............................................................................................................. 85
➢ MAGNITUDE BEKTORIALAK ................................................................................ 89
❖ Azelerazioa ..................................................................................................................... 96
➢ PRESIOA ..................................................................................................................... 106
➢ PRESIOA II ................................................................................................................. 117
4. GAIA: fluituen dinamika.................................................................................................... 123
➢ VENTURI-ren PRINTZIPIOA.................................................................................. 125
➢ MAGNUS EFEKTUA ................................................................................................. 128
1
Iratxe G.
2
Iratxe G.
Zientziaren izaera
Guk ezagutzen dugun zientzia 1550 eta 1700 urteen bitartean garatu zen Europan,
Zientzia iraultzari esker.
Iraultza hau, Nicolaus Kopernikoren teoria heliozentrikoarekin hasi eta Isaac Newtonen
fisika eta mekanika unibertsalaren teoriarekin bukatu zen. Gainera, iraultza honen
bitartez, zientziaren eta naturaren lotura gauzatu zen.
Zientziak antzinako zibilizazioetan du jatorria, hala nola Babilonian, Txinan eta Egipton.
Hala ere, idazki zientifiko gehiago utzi zituztenak greziarrak izan ziren, batez ere
Geometrian, Aljebran eta Astronomian. Halaber, gaur egun ezagutzen dugun zenbaki
sistema, arabiarrek sortu zuten eta Europa osorantz zabaldu zen.
Antzinako zientzia
Esperimentatzea ez zen garai hartako izpirituan, eta horrek ez zuen jaramonik egin giza
bizitzaren eta naturaren arteko benetako harremana. Antzinako garaietako ustezko dirdira
klase pribilegiatuei bakarrik aplikatzen zitzaien.
Antzinako Zientzien ordezkari nagusia Aristoteles da, harri handi bat txikia baino
azkarrago erori zela uste baitzuen, nahiz eta inoiz ez saiatu.
Aristotelesen frogapenak deduktiboak ziren, eta haietan filosofoak egiten zituen argudio
eta proposizioen logika formala zen emaitzaren egia bermatzeko bidea. Arrazoitze-ordena
hori hurrengo mende askotan ezarriko da.
3
Iratxe G.
Geozentrismoa
Geozentrismoa, planeta eta astroen higidura azaltzeko teoria da, unibertsoaren zentrutzat
Lur planeta hartzen duen sistema edo teoria zaharkitua.
Zientzia Iraultza
Heliozentrismoa
Nikolas Kopernikok EZ zuen onartu Lurra unibertsoaren erdia zenaren teoria. Ondorioz,
1543. Urtean, Kopernikok, Eguzkiaren inguruko planeten mugimenduan oinarritutako
sistema ordenatua eta koherentea ezarri zuen. Heliozentrismoa Lurra Eguzki
mugigaitzaren inguruan biratzen zuen astrotzat (besteak bezala) hartzen da.
Baina, teoria heliozentrikoa, hasieran ez zen onartua izan erlijioaren kontra egiten
zuelako. Hala ere Möstlinek, Keplerrek eta Galileok teoria hau indartu eta garatu zuten.
Nahiz eta erlijioaren aldetik oztopoak izan, zientziak gauzak azaltzeko eta mundu naturala
aurreikusteko gaitasuna adierazi zuen. Eta aurrerapen handiak ikusten hasi ginen.
4
Iratxe G.
Esperimentu hau gizakiaren historian funtsezko unea izan zen. Gizakiaren eta naturaren
arteko harreman berria ireki zuen, eta beste askok jarraitu zuten giza gogoaren aldaketaren
fase bati hasiera eman zion.
Zientzia modernoa
Zientzia modernoa, joan den mendearen hasieran aurkikuntza paregabeekin batera jaio
zen, hala nola X izpiak, elektroiak eta erradioaktibitatea.
Zientzia berri honek, atomoa, eguzkia eta izarrak ulertzeko aukera eman zigun, eta
naturan funtsezko batasunaren ideia lagundu zuen.
Ordura arte, gizakiaren bizitzan nagusi ziren parametro guztiak aldatu zituen: zaldiaren
abiadura argiaren arabera, fusio nuklearraren bidez errekuntza, indar gordina diseinu
indartsuen bidez eta isolamendu geografikoa lurreko distantziak desagertuz.
Zientziaren historia eta gizateriaren historia istorio berean batzera heldu ziren. Halaber,
gaur egun, erlijiosoa, teologikoa edo filosofikoa ez da zientzia kontsideratzen, dogma eta
zientziaren arteko desberdintasuna iraultzaren ondorio eman baitzen.
Beraz, esan dezakegu, zientzia dela arrazoiaren bidez justifikatutako azalpenak eta erlazio
logikoen gaineko ziurtasuna autoritateetara edo garrantzizko entitateetara jo gabe ematen
duten prozesuak ematen dituen jarduera.
Ondorioak
Zientzia zaharraren eta zientzia modernoaren arteko desberdintasun nagusiak hauek dira:
5
Iratxe G.
Galderak
6
Iratxe G.
7
Iratxe G.
Zientziak bere baitan arlo eta gai asko biltzen ditu, horregatik, zaila da definizio konkretu
eta bakarra ematea. Izan ere, arlo batzuk objektiboagoak dira (matematikak eta fisikak
esaterako) eta besteak ordea, abstraktuagoak edo hipotetikoagoak (adibidez filosofia eta
soziologia). Horregatik, zientzia bere baitan definitu ahal izateko, arlo guztiek komunean
dutena hartu beharko genuke. Zientziarako definizio orokor bati hurbilduko litzaioken
adibide batzuk:
- Natura, gizartea, gizakia eta bere pentsamenduari buruzko ezagutza objektibo eta
sistematikoen multzoa.
- Zientziaren ezagutzaren adarretako bakoitza.
Adar edo arlo anitz dituenez, lehen esan bezala, zaila da definizio konkretua ematea.
Honekin lotuta zientziaren helburua fenomeno naturalei buruzko azalpenak ematea da.
Mitoak, erlijioak, mirariak, naturaz gaindiko gertaerak, etab., ordea, ez ditu aintzat
hartzen frogagarriak ez direlako, eta horregatik, ezin direlako frogatu edo egiaztatu.
8
Iratxe G.
3. Zer dira fenomeno naturalak (adibideekin eta guzti) eta azalpen naturalak
Baina pobrezia eta inflazioa bezalako gertakizun sozialak ere fenomeno natural bezala
kontsideratzen dira; fenomeno naturalak ez direlako soilik ingurumeneko gertakizunak,
sozialak ere baitira.
Fenomeno naturalak zergatik edo zeren ondorioz gertatzen diren jakiteko, azalpen
naturalak ditugu. Hauek gertaera edo prozesu horien zergatia arrazoitzen dituzten
azalpenak dira.
Hona hemen adibide bat: Floridan epidemia bat gertatu da. Zergatik? Zeren ondorioz?
Gaixotasun bat agertu da eta kutsapenaren ondorioz zabaldu egin da, epidemia sortuz.
Hau azalpena izango litzateke.
Zuen ustez zer da ”Naturala”? Zer kontsideratzen duzue naturala? Eta zer ez? Zergatik?
Naturari buruz hitz egiten ari garela, beharrezkoa deritzogu “natural” kontzeptua
definitzea. Naturala naturan dagoen guztia da, hots, berez sortua izan dena gizakiaren
eraldaketa prozesurik gabe.
Hala ere, gaur egun berez naturala denaren eta gizakiak eraldatu duenaren ideia berria
sortu da. Askotan produktu natural batzuen eraldaketa produktua hobeagoa bihurtzen du.
9
Iratxe G.
Naturalismoa naturatik at ezer ez dagoela dioen eta gauzak azaltzeko naturaz gainetiko
edozerren eragina ukatzen duen korronte ideologikoa da.
Naturalismoak bi modu ditu: alde batetik, naturalismo metodologikoa dago, non teoria
zientifikoek ezin dezakete naturaz gaindiko azalpenen alde egin. Hau da, soilik printzipio
naturaletan oinarritutako azalpen, teoria edo arauetan oinarritzen da.
Naturalismo ontologikoa aldiz, naturaz gaindiko faktoreak edo elementuak alde batera
utzi eta errealitateko edukiak aztertzen ditu.
Naturalismoa berez (bere baitan, bakarrik) ez da zientzia, baizik eta horren osagaia da.
6. Galderak:
▪ Zer da zientzia?
a) Zaila da definizio konkretu bat ematea zientziak bere baitan arlo eta gai asko
dituelako.
b) Definizio konkretu eta zehatz bat dago zientzia definitzeko
c) Zientzia bere baitan definitzeko arlo bakarra kontuan hartu behar dugu.
d) Zientziak biologia, fisika, kimika eta matematika soilik lantzen ditu.
10
Iratxe G.
▪ Naturalismoa ...
a) Naturaz gainetiko edozer existitzen dela defendatzen du.
b) Naturatik at ezer ez dagoela dioen korrontea da.
c) Erantzun guztiak okerrak dira.
d) Erantzun guztiak zuzenak dira.
▪ Natural kontzeptua....
a) Betidanik esanahi eta pentsamendu bera izan dugu.
b) Antzina natural kontzeptua “osasuntsu” hitzarekin bat egiten zuen.
c) Antzina toxikotzat eta gaur egun osasuntsu kontsideratzen da.
d) Aurreko guztiak okerrak dira.
11
Iratxe G.
Lehenengo eta behin, zientzia argi eta garbi zer den definitu beharra dago. Zientzia
proiektu sozial eta inklusiboa da, fenomeno naturalak azalpen naturalen bidez ematen
dituena. Horrez gain, bere adierazpenak zientifikoak direla esan ahal izateko, ebidentzia
zientifikoa erabiltzen du, eta kritikotasunarekiko irekia dago. Hortaz, esan dezakegu
zientziak ematen dituen azalpenak gerora ebaluatuak izaten direla ebidentzia
enpirikoaren bidez, eta kasu batzuetan, formulazio eta ebaluazio matematikoaren bidez.
Hala ere, argi dago denboraren poderioz gauzak aldatuz joaten direla. Hori dela eta,
zientziak egindako azalpenak aldatuz joan daitezke, hau da, zientziak egiten dituen
adierazpenak ez dira behin betikoak. Modu honetan, adierazpen berriak agertu egiten dira,
eta aurrekoak baztertu, hobetu, zuzendu eta abar egiten dira, kasuaren arabera.
Laburbilduz, esan dezakegu ebidentzia berriak sortzen diren heinean, hipotesiak
baieztatu, berrikusi, zuzendu edota ezeztatu egiten direla.
Zientziak hainbat ezaugarri edota arlo ditu bere barnean. Ezaugarri horien artean,
ezagutza lortzeko helburua, Iraultza Zientifikoan oinarrituta egotea, naturalismoa,
ikerketa enpirikoa, ebidentzialismoa eta faltsifikaziorako irekitasuna, matematiken
erabilera eta egitura soziala aurkitzen ditugu.
Honekin jarraituz, zientziaren arloak zeintzuk diren jakinda, esan beharra dago zientzia
definitzeko bi uste edo iritzi desberdin sortu izan zirela garai batean. Alde batetik, batzuek
esaten dute zientziaren definizio egokiena soilik arlo bat edo beste bat kontuan hartuta
ematen dela. Beste aldetik, beste talde batzuek aipatzen dute zientziaren definizioa arlo
guztietatik ezaugarri batzuk hartuta sortu behar dela.
Aurreko ebidentzia, ebidentzia zientifikoa da, zientzialari askok frogatu izan dutelako
baliabide edota metodo zientifiko desberdinak erabiliz. Hala ere, beti kontuan hartu behar
dugu uneoro ikertutakoa aldatu egin daitekeela, lehen aipatu bezala, eta hori kontuan
hartuz, datuak beti estutuz joan beharko direla.
12
Iratxe G.
Gaiarekin jarraituz, esan beharra dago askotan, zalantza handiak sortzen direla zientzia
eta pseudozientziaren arteko desberdintasuna topatzeko. Hori dela eta, gu, zientziaren
definizioa zein den jakinda, pseudozientzia zer den azalduko dugu.
Pseudozientzia gezurrezko zientzia edo zientzia faltsua da, haren izenean azaltzen den
moduan (pseudo = faltsua). Hots, ebidentzia zientifikoa ez duen eta metodo zientifikoan
oinarritzen ez diren praktikak sartzen ditugu pseudozientzia arloaren barne. Hau da,
pseudozientziaren barruan aurkitzen ditugun praktika, sinesmen edota baieztapenek
zientzia itxura hartzen dute, baina ez dira zientziak, adibidez, homeopatia, astrologia
edota numerologia. Hau da, pseudozientziak ez ditu betetzen metodo zientifikoan
agertzen diren baieztapen objektiboaren pausuak. Hortaz, esan dezakegu
pseudozientziaren postulatuak ezin direla modu zientifiko batean baieztatu, hau da, ez
dute estatus zientifiko ofizial bat eta ez daude abaldunak arloaren instituzioaren bidez
(Raffino, 2019).
Gainera, astrologiak denbora eta diru falta handia suposatzen du honetan sinisten duten
pertsonentzat. Hala ere, beste pseudozientzia batzuek ondorio latzagoak izaten dituzte,
beraz,kontu handia izan behar dugu, eta soilik ebidentzia zientifikoa duten gauzetan
sinistu egin behar dugu.
Kreazionismoa edota diseinu adimentsua baita pseudozientziaren beste adibide bat da.
Duela mende asko, “kreazio zientzia” deiturikoa sortu zen eboluzioaren teoria
deuseztatzeko asmoz. Hala ere, zientziak bere gain hartzen dituen arlo guztietan huts egin
zuen eta sinesmen erlijioso bat bezala definitu izan zuten. Honi erantzuteko asmoz,
kreazionistek diseinu adimentsua bezala ezagutzen duguna aurkeztu izan zuten, aipatuz
sortzaile adimentsu batek sortu zuela bizitza. Baina, aurrekoa bezala, diseinu adimentsuak
baita huts egin zuen teoria zientifikoa izateari dagokionez. Beraz, teoria kreazionistak
unibertsoa, Lurra eta bizitza Jainkoak sortu zituela defendatzen du. Hau da, kreazionistek
13
Iratxe G.
Genesian azaltzen den historia sinisten dute. Hau defendatzeko, liburu sakratuetan
oinarritu egiten dira. Beraz, esan bezala, sinesmen erlijioso bat baino ez da.
Pseudozientziaren gaiarekin lotuta baita, gaur egun pil-pilean dagoen gai bat topatzen
dugu: txertoen liskarra. Hau da, gaur egun, txertoen aurkako pertsona eta mugimendu
ugari sortu egin dira, hauek autismoa izateko aukerak handitu egiten dituela aldarrikatuz.
Beraz, txertoak oldarkorrak, toxikoak eta arriskutsuak direla pentsatzen dute, gure
organismoaren funtzionamendu naturala kaltetzen dutelako. Hala ere, ez dute esaten
dutenaren ebidentzia zientifikorik, ez daude faltsifikaziora irekiak, eta beste metodo
batzuk erabiltzen dituzte haien ideiak gizarteak ezagutzeko, besteak beste, propaganda.
Gainera, kontuan hartu behar dugu txertoen inguruko praktika zientifikoak egin direla,
eta hauek txertoek ez dutela autismoa sorrarazten erakutsi dutela, ebidentzia
zientifikoekin.
Galderak
▪ Zer da pseudozientzia?
a) Zientziak jasotzen duen atal bat da, astronomia lantzen duena.
b) Zientzia faltsua da. Hau da, zientzia izateko beharrezkoak diren arloak
betetzen ez duen zientzia.
c) Giza Zientzien barruan kokatzen dugun atal bat da, gizakien historia eta
bilakaera azaltzen duena.
14
Iratxe G.
15
Iratxe G.
a. Definizioa
b. Zertarako balio du?
c. Historian zehar zientziari esker jakindako gauzen adibideak
Zientzia, modu objektibo eta sistematikoan, behaketa eta arrazoimenaren bitartez
lortutako ezagutza multzoa da. Zientzian, logika erabiliz, hipotesiak planteatuz, kausa eta
efektuei buruzko teoriak planteatuz eta egiaztatuz, datuak jasoz eta horiek aztertuz,
printzipio eta lege orokorrak ondorioztatu egiten dira.
Gaur egungo gizartean zientziak ezinbesteko rol bat du, baita gure egunerokotasunean
ere. Izan ere, oraingo errealitatean egon daitezkeen zailtasunak ulertzeko, eguneroko
bizitzan dauden aldaketei moldatzeko eta harremanak egiteko, biztanleriak kultura
zientifikoa behar du.
Zuk uste duzu ilusion de compresion hori duzula? edo garatuz zoazela? - Zergatik uste
duzu? Baina zein da haren garrantzia?
Gure helburu praktikoak asetzeaz gain, zientzia gizakiak garatu duen ikuspegirik
hoberena izan da mundu naturalean sortzen diren galderei erantzuna eman ahal izateko.
Zientziaren helburuen barnean, ezagutza sortzea da garrantzitsuena.
Hasteko, sinesmena ezagutzarako beharrezkoa dela esaten dute; ezin duzu zeozer egia
dela esan aurretik sinisten ez baduzu. Baina gauza bat ezagutzea ez da nahikoa. Ezagutza,
ezagutza zientifikoa barne hartzen duena, lorpen bat da; baldintza batzuk bete behar
dituena ezagutza moduan ulertzeko. Eta ezagutza horrek justifikazio bat behar du: zerbait
jakiteko, argudio egokiak izan behar dira esaten duguna sinistu ahal izateko.
16
Iratxe G.
Beste alde batetik, zientzia garrantzitsua da, mundua eta bere ingurua ezagutzeko
ibilbiderik hoberena delako. Gainera, askotan, ezagutza zientifikoari esker onuragarriak
diren praktikak lortzen ditugu, eragina izan dezakeena gure jarreran.
Adibidez, Lurraren tenperatura nabarmenki gora egiten ari dela baldin badakigu eta
egoera ulertzen badugu, hau ekidin ahal izateko gure jarrera aldatu dezakegu; plastiko
gutxiago erabiliz, birziklatuz…
Adibide honekin jarraituz, hau da, berotze globalarekin eta lehen aipatu dugun
“ilusión de compresión” horrekin, zuk benetan uste duzu berotze globalaren inguruan
zerbait dakizula? Eta informazio hori nondik lortu duzu? Internetetik nagusiki.
Baina ezagutza zientifiko mota desberdinak ezagutzen ditugu. Alde batetik, ezagutza
hutsa edo bere onurarako egokia den ezagutza dugu. Horregatik, helburu hori duten
ikerketa zientifikoak, oinarrizko ikerketa moduan ezagutzen dira.
Bestetik, ikerketa aplikatua dago. Bigarren hau produktu bat garatzeko ezagutza pizten
denean ematen da. Askotan, ikerketa mota hau aurrera eramateko behar den motibazioa
etekina ateratzen duten produktuak sortzea da.
Beraz, zientzia gure inguruan dugun biderik hoberena da mundua ezagutzeko eta ezagutza
horren gainean berrikuntzak egiteko.
Erlijio praktikak ez bezala, zientifikoek naturaz gaindiko erakundeen eragina edo alegoria
literarioak edo kulturalki esanguratsuak diren mitoei heldu gabeko kontzeptuak azaltzen
saiatzen dira.
Jakina, bakoitzak nahi dituen sinisteko moduak dituela, eta badago ezagutza zientifikoan
eta fededuna den jendea edota zientifikoetan sinisten dutenak.
2. Elementuak
a. Sinesmena
b. Justifikazioa
c. Egia
Zientzia gizakiok naturari buruz dugun ezjakintasunari erantzuna aurkitzeko tresna
egokiena da. Filosofoek zientzia hiru elementu nagusietan bereizten dute: sinesmena,
justifikazioa eta egia.
Sinesmena beharrezkoa da ezagutza lortu ahal izateko. Izan ere, ezinezkoa da zerbait
jakitea eta ulertzea sinestea existitzen ez bada.
Halaber, zerbait jakiteko ustearekin ez da nahikoa, justifikazioa behar da. Hau da,
baldintza batzuk bete behar dira sinesmenak ezagutza bilakatzeko. Behin usteak nahiko
justifikatuta daudela, egia lortzen da eta sinesmenak ez dira beharrezkoak.
Galderak
▪ Zer da zientzia?
a. Modu objektibo eta sistematikoan behaketa eta logikaren bitartez lortutako
ezagutza multzoa da.
b. Modu subjektibo eta sistematikoan behaketa eta arrazoimenaren bitartez
lortutako ezagutza multzoa da.
c. Modu objektibo eta sistematikoan logika eta arrazoimenaren bitartez lortutako
ezagutza multzoa da.
d. Modu objektibo eta sistematikoan behaketa eta arrazoimenaren bitartez
lortutako ezagutza multzoa da.
