General Biology

Unit 1: Laws of Inheritance attributed to how genes have been

passed on and modified through time.
Lesson 1.1 Mendelian Laws of
Inheritance Genetics, just like any other discipline,
has different subfields.
The diversity in the combinations of
traits we have can be attributed to our Field Descriptions
sexual means of reproduction. Because
individuals from different sexes Molecular It deals with the study of
contribute half of their genetic genetics DNA and gene expression
material, the resulting offspring is not and regulation.
genetically identical to either parent.
Alongside the increased variation, Cytogenetics It deals with the study of
chance also comes into play. Different chromosomes and their
combinations of traits of the mother behavior during meiosis.
and father will manifest in each of their
Population It focuses on how the
children. In some cases, sets of
genetics forces of evolution
characters from both parents will not
influence the frequencies
appear in their offspring.
of genes at the
population level.
An Overview of Genetics
Transmission It deals with the different
Genetics is the subdiscipline of biology genetics patterns of inheritance.
that focuses on heredity and genetic
variation. In biology, heredity, which is
Transmission genetics will be the focus
also called inheritance or biological
of this chapter. This field, being the
inheritance, refers to the transmission
oldest, is also closely associated with
or passing down of traits from the
classical genetics or Mendelian
generation of parents to their offspring.
genetics. Transmission genetics
Genetic variation, on the other hand,
aims to make predictions about the
refers to the degree of difference in the
outcomes of genetic crosses and
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA among
matings, as well as the possibilities of
individuals of a population. As you can
parents having children with traits that
observe, genetics is centralized on the
run in their families.
study of genes or segments of DNA,
how they are inherited, and how
Did You Know?
different they are among the members
● The deposition of melanin in your
of a species. Ultimately, the biological skin, eye, and hair pigment is
diversity that we observe in nature is controlled by the pair of alleles that
follow the principle of dominance.
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Key Points during gamete formation. This explains

the characteristics ratio of 9:3:3:1 of F2
● Genetics is the study of inheritance of dihybrid crosses.
and variation in organisms. It has
various subdisciplines. Transmission Lesson 1.3 Pedigree Analysis
genetics is the one that is particularly
concerned about the mechanisms or Why Do We Perform Pedigree Analysis?
patterns of inheritance.
● Gregor Mendel is the father of A useful approach to study the
genetics. He performed experiments on inheritance of traits in humans is
garden peas or Pisum sativum. This led pedigree analysis. A pedigree is a
him to formulate the laws of graphical representation of how a trait
inheritance in his publication, is inherited among the members of a
Experiments on Plant Hybrids. family. This is the first effective method
● Different genes control the introduced to determine the mode of
expression of the characteristics of inheritance of a trait. Given the
organisms. Each gene exists in periodic occurrence of a genetic
alternative forms called alleles. characteristic in a family, we can also
● In terms of expression, genes can assess the risk of recurrence,
either be dominant or recessive. especially if it is a genetic disorder.
According to the principle of
dominance of Mendel, in a Pedigree Analysis in Genetic
heterozygous individual, the dominant Counseling
allele tends to mask the expression of
the recessive allele. Genetic counseling is a procedure
● Mendel’s monohybrid cross reveals performed in health institutions
the law of segregation. According to wherein advice is given to a family
this law, the alleles segregate during afflicted with or at risk of getting a
gametogenesis. This explains the genetic condition. A genetic counselor
characteristic 3:1 phenotypic ratio of F2 usually elaborates on the genetic,
in monohybrid crosses. psychological, and other implications
● Mendel’s dihybrid cross reveals the of the condition so that the family may
law of independent assortment. adapt as needed. The process of genetic
According to this law, allele pairs from counseling entails the analysis of
different genes separate independently pedigrees constructed from a series of
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questions answered by the family to for a genetic condition. Specifically, the

