INHERITANCE

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• Inheritance is the
transmission of genetic
information from
generation to
generation.
• Genetics is the study of
inheritance and how it
works.

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 CHROMOSOMES & GENES
• DNA is organized and condensed into
thread-like structures present inside
the nucleus of cells, called
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are “thread-like
structures which carry the genetic
information in the form of GENES”.
• Chromosomes are most condensed
during cell division.
• A gene is a “length of DNA that codes
for a protein”. It is made of sequences
of the bases A, T, G & C.
• Genes can have different variants,
e.g., the gene for height could have
two variants: Tall or short.
• An alternate form of a gene or a
version of a gene is called an “allele”.
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 CHROMOSOMES & GENES
• A chromosome consists of
chromatids, joined at a point
called a centromere.
• Prior to cell division, each
chromosome undergoes
replication to give 2
chromatids per chromosome.
• Same genes are arranged on
both chromatids of a
particular chromosome.
• Chromosome number of a
species remains the same in
all individuals.
• Humans have 46
chromosomes or 23 pairs of
chromosomes.

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 CHROMOSOMES & GENES
• All body cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes and are called “somatic
cells”.
• Gametes or sex cells (ova and sperm)
contain only one set of 23 chromosomes
(after a division called meiosis).
• When gametes fuse, the chromosome
number becomes 23 pairs and is
maintained for the human species.
• A haploid nucleus is a nucleus containing
a single set of unpaired chromosomes
present, for example, in sperm and egg
cells.
• A diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing
two sets of chromosomes present, for
example, in body cells.

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 DNA CONTROLS CELL ACTIVITIES

GENETIC AMINO PROTEIN

DNA
CODE ACIDS S

ENZYMES ANTIBODIES RECEPTORS FOR

NEUROTRANSMIITTERS

• Since enzymes are

involved in all chemical
reactions in cells, DNA
controls all cellular
activities.
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 DNA CODES FOR AMINO ACIDS
• DNA is made of 4 types of bases
(adenine: A, thymine: T, cytosine:
C & guanine: G).
• Three bases together, known as a
“codon” code for a single amino
acid (Amino acids make proteins).
• For example, CGA codes for
alanine, CAT codes for valine, and
CCA codes for glycine. The tri-
peptide valine–glycine–alanine is
specified by the DNA code CAT–
CCA–CGA.
• Question: Insulin has 21 amino
acids. How many bases would
code for insulin?

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 Process of protein synthesis
– the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
– messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
– mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
– the mRNA passes through ribosomes
– the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
– the specific sequence of amino acids is determined by
the sequence of bases in the mRNA

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Some facts related to protein synthesis
• The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific
protein)
• Different sequences of amino acids give different
shapes to protein molecules
• DNA controls cell function by controlling the
production of proteins, including enzymes, membrane
carriers and receptors for neurotransmitters
• Most body cells in an organism contain the same
genes, but many genes in a particular cell are not
expressed because the cell only makes the specific
proteins it needs

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 CELL DIVISION

• Cell division is the

process by which new
cells are produced from
pre-existing cells.
• Cell division is necessary
for growth, repair,
regeneration and
reproduction.
• Cell division involves the
division of the nucleus,
followed by division of
the rest of the cell.
• Cell division in body
cells occurs by “mitosis”
and formation of
gametes occurs by
“meiosis”.
• Prior to cell division,BIOLOGICS
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 Mitosis Meiosis

Number of Daughter cells produced 2 4

Chromosome number of cells produced Diploid/remains same as parent cell Haploid/Halved than parent cell

Whether cells produced are genetically Genetically identical Genetically Different

identical or different

Happens During  Growth Production of Gametes during Sexual reproduction

 repair of damaged tissues
 replacement of cells
 Asexual reproduction.
 Stem cells divide by mitosis to produce
daughter cells that become specialized for
specific functions

Variations No variations are produced Variations are produced

Definition Mitosis is a nuclear division giving rise to Meiosis is a reduction division in which the chromosome
genetically identical cells number is halved from diploid to haploid resulting in
genetically different cells.

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 STEM CELLS
• During cell division, most cells get
converted into the type of cells that are
being made or replaced.
• They get “specialized” and adapted to their
function and lose the ability to divide.
• Other cells retain the ability to divide and
remain unspecialized, known as “stem
cells”.
• Stem cells are unspecialized cells that
divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells
that can become specialized for specific
functions.
• After fertilization, a zygote must divide to
form a complete baby with different types
of cells. Stem cells that produce this baby
are known as “embryonic stem cells”.
• As adults, we have few stem cells present
in our bone marrow called “adult stem
cells”. BIOLOGICS CLASSES / PRATIKSHA TIWARI
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 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
• Chromosomes are made of DNA, which contains genetic information in the
form of genes
• A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein
• An allele is an alternative form of a gene
• Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to
generation
• Genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism and in terms of the alleles
present
• Phenotype is the observable features of an organism
• Homozygous is having two identical alleles of a particular gene.Two identical
homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
• Heterozygous is having two different alleles of a particular gene,
heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding
• Dominant allele is an allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype
• Recessive allele is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant
allele of the gene present in the genotype
• Haploid nucleus is a nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes
• Diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes in a diploid
cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid cell
there are 23 pairs BIOLOGICS CLASSES / PRATIKSHA TIWARI
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• “Homozygous” is having two
identical alleles of a particular gene.
• Two identical homozygous
individuals that breed together will
be pure-breeding.
• “Heterozygous” is having two
different alleles of a particular gene.
• A heterozygous individual will not be
pure-breeding.

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• Depending on the type of
alleles present, the genetic
makeup and the features of
an organism can vary.
• “Genotype” is the genetic
make-up of an organism in
terms of the alleles present.
• “Phenotype” is the
observable features of an
organism.

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• “Dominant” is an allele
that is expressed if it is
present.
• “Recessive” is an allele
that is only expressed
when there is no
dominant allele of the
gene present.

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Law of Dominance /1st law of
Mendel/Monohybrid cross

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Genetic Crosses

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 Identifying an Unknown Genotype
(TEST CROSS)

• Breeders can use a test cross to find out the genotype of an organism
showing the dominant phenotype
• This involves crossing the unknown individual with an individual showing
the recessive phenotype – if the individual is showing the recessive
phenotype, then its genotype must be homozygous recessive
• By looking at the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring, we can tell whether
the unknown individual is homozygous dominant or heterozygous

• ‘A plant breeder has a tall plant of unknown genotype. How can they
find out whether it is homozygous dominant or heterozygous?’
• The short plant is showing the recessive phenotype and so must be
homozygous recessive – tt
• If the tall plant is homozygous dominant, all offspring produced will be
tall
• If the tall plant is heterozygous, half the offspring will be tall and the
other half will be short

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Sex Determination

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Human Karyotype

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 PEDIGREE CHARTS
• A pedigree is a chart of the
genetic history of a family
over several generations.
• Males are represented as
squares, while females are
represented as circles.
• Shaded symbols mean an
individual is affected by a
condition, while an
unshaded symbol means
they are unaffected.
• A horizontal line between
man and woman represents
mating and resulting
children are shown as
offshoots to this line.

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INTERPRETING FAMILY PEDIGREE

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SEX LINKED CHARACTERISTICS
/DISORDER

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