18
Iratxe G.
19
Iratxe G.
20
Iratxe G.
Ebidentzia enpirikoa
Arrazionalismoa VS enpirismoa
John Lock-ek (1636-1704, filosofo eta teoriko liberal ingelesa) eta David Hume-k (1711-
1776, eskoziar filosofo, ekonomista eta historialaria) hau defendatzen zuten.
Hori dela eta, zientziaren eta filosofiaren inguruko eztabaidetan, ezagutzaren inguruan
gaudenean, teoria nagusi moduan orain aipatutako bi mugimendu hauek ditugu.
Teknika matematikoak
Zientzia → jende askoko komunitateen menpe, proiektu komun batzuetan lan egiten
baina ideia, teknika eta ebaluazio ezberdinekin.
Karl Popper
Faltsazionismoa
22
Iratxe G.
Ebidentzialismoa → Pentsaera bat beti ebidentzia batez jarraiturik egon behar dela
defendatzen du.
Zientifikoek, ebidentzia enpirikoak erabiltzen dituzte haien teoriak frogatzeko, baina kasu
batzuetan oso zaila izaten da ebidentzia enpirikoak lortzea teoria jakin batzuk azaltzeko.
Halaber, zientifiko gehienak ados daude ebidentzia zientifikoek teorien sinesgarritasuna
handitzen dutela esatean.
Ebidentzia enperikoak
Korden teoria
Ondorioak zehazten
23
Iratxe G.
Galderak
▪ Enpirismoa …
a. Enpirismoa ezagutzaren iturri bakar edo nagusitzat zentzumenei lotutako
esperientzia hartzen duen teoria filosofikoa da.
b. Laboratoki ikerketan eta horrek pertsona baten egunerokotasunean duen
eraginean oinarruturiko teoria zientifikoa da.
c. Zientziarekin zer ikusirik ez duen teoria filosofikoa.
▪ Ebidentzia…
a. Justifikaturik dagoen edo asmakizun hutsa den informazioaren diferentzia
lortzea rol bezala duen informazioa da.
b. Justifikaturik ez dagoen eta gainera asmakizuna ez den informazioaren
diferentzia lortzea rol bezala duen informazioa da.
c. Aurreko biak okerrak dira.
▪ Ebidentzia enpirikoa..
a. Ebidentzia sentsoriala bezala ere ezagutua da.
b. Esperientzia sentsoriala bezala ere ezagutua da.
c. Esperientzia sentsoriala edo ebidentzia sentsoriala bezala ere ezagutua da.
24
Iratxe G.
▪ Zer da ebidentzialismoa?
a. Pentsaera bat da zientzia beti ebidentzia batez jarraiturik egon behar dela
defendatzen duena
b. Ebidentziak ikertzen dituen zientziaren esparrua
c. Zientziaren adar nagusiena da.
25
Iratxe G.
Normalean zientziari buruz hitz egiten dugunean burura etortzen zaizkigu fisika, kimika
edota medikuntza; hauetaz gain beste zientzia batzuk daude: psikologia, soziologia edo
geografia bezala (agian besteak baino abstraktuagoak edo irekiagoak). Hauei normalean
bigarren mailako garrantzia ematen zaizkie; eta normalean balioespen hau ezezagutzatik
etortzen da...
Gure testua “Defining science” da. Bertan, zientzia definitzen saiatzen da, pseudozientzia
aipatuz eta honekin konparatuz. Eredu nagusia astronomia vs astrologia izanik. Hau dela
eta, zientzia zer den, bere ibilbidea eta zientzia eta pseudzientziaren arteko borroka
eztabaidatuko dugu.
Zientziaren kontzeptuak
Zientzia azaltzeko ez dago definizio zehatzik, esparru asko hartzen dituelako. Baina
hurrengo definizioa gerturatzen da: sistematikoki, egituratuta dagoen ezagutza multzoa.
Informazioa sailkatu eta antolatzen du eta gertatuko dena iragartzen du. Aurre-esanen
baldintzak kontrolatu eta egiaztatzen ditu, ondorioak ateratzeko.
Zientziaren metodologia
- Arazoak planteatu.
- Hipotesiak atera
- Emaitzak errepikagarriak izan.
- Komunitate zientifikoa onartu behar du.
Hasieratik ezagutzen bilketan oinarritzen da. 1550. eta 1700. urteen bitartean emandako
gertakariak zientzia modernoaren eraketa baldintzatu eta Zientzia Iraultza sortu zen.
Iraultza, Nikolas Koperniko teoria heliozentristarekin ( planetak eguzkiaren inguruan
biratzen dutela) hasi zen. Geozentrismoaren teoria suntsitu zuen, XVI. mendean.
26
Iratxe G.
Zientziaren iraultza
Iraultza zientifikoa deritzo, Aro Modernoan eman ziren ideia berriek, aurretiaz ezarrita
zeuden pentsaerei buelta emateko egon zen aurrerakuntza eta aurkikuntza berrien
multzoari.
Hau da, fisikan, astronomian, kimikan eta biologian egindako aurrera pausuek lehen
zeuden oinarriak guztiz deuseztatu ziren. Hori dela eta, iraultza zientifiko hitza erabili zen
gertaera multzo honi izena emateko. Gehien bat XVI eta XVII mendeetan gertatu zen.
Data finkorik ez dagoen arren, iraultza hau Kopernikorekin hasten dela ziurtatzen dute
zientzialari askok.
Zientzia motak
Zientziaren purutasunari buruz bi galdera nagusi ditugu. Ia zer den bereizgarria eta
garrantzitsua zientziaren inguruan, (ezagutza lortu nahi denean) eta ia non jarri behar
ditugun zientzia eta ez-zientziaren arteko mugak.
Zientzia balira bezala azaltzen diren saiakera iruzurti hauei pseudozientzia deitzen
zaizkie.
27
Iratxe G.
Ereduak klasifikatu
➢ Zientzia
o Astronomia: Zeruko objektu edo argizagiak eta Lur atmosferatik kanpo
gertatzen diren fenomenoak aztertzen duen alderdia da.
o Fisika kuantikoa: Materiaren portaera azaltzen duen fisikaren atala
aztertzen duen alderdia da.
o Mikrobilogia: Mikrobio eta mikroorganismoak aztertzen duen biologiaren
atala da.
o Ekonomia: Gizabanakoaren zein gizartearen beharrak asetzeko ondasun
eta zerbitzuen ekoizpena aztertzen duen alderdia da.
o Konputazioa: Informazioaren tratamendu automatikoa aztertzen duen
zientzia/teknika multzoa da.
o Historia: Gizarte Zientzien metodoak erabiliz, iragana aztertzen duen
diziplina da.
o Matematika: Zenbaketa, neurketa eta geometriako kontzeptuetatik
eratorritako kontzeptua abstraktuak aztertzen duen diziplina da.
o Zoologia: Animaliak aztertzen eta ikertzen duen diziplina da.
➢ Pseudozientzia
o Astrologia: Gizakien patua ezagutzen eta aurre-esaten, astroen posizio eta
mugimenduen behaketa da.
o Homeopatia: Sanbide multzo alternatiboa da.
o Alkimia: Doktrina eta fenomeno kimikoen ikerketa esperimentalak
(espirituala)
o Kriptozoologia: Benetan errealak diren demostratu ez diren animalien
ikerketa multzoa da.
o Akupuntura: Medikuntza alternatiboa, gorputzaren leku jakinetan orratzan
jartzean datza.
Astronomia hitza grezieratik dator, astro (izar) + nomos (lege), eta unibertsoaren ikerketa
esan nahi du, zehazki, fenomeno eta zeruko objektuen eboluzio, posizio, dimentsio,
distribuzio, mugimendu eta energiaren azterketa.
28
Iratxe G.
Astronomia zehaztu nahi du zein diren zeruko gorputzen jatorria eta mugimendua
deskribatzen dituzten legeak. Astrologiak ordez, gizakien etorkizuna ezagutzea eta
aurresatea, eta ezagutza horrekin etorkizuneko gertaerak iragartzea helburu duen
sinesmen multzoa da, hau da , pseudozientzia da.
Laburbilduz, astrologia horoskopoei lotuta dago eta astronomia unibertsoa eta argizagiak
aztertzen dituen zientzia.
Hezkuntzaren zerikusia
Ez dago erantzun argi bat bi galdera hauentzat. Ez dago erantzun bat esaten duena
honengatik edo horregatik garrantzitsua da.
Gure ustez, gizartean erosoago bizitzeko, gaur egun teknologiaz baliatzen gara, eta
teknologia hauekin aurrera egiteko zientziaren beharra dugu. Azken finean,
GIZARTEAK AURRERA EGITEKO.
Zientziaren irakaskuntza berezko beharra dauka gure gizartean, horrela herritarrek gai
zientifikoen gainean uste izan, parte hartu eta boto egin ahalko dutelako. Ondo bereizi
behar ditugu irakasle bezala dauden arazo ohikoenak:
29
Iratxe G.
Ondorioak
Ez dugu zientzia bezala bakarrik matematikekin erlazioa dituzten arloak kontuan hartu
behar. Gizarte Zientzietako arloak pareko garrantzia dute, ez dute bata bestearen gainean
zertan egon behar.
Galderak
▪ Zer da pseudozientzia?
a) Zientzia kontsideratzeko bidean dagoen zientzia
b) Zientzia faltsua edo gezurrezko zientzia
c) Existitzen ez den zientzia
d) Oraindik egiaztatu edo frogatu ezin den zientzia
▪ Nicolas Copernico...
a) Kosmosaren teoria heliozentrikoa azaldu zuen.
b) Big Bang teoria azaldu zuen.
c) Grabitatearen teoria azaldu zuen.
d) Termodinamikaren teoria azaldu zuen.
30
Iratxe G.
31
Iratxe G.
Zer da?
Oinarriak
32
Iratxe G.
Helburuak
Metodo zientifikoak benetako egia lortzea bilatzen du ideiak gertaeretara moldatuz eta
horretarako behaketa zein esperimentazioa erabiltzen ditu. Metodoa gertaeretatik
abiatzen da hauek diren bezala deskribatzen saiatuz benetako enuntziatuak egitera
heltzeko.
- Deskribapena
- Azalpena
- Aurresatea
- Kontrola
Ezaugarriak
- Faktikoa - Objektiboa
- Arrazionala - Kontrola
- Frogagarria - Analitikoa
- Errepikagarria - Sistematikoa
- Hizkuntza argia eta zehatza
Faseak
Bizitza luzatzeko teknika zein botikak giza gorputzaren inguruan ezagutza izateari esker
garatu dira. Horrez gain, zientziaz baliatuz eguraldi-iragarpenak egin daitezke, izurriak
kontrolatu eta horrela, janari-ekoizpena handiagotzen da. Zientziari esker autoak,
ordenagailuak, etxetresna elektrikoak eta abar ditugu, hau da, egunero erabiltzen ditugun
objektuak. Beraz, zientzia onuragarria izan da gizakiontzat.
Zientzialariek ez dute modu bakar batean lan egiten eta ez dute bat bestearen atzetik
jarraibide multzo bat aplikatzen. Hala ere, ikerketa guztietan metodo zientifiko izeneko
prozesua defini daiteke eta hurrengo fase hauek ditu.
33
Iratxe G.
1. Problema planteatzea
Adibidez, gasek duten jokabidea aztertu nahi bada eragina duten xehetasun guztiak hartu
beharko dira kontuan, hala nola, tenperatura, presioa eta bolumena. Horrez gain,
beharrezko materialak ere eskura egon beharko dira.
2. Hipotesiak formulatzea
Behin problemaren mugak zehaztu direla, datu eta ikerlanak bildu eta aztertu behar dira.
Aurretik egin diren ikerkuntzak ondo ezagutzea funtsezkoa da aurrera egin ahal izateko.
Gasen azterketaren adibidez hurrengo hipotesi hau egin dezake: «Gas kantitate batek
okupatzen duen bolumena txikitu egingo da, gasaren gaineko presioa handitzen bada».
3. Hipotesiak baieztatzea
Esperimentazioaren bidez hipotesiak egiaztatu egiten dira, hau da, onartu edo baztertu.
Horretarako, saiakuntza ezberdinak diseinatzen dituzte.
Esperimentazioan zehar, magnitude guztiak neurtu behar dira, ahal bezain zehatz. Taulak
oso baliagarriak izan daitezke datuak antolatzeko eta behin hauek eginda, grafikoak
marraz daitezke datuen arteko erlazioa adierazteko.
Esperimentuak beti planteatu behar dira beste edonork ere material berarekin emaitza
berberak lortzeko eran.
Hipotesi bat egitea da behin-behineko azalpen bat ematea behatutako fenomenoari eta
izan ditzakeen arrazoiei.
34
Iratxe G.
4. Ondorioak ateratzea
Datuen analisia eginda ondorioak atera daitezke eta hipotesia zuzena edo okerra den
egiaztatu. Horrela, problema ikuspuntu zientifikotik azaldu daiteke.
Lege zientifikoa erregularki errepikatzen den gertaera edo fenomeno natural bat
matematika-hizkuntzan adierazteko modua da. Elkarri lotuta dauden lege zientifikoek
teoria zientifikoa osatzen dute.
Zientzialari batek lege bat adierazten, perfekzionatzen edo gertaera esperimental bat
egiaztatzen duenean, bere lana ezagutzera eman behar du txosten zientifiko batean.
Mitoa
BAINA, Zientzia metodoen ikuspegitik haratago doa eta begiratzea oso garrantzitsua da
konturatzeko zerk egiten duen zientzia hain fidagarria gure munduaren jakintzaren
ekoizpenean.
Zure hezkuntza prozesuan zehar metodo zientifikoari buruz askotan entzungo zenuen.
Baina zientziak beti metodo zientifikoa erabiltzen duela mito bat da. Izan ere, American
Academy for the Advancement of Science-ren (AAAS) hitzetan, metodo zientifikoa
gaizki ulertua izan ohi da, finkoak eta aldaezinak diren pausuen sekuentzia bezala. Baina
benetan prozesu sortzaile eta oso aldakorra da.
35
Iratxe G.
Hau hobeto ulertzeko adibide bat jartzea gustatuko litzaiguke. Mugitu gaitezen momentu
batez sukalde batera. Errezeta batek osagarri desberdinak ditu: platerraren izena,
osagaiak, kantitateak eta proportzioak, egosketa denbora eta behar diren tramankulu
guztiak platera aurrera eramateko. Baina, nahiz eta jarraibide eta teknika guztiak egin
horrek ez dizu baieztatzen plater gozo bat aterako denik. Askotan osagaien inguruko
jakintzak, egoerara errezeta moldatzeak edota beste sukaldari batekin lankidetzan aritzeak
beharrezkoak dira. Berdin-berdin gertatzen zaio zientziari. Ez dago jarraibide mekaniko
multzo edo pasoz-pausoko prozedura bakarra zientzia “on” bat baieztatzen duena.
Sukaldaritza bezala, prozesu oso aldakor eta sortzailea da.
Galderak
Justifikazioa: Askotan nahasten ditugu ikerketa zientifikoak beste ikerketekin, hau da,
esan ohi dugu ikerketa bat zientifikoa dela zehatz-mehatz jakin gabe zergatik. Hortaz,
galdera honen bidez ikerketa bat zientifikoa izateko izan behar dituen oinarriak argitu
nahi ditugu.
36
Iratxe G.
Justifikazioa: Metodo zientifikoak zenbat fase dituen zehaztea ez da erreza, batzuk 5 edo
8 dituela esaten baitute eta ondorioz zaila da akordio batera iristea, baina hobesten den
erantzuna 4 da.
Justifikazioa: Esperimentu bat egitean, lortutako emaitza erregistratuta gelditu behar da,
edonork horren berri izan dezan. Funtzio hori txosten zientifikoak betetzen du.
37
Iratxe G.
Justifikazioa: Nahiz eta ordena askotan aldatu ikertzen ari den eremuaren eta kasu
bakoitzaren behar zehatzen arabera, badago bat oso zabalduta dagoena, metodo honen
mitoa ulertzeko oso ezaguna den faseen ordena ezagutu behar da.
38
Iratxe G.
Zientzia…
Helburuak
39
Iratxe G.
Curriculuma
- Aukeraketa bat egin: zer irakatsi, zer ez irakatsi, zenbateraino sakondu gai
bakoitza…
- Curriculum on batek → zientzia irakatsi + zientziari buruz irakatsi.
- Zientzia zaila aurkitzen duten ikasleen sentsazioa: gai bat ulertu eta barneratu
baino lehen gaiz aldatzen dutela.
- Zientzia erreza aurkitzen duten ikasleen sentsazioa: beti zer edo zer berria ikasten
ari direla, baina sakondu barik.
Zientziaren bilakaera
Zientzia eskolan
- Eskolan ematen diren edukiak baieztapen nahiko seguruak izaten dira, hau da,
eztabaidarik gabe.
- Ikasleak ez daude prest zientzialari bakoitzak defendatzen dituen argudioei
erantzuteko, hau da, jakitea zein den egokia edo ez.
- Eskolako edukiak, debate zientifikoen “emaitza irabazleak” islatzen dituzte.
40
Iratxe G.
Ondorioak
Galderak
▪ Zientziek badute garrantzia curriculumean?
a. Bai, oso garrantzitsuak dira ia mundu osoan
b. Ez, bigarren mailakoak dira orokorrean
c. Bai, baina soilik Espainia mailan
41
Iratxe G.
42
Iratxe G.
Zientziaren arrakastaren elementu nagusi honek gure munduaren inguruan sortzen duen
jakintzaz gain, giza arrazoiketaren funtsezko akatsen aurka babesten gaituela azaltzen du.
Ezaugarri hauek bi multzotan sailkatuko ditugu jarraian:
Arau hauek zientifikoen gida bezala har ditzakegu, hain zuzen ere, hauen ekintzak egoki
edo desegoki gisa sailkatu ahal izateko.
Plagioa zintzotasun faltaren adibide argia da. Plagioa beste norbaiten ideia, emaitza
zientifiko edo hitzak norberarenak izango balira bezala aurkeztean datza, nahita edo ez.
Zientzian plagioa aurkituz gero, egileak zigorrak jasotzen ditu, hala nola, gabetzea edo
kanporatzea.
Baina, integritate zientifikoa ez da datuen eta ideien faltsutzea edo zure egitea soilik,
zientzialariek interes gatazkak ere ekidin behar dituzte, hau da: ikerketa zientifikoan,
emaitzetan eta agitatzean eragin desegokia izan dezaketen probetxu finantzario edo
pertsonalak saihestu behar dira. Interes gatazka posible batek ez du beti datuen
interpretazio desegoki batera eramaten, baina edozein interes gatazkekiko gardentasunak
gainontzekoek eragin okerrak hobeto ebaluatzea dakar. Interes gatazka batean, batez ere
43
Iratxe G.
ikerketa enpresa baten finantzatuta dagoenean eta finantza-interesa duenean, nahita edo
nahigabe emaitzak aldatzera eman ditzake zientzialariak.
Clair Patterson, Californiako Cat Techeko geokimikoa ezaguna egin zen 1950ean
lurraren adina kalkulatu zuelako. 1960 eta 1970aren artean Pattersonek gasolinatik
beruna kentzeko kanpaina eraman zuen. Beruna oso toxikoa den elementu
kimikoa da eta horrekin ardura handiarekin lan egiten ez bada hilkorra izan ahal
da. Pattersonen kanpaina industria horren etekinak arriskuan jarri zituen, horren
ondorioz, haren aurka joan ziren.
Kehoe bere zientzia sinesgarritasuna erabili egin zuen Freon bezalako kutsatuak
zeuden pertsonei babesa emateko. Ondoren, DuPont, General Motors, eta beste
konpainien arduraduna izan zen minbizi sortzaileak babestuak zeudela erakusten
zuten ikasgaiak sortu ahal izan zezaten.
Esan bezala, hasiera batean ideia zientifikoak faltsuak izan behar dira, eta zientifikoak
prest egon behar dira edozein ideia faltsua izaten bada. Izan ere, batzuetan zientifikoak
hasiera batean gertagaitzak (improvables) irudi daitekeen ideiak barne hartzeko, eta euren
ideien eta metodoen kritikak jasotzeko prest egon beharko lirateke.
44
Iratxe G.
Asmamena (ingenio), hirugarren arau bat da. Zientziak, ideia interesgarri askoren
garapenari etekina ateratzen dio, norbanakoren aurrekontzeptuak hautsiz. Sarritan,
hasiera batean ezinezkoa da esatea zein ideiak izango diren etorkizuneko handikoak eta
zeintzuk ez. Gehienak, (ideia berriak) faltsuak izango dira. Baina, behin eta berriro,
zientzia ezusteko norabideetan joan da, eta hori ezin da gertatu ideia sortzaile berririk
gabe.