generate any pertinent information. carrier individual is said to be
However, it will always be critical to heterozygous for the condition. Take
accurate genetic counseling that the note that the status of being a carrier is
family being interviewed has a correct not always shown in a pedigree.
recollection of the inheritance of traits 6. Unknown Sex. Sometimes, the family
among their relatives. being interviewed prior to genetic
counseling may be certain about the
Constructing Pedigrees number of children of a relative, but
not sure about their sexes. In such
Symbols and notations are used to cases, a diamond symbol is used.
construct a pedigree. These symbols set 7. Mating. Mating between a couple is
the standard in all genetic tests or denoted by a horizontal line
analyses, and they are as follows. connecting them.
8. Offspring. The children of matings
1. Sex. Use squares for male individuals are represented by a vertical line that
and circles for females. connects to the parents.
2. Traits. A shaded square or circle 9. Consanguinity. Mating between
denotes that an individual is affected by genetically related individuals, or a
the condition. Otherwise, the consanguineous mating, is represented
individual does not possess the by a double horizontal line.
condition and is ○ An example of this is when cousins
represented by an unshaded shape. marry each other and have children.
3. Status. A slash is used to denote that 10. Twinning. Twins can be denoted by
an individual is deceased. Not all branching from a common point.
pedigrees specify this status of the ○ Connecting the members of a twin
individuals, however. represents a monozygotic or identical
4. Proband. Sometimes, pedigrees condition. Otherwise, they are
specify the individual being studied or considered dizygotic or fraternal.
observed. Usually, a proband is a 11. Labels. Roman numerals are used to
member of the family who first sought denote generations. In each generation,
the attention of a genetic counselor. A individuals are numbered consecutively
proband is represented by an arrow. from left to right.
5. Carrier. A half-shade is used to
represent that an individual is a carrier
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○ For example, individual II-2 is an ● Pedigrees in basic research and

affected son of individuals I-1 and II-2, genetic counseling use a set of
both of whom are unaffected. standard symbols and notations.
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal ● Pedigrees are used to determine the
recessive genetic condition that results mode of inheritance of a trait.
from the mutation of a gene that codes ○ Individuals with an autosomal
for the synthesis of chloride ion dominant trait usually have at least one
channels in cell membranes. These affected parent.
channels are important to create freely ○ Individuals with an autosomal
flowing mucus. Thus, one of its most recessive trait usually have no affected
serious consequences is the continuous parents. Although, still, there are cases
buildup of mucus in respiratory and when one parent is also affected by the
digestive organs. This buildup clogs the recessive
airways and ducts in our bodies. condition.
● Different genetic conditions in
Key Points humans are autosomal.
Achondroplasia is inherited as a
● The analysis of the inheritance of dominant trait, while phenylketonuria,
traits in humans is a far more cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell disease
complicated task compared with that are inherited as recessive traits.
of peas and fruit flies.
● The challenge of analyzing human Lesson 1.4 Sex Linkage and
inheritance lies in their longer Recombination
generation time, the limited sample
size for analysis, and the impossibility What Is It Like to Be Color-Blind?
of performing matings in controlled
environments. Color blindness is a sex-linked trait
● Pedigree analysis was devised to wherein a person cannot properly
observe and analyze how a trait runs in distinguish between colors. The gene
families. It uses a pedigree, a pictorial for this trait is found on the X
representation of the transmission of a chromosome, but not on the Y
characteristic in at least two chromosome.
generations of families.
Color Blindness and Hemophilia Are
X-Linked Traits
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families of England, Germany, Russia,

Color blindness is the inability to and Spain in the 19th and 20th
distinguish certain colors. Depending centuries were affected by this
on the type of color blindness, some condition. Queen Victoria of England,
people with this condition can see who ruled from 1837 to 1901, was a
objects only in shades of gray carrier of hemophilia. Her husband,
(monochromatism), some cannot Prince Albert, was not hemophilic.
distinguish one of the primary colors of
light: red, blue, green (dichromatism), Sex-influenced traits can be found in
while others still see colors but find it both sexes but expressed more in one
difficult to distinguish shades of a sex than in the other. In other words,
certain color (anomalous the manner of expression is different
trichromatism). This condition is between sexes.
inherited and affects males more than
females. The Ishihara chart is used as a Key Points
test for color blindness. It is named
after its inventor, a Japanese ● Recombination is a mechanism
ophthalmologist named Shinobu where the homologous pairs of
Ishihara. Each chart is composed of chromosomes exchange genes.
colored dots and a number or object. ● Sex linkage is termed as such
The patient must be able to identify the because their phenotypic manifestation
number, or image, that is supposed to and inheritance patterns vary between
be visible in the chart. males and females. Therefore, genes
that go along with either sex
Another X-linked trait is hemophilia. chromosome are said to be sex-linked.
Hemophilia is a rare inherited bleeding ○ When the trait is linked to the X
disorder. People with this condition chromosome, it is called an X-linked
bleed longer after an injury compared trait while if the trait is linked to the Y
with a normal person. A healthy person chromosome, it is called a Y-linked
will clot properly after a hemorrhage trait.
occurs, but a hemophilic person will ○ As opposed to Mendelian inheritance
continue to bleed since he/she does not wherein the heterozygous genotype
have sufficient blood-clotting proteins. expresses the dominant trait, the
Hemophilia is sometimes termed as the heterozygous genotype of an X-linked
“royal disease” because the royal
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trait in females will result in a carrier Usually, these crops are bred to
female. improve productivity as exhibited in
● Other sex-related traits are the increased grain yield, adaptation to
sex-influenced and sex-limited traits. specific environmental conditions,
○ Sex-influenced traits can be found in resistance to pests, diseases, and stress
both sexes but expressed more in one (such as drought, salinity, extreme heat
sex than in the other. and cold). In addition, crop processing
○ Sex-limited traits have genes that can quality is also enhanced as shown by
be found in both sexes but only one baking and fermentation quality, length
sex expresses it on their phenotype. of shelf life, and the yield of biofuel.