Blackawton Bees projektua, adibide harrigarri bat da ikusteko nola asmamenak gida
dezakeen ikerketa zientifikoa. Proiektu honetan, 28 ume (8-10 urte), erlaztarren “ikus-
espazial” trebetasunei buruzko ikerketa zientifiko bat burutu zuten, oftalmologo batek eta
hezitzaile batek ikuskatuta.
Umeek galdetu zioten euren buruari ea nola erlastarrek erabakitzen duten zer loretara joan
behar diren janari bila, eta ea erlastarrek ikas badezaketen aitortzen loreen forma eta
kolore ezberdinak ezberdintzen edo ez.
Orduan umeek, erantzun posibleak pentsatu zituzten, eta euren ideiak frogatzeko
esperimentu sortzaileak diseinatu zituzten. Euren aurkikuntzak, Biological Letters
aldizkari zientifikoan publikatu zituzten.
Ume hauek testigantza emateko gai direnez, arrazoiketa zientifikoa desafiatzailea, argia
eta sortzailea izan behar da.
Aurretik aipatutakoa kontuan izanik hainbat artikuluren ikerketa egin dugu eta hurrengo
honek helarazten zuen mezuak arreta deitu zigun: “Gaixotasunak sendatzea ez da
industria farmazeutikoetarako errentagarria Goldman Sachs-en arabera.”
45
Iratxe G.
sendagaia ez bilatzea askoz errentagarriagoa da, modu horretan gaixoek euren bizitza
osoan zehar tratamendu eta medikamentuak ordaintzen jarrai ditzaten.
Beraz gure galdera hurrengoa da: Non dago empresa farmazeutikoek erabakiak hartzeko
muga? Honekin guztiarekin ondoriozta dezakegu osasuna negozio bat dela eta
inbestatzaileek dirua eskuratzea baino ez dutela bilatzen; beraz, gaixoaren ongizatea ez
da zertan lehentasuna izan.
46
Iratxe G.
2019/09/09
1. GAIA: Materia
1. Litro bat ur dugu ontzi batean, eta beste batean litro bat merkurio. Zeinek
okupatzen du gehien? Zergatik? Zenbat?
47
Iratxe G.
3. Ontzi batean 310cm3 sartzen dira. a) Zenbat litro dira? b) Beste ontzi batean 5mL
sartzen dira. Zenbat litro dira?
a)
b)
Masa eta inertzia daukaten gauza guztiak dira materia, eta espazioan toki bat betetzen
dute; bolumena.
Materia → oxigenoa, nitrogenoa, airea, tenperatura...
Ez-materia → gorrotoa, denbora, laguntasuna…
48
Iratxe G.
2019/09/16
6. Begira ezazu ondoko diseinu hau, non puztuta dagoen puxika orekan dago
balantza batean. Errepresentatu ezazu nola dagoen balantza globoa hustuz gero.
49
Iratxe G.
❖ Frogak balantzekin
7. Demagun bi esfera ditugula: bata 150g eta plastiko gogorrez egindakoa da; bestea,
713g eta metalezkoa da. Bi esferak urez beteriko ontzi batean urperatzen badira,
hurrenez hurren, zeinez altzaraziko du ur maila gehien?
50
Iratxe G.
Beraz… ez dira benetakoak. Kasu honetan, “zilarra” estainua da, eta “urrea” pirita.
Benetako 1cm3 zilarrak → 10’5 gramo pisatzen du. Gure “zilarra” 1cm3 -ko edukierara
pasatzen badugu, 7’3 gramo pisatuko luke.
2019/09/30
Dentsitatea
- Masa → metodo enpirikoa (balantzak)
- Bolumena → hurbilketa aritmetikoa (metodo
enpirikoa)
▪ Materialaren bizipena
▪ Istripu arriskua (kristalak).
51
Iratxe G.
- Kartulinaren masa:
o Hutsik → 1’3 gr.
o Arearekin → 42’7 gr.
- Arearen dentsitatea =
2𝑚𝑚
= 0’28 mm (garau baten diametroa)
7
➢ ATOMOA
Atomoa: existitu daitekeen elementurik txikiena da; hots, materiaren osagai txikienak
dira. Begi hutsez ezin dira ikusi, mikroskopikoak direlako. Gure inguruan dauden
objektu eta gauza guztiak atomoz osatuta daude: gure gorputza, zuhaitz bat, ura, airea,
gure ordenagailua, boligrafo bat, janariak....
Adibideak:
52
Iratxe G.
Demokrito 450 k.a. → Zenbat aldiz zatitu daitekeen gauza bat, atomora ailegatu arte.
Atomoen barruan hiru partikula daude (hidrogenoan izan ezik): protoiak, neutroiak
eta elektroiak:
Elektroiak orbitan - 0
53
Iratxe G.
Protoiak eta neutroiak atomoaren erdialdean daude, bere nukleoan. Elektroiak, berriz,
nukleoaren inguruan, biraka. Hiru partikula horiek, gainera, karga elektriko ezberdina
dute: protoiek, karga positiboa; neutroiek karga neutroa (ez positiboa, ez negatiboa), eta
elektroiek karga negatiboa. Protoiak eta neutroiak elektroiak baino askoz handiagoak
dira.
Partikula horien kopurua da atomoak bereizten dituena. Atomo mota bakoitzak protoi,
neutroi eta elektroi kopuru propioa dauka. Adibidez, sodio atomo batek 11 elektroi, 11
protoi eta 12 neutroi ditu. Oxigeno atomo batek 8 elektroi, 8 protoi eta 8 neutroi.
Karbonoak 6 elektroi, 6 protoi eta 6 neutroi. Hidrogenoa da atomo sinpleena; protoi bat
eta elektroi bat besterik ez ditu (neutroirik ez).
Atomo guztiek protoi eta elektroi kopuru bera dute. Karga elektriko positibo eta
negatiboen kopuru bera, alegia. Horregatik atomoak neutroak dira (ez dute karga
elektrikorik).
Elektroiak → 3
Neutroiak → 4
54
Iratxe G.
➢ MOLEKULA
Molekula: bi atomoz edo gehiagoz osatuta dagoen egitura da. Molekularen barruko atomo
horiek "lotura kimikoak" deitutako indar batzuen bidez daude elkarturik. Elektrikoki neutroa
da molekula.
Molekulen hainbat errepresentazio erabiltzen dira molekulak eta haien forma (edo egitura)
irudikatzeko; sinpleenak formula kimikoak dira: hauek sinbolo bana erabiltzen dute
atomoak irudikatzeko.
Molekula egon dadin, atomoek elkarrekin egon behar dute. Hori gertatzen da bi atomoek
elektroiak partekatzen dituztelako. Atomo batean egon beharrean, elektroia bi atomoen
inguruan mugituko da. Horri lotura kobalentea deritzo. Batzuetan, elektroi bat baino gehiago
dago partekatuta. Elektroi gehiago partekatzen direnean, lotura indartsuagoa lortzen dugu.
Horrela, lotura kobalente bikoitza eta hirukoitza sor dezakegu.
AIREA: nahasketa konplexua da. Airea gehienbat Nitrogenoz osatuta dago (%78).
Oxigenoa ere airearen elementua da (%20). Bestelako elementuak ere aurkitzen ditugu:
Argon, Neon, Helio…
55
Iratxe G.
➢ MATERIA
Materia: unibertsoaren espazio bat okupatzen duen edozein elementu. Masa eta
inertzia daukaten gauza guztiak dira materia, eta espazioan toki bat betetzen dute;
bolumena.
Mundu honetako gauza guztiak materiaz eginda daude. Zure inguruan ikusten duzuna,
baita ikusten ez duzuna ere, materia da. Hiru egoeretan aurki dezakegu: solidoa, likidoa
eta gaseosoa. Baina, zer da materia? zerez eginda dago? Materia osatzen duten unitateei
atomo deitzen zaie. Atomo hauek elkartzen direnean, molekula bat sortzen dute.
Guztira 109 atomo edo elementu kimiko desberdinak daude.
56
Iratxe G.
2019/10/01
- Isotopo: protoi kopuru berbera baina neutroi kopuru ezberdina duten atomoak
dira.
H → 1 pisu atomiko
O → 16 pisu atomiko
Ur molekula (H2O) bakoitzak, hiru
atomo ditu: 2 hidrogeno eta oxigeno
bat. Oxigenoaren tamaina,
hidrogenoarena baino 16 aldiz
handiagoa izan beharko litzateke,
izan ere, oxigenoaren pisi/masa atomikoa 16 da, eta hidrogenoarena 1. Zenbaki
atomikoak tamaina islatzen du.
e- → elektroi -
57
Iratxe G.
58
Iratxe G.
daramate, baina beroarekin partikula horiek azkarrago mugitzen dira. Ondorioz, talkak
handitzen dira, beraz espazio gehiago/handiago okupatzera behartuta daude. Fenomeno
honi dilatazio deritzogu.
Dilatazio prozesu honetan, airearen masa kantitatea ez da aldatu, baina bolumena bai.
Barruan zegoen aire dentsitatea txikitu da. Hortaz, aire beroa, aire hotzaren gainean
jartzen da.
➢ Lakasitoak
* Aldi berean, bi lakasito sartu ditugu petri kutxatila ezberdinetan: ur hotzean eta ur
beroan.
Denborarekin, lakasitoen
kolorea barreiatzen
(dispersar) joan da. Baina,
ur beroarekin kolorea
arinago joan da.
Esperimentuaren prozesua:
➢ MATERIAREN ALDAKETAK
Dakigunez, materia aldatzen da. Gauza batzuk deformatu egiten dira tiratuz gero. Beste
batzuk handiagotu egiten dira berotuz (dilatatu). Beste batzuetan bi substantzia elkartuz
gero, beste batzuk sortzen dira.
59
Iratxe G.
- Dilatazioak
- Deformazioak (plastilina)
- Kimikoak → substantzien izaera aldatzen da. Erreakzio eta produktu kimikoak →
erreakzio kimikoak
- Errekuntza
- Herdoiltzea
- Nuklearrak
Mugimendu hauek, tenperaturaren araberakoak dira, hots, zenbat eta tenperatura altuagoa
izan, orduan eta mugimendu handiagoa emango da.
Lakasitoen barruan dauden molekulak mugimenduan daude (ur hotzarekin ikusi). Baina
tenperatura handiagoa bada, hauek arinago mugituko dira (ur beroarekin). Mugimenduak,
tenperaturaren araberakoak dira; hots, zenbat eta tenperatura altuagoa, orduan eta
partikulen mugimendua handiagoa izango da. Honen adibidea lakasitoen esperimentua
da.
Dilatazioa → aire masa kantitatea ez da aldatu, baina dentsitatea txikitu da. Aire beroak,
aire hotzaren gainean jartzen da, eta hutsik dauden lekuak okupatzen ditu,
airea dilatatu egin delako. Prozesu honetan, airearen masa kantitatea ez da
aldatzen, baina haren bolumena, aldiz, bai.
60
Iratxe G.
2019/10/14
- Molekula: ez da homogeneoa
- Atomoa
➢ DILATAZIOA
4. Denbora pasa ostean, bolak tenperatura galduko du, beraz berriz ere eraztunetik
pasatuko da. Uzkurdura suertatu da → beroa galtzen badu, dilatazioaren kontrakoa
gertatuko da; partikulak gutxiago mugituko dira, gorputza hoztuko da, eta ondorioz haren
bolumena txikituko da.
61
Iratxe G.
+ dilatatu - dilatatu
❖ Aurreko zuloa itxita eta enboloa aurrera bultzatuz, zer gertatuko zaio
puxikari?
Hipotesiak:
Puxika
Enboloa ez da mugituko
Puxika handituko da
Ez da ezer gertatuko
SOLIDO
Likidotu
Urtu(ura)
LIKIDO GAS
Ebaporatu
Lurrundu (ura)
62
Iratxe G.
63
Iratxe G.
egitean, gas izatera pasatzen dute, airearen atal bat izanez. Modu honetan, kamiseta
lehortzen da. Tenperatura (bibrazio mugimenduen ondorioz, abiadura) oso altua izango
balitz, H2O eta aire molekulak azkarrago mugituko lirateke, beraz azkarrago lehortuko
litzateke kamiseta.
➢ ERREKUNTZA
Azkar samarra den eta izaera exotermikoa duen erreakzio kimiko oro dela uler daiteke.
Erreakzio hau fase gaseosoan zein heterogeneoan (likido-gas, solido-gas) gerta daiteke
eta ez du derrigorrez oxigenoaren presentzia zein sugarren agerpena inplikatzen.
➢ SISTEMA IREKIA
0. egoera
64
Iratxe G.
➢ SISTEMA ITXIA
1. Egoera
2019/10/21
65
Iratxe G.
❖ Pintzela: kapilaritatea
Hala ere, pintzela uretan sartzen badugu, ileak sakabanatzen dira, siku dagoenean bezala.
Uraren gainazal tentsioaren eraginez gertatzen da. Pintzel busti batean, gainazal
tentsioak pintzelaren zurdak lotzen dituen mintz baten antzera jokatzen du. Izenak berak
dioen bezala, gainazaleko tentsioa uraren gainazalean agertzen da, eta, horregatik,
pintzelaren zurdak sakabanatuta egoten dira uretan.
➢ KAPILARITATEA
Hodia uran sartu dugu, baina hodiaren barruan ur gehiago sartu da; hau da, altuera
gehiago hartu du. Fenomeno honi kapilaritatea deritzogu.
Beraz, likidoak nahiago du kristalaren parean egon, ur molekulen parean egon baino.
Ondorioz, ura garraiatu egiten da kristalaren barruan.
Kapilaritatearen eraginez.
Adibidez, makala erreka aldeetan egon ohi da. Hostoaren peduntulua (barruko aldea)
hodiz osatuta dago. Bertan, kapilaritatea ematen da. Landarearen pareta zelularrak hodiak
egotea baimentzen du. Sustraietatik fluitua (ura) abiatzen da. Ura gastatu den tokira
igotzen da ur berria, kapilaritatearen bidez.
67
Iratxe G.
❖ Errekuntza-prozesua
Edalontzi bat hartu eta kandela tapatu dugu. Itzaltzen denean, edalontzia altxatu dugu eta
txiskeroa hurbildu dugunean (metxa ukitu gabe), kandela berriz piztea lortu dugu.
Zergatik?
Erregaia: erre daitekeen substantzia, oxidatzen dena eta prozesuan askatutako beroa
nagusiki bero moduan askatzen duena.
Produktuak:
68
Iratxe G.
2. GAIA: flotagarritasuna
* Elementu solido bat, likido egoeran sartzen denean, bietako bat gertatzen da:
SUSPENTSIOA DISOLUZIOA
Cola Cao Nesquik
* Laborategian, nahasketak disoluzioak izan behar dira; suspentsioak ekidin behar dira.
H2O (ura)
Olioa
Alkohola
Fairy
69
Iratxe G.
2019/10/28
➢ DENTSITATEA
Dentsitatea: gorputz batek erakusten duen masa eta bolumenaren arteko erlazioa da.
D = m/v
Aurreko esperimentuari erreparatuz, alkohola eta ura, nahiz eta dentsitate ezberdinak
izan, nahas daitezke. Beraz, esperimentua egiteko, olioa bitartekari bezala agertu behar
da.
Halos → gatza
Klina → muga
Adibidez, ozeanoan dauden ur guztiak gazitasun ezberdina du.
H2O + gatza
70
Iratxe G.
- 1’2 g/mL -ko dentsitatea duen arrautza bat botatzen badugu, flotatuko du?
Izoztutako
Olioa ura
Ura
Izoztutako
olioa
71
Iratxe G.
Demagun balantza bat orekan dagoela eta platertxo batean ontzi bat dagoela, hain zuzen
ere argizari likidoa duena. Argizaria apurka-apurka solidotuz joango da. Zertan eragingo
du solidotze prozesu honek balantzaren egoeran?
➢ FLOTAGARRITASUNA
- Urak baino dentsitate txikiagoa duten gorputzek flotatu egiten dute uretan.
- Urak baino dentsitate handiagoa duten gorputzek hondoratu egiten dira uretan.
Uraren dentsitatea 1 g/𝑐𝑚3. Gorputz baten dentsitatea txikiagoa bada 1 g/𝑐𝑚3 baino,
flotatu egingo du. Bestela, hondoratuko da.
Objektuek ez dute flotatzen uretan bakarrik, beste likidoetan edo airean ere flota
dezakete. Adibidez, helioak airea baino dentsitate txikiagoa du eta horregatik airean
flotatzen du.
72
Iratxe G.
FLUITUA OBJEKTU
A
1. dentsitate dentsitate = objektuak flotatu
★ HALOKLINA
Ur hotza
Goian ur beroa
Ur beroa geratu da.
(gorriz
Zergatik? Aurreko esperimentua ondo atera dadin, ur hotza behean egon behar da, ur
beroak gehiago flotatzen duelako. Izan ere, ur beroak dentsitate gutxiagoa du ur hotzak
baino.
73
Iratxe G.
Bestalde, bi edalontzietan ur masa berdina jarriz gero (bata hotza eta bestea beroa izanik),
ur hotzak gutxiago okupatzen du, haren molekulak elkartuagoak daudelako. Aldiz, ur
beroak bolumen gehiago okupatzen du, euren molekulak sakabanatuagoak daudelako.
❖ Zergatik NY eta Bilbo, lerro paralelo berean egon arren, NY-en dauden
elurteak askoz ere nabarmenagoak/handiagoak dira?
74
Iratxe G.
Puxika aeroestatikoak bolumen bat dauka, eta berotu ostean bere bolumena handitzen da,
beraz dilatazioaren ostean, flotagarritasuna handituko da. Dentsitatea aldatzen da, bere
flotagarritasunaren gainean eragina izanda.
75
Iratxe G.
* deformazioa
Orain masa aldatu egin da, itsasontziaren barruan airea dagoelako. Bolumena ere aldatu
egin da, horrenbestez dentsitatea aldatu da. Baina… Zergatik? desplazatzen duten ura
baino gutxiago pisatzen dutelako. Itsasontzi bat oso pisutsua izan daiteke, baina barrutik
hutsik dagoenez (airez beterik), guztira desplazatzen duen ura baino arinagoa da. Hau
Arkimedes-en printzipioa da.
Adibidez, Titanic-a altzairuz egina zegoen, eta altzairuak ura baino dentsitate handiagoa
du, baian barruan airez beteta zegoenez, flotatzen zuen. Hala ere, ura sartzean, hondoratu
zen.
76
Iratxe G.
Airea duelako.
Hondoratzen da
Flotatzen du
Laranjaren dentsitatea, uraren dentsitatea baino txikiagoa denez, laranja flotatzen du.
Laranjaren ¼ zurituta dago. Laranjari masa kenduz, flotagarritasuna txikitu eta zurituta
dagoen aldearen dentsitatea handitzen da. Beraz, zurituta dagoen aldeak hondoratzeko
joera hartzen du.
Laranja zuritu egin dugu, bai kanpoko azala, bai barrukoa. Gorputzaren masa/azala
flotadorea kenduta hondoratuko da. Izan ere, laranjak urak baino dentsitate handiagoa
eskuratu du.
Behin laranja azalik gabe dugula, fluituari (urari) dentsitatea aldatu beharko diogu;
laranjak berriz ere flota dezan. Ondorioz, fluitua (ura) gatzarekin nahastu beharko dugu,
modu honetan, gazitasun ezberdineko urak elkartu eta haloklina sortuko genuke. Horrela,
laranjak berriz ere flotatuko luke.
77
Iratxe G.
2019/11/04
❖ Deskartes-en deabrutxoa
bolumena =
1 2
bic
boligrafo
urez
betetako
Botila urez beteta dago, eta goiko partean boligrafo bat aurkitzen da (mina gabe). Botila
estutzean, boligrafoa hondoratu da, baina berriz askatzean gora egin du. Zergatik?
1. egoera
2. egoera
Hondoratzeko botila estutzen dugu eta botilaren barruko presioa handitzen da. Ondorioz,
(presioa asko handitu dugunez) aukera bakarra aire hau konprimatzea da. Ondorioz, ura
sartu egiten da boligrafoaren barruan. Orduan ur maila handitzen da. Orain dentsitatea
kalkulatuko bagenu berdin egingo genuke, baina kontuan hartu behar dugu orain ur
kantitate gehiago dagoela, beraz, dentsitatea = 1 g/cm3 baino handiagoa da (hondoratzen
da).
78
Iratxe G.
Kontuan hartu:
Ondorioak: plastilina sartu dugu boligrafoaren kapelan, eta klip pare bat barruan. Masa
handitzean dentsitatea ere handituko da, beraz boligrafoa hondoratuko da.
Dentsitatea 1g/cm3 -ra hurbildu behar dugu, emaitzak hobeto ikusteko. Botilak topera
bete, bestela goiko airea konprimatuko dugu, eta emaitzak txikiagoak izango dira.
79
Iratxe G.
❖ Urpekontzia
Hondoratu baino lehen, konpresore batzuk daude beheko aldean; hots, aire
konprimatutako betetako botila modukoak. Aire hori, ganbaretan sartuko da eta ura
kanporatuko du.
Laburbilduz:
80
Iratxe G.
2019/11/05
• Objektu bat zenbat eta handiagoa izan, orduan eta gehiago erakarriko ditu beste
objektuak. Adibidez, Eguzkiak masa oso handia duenez, Lurrak baino grabitate indar
handiagoa du, Lurrak masa txikiagoa baitu. Hauts izpi batek ere badu grabitate-
indarra, baina oso txikia, noski.
• Objektuak elkarrengandik zenbat eta urrutiago egon, orduan eta gutxiago erakarriko
dute elkar.
• Objektu batek grabitateari esker lortzen duen abiadurak ez du objektuaren masarekin
(zamarekin) zerikusirik.
Imanen artean gertatzen den erakarpen-indarra desberdina da, eta magnetismoa du izena.
Newtonen legeak, gorputzen higidura azaltzeko erabiltzen diren hiru printzipio dira.
1. Legea: inertzia-legea
Objektu batek bere egoeran jarraitzen du (geldirik edo higidura zuzen eta uniformea
eramanez) indarrik egiten ez bada edo indar totala 0 denean.
Gorputz bat mugimenduan egoteko indar bat aplikatu behar zaio. Beraz, bere hasierako
egoera aldatzeko beharrezkoa da indar bat edo indar multzo bat agertzea. Newtonen
arabera, mugimenduan dagoen gorputz oro marruskadura- edo igurzte-indarren menpe
dago eta indar horiek gorputza geldiaraztea eragiten dute.
Mugimenduan dagoen gorputz bat geldiarazteko bere gain indar bat aplikatu behar da.
Pausagunean dagoen gorputz baten abiadura zero izango da, eta horri indar neto bat
aplikatuz gero, abiadura aldatuko da.
81
Iratxe G.
2. Legea: indarra-legea
3. Legea: akzio-erreakzio
* Baldintza idealetan.
a)
b) 1. Noraino helduko litzateke erortzen
uzten bada?
c)
C punturaino, hasierako altuera berdinera.
d)
82
Iratxe G.
➢ INERTZIA
Adibidez, kotxe batean bagoaz, kotxe horrek daraman abiadura hartuko dugu. Kotxea
gelditzen bada, guk aurrera jarraitzeko joera izango dugu, abiadura berdinean jarraitzeko
joera dugulako. Newton-ek honi inertzia deitu zion.
❖ Nola moztuko zenuke paper zati bat makila edo biribilkia ukitu gabe?
Definizioa: objektu, gorputz, materiaz osatutako edozein elementu… bat duen erresistentzia
mugimendu egoeran jarraitzeko joera da, beste gorputz batekin interakzio bat duen arte.
83
Iratxe G.
Interakzioaren adibideak:
Talka
Marruskadura
Objektu 2 behar dira hauek emateko.
Grabitatea
Kontaktuzkoak
Magnetismoa
Distantzian
...
* Newton-en sagarrari bueltatuz → lurrak sagarra erakartzen du, euren artean soka
imaginario bat egongo balitz bezala.
➢ 3. LEGEA: AKZIO-ERREAKZIO
Ezinezkoa da. Guk bera ukitzen dugun momentuan, berak gu ere ukitzen gaitu.
Talka egingo dutela argi dago, baina zein puntuan? d) puntuan, erdian.
Interakzioak beti dira ELKARKARIAK; hau da, objektu batek, beste bati interakzio bat
egiten dionean, biek pairatuko dituzte ondorio berdinak = interakzio berdina.
84
Iratxe G.
❖ Txanponaren esperimentua
Ondorioak ezberdinak dira; txanpona desplazatzen da, eta honen interakzioa nahiko ahula
denez Lurra planetarako, hau ez da mugitzen (Lurra planeta).
➢ GRABITATEA
Objektuen artean sortzen den indar bat da, objektu horiek elkarrengana erakartzen dituena.
Espazioan dauden objektu guztiek (eguzkiek, planetek, etab.) beste objektu batzuk
erakartzen dituzte grabitate-indarraren eraginez.
Hori gertatzen da, adibidez, Lurraren eta Eguzkiaren artean, edota, lurrak erakarrita,
zuhaitzetik lurrera erortzen diren sagarrekin; grabitateak halako indar batez erakartzen ditu
objektu guztiak lurraren erdialderantz; horregatik erortzen dira, halako pisua dutelako.
85
Iratxe G.
Espazioan, berriz, zeruko gorputzen (planeta, ilargi, satelite, kometa eta abarren) orbitak
existitzen dira grabitatearen ondorioz. Hau da, Eguzkia gure planetatik milioika kilometrora
egon arren, Lurra eta eguzki sistemako beste planeta eta objektuak erakarri egiten ditu eta
horregatik haren jiran mugitzen dira; bestela, espazioan libreki mugituko lirateke, lerro
zuzenean. Bestetik, planetak ez dira Eguzkirantz erortzen, abiadura handiz mugitzen direlako
beren orbitetan.
2019/11/11
Inertziaren ondorioz,
aurrera jarraitzeko joera
du.
Lurra
Interakzioak elkarkariak dira, beraz planeta
gutxienez bi interakzio egon behar
dira. INTERAKZIO 1 = GEZI 1
- Pilotaren masa zentroa eta Lurra planetaren artean dagoen distantzia: norabidea-
- Lurraren masa zentroari begira: norantza >
- Magnitudea
86
Iratxe G.
- Bietan harri bat jarri da erdian. Zer nolako ibilbidea egingo dute harriek?
1. EGOERA 2. EGOERA
- Masaren arabera
Bi gorputzen masak oso ezberdinak badira, ondorioak ere oso ezberdinak izango dira:
txanpona eta Lur planeta froga.
Masa zentroa: gorputz bakoitzean, pisua puntu bakar batean aplikatzen da; puntu horri
masa zentroa deritzogu.
Gorputz erregular baten masa, puntu batean elkartzen badugu, indar hori gorputzaren erdian
kontzentratuko litzateke; adibidez Lurra planetan: nukleoan. Baina gorputza irregularra
denean, gauzak konplikatzen dira.
Newton-en arabera, interakzioak soka batekin lotuta egongo balira bezala moldatzen dira,
baina soka hori ez da existitzen.
87
Iratxe G.
* Bi pertsona aterako dira, eta euren atzamarraren bidez irudian dugun gorputza
mantenduko dute orekan. Batek, botila izango du oinarri, eta besteak kontrakoa.
* Baldintza
ezberdinak
Erratz
makila
Harriak
- Non dago masa zentroa? masa gehien kontzentratzen den puntutik gertu.
❖ Froga
88
Iratxe G.
➢ MAGNITUDE BEKTORIALAK
* Kandela ez da mugitzen, mahaia dagoelako. Beraz, mahaiari interakzio bat egingo dio
ere.
2019/11/12
89
Iratxe G.
baina abiadurarik ez badu; hots, geldi badago; hots, mugimendu kantitatea 0 bada, geldi
jarraituko du).
Galderan ez du zehazten mugimenduan dagoen edo ez, beraz erantzuna hurrengoa da:
mugimenduan badago, eta ez badago interakzio gehiagorik, inertziaren ondorioz
mugimenduan jarraituko litzateke, beraz bai. A puntutik B puntura mugitzeko behar
duena inertzia da.
90
Iratxe G.
❖ Metroa → inertzia
Penduluak atzerantz egingo du. Honek inertzia bat du → geldi dago eta geldi jarraitzeko
joera du. Bere mugimendu kantitatea 0 da, eta horrela jarraitzeko joera du.
Penduluak aurrera egingo du. Honek inertzia bat du → mugimenduan dago eta
mugimenduan jarraitzeko joera du.
91
Iratxe G.
* Bektorea: gezia
92
Iratxe G.
2020/01/29
Airerik ez badago:
Zer egin dezake? Airean egon aurretik, abiadura handia hartu, inertzia handiagoa
izateko.
2. Azaldu ezazu arrazoiekin zer gertatuko den egoera honetan (bai kamioneta bai
irristagailuak dituen gizona geldi daude, eta kamionetari bultzada ederra emango
dio).
93
Iratxe G.
Azelerazioa: mugimendu kantitatearen aldaketa bat une batean ematen da: hasiera batean
mugimendu kantitatea 0 zen (0m/s), baina bien arteko interakzioaren ondoren, abiadura
lortu dute bi gorputzek (pertsonak eta pilotak). Beraz, azelerazioa ematen da.
4. Gezien bidez, esplika ezazu egoera honetako indar guztiak (pertsonak bultzatzen
du, baina kutxa ezin du mugitu).
Unitate bektorialak
94
Iratxe G.
5. Irudian pertsona batek pilota paretaren kontra bota duela adierazten da. Esplika
ezazu suertatzen diren indarrak pilotak jotzen duenean paretaren kontra.
Ondorioak:
Mantelaren adibidea.
7. Marrazkian kurba batean doan kotxe bat irudikatzen da. Atzeko aldean baloi bat
dago, eserlekuaren gainean eta lotu gabe. Mugituko ote da? Zergatik?
- Kantitate
- Norabide
- Norantza: honetan aldaketa bat egon da.
95
Iratxe G.
❖ Azelerazioa
Demagun auto batek Ugaotik Getxora 60km/h -ko abiaduran doala. Getxora ailegatu eta
buelta eman du abiadura aldatu gabe.
Demagun 60km/h -ko abiaduran doan kotxe batek, bat-batean 30 km/h -ko abiadurara
aldatu da. Azelerazioa dago? BAI, abiadura kantitatea aldatu egin delako.
- Norabide
- Norantza
- Kantitate
2020/02/03
Interakzio =
Norantza =
Norabidea =
Ondorioak =
96
Iratxe G.
Interakzio berdina pairatuko dute, baina ondorioak ezberdinak izango dira. Masa
ezberdina dutenez, orduan inertzia ezberdina dute.
Masa gehiago duen gorputzak → inertzia gehiago dauka. Beraz, pairatuko duten
mugimendu kantitate aldaketa (azelerazioa) ezberdina da.
97
Iratxe G.
98
Iratxe G.
9. Trena mugimenduan dago, eta zu barruan zaude. Txanpona botako duzu gora.
Eskuan eroriko zaizu? Arrazoi ezazu zure erantzuna aintzat hartuz bidaian zehar
izan daitezkeen egoera ezberdinetan (tren geltokien artean, kurbetan, eta bidaia
hasten den unean ala amaitzean).
Barrutik:
- Tren geltokien artean: jaurtitzen duen pertsonak gora eta behera egiten duela
ikusiko du: mugimendu zuzen eta uniforme batean. Izan ere, txanponak, trenaren
abiadura hartu du.
- Kurbetan: txanponak alboetara egingo du. Honek inertzia bat du → mugimenduan
dago (trenaren abiaduran) norabide batean, eta mugimenduan eta norabide
horretan jarraitzeko joera du.
- Bidaia hasten den unean: txanponak atzerantz egingo du. Honek inertzia bat du →
geldi dago eta geldi jarraitzeko joera du. Bere mugimendu kantitatea 0 da, eta
horrela jarraitzeko joera du.
- Amaitzean: txanponak aurrerantz egingo du. Honek inertzia bat du →
mugimenduan dago (trenaren abiaduran) eta mugimenduan jarraitzeko joera du.
Kanpotik:
99
Iratxe G.
Objektua jauzi egiten da, baina jauzi egiten ari den une oro,
lurra bueltaka dabilenez eta biribila denez, ez du lurra topatzen.
Hala ere, polbora gutxirekin eroriko da, eta lurra topatuko du.
Aldiz, polbora gehiagorekin urrunago heltzen da.
Iristen da momentu bat, non abiadura nahikoa lortzen duen, objektua etengabe jausten
dago lurraren atzean, topatzen ez duelako. Egoera horretan dauden objektuak orbitan
daude.
Gero eta indar gehiagorekin bota, orduan eta denbora gehiago emango du lurreratzen.
Abiadura bertikala handitzen den heinean, askoz ere denbora gehiago behar du, oso
handia den abiadura horizontala orekatzeko.
Objektua jaisten ari da pisua duelako, eta grabitatea dagoelako, lurrarekiko interakzio
bat duelako, eta interakzio horren ondorioz, objektua etengabe jaisten da. Inertzia bat du,
abiadura horizontalean, eta jaisten da abiadura bertikalean.
100
Iratxe G.
11. Horra hor gizakiak eginiko lehenengo globoaren marrazkia (Pilatre de Roziers
eta the Marquis d’Arlandes eraiki eta erabili zuena). Esplika ezazu gora doanean
globoak nozitzen dituen indarrak eta hauen jatorria.
Objektu bat berotzen dugunean, bere
bolumena handitzen da, baina bere
Balbula masa konstante jarraitu egiten du.
12. Marrazkian azaldu gura da masa ezberdineko objektuak aldi berean erortzen
direla. Eztabaida ezazu adierazpen honen zuzentasuna.
Ilargian, zer esango zenuke erortzen dela azkarrago, mailu bat edo
luma bat? Biak batera eroriko litzateke. Ilargian grabitate ahulago
bat dago (Lurraren azelerazioaren seigarren bat), baina ez dagoena
atmosfera da, eta, beraz, ez dago airearen erresistentziarik.
Astronauta bat indar gehiagorekin erakartzen du Lurrak Ilargiak baino; hori hala da
Lurraren grabitate-erakarpena ilargiarena baino askoz indartsuagoa delako, eta hori lurra
ilargia baino askoz astunagoa delako gertatzen da. Zehazki, Lurraren erakarpen-indarra
Ilargiarena baino sei aldiz handiagoa da gutxi gorabehera. Horren ondorioz, astronauta
batek 60 kilo pisatzen badu Lurrean, Ilargian 10 kg besterik ez du pisatzen, nahiz eta
haren masa berdina izan leku batean eta bestean. Horregatik, Ilargian ibili diren
astronautek oso jauzi edo salto handiak egiten zituzten, oso poliki gainera.
101
Iratxe G.
13. Oina eta baloiaren arteko interakzioaren ondorioz gertatuko den azelerazioa
esplika ezazu a) eta b) egoeretan.
A egoeran:
Bi oinek masa berdina dute, baina mugitu beharreko objektuek ez, beraz emaitza berdina
lortzeko, interakzioak ezberdinak izan beharko dira. Edo, interakzio berdina eginez,
ondorioak ezberdinak izango dira.
102
Iratxe G.
15. Gezien bidez, ondoko egoera hauetan azal ezazu nora doazen a) objektuaren
abiadura eta b) objektuaren azelerazioa. Paraxutaren kasuan, egon daiteke egoera
batean non azeleraziorik ez duen, erortzen bada ere?
103
Iratxe G.
2020/02/10
❖ Libragailua
Nola funtzionatzen du?
- Objektua geldi dago.
- Lurrarekin interakzioan dago (gorriz).
- Zergatik ez da lurrarekin azeleratzen? Beste
interakzio bat dago gora (berdez). Airearekin
zerikusia du, baina ez dago airearekin
interakzioan. Orduan, zein airearekin?
Libragailuaren barruan dagoen airearekin.
Libragailua paretaren aurka bultzatu dugunean, barruan dagoen airea ateratzen dugu.
Ondorioz, goma txikituta bezala geratzen da paretaren kontra. Presioa egiten uzten
dugunean, gomak bere jatorrizko itxura berreskuratu nahi du, beraz, barruan dauden
molekulak behartuta daude ahal duten baino espazio gehiago okupatzera. Barruko aireak
dago tiraka ezkerrerantz.
Zer suertatzen da? Objektua beheraka azeleratzeko bidean dago, baina ezin da mugitu,
goraka beste interakzio bat tiratzen diolako → interakzio hori: aireak bere barrurantzako
tiraketa prozesuaren atzean, marruskadura indarra ematen da.
Adibidez: bi eskuak igurtzi egiten ditugunean, bata bestearen aurka egiten dugu.
Interakzio hori desberdina da, baldin eta bi eskuak estutu egiten baditugu indar handiz.
Gero eta estutasun indar hori handiagoa bada (marruskadura handiagoa bada) → une
honetan daukagun mugimendu honen aurkako marruskadura indarra handiagoa da.
Horrek ekidin egiten du mugimendua. Libragailuaren kanpoko atmosferaren eta
egituraren barruko presio baxuko barrunbearen arteko presio-diferentziak eusten dio
bentosari gainazalean itsatsita.
104
Iratxe G.
❖ Magdeburgeko hemisfera
- Airea kendu dugunean, molekula gutxiago daude, orduan molekula hauek behartuta
daude erabiltzeko duten baino askoz ere leku gehiago.
Molekula gutxi → leku handian → leku guztia okupatu behar.
105
Iratxe G.
➢ PRESIOA
• C puntuan.
• 0m-tan, 1 atmosferako
presioa dago. Hodi bat hartuko
bagenu eta atmosfera bukatzen
den lekuan kokatuko bagenu,
gainean dagoen aire kantitateak,
1 atmosferako presioa egingo
luke ingurune guztian; leku
guztietatik.
Adibidez, Gorbeia mendira joango bagina eta motxilan “Los Leones” pakete bat sartuko
bagenu, tontorrera igota, poltsa handituko litzateke.
106
Iratxe G.
Presio aldaketa bat dagoelako. Ñabardura hori, presioa asko jaisten denean edo asko
igotzen denean gertatzen da.
Urak, airea baino askoz ere presio handiago egiten du. Izan ere, hobe dugu gure gainean
10km aireko zutabe bat izatea, ureko 10km-ko zutabea izatea baino.
Uran jaisten garen 10m bakoitzeko, 1 atmosfera jaisten dugu. Orduan 20m-ko sakoneran
dagoen urpekari batek, 2 atmosferako presioa pairatzen du. -100m → 10 atm.
Egoera zaildu egiten da, gora egin nahi dugunean. Behin arnasten gaudenean (botilekin),
aire erregulatua etortzen da gure birikietara, behar dugun presioan. Aire hori, biriketan
sartzen da, eta birikietatik gure “saietara” pasatzen da.
11 atmosferako presioan gaudela (-110m), eta arineketan gora egin nahi badugu, burbuila
horiek egoera likidotik egoera gaseosora pasatzen dira gure odolaren barruan, eta
ondorioz, deskonpresio fenomeno horretan aire burbuilak odol-sistemaren barruan izatea
ez da batere ona. Aire burbuila horiek, handiagotzen diren heinean, enboliak… sortzen
dira.
Aire presio horiek ekiditeko, goraka egiten den prozesua oso astiro egin behar da.
Odolean dagoen aire presio hori kentzeko: deskonpresioa.
107
Iratxe G.
2020/02/24
❖ Kandela
Edalontzia kandelaren gainean jartzean, kandela itzali da, O2-a agortu delako. Ondoren,
ura sartu da edalontzian eta platerraren maila gainditu du.
Kandela amatatu egiten denean, tenperatura jaisten da berriro eta kontraitzen da.
Kontraitzen denean, okupatzen duen baino leku gutxiago okupatzera behartuta dago.
Nork okupatzen du leku hori? Horrenbestez, ura xurgatzen du.
Airea
Tenperatura gora
Dilatazioa (bolumena)
Tenperatura behera
Kontrakzioa
108
Iratxe G.
❖ Arrautza
- Ondorioz, aireak okupatzen duen baino leku gehiago okupatzera behartuta dago.
Horrenbestez arrautza sartu egin da.
- Poxpoloa amatatu denean, tenperatura jaitsi da, eta kontraitu da, (airea konprimatzen
hasten da) beraz orain okupatzen duen baino leku gutxiago okupatzera behartuta dago.
Aire beroak uzten duen espazioa hartzen du arrautzak.
109
Iratxe G.
0 egoera
Lata berotu dugu beheko partetik. Jarraian, ur hotzean sartu dugu buruz behera (zuloa
uran).
Lata berotzean, barruan dagoen airea dilatatu da, beraz lataren bolumena handitu da.
Barruko aire dilatatua, ihes egiten du, eta momentu horretan, ura sartzean, lataren barruko
airea hozten da, beraz kontrakzio bat pairatzen du.
Aireak okupatzen duen lekua, urak okupatzeko joera du (lataren barruan). Izan ere, zuloa
hain txikia denez, eta modu bortitzean suertatzen denez, lataren aluminiozko paretak ezin
dute asko aguantatu barruan sortzen den hutsune hori (minus prezio hori), beraz lata
kolapsatzen da → inplosioa.
2020/03/02
0 egoera
110
Iratxe G.
Konpresorea kentzerakoan, laino bat sortu da (botilaren barruan), eta zulotik airea
ateratzen hasi da. Ondorioz, tenperatura berriz jaitsi da: 18ºC.