Unit 2: Molecular Biology and Genetic Historical Progress of Plant Breeding

Engineering
I. 9 000 BC: Tigris River
Lesson 2.3 Classical and Modern ● First (archeological) evidence of
Breeding Techniques crop domestication was found at
Tigris River.
Breeding, in the classical sense, II. 1694: Rudolph Camerarius
involves subjecting two parent ● Camerarius proposed that new
organisms to undergo sexual plant types can be produced
reproduction to produce offspring. In from crossing.
III. 1719: Thomas Fairchild
addition to the production of many
● Fairchild conducted the first
generations of offspring, breeding is
reported hybridization (between
also aimed at “improving” the qualities
sweet William and carnation).
of the progeny. This implies that
IV. 1766: Joseph Koelreuter
genetic or heritable characteristics are
● Koelreuter of Germany
central to the practice of breeding,
produced the first hybrid
which entails an actual application of
tobacco.
genetic principles.
V. 1866: Gregor Mendel
● Mendel laid foundation to
Plant breeding is a central practice in heredity of traits through his
agriculture and is continuously garden pea hybridization.
modified until the present. The VI. 1926: Pioneer Company
ultimate goal of plant breeding is to
improve various aspects of crops.
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● Pioneer Hi-Bred Corn Company ● Hazel proposed the selection

became the first seed company index theory where multiple
in the world. traits of an animal must be
considered for selection.

VII. 1960s: Norman Borlaug

● During the Green Revolution, Modern Breeding Techniques
Borlaug introduced cultivation
practices that boosted global I. Somatic Hybridization
production. ● Protoplasts from two different
plants with desirable traits are
Historical Progress of Animal fused.
Breeding II. Mutation Breeding
● Crops, such as soybeans, are
I. 1760s: Robert Bakewell induced to mutate (e.g.,
● Sir Robert Bakewell introduced exposure to gamma radiation).
the method of introducing III. Artificial Reproductive
records of the “performance” of Technologies
livestock. ● Some female cattle are
II. 1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan
artificially inseminated by
● Morgan received a Nobel Prize
using semen collected from
for his work related to the
superior bulls.
breeding of fruit flies
IV. Genetic Engineering
(Drosophila) for genetic studies.
● Genetic engineering transcends
III. 1918: Ronald Fisher
classical breeding techniques and
● Fisher, the father of Statistics,
allows introduction of genes from
applied statistical methods in the
a totally different organism.
breeding of mice and livestock.
IV. 1937: Jay Lush
● Lush proposed the use of genetic Genetic engineering involves the direct

data in breeding rather than manipulation of genes of organisms in

subjective evaluation of animal the laboratory for them to express the

appearance. desired traits.

V. 1840s: Lanoy Nelson Hazel
Recombinant DNA technology is the
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primary technique used in the genetic ➔ Identification of a host organism