Presioa, bortizki jaisten dugunean, gas egoeran dauden ur molekulak kondentsatzen dira,
eta likido egoerara pasatzen dira. Likido egoeran dauden molekula horiek ikusgai dira
(hodei baten modukoak).
* Beste modu batean: presioa jaisten da hain arin, ezen, atmosfera horretan dauden gas
egoeran dauden ur molekula asko likidotzen dira airean bertan, eta horrek ikusgai egiten
ditu.
Bestalde, presio aldaketa bortitz hori, tenperatura aldaketa batekin ere badator. Bi
fenomenoak (tenperatura eta presio aldaketak) amankomunean ematen dira.
Eguzkiak, lurraren gainazalari beroa ematen dio. Atmosferako geruzak, beroago daude,
behean dutena beroago dagoelako, eta energiaren transferentzia errazagoa da lurraren
gainazaletik (...).
111
Iratxe G.
❖ Barometroa
bit.do/presioa
1. Itsaspeko atakak txikiak dira baita hegazkinen leihatilak ere. Zergatik? Zein alde
dago bi kasuetan?
* Barruan 1 atm-ko
presioa dago, gizakiok
arnastu ahal izateko.
Bi egoeretan, kanpoan eta barruan dagoen presioen artean ezberdintasun handia dago.
Bietan, barruko presioa berdina da (1 atm): 1 atm -ko presioa ez badago, ezin izango dute
gizakiek bizi.
Adibidez, urpekontzi batean edo hegazkin batean, leiho handi bat jarriko bagenu,
apurtzeko aukerak oso handiak izango litzateke.
112
Iratxe G.
Aireak bolumen bat du, eta bolumen hori okupatzen duenez, ura ezin da sartu kanpaiaren
barruan. Itxita dagoen lekuetan muga bat dago, luzaroan airea (O2) agortuko delako, guk
oxigenoa erretzen dugulako.
Baina, hauek zelan lortzen dute hainbeste irautea? Mangera bat dago konpresore bateri
lotuta. Konpresorearen bidez, etengabea airea sartzen da. Kanpaia buruz behera dago, eta
beheko aldean irekita dago, baina ura ez da sartuko (barruko) airea ez bada ateratzen.
Konpresorearen bidez, airea sartzen da, baina horretarako lehenik barruko airea irten
behar da. Nola ? behetik ateratzen da, kanpaia buruz behera dagoelako (burbuilen bidez).
3. Demagun butano-botila batek duen gas kopuruaren erdia kontsumitu duela. (a)
Azaldu ezazu nola aldatu den gasaren masa, bolumena, dentsitatea eta presioa. (b)
Irudika ezazu molekula maila butano-botila barruan izandako aldaketa.
0 egoera
Butanoaren formula kimikoa:
113
Iratxe G.
2020/03/09
➢ Newton-en higikariaren gainekoak.
114
Iratxe G.
4. Aerosol potoak ez dira inoiz bota behar sutara, kontsumituta izanik ere.
Zergatik? Arrazoitu zure erantzuna molekula-mailan.
Poto honen barruan atmosfera bat dago. Barruan dauden
molekulak mugimenduan daude (N, CO2…). Molekulek bi
mugimendu egiten dituzte: bibrazioa eta talka (bibrazioaren
ondorioz): Potoa berotzen denean, barruko molekulen
mugimenduak askoz ere arinagoak dira, beraz emango diren
talkak oso handiak izango dira.
* Sutara botatzen dugun potoa, barrukoa ez da zertan bereziki sua hartzen duen gas bat
izan (inflamable) behar leherketa bat suertatzeko.
Barruan dagoen aire kantitate hori, piztu egiten da. Barruko presioa handitzen doa, eta
barruko molekulak ez dute nondik irteterik
115
Iratxe G.
6. Globo baten barruan dagoen aireak eta kanpoan dagoen aireak presio berean
daude?
Ez. Barruan presio handiago dago. Puxika askatzen
badugu, ikusten dugu barruko aireak kanpora
irteteko joera duela. Kasu honetan, zergatik bukatzen
da airearen irteera? Kanpoko presioa eta barruko
presioa berdindu direlako.
7. Demagun xiringa bateko enboloa jaisten duzula, eta aldi berean xiringako ahora
itxita mantentzen duzula. Zer gertatzen da barruko airearen masa, bolumen,
dentsitate eta presioarekin? Zergatik enboloa libre uzten badugu bera “bakarrik”
atzera egiten du?
Xiringako enboloa jaisterakoan, bertan dauden molekulak espazio txikiago bat erabiltzera
behartzen ditugu, baina atzamarraren bidez, kontrako noranzkoan interakzio bat eragiten
dugunez, enboloa libre uztean berak bakarrik atzera askatzeko joera izango du.
Presioa: Azalera baten gainean egiten den interakzio bat da. Presioa nolakoa den jakiteko,
interakzio hori zenbateko azaleran egiten den jakin behar da.
F=m X a
116
Iratxe G.
- Unitateak
Gure eskuaren gainean 100.000-eko pascaleko presioa egon daiteke eta ez da ezer
gertatzen (sagarra adibidez).
Baina, oso azalera txikian aplikatzen badira 100.000 PASCAL
edo gutxiago, gerta daiteke gure azalera zulatzeak.
Bietan, 100.000 PASCAL-eko presioa egiten du gure eskuan,
baina ondorioak ezberdinak izango dira.
Beraz, interakzio hori, Newton 1eko interakzioa egiten badugu, ondorioak ezberdinak
izango dira 5 objektu ezberdin hauetan. Hala ere, egiten dugun interakzio kantitatea
berdina da: Newton 1.
117
Iratxe G.
9. Irudian eskolan egin daitezkeen bi barometro sinple ikus daiteke. Esplika ezazu
nola funtzionatzen duten, baita egiteko prozedura ere.
10. Azal ezazu irudian agertzen den laborategiko esperientzia, baita presio
kontzeptuarekin duen lotura ere.
Botilaren eta puxikaren barruan atmosfera bat
dago. Barruan dauden molekulak
mugimenduan daude. Ura beroarekin, potoaren
barruko molekulen mugimenduak askoz ere
arinagoak dira, beraz emango diren talkak oso
handiak izango dira. Airea dilatatu da, beraz
okupatzen duen lekua baino gehiago okupatzera behartuta dago. Barruko presioa handitu
da.
118
Iratxe G.
11. Airez beteriko globo bat uretan hondoratzen da, pisu bat lotuta duelako.
Arrazoiekin azaldu ezazu zer gertatzen den globo barruan dagoen airearen masa,
bolumena eta dentsitatearekin.
Puxikaren gainean aire kantitate bat dago (1.
Puxika), beraz interakzio bat jasotzen ari du.
Puxikaren barruko molekulak, presio baten pean
daude: urak eta gainean duen aireak egiten diona.
Esan bezala, pisutsua den masa hori eskegitzean, gora joateko ezintasuna aurkezten du.
Orduan, oreka batera heldu eta irudiko pisua ez erortzea suertatzen da.
119
Iratxe G.
Lastoaren kasuan, gainazaleko tentsioak irteerako zuloan dagoen uraren barrura tiratuz
eragiten du. Ikusten dugunez, hau bakarrik funtzionatzen du hatzamarrak lastoaren goiko
muturra estaltzen duenean.
Presio atmosferikoak lastoaren ura bi muturretatik bultzatuz eragiten du, baina konsekzio
erabat desberdinekin: goiko aldetik uraren irteera errazten du eta beheko muturretik
zaildu egiten du.
120
Iratxe G.
Lastoa uretatik ateratzen duzunean, tantaren bat beti erortzen da. Horrek zer esan nahi
du? Atzamarraren eta uraren artean harrapatutako aireak, espazio gehiago duenez,
okupatzen duen bolumena handitzen duela.
Bentosaren erdigunea gainazal lau eta ez porotsu baten kontra sakatzen denean,
bentosaren eta gainazal lauaren arteko espazioaren bolumena murriztu egiten da. Bentosa
presionatzen uztean, eginda dagoen substantzia elastikoak, bere jatorrizko forma
berreskuratzera bultzatzen du.
Presio guztia bentosaren barrutik irtetera behartua izan denez, honen eta gainazal lauaren
artean garatzen den barrunbeak fluido gutxi edo batere ez du, eta, beraz, bentosaren
gainean eragiten duen presioa arbuiagarria da.
- Ura berotzen hasten da, eta lehenengo gunean ura lurrun egoerara pasatzen da.
- Bertako presioa asko handitzen da, eta honek sortarazten du bertan dagoen ura,
egoera likidoan kafea zeharkatzera.
- Enbutua zeharkatzen du, eta atera egiten da
hor dagoen beste egituratik.
- Azkenik, 3. gunetik ur zikina ateratzen da.
121
Iratxe G.
16. Irudian agertzen den gertaera ezinezkoa da (ur azpian dagoen gizakiak arnasa
hartzen du hodi baten bidez). Esplika ezazu zergatik.
Ur azpian presio oso handia dago. Pertsona horrek arnasterakoan, birikiak zabaltzen
saiatuko dira, baina kanpoko presioa horren altua ez denez, ezintasun bat izango du
arnasteko.
Sistema hori soilik funtzionatzen du (urpekaritzan) hodia oso txikia denean; horrelako
hodiak ezin dira hain luzeak izan, oso sakonera txikian egonda ez dutelako funtzionatzen.
- Erraztasuna → airea kanporatzeko (putz eginez).
- Ezintasuna → airea hartzeko (soilik kanpoko presioa, presio atmosferikoa oso
altua denean).
122
Iratxe G.
123
Iratxe G.
Kohesioa, fluitu guztian ematen diren interakzioak dira, bereziki gainazalean. Kohesio
hori hain handia da, ezen ondorioz tentsio bat sortzen da: GAINAZAL TENTSIOA.
Gainazal tentsio hau, hain ebidentea da, ezen baimentzen du botila baten ura ez jaustea,
baita klip bat flotatzen jartzea.
Aldiz, honek soilik azalera bat du (handia), beraz gainazal tentsio bat du.
Azalerak sortzeko erabiltzen dugun materialak garrantzia du? BAI
124
Iratxe G.
- Ura oso berekoia den arren, nahiago du alboan duen kristalarekin egon.
- Merkurioaren atxikidura oso baxua denez, nahiago du merkurioarekin egon eta ez
alboan duen kristalarekin.
2020/03/23
➢ VENTURI-ren PRINTZIPIOA
0 egoera
Hodi bat daukagu, eta bere barnean fluitu bat dago
(fluitua ura edoo airea izan daiteke, baina normalean
horrelako frogak likidoekin egiten dira). Hoditik,
5.000 litro sartzen eta ateratzen dira segundo
bakoitzean. Alde batetik, geldi dauden bi fluitu daude:
bata hodiaren kanpoan eta bestea hodiaren barruan.
Zer suertatzen da? Barruko eta kanpoko fluituak, paretaren aurka egiten duten presioa
berdina izango dela, bai goian, bai behean.
125
Iratxe G.
1. egoera
3. Ondoko marrazki hau azter itzazu. (1) Zergatik hodi bertikalean ura igotzen da?
(2) Zergatik bide erdian dagoen hodian, ur maila baxuagoa da?
(1) Kasu honetan, hodiaren
ezkerraldean dagoen hodian barruko
fluituak (likidoa), kanpoan dagoena
(airea) baino askoz ere presio
handiagoa du. hodian zulo bat egingo
bagenu, barruko fluituek zulo hori aprobetxatuz, kanpora irteteko joera erakutsiko luke.
Izan ere, hodiaren barruan presio bat dago, eta presio horrek bultzatzen du bere barruan
dagoen likidoak kanporatzera irtenbide bat egotekotan.
(2) Erdiko hodian, Venturiren printzipioa azaltzen da. Likido horrek altuera bat hartuko
du, segun eta hodiaren barruko fluituaren presioa handiagoa edo txikiagoa den.
126
Iratxe G.
A → hodia zabala den lekuan, presioa oso altua da, beraz fluituak hodi horretan
altuera handia hartzeko joera du.
B → Hodia estua den lekuan, presioa baxuagoa da, beraz fluituak hodi horretan
altuera txikiagoa hartzeko joera du.
2. Zergatik igotzen da hoditxo barruan dagoen likidoa? Nola azalduko zenuke bideo
honetan agertzen den pertsonak erabiltzen duen gailua nola funtzionatzen duen?
* Bideoa: aerografo batekin autoa margotzen ari den pertsona dugu; baina aerografo
horrek ez du konpresore bat erabiltzen. Izan ere, ahoarekin egin daitekeen aire bultzadaz
baliatzen da.
1. go lastotxoan ahoa jarriz, putz egiten da, eta
hodiaren barruan doan aireak abiadura handia hartzen
du. Abiadura asko handitzen den gunean (bi lastotxoak
elkartzen diren gunean) nolabaiteko presio negatibo
bat sortzen da. Presio negatiboa, presio atmosferikoa
baino askoz txikiagoa izan daitezkeen presioa duen
puntua da.
Ondorioz, likidoak (gorria) gora joateko joera hartzen du. Honi esker, horizontalean
pasatzen ari den aire bultzada honek, 2. lastotxotik ateratzen ari den likidoa aurrera
proiektatzen du, beste aire bultzadarekin topo egiten duenean. Horrek hurrengoa sortzea
eragiten du: eskua jarriko bagenu, esku negatiboa sortuko genuke.
1. Bi folio esku bakar batekin hartuta eskegi ditugu alde laburretik hartuta. Beraien
artean dagoen gune estuan putz egiten dugu. Zer gertatzen da? Zergatik?
Dinamika honetan, bi folioen artean dagoen fluitua (airea),
mugiarazten dugunean, folioak pegatzen dira. Izan ere, bi folioen
artean dagoen fluitu horrek abiadura bat hartzen du, eta abiadura
hartze horren ondorioz, bi folio horiek biltzeko joera dute.
127
Iratxe G.
➢ MAGNUS EFEKTUA
Errotazioan dagoen objektu batek, presio gutxiago nabaritzen du bere alboetako batean
bestean baino.
Altuera handian, baloia “back spinez” (biraka) saskira sartzen saiatzen da. Teoriaz,
bertikalki jaisten ari den momentu honetan, baloiak horrelako jaitsiera prozesu batean,
honen kontra dagoen airea topatu/pairatuko du.
Baloia, beheraka dagoen ibilbidean, ezkerrean eta eskuman, airea kanpoan dagoen
fluituarekiko dinamika ezberdinekin topatzen du.
Izan ere, baloiaren alde batetik talka handiagoa bada eta suertatzen bada, bi azalera hauek
desberdin moldatzen direla kanpoko airearekiko, sortzen den ondorioa hurrengoa izango
da: baloia bide beretik desbideratuko da.
128
Iratxe G.
Efektu hau, objektu zilindriko batek bere ardatzaren gainean korronte libre batean
biratzean datza, eta objektuaren biraketak bere inguruko airearen mugimenduan eragingo
luke. Objektua biratzen ari denez, lurrazaletik (baloiarena) gertu dagoen airea herrestan
eramango du, eta, beraz, bere inguruan sortutako korronte-lerroak aldatuko ditu.
Ezkerraldean, baloia egiten duen arrastea, airearen fluxuaren alde dago. Aldiz,
eskuinaldean kontrakoa gertatzen da: baloiaren azaletik gertu dagoen airearen abiadura
txikiagoa izango da, espazio honetan zilindroak gainean egiten duen herrestadak airearen
mugimendua indargabetzen baitu.
129
Iratxe G.
5. Esplika ezazu nola mantentzen den pinpon pilota erori barik airean.
Sortzen den aire txorrotadari esker, dauden aire partikulek, talka egiten dute pilotarekin.
Horrek mantentzen du pilota goikaldean flotatzen, pilotaren pisua orekatzen du. Pilota
lurrarekin interakzioan dago (gezi berdea).
Horiz: Beste interakzio bat elkarkaria dena aurrekoarekiko: norabide berdina, magnitude
berdina baina kontrako norantza → airearen interakzioa pilotan coanda efektua.
130
Iratxe G.
➢ BERNOULLI EFEKTUA
Magnus → Heinrich Gustav Magnus fisikari eta kimikari alemaniarra. Gorputz baten
bere buruarekiko biraketak (errotazioak) ibilbidea aldatzeko daukan gaitasuna
deskribatzen duen fenomenoari, eta bere azalpenari, deitzen zaio.
Hainbat fenomenoren emaitza da, Bernoulliren printzipioa barne
Coanda→ Henri Coanda (1910). Fluitu korronte bat (gas edo likidoa) ibilbidearen
ondoko azalera batek erakartzen du.
131
Iratxe G.
• COANDA EFEKTUA
1. egoera
Bestetik, interakzio guztiak elkarkariak direnez, urak koilarari egiten dion interakzioa,
koilarak urari itzultzen dio; ur txorrotaren bidea ezkerrerantza azeleratzen.
132
Iratxe G.
5. Zer erlazio dago hegazkin bat gora bultzatzen duen indarra eta hegoek behera
desbideratzen duten airearen artean? Erantzuna goian
133
Iratxe G.
2. Hegazkin batean nagusiki 4 indar daude jokoan. Esplika ezazu indar bakoitza
zein interakziotatik eratortzen den.
1. PISUA. Lurra planetan egonda, edozein gorputzek interakzio bat pairatzen du behera,
eta honek azeleratzeko joera izango du.
2. LIFT. Hegazkina orekan badago, gorantza bultzatzen duen interakzio bat duelako da;
hots, altxatzeko joera erakutsiko lukeena hegazkinean.
134
Iratxe G.
3. THRUST. aurreko interakzio hau (2) hegoen formaren eta hemendik pasatzen den
airearekin erlazionatuta dago. Gora bultzatzen duen interakzio honen ondorioz,
hegazkinean balazta (airearen kontrako marruskadura) bat sortzen da.
Indar hau helizeak sortzen du (erreakzioko motor bat). Newtonen 3. legearen bidez oso
argi azaltzen da → ekintza orok indar bereko erreakzioa
duela, baina kontrako zentzuan. Globo baten bidez azal
dezakegu: airez puztutako globo bat askatzen dugunean,
bokilatik kanporatzen duen airea, gure kasuan bultzada
(thrust) izango litzatekeen indarra da, eta erreakzioa globoa aurrerantz joatea.
4. DRAG. Hegazkinak aurrera egin behar du, beraz “drag” baino handiagoa den beste
interakzio bat egongo da, hegazkina aurrera bultzatzen duena: motorrak egiten duena. (3.
galdera). Mugimenduan ez badago, ezin du aurrera jarraitu. Aurrera jarraitzeko, norbaitek
aurrera bultzatzea behar du, azelerazioa sortzen duen makina.
135
Iratxe G.
dutenak, eta era berean, airearen pasabidea oztopatzen duten osagai horiei guztiei
eragitek dietenak.
- Erresistentzia induzitua: Erresistentzia hau lift-ren ondorio da, eta gure eraso-
angeluarekiko zuzenki proportzionala da. Hau, hegoen muturrean gehiago
hautematen den efektu bat da, non hegalaren azpiko aireak, goialdean dagoen
presio txikieneko eremurantz ihes egiten duen. Baina, era berean, goialdeko
airearen abiadura handiak berriro deflektatzen du beherantz, eta zurrunbilo
izeneko errota mugimendu bat sortzen da.
Zurrunbilo-efektu horrek hegazkinaren energia
xurgatzen du eta erresistentzia sortzen du.
136
Iratxe G.
5. GAIA: Energia
• Zer da?
• Nola irakatsi?
• Hurbilpen zaila.
Definizioa: magnitude bat da. Objektu batek berarengan edo alboko objektuetan
aldaketak eragiteko duen ahalmena da. Beste modu batean, entitate bizidun ala entitate
bizigabe batek duen ahalmena aldaketak sortzeko, bere inguruan edo bere baitan. Argi
izan behar dugu, energia ez dela sortzen ezta desagertzen ere; baizik eta transformatzen
da. Aldaketa horiek: beroa, lana, argia, soinua…
o Energiaren unitatea
- Julio (J): objektu batean egiten den indarra. Newton 1-eko indarra egiten badugu
eta objektua metro bat mugitzen bada, Julio bat da.
- Kaloria: uraren bitartez definitzen dugu. Zenbat energia behar duen ur kantitate
batek gradu batean bere tenperatura aldatzeko.
Zergatik? Beroa transferitzen (objektu batetik bestera) delako. Beraz, beroa energia bat
da, ondorio bat sortzeko gaitasuna duena. Beraz, objektu guztiak orekan badaude, energia
transferituko da objektu batzuetatik
besteetara, hots, beroa transferitzen da.
137
Iratxe G.
❖ Termodinamika
Erreakzio kimiko bat gertatzen denean, ez da bakarrik substantzia batzuk beste batzuetan
transformatzen, energia aldaketa bat ere sortzen baita. Aldaketa hori hainbestekoa izan
ohi da, erreakzioak energia kontsumitzen edo sortzen baitu, bai bero moduan, lan
mekaniko gisa, lan mekaniko bezala edo argi-energia moduan ere.
- Sistema termodinamikoak
Sistema deitzen zaio ikasten ari garen ezaugarriak dituen materiaren zatiari. Horren
inguruko guztiari ingurua edo giroa deitzen zaio. Bestalde, sistemak eta inguruak
osatzen duten multzoari unibertsoa deitzen zaio. Sistemaren egoera
termodinamikoa ezaugarri guztiak zehazten dituzten baldintzen multzoari deitzen zaio.
Hauek dira ezaugarri horiek: tenperatura, presioa, konposizioa eta egoera fisikoa.
Egoeraren aldagaiak ezaugarri guztien balioak eta sistemaren egoera zehazten dituzten
magnitudeak dira.
138
Iratxe G.
“Sistema baten energia aldaketa, sistemari emandako beroa eta berarengan egindako
lanaren batura dela” dio. Sistemaren energia beti kontserbatzen da, eta sistema batek
ingurunetik beroa jaso eta lan bat egiten badu, bien arteko kendura, sistemaren barneko
energia (∆E) aldatzeko erabiliko da.
∆E = Q – W
Barneko energia egoeraren funtzioa da. Ezin daiteke bere balio absolutua ezagutu;
sistemaren hasierako egoeraren eta amaierako egoeraren artean dagoen ezberdintasuna
bakarrik jakin daiteke.
Energia ezin da sortu, ezta desagertu ere; energiaren kantitate totala beti berdina da.
Hau da, momentu guztietan energia dago, mota bat edo beste, baina beti dago. Beraz esan
dezakegu energia kontserbatzen dela, ez dela desagertzen. Energia eraldatu daiteke,
baina kantitatea mantentzen da.
Adibidez, dinamitak eztanda egitean, energia kimikoak → energia zinetiko bihurtzen da.
Hasieran eta bukaeran energia kantitate berdina egongo da. Beraz, horrek esan nahi du
energia kontserbatzen dela.
Adibidea: Bola bat aldapa batean. Aldaparen goikaldean, energia potentzial grabitatoria
du (altuera duelako), jaisten doan bitartean, grabitatorioa galtzen doa, baina zinetikoa
bihurtzen da (abiadura hartzen duelako) eta aldaparen amaieran, jada ez du energia
potentzial grabitatoriorik, baina hasieran zuen energia potentzial grabitatorioaren
kantitate bera duen energia zinetikoa du.
139
Iratxe G.
- Kelvinen enuntziatua: Ez dago ziklorik, non iturri bakar batekin beroa trukatzen
den eta era berean lan bat burutzen den.
Transferentzia: gorputz batetik beste gorputz batera pasatzen den energia kantitatea da.
- Beroa transferitu
- E.P. → E.Z.
Transformazioa: Itxura batean beste itxura batera pasatzen den energia kantitatea.
140
Iratxe G.
Zer da tenperatura?
Definizioa: Materia osatzen duten partikulen mugimenduaren neurria. Bestalde,
magnitude eskalarra da.
- º (Celsius), ºK (Kelvin) edo ºF (Fahrenheit) neurtzen da.
Magnitude eskalarra: bakarrik zenbaki batekin adierazten da; bakarrik kantitatea behar
da azaltzeko.
Magnitude bektoriala: hauek azaltzeko/adierazteko, norantza, norabidea eta kantitatea
behar ditugu.
Gorputz guztiak material ezberdinez osatuta daude, beraz bakoitzak gaitasun ezberdina
izango du beroa transferitzeko.
141
Iratxe G.
ENERGIAREN MAILAK
Bi faktoreek alda dezakete objektu batek daukan energia potentziala. Zenbat eta
altuago egon, orduan eta energia potentzial handiago izango du, eta zenbat eta
masa gehiago izan, orduan eta energia potentziala ere altuagoa izango da.
142
Iratxe G.
143
Iratxe G.
Piramidean ikus dezakegun moduan, gehien hartu behar dugun “elikagaia” ura da, baina
ondoren dagoena, almidoia duten elikagaiak dira. Almidoia
glukosaren bitartez sortzen da, hau da, landareek sortzen dute.
Guretzat, oso energia handiko substantzia da, bere
konposaketa kimikoagatik.
Zer da? Substantziek dute energia beren molekulen estrukturagatik eta beraren molekulen
aktibitate mailagatik (tenperatura: substantziek gero eta tenperatura altuagoa izan,
molekulen aktibitate maila altuagoa izango da) duten energia; hau da, konposizio
kimikoarengatik.
144
Iratxe G.
➢ Beroa (Q)
o Adibidez: kotxe baten motorrak tenperatura altua du. Airera pasatzen da energia,
eta energia hori beroa deitzen da.
o Kandela piztuta eta bere alboan ur katilu bat. Energia pasatuko da kandelatik
uretara, txikia, baina pasatuko da. Kontuan hartu behar dugu, bi objektuak
tenperatura ezberdinetan daudela.
➢ Lana (W)
Batzuetan, objektu batek beste bateri energia pasatzen dio, baina ez tenperatura ezberdina
dutelako, baizik eta objektu batek, beste objektu batean indar bat eragiten diolako eta
mugitzen duelako.
o Adibidez: pertsona batek zorutik objektu bat altxatzen du: lan bat sortzen ari da.
Lanaren bidez, pertsonak objektuari energia pasatu dio.
o Malguki bat zapaltzean, indar bat egiten dugu. Indar horren bitartez malgukia
konprimatzen dugu (mugitzen dugu), beraz energia pasatzen diogu. Kontzeptu
honi lana ere deritzogu.
145
Iratxe G.
2020/03/30
Energia ariketak
2. Esplika ezazu une bakoitzean jauzilariak duen energia mota, baita egoera
horretan jokoan dauden indarrak ere.
A eta C puntuetan, pertsona horrek energia dauka; hala ere, energiak ezberdinak dira:
goian altuera bat izateagatik (potentziala) eta behean abiadura bat izateagatik (zinetikoa).
146
Iratxe G.
B → Energia dauka, baina aldaketa bat jasotzen ari da: energia potentziala (altuera
duelako) eta energia zinetikoa (abiadura duelako). Beraz, energia mekanikoa du;
konstante ibilbide osoan.
5. Gela bateko airea 20ºC -tan dago. Hotzenetik beroenera ordena itzazu gelan
bertan dauden ondoko objektuak: burdinazko ganibeta, zurezko aulkia eta
edalontzi bete ur. Ordena horren arrazoia azaldu kontzeptu hauek erabiliz: beroa,
tenperatura eta energia.
Objektu guztiak tenperatura berdinean daude, baldin eta oreka batean dauden. Logelako
tenperatura 20ºC -koa bada, objektuek ere tenperatura berdinean egongo dira.
Zergatik? Beroa transferitzen (objektu batetik bestera) delako. Beraz, beroa energia bat
da, ondorio bat sortzeko gaitasuna duena. Beraz, objektu guztiak orekan badaude, energia
transferituko da objektu batzuetatik besteetara, hots, beroa transferitzen da.
147
Iratxe G.
4. Irudiko emakumeak, izotzean sartuta dagoen iltze bat ukitzen du. Energia
transferentziarik ote dago? Zergatik?
Protagonistak: Emakumea, iltzea eta izotza.
Printzipioz, iltzea energiaren eroale oso efizientea den metalez
osatuta dago. Bertan dauden 3 aktoreek, bi tenperatura
ezberdinetan daude:
- Alde batetik, iltzea eta izotza tenperatura hotzean dauden
objektuak dira.
- Bestetik, tenperatura beroago batean dagoen emakumea
daukagu.
Emakumeak, iltzea ukitzen duen momentuan, energia transferentzia bat ematen da, beraz
beroa ematen da.
Fluxua, tenperatura altuetako objektuetatik, tenperatura baxuko objektuetara ematen da;
hots, emakumetik iltzera, eta iltzetik izotzera.
148
Iratxe G.
- Objektua gora igotzeko, pertsona batek (neska) interakzio txikiagoa eman du,
baina desplazamendua handia izan da.
- Beste pertsonak (mutila) egin duen interakzioa askoz handiagoa izan da, baina
desplazamendua egiteko askoz ere laburragoa.
Transferitu behar diegu energia kantitate berdinak, baina energia transferentzia hori izan
daiteke:
- Bat-batekoa.
- Apurka-apurkakoa. Azkenean lortuko den emaitza, berdina izango da bietan.
Demagun 500kg pisatzen duen harri bat soka batekin tiraka gaudela. Harri horrekin tiraka
ibiltzeko, soka, horizontalean jarriko genuke, era horretan efizienteagoa delako.
Adibidez, harriaren azpian jarriko bagina, lanik egingo genuke? Ez, ez genuke harria
altxatuko; hau da, indarra/interakzio bat egiten hari gara, baina interakzio horrek ez du
ondoriorik sortzen (ez dugu harria mugitzen lortzen).
Hasierako egoerara bueltatuz, demagun, harria mugitzeko indarra dugula. Beraz, harri
hori, geldi egotetik, mugimenduan egotera pasatu da. Guk energia zinetikoa harriaren
gainean eman diogu, beraz bere energia kantitatea aldatu dugu. Ondorioz, lana egin dugu.
Laudiotik mendira igotzeko ahalmena izango bagenu, orduan energia potentziala emango
genioke.
149
Iratxe G.
Soka horizontalean ez dagoenean, interakzioaren (indarraren) parte bat galtzen da. Zati
bat badago horizontalean, baina bestea bertikalean, beraz azken zati hau galtzen dugu.
Aldiz, horizontalean dagoen zatiaren bidez, harri mugitzeko erabiltzen dugu. Lana egiten
hari gara.
❖ Adibide bat
150
Iratxe G.
11. Espazio transbordadorearen irudi honetan, azaldu itzazu agertzen diren energia
transferentziarik nabarmenenak.
Momentu honetan, transbordadorea mugimenduan dago, beraz
abiadura izateagatik, energia zinetikoa du.
Hortaz aparte, altuera bat du (ez dago 0m-tan), beraz, energia
potentziala ere du.
Nondik eskuratu du energia (P) hori? Erregaitik (motorra).
10. Urtegi bateko urak, bere posizioagatik (altu kokatuta dago), energia duela jakina
da. Bera erabili daiteke elektrizitatea sortzeko? Zerk igo du ura altuera horretara?
Zerk transferitu dio energia urari?
Nork eman dio energia urari? Zelan igo da ur
guzti hori? Nork igo du? Zergatik dago ura?
Euria egin duelako; hau da, gas egoerako ura
(hodeiak) kondentsatu delako. Baina, gas
egoeran egoteko, eguzkiak ur likidoa gas
egoeran bihurtu du, eguzkiak beroa
transferitu diolako urari.
2020/04/01
12. Alboko irudian ura mugimenduan betiko mantenduko omen lukeen makina bat
agertzen da. Egia ote da betiko mugimendua lor daitekeela (hau da, inoiz gelditzen
ez den makina bat)? Azaldu.
Sokaren funtzioa → ura kapilaritateaz igotzea, baina igoko
den ura ez da nahikoa izango errota mugimenduan
mantentzeko.
Energia transferentzia guztietan, BETI, energia galerak
daude.
Zer suposatzen du horrek? Adibidez, errotaren
mugimenduan, frikzioa egongo da, beraz beroa aterako da.
Bestalde, jaiste horretan ere, urak alde egingo du (galera).
151
Iratxe G.
Kolpaketa bakoitza entzuten dugu: soinua. Entzute horrek esan nahi du, airearen
bibrazioaren ondorioz galera bat suertatu dela. Galera horren ondorioz, hasierako bolak
ez du 45ºko inklinazioa berreskuratuko. Agian, makina oso efizientea bada, 44º
berreskuratu ahal ditu, baina ez 45º.
Zikloak pasa ahala, bola horiek gero eta gutxiago aldaratuko dira, ezen kolpea egiten duen
bolak, energia gutxiago eramaten duelako transferitzeko. Ondorioz, izkinetan dauden
bolak, kolpaketa bakoitzean, energia zinetiko gutxiagorekin aterako dira. Beraz, altuera
gutxiagoa eskuratzen joango dira. Hau guztia emango da energia guztia agortzen den arte,
eta beraz bolak geldi geratuko dira.
- Zarata moduan
- Bero moduan
- IOI galera: landareek eguzkiko energia hartzen dute, fotosintesiari esker
azukreak garatzen dituzte. Belarjaleek, belar horiek jaten dituzte, eta belar
horietatik etekin bat atera egiten dute. Hala ere, animalien eta landareen
gorputzak perfektuak ez direnez, eguzkitik ailegatzen zen energia guzti
horretatik, parte bat degradatzen doa.
- Beste hainbat efektu sortuz.
152
Iratxe G.
BERRIZTAGARRIAK
Energia iturri berriztagarrien sorburuak ia agorrezinak dira: eguzkia, ura eta haizea
adibidez. Horietako asko nekez erabiltzen dira. Alde batetik, oraindik garatze-fasean
daudelako; bestetik, energia-konpainiek, beren interesak direla eta, nahiago dutelako
beste energia-iturri berriztaezin batzuen ustiapena bultzatzea.
153
Iratxe G.
• Energia hidraulikoa:
Imajinatu urtegi bat (presa). Urtegiaren altuera gero eta handiagoa den heinean, urtegiak
orduan eta E.P gehiago metatzeko aukera izango du. Paretan zulo bat eginez gero, ura
abiadura handiagoarekin aterako da; energia zinetiko askoz handiagoarekin. Hortaz,
presio handiarekin aterako litzateke. Ondorioz, urtegiaren paretaren barnean dagoen
generadoreak bueltak emango ditu. Energia kantitate bat produzituko du → etxera
elektrizitatea helduko da.
• Energia eolikoa:
Haizearen indarra aprobetxatuz lortutakoa da, hau da, aire-korronteek sortutako E.Z
erabiliz sortutako energiari dagokio. Aire kutsatzen ez duen energia-iturria da. Airearen
eraginez, hegalak mugitzen dira, ondorioz argi-indarra sortzen da eta sare-elektrikora
eramaten da. Bertikalak arrakastatsuagoak dira.
154
Iratxe G.
Horizontalen kasuan, zutabe baten gainean generadore bat dago, zeinak azpa handiak
dituen. Azpa hauek airea egiten duenean beraien mugimendua bultzatu egiten dute eta
hemendik argi indarra ateratzen da: azkenean, horretatik sare elektrikora heltzen da.
Generadore hauek nahiko era autonomoan eta efizientean funtzionatzen dute. Goialdean
estazio meteorologiko bat dute hainbat tramankulurekin, eta haize gehiago badago edo
bero handia egiten badu, amatatu egiten dira makinaria ez txikitzeko.
• Energia geotermikoa:
Zentral geotermikoen funtzionamendua: lurrean, zulo oso sakon bat egiten da. Sakonera
handi horretan, lurrak tenperatura konstante bat mantentzen du, eta kanpoko aire
hotzarekin, generadorea mugitzen da.
Garbia, berriztagarria eta berotegi efekturik ez du egiten. Hala ere, zentral geotermikoak
ezin dira leku guztietan egin. Bestalde, kutsadura termikoa eta paisaiaren hondatzea
suposatzen du. Azkenik, ezin da garraiatu.
• Marea-energia:
Itsasoko uraren mugimendua aprobetxatzea du oinarri, eta hori mareek, olatuek edo itsas
korronteek sortzen dute. Helizeak uraren mugimenduarekin mugitu egiten dira, hain
zuzen ere, mareak gora egiten duenean, turbina alde batera mugitzen da; eta mareak
behera egiten duenean, turbina beste aldera mugitzen da. Azkenean, E.Z horri esker
generadoreak elektrizitatea produzitzen du. Energia-mota hau oso gutxi ekoizten eta
ustiatzen da. BIOMASA.
• Biomasa:
Baldintza tradizional honetan erre egiten duguna materia organikoa da. Materia organiko
honek galdara batean dagoen ura presio pean jarri eta lurrina sortzea eragiten du. Lurrin
honen zikoari esker (lurrina normalean aprobetxatu egiten da eta berriz ere galdarara
sartzen da), generadorea mugiarazten da eta elektrizitatea produzitzen da.
155
Iratxe G.
Desabantailak:
Plaka hauek eguzki energia aprobetxatu egiten dute energia sortzeko. Baina, plaka solar
hauetan hodei kantitatea handitu egiten dugunean, energia luminikoa ez da plaketara
heltzen eta horrek plakaren efizentzia txikitu egiten du. Dena den, gaur eguneko, plaka
solarrak, horren efizienteak dira, ezen nahiz eta eguzkia guztiz estalita badago ere,
produkzioak funtzionatzen jarraitzen duen.
Eguzkiak oso erradiazio-kantitate handia igortzen du. Erradiazio hori agorrezina da, ez
du kutsatzen eta oso erraz erabil daiteke energia elektrikoa zein termikoa ekoizteko. Hala
ere, eguzki-izpien intentsitatea ez da berdina munduko lurralde guztietan, eta gainera,
egunean zehar eta urtarotik urtarora tenperatura-aldaketak handiak dira. Eguzki plaka
fotovoltaikoak material berezi batekin eginda daude, argindarra sor dezaten eguzkitik
argia jaso ahala. Etxeen teilatuetan edo lur-eremu zabaletan instala daitezke.
156
Iratxe G.
BERRIZTAEZINAK
Energia-iturri hauen kantitatea mugatua da, eta ondorioz, agortu egin daitezke.
• Ikatza: Arroka erregaia eta fosila da. Gaur egun energia termikoa ekoizteko
erregai gisa erabiltzen da.
Ikatza erauztea kutsagarria eta garestia da, eta horregatik haren erabilera
nabarmen gutxitu da.
• Petrolioa: Erregai fosila da, eta sekulako bero-ahalmena du. Erauztea nahiko
erraza denez, baliabide energetiko eta estrategiko oso estimatua bihurtu da.
Argindarra ekoizteko erabiltzeaz gain, industria kimikorako lehengaia da
(plastikoak, pinturak…)
Gaur egun gehien erabiltzen den energia-iturria da, eta berriztagarria ez dela
kontuan izanda, ez dago argi eskuragai dauden erreserbak nahikoa diren mundu
guztiaren beharrak asetzen jarraitzeko, oso azkar kontsumitzen baita.
• Gas naturala: Petrolioak eta gas naturalak antzeko jatorria dute. Erregai moduan
erabiltzen da (berogailua eta argindar-ekoizpena) edo lehengai moduan industria
kimikoan. Gero eta gehiago kontsumitzen da, petrolioak eta ikatzak baino
gutxiago kutsatzen baitu.
157
Iratxe G.
2020/04/06
0 egoera
Hasieran, zenbat gramo ur eta zenbat gramo intxaur jarriko ditugun argi izan behar dugu.
Ondoren, uraren hasierako tenperatura zein den neurtu behar dugu. Uraren tenperatura,
gelan dagoen tenperaturaren berbera izango da, hau da, T0 = 21ºC -koa.
1 egoera
Momentu honetan, klip honekin ziztatuta dagoen intxaur erdi honi sua ematen diogu;
erdia baino ez, intxaurrek oso botere kalorifiko handia dutelako eta bestela ura irakitea
suertatu daitekelako. Sua ematen diogunean, fenomeno bat suertatuko da: garrak
hemendik ateratzen hasiko dira eta prezipitatu ontzia berotzen hasiko da. Dena den,
fenomenoa ez da oso efizientea izango; baina prezipitatu ontzian dagoen ura berotzeko
aukera emango digu.
Intxaurra guztiz kontsumitu arte utziko dugu. Intxaurra bukatzen denean, termometroak
markatzen duen tenperatura neurtuko dugu → T1 65ºC. Kontuan izan behar dugu 150 g
ur eta 1,5 g intxaur zeudela.
Definizioz, 1 cal = ur gramo baten tenperatura 1 ºC igotzeko behar den energia kantitatea
da. Beraz, hemendik atera dezakegu zein izan den 2 hauen arteko diferentzia: 65ºC – 21ºC
= 44ºC. Azken finean, 44ºC izango da eman den tenperatura aldaketa, hau da, igo egin
den T. Modu honetan, maila enpirikoan intxaur erdi batek zenbat kaloria dituen neur
dezakegu:
Energia gai konplexua eta abstraktua da askotan, baina LHn landu egin beharrekoa.
Fenomeno ugari azaltzeaz gain, energia ere estuki lotuta dago gure eguneroko
jarduerekin, eta arazo ugari daude horien erabilerari lotuta.
Ikasleek izaten duten zailtasunetako bat da energia indarrarekin edo ariketa fisikoarekin
lotzen dutela, eta lor edo gal daitekeen material gisa ulertzen dutela.