engineering of organisms. ➔ Identification of a gene of interest
➔ Proteins as phenotypic determiners
The Macedonian Academy of Sciences
and Arts has devoted their resources to ● Werner Arber pioneered the
establish a genetic engineering facility. study of the restriction enzymes
in bacterial cells.
Brief History of Genetic Engineering ● Hamilton Smith, together with
Daniel Nathans, elucidated the
I. 1972: Cohen and Boyer ability of restriction
● Stanley Cohen and Herbert endonucleases to cut DNA at
Boyer introduced a plasmid specific sites.
segment into the plasmid of
another bacterium. Applications of Genetic Engineering
II. 1974: Rudolf Jaenisch
● Jaenisch successfully created the ➔ Agriculture
first transgenic animal— a ➔ Bioremediation
mouse. ➔ Pharmaceuticals
III. 1977: Genentech ➔ Genetic Testing
● The company Genentech was ➔ Gene Therapy
able to produce somatostatin, a
human protein, through Key Points
GM E. coli.
IV. 1983: Bevan, Flavell, and ● The practice of breeding plants and
Dell- Chilton animals not only aims to produce a
● Richard Flavell (left) and Mary sufficient number of offspring for
Dell-Chilton (right), alongside several generations but to also improve
Michael Bevan, successfully the traits of the organism being bred.
created the first transgenic crop, ● Plant breeding, being a major aspect
a tobacco. of agriculture, aims to produce the
quality and quantity of crops to
rDNA Technology address certain issues such as global
food security concerns.
➔ DNA as the blueprint of life ● Animal breeding, likewise, aims to
➔ Introduction of foreign genes improve livestock so that they produce
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better quality and quantity of animal ● Crops are genetically engineered to

products such as meat, eggs, wool, and possess various desirable traits that
dairy. would ultimately address global food
● Breeding methods are applied for the security concerns.
conservation of animals with
threatened status. ➔ Golden rice is a product of the
● The earliest forms of plant and introduction of multiple genes to
animal breeding involve the practice of normal rice to allow synthesis
domestication where wild organisms and retention of beta carotene in
are bred to produce traits that will grains.
benefit humans. ➔ Soybeans are modified to
● Plant breeding methods involve mass become more tolerant to
selection, pure-line selection, clonal glyphosate herbicide.
selection, and crossbreeding. These ➔ Tomatoes have their
methods differ in terms of their polygalacturonase gene
objectives, whether pollination is underexpressed to delay
applied, the type of pollination, and ripening and extending shelf
the parent plants involved. life.
● Animal breeding may involve ● Cows are genetically engineered to
inbreeding or crossbreeding. These address the demand for
two methods differ in terms of whether pharmaceutical products. In addition to
a new combination of superior traits is their agricultural purposes, cows are
produced in the offspring. modified to produce therapeutic
● Modern breeding methods are also proteins in their milk. In addition, to
practiced in both plants and animals. address the seasonal growth of Atlantic
This may involve the fusion of cells salmon, foreign genes are introduced to
(somatic hybridization), induced it to allow growth throughout the year.
mutagenesis (mutation breeding), ● Aside from their potential in
artificial reproductive technologies, pharmaceuticals, bacterial cells are
and genetic engineering. genetically engineered to address
bioremediation concerns. The genetic
Unit 2: Molecular Biology and Genetic modification allowed them to
Engineering metabolize various environmental
contaminants such as crude oil.
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● Recombinant DNA technology also

gave power to geneticists to detect Floral Anatomy
genetic disorders at their
presymptomatic stage. Through ● The pistil consists of the female
genetic testing, children and adults can structures in flowers (i.e., stigma, style,
determine if they are affected by a ovary)
late-onset disorder.
● Individuals who are also affected by ● The stigma is a structure where the
certain genetic disorders can be treated pollen grains must land during
to a certain extent through gene pollination.
therapy, a technique where normal ● Style is the stalk of the stigma that
genes are introduced into some cells of leads to the ovary. Within it is the
affected individuals for them to pollen tube.
produce the necessary functional ● Ovary is the female structure in
proteins. flowers that house the female
● Various ethical and potential health gametes.
issues surround genetic engineering. ● Ovules are small structures within
However, more scientific research the ovary. Each of them contains an
studies are required to completely egg nucleus.
determine if its risks outweigh its ● Stamen refers to the male portion
benefits. of the flower. It consists of anthers
and filaments.
Plant Reproduction and Development ● Anther is the male structure that
produces and stores the pollen
Alternation of Generations grains.
● Common life cycle ● Filament is the staminal structure
pattern for green plants that serves as the stalk of the
● Alternation of haploid anther.
and diploid phases ● Petals are the colorful leaf-life
● Sporophyte is the diploid stage, structures in flowers that primarily
while gametophyte is haploid attract pollinators.
● Meiosis forms haploid spores, ● Sepals are green leaf-like
mitosis forms haploid gametes structures that protect the
● Diploid chromosome number is structures in a flower bud.
restored through fertilization
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● Receptacle is the thickened portion

below the ovary where floral
structures grow.
● Pedicel is the stalk of the flower
which provides support to all floral
parts.