Nerabeen artean nahiko ohikoa da indarra eta energia nahastea, energia erregai
motatzat hartzea edo mugitzen ari diren objektuetara mugatzea, eta prestatzen ari diren
irakasleek ere zailtasunak dituzte egoera jakin batzuetan energia identifikatzeko.
Adinean aurrera egin ahala, pertsonek gai izan behar dute energiaren ideia erakunde
abstraktu gisa barneratzeko, energiaren kontserbazioaren printzipio orokorrari lotuta;
egia esan, arazo handiak antzeman dira printzipio hori energia-prozesuetan ulertzeko eta
aplikatzeko.
Egia esan, zientziaren adar desberdinetan aztertzen den gai bat da, askotan ikuspegi berezi
batetik, eta horrek ez du laguntzen energia-eredu bateratu bat eraikitzen, sistema
fisiko-teknologikoei zein izaki bizidunei aplika dakiekeena.
Lehen hezkuntzan eta DBHko lehen zikloan zehar, energiaren ideia kualitatibo bat sartu
behar da, haren funtzionaltasunari garrantzia emango diona, sistemek aldaketak sortzeko
duten gaitasunarekin lotuta, eta oinarrizko lau ezaugarriren inguruan egituratuta:
159
Iratxe G.
❖ Progresio-proposamena
Lehenengo maila:
160
Iratxe G.
- Zer behar da pilota mugitzen hasteko? Eta urrunago iristea nahi badugu?
- Zuen ustez, elikadurak badu zerikusirik korrika egin ahal izatearekin,
pilota mugiaraztearekin?
Zuen etxeetan aparailu ugari dituzue: irrati bat, zukutegi bat, linterna bat.
Bigarren maila:
Energia aldaketak sortzeko gaitasun gisa ideia horien ondorioz sortzen den energia-
kontsumoarekin osatu behar da. Zehazki, azpimarratu beharko da gure eguneroko bizitzan
erabiltzen dugun energiak jatorri bat duela, hau da, iturri batzuetatik datorrela, eta
gorputz/sistemetan gertatzen diren aldaketek horien "gastua" dakartela, eta horrek
zentzua ematen diola energia aurreztearen garrantziari.
- Pilotak energia duela esaten da, baina zertan nabaritzen da? Noiz izango
da energia hori handiagoa?
161
Iratxe G.
Hirugarren maila:
Horrek guztiak energia ez dela "desagertzen" ulertzea errazten du, eta energiaren
irabazien eta galeren balantze globalean sakontzeko aukera ematen du.
162
Iratxe G.
Maria txirrista batzuetatik erortzera jolasten ari da. Denak material berekoak dira, baina
batzuk besteak baino altuagoak dira.
Imajinatu tximinia batean egurrezko enbor batzuk jarri eta piztu egiten ditugula.
- Zer gertatzen zaio egurrari, zer aldaketa gertatzen da? Zurak energia du;
zer gertatzen zaio egurraren energiari sutan dagoenean?
- Tximinia piztuta dagoela, gela berotzen joango da. Egurrari eta gelari
zer gertatzen zaien pentsatu: jakingo al zenuke azaltzen zer gertatzen
den energiarekin?
- Enbor guztiak erre direnean, gela hoztu egiten da berriro. Nola azal
dezakezu? Zer gertatu da orduan zuraren energiarekin?
- "Etxe hau gaizki isolatuta dago" esaldi ezagunak ba al du zerikusirik
energia aurreztearen garrantziarekin?
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Iratxe G.
2020/04/22
Energiaren didaktika: ikuskera alternatiboak
1. Energiari karaktere material bat esleitzea, edo are gehiago, fluido batekin
parekatzea.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Energia ikasleek gutxi ulertzen duten termino bat da,
abstraktua eta konplexua baita, ikuskera okerrak garatzen dituena, termino
zientifikoaren eta haren lagunarteko adierazpideen arteko nahasteengatik.
Testuliburuek definizio oso desberdinak ematen dituzte, eta, batzuetan, ez dira oso
kontzeptualizatuak. Sarritan, energia materialtzat, fluxutzat, produktutzat… hartzen da,
eta honek, zaildu egiten die ikasleei haien modelizazioa.
Bi aldagaiak nahastea ohikoa da energia eta indarra oso lotuta baitaude. Indar bat lana
egiteko gai da, eta energiak, berez, indar bat eragin dezake. Hala ere gauza bera ez
direla jakin eta haien desberdintasuna ezagutu behar dugu.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Newtonek definitutako indarrak gorputz baten egoera
aldatzea ahalbidetzen du, aldaketa honek energia bat sortzea ere ahalbidetzen du. Baina
indarra gorputzaren aldaketa bat da eta energia gorputz batek egiten duen lana da.
164
Iratxe G.
Energia eta indarra elkarren artean erlazionatuta dauden kontzeptuak izan arren,
ezberdinak dira. Alde batetik, energia lana sortzeko gaitasuna dela esaten da, hau da,
zer edo zer egiteko gaitasuna. Zerbaitek energia du aldaketa bat sortzen duenean eta
gorputz guztietan aurkitzen da, hots, gorputz edo sistema material ororen propietate
edo atributu bat da. Beste aldetik, indarra bi gorputzen arteko interakzioaren ondorioz
sortzen da. Indarraren eraginez objektuak mugitu eta gelditu egiten dira. Laburbilduz,
indarraren eta energiaren arteko aldea hauxe da: lehenengoa une lineala aldatzeko
arrazoia da, eta masa eta azeleraziotik sortzen da, energia lana egiteko gaitasuna den
bitartean.
Froga bat: Ikasleek energia eta indarraren arteko erlazioa ikusteko, objektu batzuk
emango dizkiegu, masa ezberdina dutenak. Hau da, objektu batzuk oso pisutsuak
izango dira eta beste batzuk ez, adibidez, arkatza eta aulkia. Ikasleek objektuak hartu
beharko dituzte eta ikusiko dute objektu batzuk hartzeko egin beharreko indarra oso
txikia dela eta beste kasu batzuetan oso handia.
50kg pisatzen duen harri bat mugitzeko 2kg pisatzen duena baino indar handiagoa egin
behar da eta honek energia gastu handiagoa suposatzen du. Gehiago nekatzen gara eta
han energia gastua ikus dezakegu.
• “Confundir las formas de energía con sus fuentes” (Carr y Kirkwood, 1988;
Solomon, 1985).
165
Iratxe G.
Froga bat: Beroa energia iturria: Bi edalontzi ur izango ditugu, batean ur irakina
isurtzen da eta bestean ur hotza. Jarraian, kolorante tanta batzuk jarriko ditugu bi
edalontzietan. Emaitza: Ur hotzeko edalontzian, kolorantea astiro jaisten da hondora,
eta ez da gainerako edalontzitik zabaltzen. Bestalde, ur beroa duen ontzian,
koloratzailea berehala nahasten da urarekin, eta modu homogeneoan banatzen da.
Esperimentu honen bidez beroak molekuletan duen eragina azter daiteke. Tenperatura
igotzean, ur molekulak azkarrago mugitzen dira. Beroa edalontzian tenperatura
handienarekin dauden partikulei transmititu zaien energia da.
Zergatik? Energia zientziaren adar desberdinetan aztertzen den gaia da, askotan
ikuspegi berezi batetik, eta horrek ez du laguntzen energia-eredu bateratu bat
eraikitzen, sistema fisiko-teknologikoei zein izaki bizidunei aplika dakiekena. Oso
abstraktua den kontzeptua da. Ideia konkretu batetik hasi behar dira, ondoren, ideia
orokor bat sortu ahal izateko, irakasgai guztietatik ateratako ideiak aman komunean
jarriz.
Bigarren maila batean, pertsonek edota objektuak jasotzen dituzten aldaketei lotuta
energiaren lehen definizio bat egingo da, hau da, energia aldaketak eragiteko gaitasun
bat bezala ulertu behar da.
Froga bat: Bonbila bat izango dugu eta bonbilla pizteko beharrezko den energia
elektrikoa lortu beharko dugu. Horretarako bi modu proposatzen ditugu. Lehenengoan
166
Iratxe G.
energia zinetikoa erabiliko da. Bizikleta bat mugimenduan jarriko dugu eta bizikletak
eragiten duen energia zinetikoa transformadore baten bidez energia elektrikoa
bihurtuko da, bonbilla piztuz. Bigarrenean energia kimikoa erabiliko da. Bi patata, bi
zinkezko iltze, bi kobrezko moneta eta hiru kable pintzekin beharrezkoak izango dira.
Patatak ura eta zenbait azukre eta azido ditu, kobre eta zinkarekin erreakzionatzen
dutenak, patataren barruan sartzen direnean. Metalak elektrodoetan bihurtzen dira (bata
positiboa eta bestea negatiboa) eta elektroiak batetik bestera pasatzen dira, korronte
elektriko txiki bat eratuz. Horri esker piztuko da bonbilla.
Zergatik? Zergatik irakasten dira bereizita? Energia oso gai abstraktua eta konplexua
denez, testu liburuetan definizio oso desberdinak eta ez oso zehatzak ematen dira
(Núñez et al., 2005; Alomá eta Malaver, 2007). Gainera, energia motak irakasten
direnean, energia zinetikoa eta energia potentziala definitzeko joera dago, beste energia
motei hainbesteko garrantzia ez emanez (Solbes eta Tarín, 1998). Horrek eragiten
duena da, beste energia motak irakasten direnean, guztien arteko lotura ez egitea. Hala
nola, energia mekanikoa (Ez + Ep) eta energia kimikoaren artekoa.
Froga bat: Gaur goizean, esnatu bezain laster gosaria hartu dut; honekin batera, nire
gorputzean, energia biologikoa (metabolikoa) dudala adieraz dezaket. Ondoren, nire
eraikineko eskailerak igotzeari ekin diot. Altuera batera iritsi naizela E.Z ez ezik, E.P
ere eskuratu dudala esan dezaket. Ondorioz, E.M eskuratu izan dut.
167
Iratxe G.
Ondorioa: Energia mekanikoa eta energia kimiko edo biologikoa ezberdinak izango
balira kontsideratu egiten badira ere, adibide honekin konturatu gaitezke elkarrekin
erlazionaturiko kontzeptuak direla.
Energia kontzeptu bakarra dela. Hau da ikasle askok (eta Irakasleen artean ere, en
fin…) kontsideratzen dutela: ”Energia desberdinak daudela” eta berez ez da hori,
jatorrian Energia bakarra delako
Zergatik? Beroa askatuz bortizki oxidatzen denean energia askatzeko gai den edozein
material da erregaia. Energia potentziala askatzen da eta modu erabilgarri batera
aldatzen da, bai zuzenean energia termiko gisa, bai energia mekanikora (motor
termikoak), eta hondakin gisa beroa (energia termikoa), karbono dioxidoa eta beste
konposatu kimikoren bat uzten da.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Energia iturriak energia eskuratzeko bidea ematen duten
fenomeno eta baliabideen multzoak dira. Besteak beste, energia iturriak dira eguzkia,
haizea, ura, petrolioa, ikatza eta abar. Beraz, Energia lana sortzeko gaitasunarekin
lotuta dago. Errekuntza bat gertatu ahal izateko, erregaia oxigenoarekin harremanetan
egon behar da, nahiz eta energiaren askapena lortzeko modu ezberdinak
dauden. Nagusiak erreakzio exotermikoak eta fusio nuklearrak dira. Orokorki
begiratuta erregaia bi ataletan banatzen da erregai solidoak (ikatza, zura, turba) eta
erregai fluidoak (gasolina, kerosenoa likidoak direnak, eta gaseosoak, gas naturala,
petrolio gas likidotuak).
Froga bat: Errekuntza sistema itxi batean: kandela botila baten barruan
168
Iratxe G.
Zergatik? Batzuetan, energiari iturri kausalaren papera esleitzen zaio; uste delako
objektuek jadanik energia bat dutela eta energia horretan datzala gorputz horrek duen
aldaketak sortzeko gaitasuna. Baina, energia hori lortzeko, zerbait gertatu behar da, hau
da, nonbaitetik etorri zaio eta beraz ez da objektuaren osagai bat, ezaugarri bat baizik.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Energia, gorputzei ekintzaren bat egiteko, aldaketak sortzeko
eta ingurunean eraldaketak eragiteko objektuen osagaia eta arrazoia izan beharrean,
gorputzen izaera edo bere osaerarengatik duten gaitasuna dela (Energia kimiko edo
Biologikoaren kasuan).
Froga bat: Adibidez eguzkiak energia daukala eta ekintza edo aldaketa bat eragiteko
gaitasuna duela frogatzeko, eguzkia, energia iturri bat dela aztertu behar da ikasleekin.
Hori lantzeko, eguzki plakak dituzten kalkulagailuak erabili daitezke. Horrela ikasleek
konturatu daitezke eguzkiak energia duela eta kalkulagailua funtzionatzea eragiten
duela.
Zergatik? Gorputz batetik bestera energia transferitzeko modu bat beroa delako.
Gorputz batek truka dezake energia ingurukoekin, baita bere barne-energiaren kontura
ere.
Beroa jasotzen duen gorputzak bere tenperatura handitzen du, beroa ematen duenak
bere tenperatura gutxitzen du. Beraz, argi dago bi kontzeptuak, beroa eta tenperatura,
lotuta daudela.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Levinen (1996) aburuz, beroa sistemaren eta ingurunearen
arteko energia-transferentzia da, tenperatura-aldearen ondorioz sortzen dena. Hau da,
beroa gorputzen arteko energia transferentzia da. Baina horretarako objektuak
tenperatura ezberdinean egon behar dira.
169
Iratxe G.
Froga bat: Bi edalontzi ditugu, bat ur hotzarekin eta beste ur beroarekin. Biak
bereizteko bakoitzari kolorante tinta batzuk botako dizkiogu. Beroari, gorria eta hotzari
urdina. Ikus daitekeenez, ur beroa duen edalontzian kolorantea azkarrago barreiatu da,
ur hotzean baino eta homogeneo gelditu da baso guztian zehar. Ur hotzeko basoan,
aldiz, kolorantea hondoraino jaitsi da eta denbora gehiago behar izan du homogeneo
geratzeko. Ur beroan, ur molekulak azkarrago mugitzen dira, beraz energia gehiago
dauka eta horrek kolorantea edalontzi osoan hedatzen laguntzen du. Beroa basoan
tenperatura handienarekin dauden partikulei transmititu zaien energia da. Kasu
honetan, energia horren ondorioz, horien mugimendua handitu egiten da (energia
zinetikoa handitu egiten da), eta, ondorioz, norabide guztietan barreiatzen dira. Ur
hotza duen edalontzian ordea, molekulen mugimendua txikiagoa da. Hori dela
kolorante urdinak ondoratzeko joera dauka eta ez da edalontzitik zabaltzen.
Froga bat: Gaur goizean, Natur Zientzietako eskola hasi baino lehen, gosaria
prestatzera joan gara. Katilua hartu bezain laster, nahiko hotz zegoela sentitu dugu,
baina segundu batzuk pasa ondoren, hotz hori desagertu da. Hau gertatu zaigu gure
gorputzeko energia termikoa katiluarena baino askoz handiagoa delako, eta katilua
hartzerakoan energia transferentzia egin diogu, hau da, berotu dugu.
170
Iratxe G.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Gaur egun gorputz ezberdinen ezaugarri kimikoen gaineko
ondorio bat dela. Hau da, beroa bi modu desberdinetan azaldu daiteke: aske eta
konbinatua. Bigarren forma honi flogistoa deritzogu, grekeraz, sukoi esan nahi duena.
Substantzia hau, gorputz erregai guztiei atxikituta dago eta astiro erre egiten da,
bukatzerakoan, errekuntza eta gero, solik errautsa eta hondakinak utziz. Hondakin
hauek ezin dira berriz ere erre gorputzaren flogisto guztia jada gastatuko luketelako.
Stahl (1660-1734). Beraz, flogistoa, ez da beroaren propietate bat, baizik eta objektu
guztiena.
Froga bat: Amonio dikromato kantitate zehatz baten masa kalkulatuko dugu (kasu
honetan,10,8g) eta zeramikazko katilu batera botako dugu. Dikromatoa sare batean
kokatzen dugu eta metxa bat jartzen diogu. Metxari sua ematen diogu eta honek
eragiten du amino dikromatoaren tenperatura handitzea. Ondoren, erreakzioa hasiko
da. Geratzen den materiala pisatuko dugu eta masa txikitu dela ikusiko dugu.
Adibidez, merkurioaren kasuan, erre egiten dugunean HgO (Merkurio oxidoa) sortzen
da. Hau da, beroaren bitartez, inguruko oxigenoa eta sustantzia bera (merkurioa) elkar
erreakzionatzen dute. Erretzeari uzten diogunean, eta flogistoa amaitu denean, Hg eta
O bereiztuko dira berriro.
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Iratxe G.
Zergatik?
→ Energia eta tenperaturaren lotura
Molekulen abiadura zenbat eta handiagoa (↑) izan, orduan eta energia handiagoa izango
du objektuak. Tenperatura handiagoa duten gorputz (edo objektuek) energia
transferitzen diete tenperatura gutxiagoko gorputzei, haien arteko oreka bat lortu arte.
→ Beroa eta tenperaturaren arteko lotura
Beroa eta tenperatura elkarrekin erlazionatuta daude baina kontzeptu oso desberdinak
dira. Beroa bi objekturen edo gorputzen arteko energia transferentzia da. Tenperatura
aldiz, materia osatzen duten partikulen mugimenduaren “neurria” izango litzateke.
Beroa partikulen abiaduraren araberakoa izango da, partikulen kopurua, tamaina eta
mota aintzat hartzen dituelarik.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Ikasleek sarritan hiru kontzeptuak nahastu egiten dituzte,
hiruak gauza berari erreferentzia egiten dietela pentsatuz. Hala ere, horiek ezberdintzea
ezinbestekoa da, ez baitira gauza bera:
▪ Beroa (Q): Bi objekturen edo gorputzen arteko energia transferentzia.
Transferentzia eman dadin, objektuen artean tenperatura desoreka bat egon
behar da (Michinel eta D’ Alessan, 1994).
▪ Tenperatura (ºC): Materia osatzen duten partikulen mugimenduaren neurria
(Neila eta Eliexer, 2016).
▪ Energía (J): Entitate bizidun zein bizigabe batek bere ingurunean aldaketak
sortzeko izan dezakeen gaitasun edo ahalmena da (Lopez Ruperez y Lopez
Ruperez citado en Hierrezuelo y Molina, 1990).
Froga bat: Amona Marik te bat prestatu du, tenperatura altuan dagoen te berdea. Hotz
dagoen burdineko koilara sartu egiten du tea irabiatzeko, eta koilara sartu eta segundu
pare bat geroxeago koilarak te-aren tenperatura bera hartu du. Zer motatako energia
transferentzia gertatzen ari da une horretan? Te-aren beroa koilarara transferitu egingo
dela. Izan ere, bi gorputz/objektuen artean tenperatura desoreka dago eta koilarak te-
aren beroa xurgatu egingo du. Bero transferentzia hori ENERGIA transferentzia bat da.
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Iratxe G.
Zergatik? Askotan, bi kontzeptu hauek ez dira ondo bereizten lotuta daudelako, hau
da, baliokideak dira, lana egiteko energia behar da.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Indar batek lan bat egiten du bere aplikazio-puntua indar
horren norabidean desplazatzen denean. Indarraren lana gorputz horren gainean
mugitzeko behar den energiaren baliokidea izango da. Beraz, masa jakin batek energia
duela esaten da masa horrek lan bat sortzeko gaitasuna duenean; gainera, baieztapen
honekin energiarik gabeko lanik ez dagoela ondorioztatzen da.
Horregatik, ikatza, gasolina, elektrizitatea eta atomoak energia-iturriak direla esaten da,
lanen bat sor dezaketelako edo beste energia-mota batean bihur daitezkeelako; hori
ulertzeko, energia sortzen eta suntsitzen ez duen energiaren printzipio unibertsala
hartzen da kontuan, energia eraldatu baino ez da egiten.
- Lana (W): magnitude fisiko bat da, gorputz bat distantzia jakin batetik
mugitzeko behar den indarra neurtzen duena. Juletan (J) neurtzen da.
- Energia: magnitude fisiko bat da. Jarduteko, sortzeko, eraldatzeko edo
mugimenduan jartzeko gaitasunaren ideiarekin lotuta. Fisikan, energia lan bat
egiteko gaitasuna da.
Froga bat:
Irudia aztertuta, bai emakumeak eta baita gizonak ere lan berdina egiten dute.
▪ Neskak: kutxa igotzeko egiten duen interakzioa edo indarra txikiagoa da, baina
desplazamendua handiagoa da.
Beraz, lan berdina egiteaz gain, kutxetan ondorio bat sortu dutenez, bi kasuetan energia
egongo da. Marruskadura eta beroa ez ditugu kontuan hartuko.
2. froga: Eskuekin horma bat bultzatzen dugu. Kasu honetan, indar bat egiten ari gara
(bultzatzerakoan) eta eremu jakin batean aplikatua (gure eskuetan), beraz, ahalegin eta
esfortzu bat egiten ari gara.
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Iratxe G.
Indar bat egiten ari gara (horma bultzatzerakoan) baina ez dugu lortzen horma
mugitzea, hau da, zero desplazamendua lortzen ari gara eta, ondorioz, zero lana lortzen
ari gara. Lana egoteko, mugimendua egon behar da.
Zergatik? Energia mota hau gorputzean jarduten duten indarrekin lotzen da, hau da,
gorputzak espazioan duen posizioaren araberakoa bakarrik da. Bestela esanda, energia
potentziala gorputzaren posizioaren ondorioz lana sortzeko gai den energia da.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Energia potentziala lurretik altuera batean dagoen gorputz
batek duen energia da. Zenbat eta altuagoa izan (h) gorputza, orduan eta handiagoa
izango da energia hori. Zenbat eta masa handiagoa (m) izan gorputzak, orduan eta
handiagoa izango da energia. Grabitatearen azelerazioa (g) zenbat eta handiagoa izan,
energia orduan eta handiagoa izango da.
Froga bat: Erorketa librean dagoen objektu bat dugu, une batean izoztuta.
Simulazioan aukera dugu altuera, abiadura, masa eta grabitatea aldatzeko.
Simulazioak une oro adieraziko digu gorputzaren energia potentziala.
Beraz, energia potentzialean zein magnitude eragina duten ikus dezakegu.
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Iratxe G.
14. Energia gastatu, gorde edo desagertu egin daiteke. Energia kirolaren
ikuspuntutik aztertzea: energia lortzeko atseden hartzea, kirola egitea-
energia galtzea.
Zergatik? Energiaren kontserbazioaren printzipioak dioenez, energia ez da galtzen,
transformatu baizik. Beraz, fisikoki energia transferitzean, energia berreskuratzeko
beste energia iturri batzuk erabili egiten ditu gorputzak. Berdin gertatzen da kirola
egiterakoan, energia ez da galtzen, transformatu egiten da.
Zer esaten du zientziak? Energia ez da sortzen ez desagertzen, eraldatu/
transformatu baino ez. Energia kontserbatzeko printzipioa, nolabait, lotuta dago
fisikako legeak denborarekin aldatzeko aukerarekin. Hain zuzen ere, hori da arrazoia:
sistema baten energia osoa kontserbatu egiten da, fisikako legeak ez direlako
denborarekin aldatzen. Fisikariek hitz konplexuagoak erabiltzen dituzte honako hau
esateko: “energiaren kontserbazioa, fisikako legeak denbora-translazioen aurrean
aldaezinak direlako”. Horrek esan nahi du “energia kontserbatu egiten dela, naturaren
legeak ez direlako denborarekin aldatzen”. Sistema bat aldatu egiten da, unibertsoa
aldatu egiten da, baina naturaren legeak berak dira eta berberak izaten jarraituko dute.
(Jorge Diaz) Kirolarekin lotuta glukogenoa erabiltzen da, gorputzean energia
gordetzeko modu bat. Hauek muskulu eta gibelean aurkitzen dira. Baina kopurua
muskulu masaren eta elikaduraren araberakoa da. Kirola egiterakoan glukogenoetan
dagoen glukosa erabiltzen dugu energia iturri bezala.
Froga bat: Bizikletan gabiltzanean, elikagaiengatik, energia kimikoa dugu.
Bizikletaren bidez, energia mekanikoan bihurtzen ari dugu, eta ondorioz, gurpila
mugitzen da.
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Iratxe G.
Zer esaten du zientziak? LHn energiaren ideia kualitatiboa azaldu 4 ezaugarri hauekin
(Driver eta Millar, 1986):
• Energia modu ezberdinetan agertu
• Forma batetik bestera transformatu + transferitu
• Prozesu hauetan → zati bat degradatu
• Kantitate osoa → kontserbatu
Froga bat: Domino fitxak lerroan ipiniko ditugu. Horrela, hauek altuera izanik energia
potentziala izango dute. Jarraian, alde batekoa bultzatuko dugu eta energia potentziala
energia zinetiko bihurtuko du (eraldaketa). Honek hurrengo bultzatu egingo du
(transferentzia) eta bigarren honek hurrengo, horrela azkenera heldu arte. Fitxa guztiek
sufrituko dute energia eraldaketa. Bukatzeko, azken fitxak, lurrera jaustean, zarata eta
beroa askatuko ditu, degradazioa eragiten.
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Iratxe G.
Froga bat: Klasera ikasle talde bakoitzari haizegailua eramatea eskatuko diegu. Hau
konektatu ostean eta martxan egon ostean gailua berotu egin dela frogatu ahal izango
dute. Gailua berotzerakoan zergatik berotu den galdetuko diegu. Honetaz gain,
haizegailuak soinua sortzen du. Zein da soinu hau sortzearen energiaren jatorria?
177
Iratxe G.
GALDERAK:
2kg egur erretzen bada eta amaieran, 200g errauts geratzen badira, materia
desagertu dela ondoriozta dezakegu?
a) Bai, jakina.
b) Ez, inolaz ere ez.
A irudiko pertsonak, hau da, palanka luzeagoa duenak interakzio (indar) txikiagoa
egingo du. Emaitza berdina lortzeko, B irudiko pertsonak indar gehiago egin beharko
du, haren desplazamendua askoz ere txikiagoa delako.
Lana berdina egiten dute biak, lortutako emaitza, berdina izan delako bietan. A irudiko
pertsonak, interakzio askoz txikiago bat egin du, baina desplazamendua handiagoa izan
da. Aldiz, B irudiko pertsonak indar handiagoa egin du, baina desplazamendua askoz
txikiagoa izan da.
178
Iratxe G.
Soka zenbat eta bertikalago egon, orduan eta lan handiago egin behar da. Soka
lurrarekiko horizontala (paralelo) ez denez, interakzioaren parte bat galdu egiten da.
Izan ere, egindako indar zati handi bat lana egiteko erabiliko da. Baina, egiten dugun
interakzio hori zoruarekiko paraleloa izango balitz, indar osoa lana egiteko erabiliko
genuke.
Dena den, ikus dezakegunez, zenbat eta angelua handiagoa izan, orduan eta
aplikatutako indarraren zatirik txikiena lana egiteko erabiliko da.
Energia zinetikoa sortzen ari da. Lana egiten ari da. Beraz, energia transferitu egiten
dio objektuari. Objektua mugitzen delako.
Paretaren adibidean, ez dago lanik egiten, energia ez diolako transferitu objektuari.
Interakzio (indar bat egiten du) eta egur puska desplazatzen ari da. Lana egoteko,
mugimendua ezinbestekoa da, eta kasu honetan mugimendua dago.
179
Iratxe G.
Kotxetxoa 5m/s-ko abiadurarekin dago, izan ere, kotxetxoa goiko alde horretara oso
abiadura txikiarekin heldu egiten da. Hurrengo aldapa, aurrekoa baino altuagoa izanez
gero, kotxetxoak behar izaten du energia mekanikoa pairatzea eta kate baten bitartez
gora bideratua izateko. Bestela ez dago gora ailegatzerik.
Horrelako barraka batean, aldapa batean goian egonez gero, behera heltzea askoz
errazagoa da, baina behean dagoen E.P goian dagoena baino askoz txikiagoa da.
Edozein kasutan, aurrean dugun aldapa hori igotzeko ezintasuna izango dugu, baldin
eta inork laguntzen ez bagaitu, adibidez, kate batekin goraka tiratuz.
Adibidez: Gu baino askoz altuagoa dagoen beste puntu batera bota egiten bagara
bizikletarekin eta pedalak ez baditugu ematen ezin gara horra heldu.
*Fijatu egin behar gara kotxeak hasierako abiadura duen edo ez!
Hasiera batean, etxeko tenperatura 17ºC-koa da. 2kg egur erretzen dugu etxea
berotzeko eta tenperatura 20 gradutara igotzen da. Handik 4 ordutara, etxeko
tenperatura berriro 17ºC-koa da. Kontserbatu da energia?
a) Ez dut uste.
b) Bai, jakina.
180
Iratxe G.
Galderak dio ea energia hutsean transmititu daitekeen. Hutsa = espazioa. Beste modu
batean: energia espazioan zehar barreiatu daiteke? Zelan ailegatu egiten zaizu eguzkiko
energia? Beraz erantzuna bai.
Pertsona horrek objektua dauka eta aurrera mugitzen du. Baina, objektu horrek badauka
pisu bat, marruskadura bat, eta pisu horren aurka egiten duen lurraren interakzioa.
Zelan izan daiteke posible objektua aurrera mugitzea abiadura konstante batekin? 4
interakzio horiek berdinak badira.
Nahiz eta objektua indar askoren pean egon, objektuak aurrera egin dezake abiadura
konstante batean, baldin eta pairatzen dituen interakzio guztiak
orekatuta/konpentsatuta badaude.
Adibidez, parakaidista bat erortzen denean, haren abiadura ez da aldatzen, indar guztiak
konpentsatuta dituelako, hala nola: hemen egindako indarra eta marruskaduraren arteko
indarrak berdinak direnean, abiadura mantentzen da.
181
Iratxe G.
2020/04/27
Jostailuak
o Balantza
o Errota
Kandelak piztean, goiko helizeak mugituko dira. Zergatik? Kandelen metxak sua hartzen
duenean, erreakzio kimiko-exotermiko bat ematen da.
Ondorioz, beroa askatzen da, kandela inguratzen duen airea
berotuz. Aire berotzean (airearen masa ez da aldatzen,
bolumena bai, beraz bere dentsitatea aldatzen da), hots,
dentsitate gutxiago du, alboan duen airearen gainean. Beraz,
aire beroak, aire hotzaren gainean flotatuko du, beraz gora
joango da. Hala ere, gorako bide horretan, helizeak topatuko
ditu, eta helizeen itxuraren ondorioz, desbiderapen bat jasoko du (aireak). Helizeak airea
desbideratzen du (interakzio bat), beraz aireak helizeari interakzio berdina bueltatuko dio:
helizea mugituko da.
Geldi dagoen objektu bat hasiko da mugitzen. Izan ere, kandelen energia kimikoa,
transformatu egin da energia zinetikoan.
Sistema hau ez da oso efizientea, baina energia ezberdinak erlazionatu ahal direla ikasleei
erakusteko ondo dago.
o Snake
182
Iratxe G.
Hala ere, gorako bide horretan, “snake” itxurako paper hori topatuko du eta espiral
itxuraren ondorioz, interakzio bat sortuko da: desbiderapen bat jasoko du (aireak):
paperak airea desbideratzen du (interakzio bat), beraz aireak paperari interakzio berdina
bueltatuko dio: papera desbideratuko da. Desbideraketa horrek mugimendua sortuko du
paperean, eta beraz, kandelak sortzen duen energia kimikoa, energia zinetikoan
transformatu egin da.
Sistema hau ez da oso efizientea, baina energia ezberdinak erlazionatu ahal direla ikasleei
erakusteko ondo dago.
Energiaren transformazio honetan, hau da, energia, kimikotik zinetikora pasatzen den
bitartean, energiaren degradazioa dagoela; energia “galtzen” delako. Hau da, energia
kimiko guztia ez delako energia zinetikora pasatuko, baizik eta energia pixka bat egongo
da, beste energia mota batera transformatuko dena, hala nola, berora. Hau,
termodinamikaren 2. printzipioak esaten du: ezinezkoa da sistema baten bero guztia
lanean transformatzea. Hau da, ez dela “el motor ideal” existitzen, eta energia nahiz eta
ez galdu, beste energia mota batera transformatuko dela.
* Urtegiaren paretaren kontra dagoen ur horrek energia potentzia la du. Atea zabaltzean,
ateratzen den urak, energia potentziala izatetik, energia zinetikoa izatera pasatzen da
183
Iratxe G.
Arkatz bat bertikalki dago, eta horri lotuta 4 tapoi. Airea tapoi
batean sartuko da eta mugimenduan hasiko da.
o Ibilgailu estatikoa
o Ibilgailu estatikoa II
o Boomerang gurpila
184
Iratxe G.
o Limoiak
185
Iratxe G.
(eroalea) izango da, hau da, likido eroalea. Lau limoi ditugunez, elektroiak askatzeko
joera x4 izango da, beraz elektroik fluxu bat suertatuko da eta energia kimikoa, energia
elektrikoan transformatuko da. Ondorioz, sortzen den potentzial/diferentzial honi esker,
bateriaren polo negatibo gisa jokatu eta led argia pizteko aukera eskuratzen dugu.
Beste alde batetik, sistema honek funtzionatu dezan, limoiaren alde batean kobrez
estalitako objektu bat izan behar du eta beste aldean zinkez finkatutako objektu metaliko
bat.
o Zeppelin
Puxika sokan zehar mugitu da indarrez. Puxika puztean, airez bete dugu. Puxikaren azal
elastikoak presioa, edo indarra, eragin dio barruko aireari. Puxikaren ahoa askatzean,
airea indarrez kanporatu da, eta kontrako noranzkoan eraman
du puxika. Hortaz, hasierako energia potentzial elastikoa da,
globoak duen izaeragatik, globoa puzten dugunean zabaltzen
da eta globo hori bortitzagoa edo leunagoa bere jatorrizko
egoerara bueltatzeko joera izango du. Bueltako bide horretan lan bat egiteko gaitasuna
du. Kasu honetan, transformatu egiten da energia zinetikoan, puxika mugitzen hastean.
Energia mota bat bestean bihurtzean transformatu egiten dela esaten da.
186
Iratxe G.
o Spinner
Spinner batek mugimendua izan dezan, indar bat aplikatzea beharrezkoa da. Biraraztea
nahi bada, indarra puntu eta norabide zuzenean aplikatu behar da. Beraz, indarraren
intentsitatea aintzat hartzeaz gain, aplikazio-puntua (erdigunera
dagoen distantzia) eta norabidea ere kontuan hartu behar dira.
187
Iratxe G.
Elektroiak material eroaletik zirkulatzen dutenean ageri den energia elektrikoa da.
Uraren zikloan (elurra, hodeia, ibaia) urak zer energia mota du? Eguzki-energia. El
sol calienta la superficie del océano y otras aguas superficiales, lo que evapora
el agua líquida y sublima el hielo, convirtiéndolo directamente de sólido a gas. Estos
procesos impulsados por el sol mueven el agua hacia la atmósfera en forma de vapor
de agua.
Billar jokoan, bi bola kolpatzean, energia galera dago. Zer bihurtzen da galtzen den
energia? Soinuan
188
10 questions – Small space. No calculator – No mobile
No – Text. Complete answers. Concept always explained.
Situation: Dónde se aplica mas energía, tirando de una cuerda con polea y que sujeta una
roca en una rampa o sólo tirando de la polea y roca? La misma energía cuando están
arriba, menos fuerza tirando gracias a la rampa.
Situation: Dos rampas iguales, rocas de la misma masa. Tiran de cuerdas atadas a la polea
pero uno la subirá en una hora y el otro en un minuto.
Transmitirán la misma energía, pero el que lo sube en un minuto es quien tendrá mayor
Power.
(Power) “Relación entre la energía que aplicamos y el tiempo. W/T = J/s (watt)”
Situation: Si un coche tiene una velocidad de 100 km/h, nosotros (dentro del coche)
también. Y si el coche se para, si no hay una interacción que nos pare a nosotros,
seguiríamos a 100 km/h.
Newton 1st Law.
Situation: Un cubo con un litro de agua helada, 1 litro de agua liquida. Cual es más
pesado? El litro de agua líquida. Porque cuando el agua está en forma solida ocupa mucho
menos, no ocuparía el cubo entero.
“El agua es un material muy especial, sobretodo cuando está a muy baja temperatura”
Situation: Dos cubos, los dos con una vela que calienta. Misma energía para los dos cubos.
A) Q= m AT
B) Q= the amount of energy that the cube has received. (heat in this problem)
Temperature physical quantity which explains – thermal energy.
(Change depending on the mass)
Force: Interaction
Earth? Gravity?
The coolest object in the class? Everything at the same temperature in the same surface.
The sensation, material, ability not the same. Some materials are very efficient in stealing
heat, (glass, metal). Isolating materials not to lose heat (fibra de vidrio in houses. They do
not steal so much heat.
“The heat is transferred from the hottest material to the coolest one.”
Porque no cae la luna? Porque al estar en orbita está moviéndose a gran velocidad
(cayendo pero alrededor de la tierra).
Newton Laws
1. Ley. Inercia. La ley de la inercia o primera ley postula que un cuerpo
permanecerá en reposo o en movimiento recto con una velocidad constante, a
menos que se aplique una fuerza externa. Necesita interaccion, está a 0 (in
motion) hasta que recibe una interaccion que hace qu ese mueva. El coche
sigue a 100 km/h hasta que recibe una interacción, si no seguira en esa motion.
Dicho de otro modo, no es posible que un cuerpo cambie su estado inicial (sea
de reposo o movimiento) a menos que intervengan una o varias fuerzas.
2. Ley,. La ley de la Fricción Si están ausentes las fuerzas de fricción, los
objetos que se deslizan no se detendrán; es decir, si la fuerza resultante
que actúa sobre un objeto en movimiento es cero, el objeto continuará
su movimiento con velocidad constante El coche va hacia alante pero la
rueda está haciendo fuerza hacia atras al suelo, el suelo se la devuelve al coche
hacia alante.
3. Ley. Acción y Reacción. Toda acción genera una reacción igual, pero en sentido
opuesto. La fuerza de reacción tendrá la misma dirección y magnitud que la
fuerza de acción, pero en sentido contrario a esta.
Air exists
Los niños tienen que intentar meter agua por el embudo a una botella que a primera
vista está vacia. Pero en realidad lo que no saben es que la botella está llena de aire y
no van a poder meter nada de agua, porque el aire existe, tiene masa y volumen, por
lo que ocupa espacio. Y es imposible meter agua en una botella llena de aire, porque
es una materia que tiene masa y volumen.
Poleas
Polea cambia la direccion de la fuerza (change de direction of the force), es mas facil
tirar hacia abajo que hacia arriba. Niña hace mas fuerza, ella levanta 10 kg, el hombre
levanta la mitad (5kg). ¿Por qué? Porque tiene un “Hanging point” dos cuerdas
sujentado el objeto. El work es el mismo en los dos casos. Work=FxD … Levantan el
mismo peso y están a la misma distancia, pero uno hace mas fuerza que el otro.
La niña no tiene el hanging point que tiene el hombre al qu ese le levanta la mitad por
la segunda cuerda.
Vaso Vaho
El vaho sale porque al calentar el vaso, se calientan las moleculas de aire del vaso, esto
hace que ocupen mas espacio y se expandan produciendo mas presion dentro que
fuera. Si colocas un globo, hace tapon y cuando se expanden las moleculas de aire
caliente intentan salir, pero al de un rato se enfriaran haciendo que ocurra una
Thermal contraction se van juntando, y hay menos presion dentro del vaso que dentro
del globo. Cuando hay menos presion dentro que fuera, esto introduce el globo hacia
dentro del vaso porque sus moleculas intentan escapar y hacia donde haya menos
presión.
Surface Tension
El clip debería hundirse, pero las moleculas de agua crean una Surface Tension. Si esa
tensión se altera metiendo un dedo o dejando caer otra gota sobre el agua, la Surface
Tension se rompe.
Buoyancy Force
Fuerza hacia arriba que ejerce el líquido sobre el objeto, haciendo que no se hunda.
En este caso el objeto tiene mayor densidad que el agua, entonces el objeto se hunde.
Como dice Arquimedes, “Buoyancy force” es proporcional a la masa del volumen del
líquido desplazado.
Gravedad noticia
En el espacio hay gravedad, nunca hay una gravedad 0. Pero esa persona está en
orbita, y por mucho que la Tierra ejerza fuerza de atracción (gravedad) sobre el. No va
a caer por que está en orbita, dando vueltas. Orbita gravitatoria aunque sufres
gravedad.
Cañones
3. Ley Newton. “Every action has a reaction in the opposite direction” El cañon
ejerce una fuerza a la bola. Y la bola ejerce la misma fuerza pero en dirección
contraria a el cañon. Fuerza de la bola hacia abajo, la Tierra ejerce fuerza de
gravedad a la bola haciendo que caiga, pero la bola hace la misma fuerza hacia
la tierra en la direccion opuesta. De todas formas de la tierra es mucho mas
grande que la bola y por lo tanto es imposible que la bola consiga mover la
Tierra.