Intro.

to Basic Electronics
Instructors:
G. S. KLOGO
Emial:
gsklogo@knust.edu.gh
 General Information
• Suggested pre-requisites:
▫ Basic course on applied electricity and linear algebra,
Knowledge of electrical components will be an advantage.
• Course Content:
▫ Introduction to Electronics and its Applications
▫ Semiconductor Materials and Properties
▫ Semiconductor Diodes
▫ Semiconductor Diodes and Applications
▫ Bipolar Junction Transistor
▫ Transistor as an Amplifier
▫ Operational Amplifier
▫ Switching Theory and Logic Design
• Grading :
▫ Cont. Ass. : 30% Final Exams 70%
Reference Books
• Electronic Principles by Albert Paul Malvino
(copies can be found in both Engineering and
Main Lib.)
• Electronic Engineering by Sanjay Sharma PhD.
(copies can be found at Kingdom Books)
• etc

Lecture Notes
https://sites.google.com/site/klogoclass/home
Intro. to
Electricity and Electronics
What is Electronics

Electronics is the branch of physics and

technology concerned with the design of
circuits using transistors and microchips, and
with the behaviour and movement of electrons
in a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or gas
System of Units
Applications
Atoms And Their Structure
• Everything is made of atoms
• The simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen atom.
• It is made up of two basic particles
▫ the proton
▫ the electron

• In all other elements the nucleus also contains

neutrons which have no charge
• In every element the number of protons is
equivalent to the number of electrons.
Coulomb’s Law
• Unlike charges attract; like charges repel.
• So there are forces of attraction acting in the
atom between the protons in the nucleus and
the electrons in the orbiting shells.
• This force is stronger when they are closer and
weaker when they are far apart.
• Therefore it is easier to break away an electron
that is distant from the nucleus.
• Also it is easier to break an electron from a shell
that is incomplete and has fewer electrons.
Electricity
• An electron that breaks away from its atom is
known as a Free Electron.
• These free electrons are known as charge
carriers.
• The movement of free electrons is known as
current of Electricty.
• Some materials have strong attraction and refuse
to lose electrons (have less free electrons), these
are called insulators (air, porcelain, oils,
Bakelite, rubber, teflon, glass, mica)

• Some materials have weak attractions and allow

electrons to be lost, these are called conductors
(silver, copper, gold, aluminium, tungsten,
nickel, iron)
• Surplus of electrons is called a
negative charge (-). A shortage
of electrons is called a positive
charge (+).

• A battery provides a surplus of

electrons by chemical reaction.

• By connecting a conductor
from the positive terminal to
negative terminal electrons
will flow.
Potential Difference(Voltage )
• The applied potential difference ( measured in volts) of
a voltage source in an electric circuit is the “pressure”
needed to set the system in motion and “cause” the flow
of charge or current through the electrical system.
• Compare this pressure to the pressure from a water tap
connected to a hose
Voltage Sources:
• Voltage is like differential pressure,
always measure between two points.

• Measure voltage between two points

or across a component in a circuit.

• When measuring DC voltage make

sure polarity of meter is correct,
positive (+) red, negative (-) black.
Ground
Current

• Uniform flow of electrons thru a circuit is called current.

WILL USE CONVENTIONAL FLOW NOTATION

ON ALL SCHEMATICS
• To measure current, must break circuit and install meter in line.

• Measurement is imperfect because of voltage drop created by meter.

Resistance

• The resistance of a material is the opposing force that a

flowing charge encounters
• All materials have a resistance that is dependent on
cross-sectional area, material type and temperature.
• A resistor dissipates power in the form of heat
Various resistors types
When measuring resistance, remove
component from the circuit.
Resistor Color Code
Resistors in Circuits
Series
• Looking at the
current path, if
there is only one
path, the
components are in
series.
Resistors in Circuits
Series

R1  R2  Rn
Resistors in Circuits
Parallel

• If there is more
than one way for
the current to
complete its path,
the circuit is
parallel
Resistors in Circuits
Parallel

1 R1 R2
R1  R2
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 Rn
Resistors in Circuits
Mixed
• If the path for the
current in a portion
of the circuit is a

Series
single path, and in R

another portion of
the circuit has

Series

Parallel
multiple routes, the
circuit is a mix of
series and parallel.
Capacitance
A capacitor is used to store charge for a short amount of time

Capacitor

Battery

Unit = Farad

Pico Farad - pF = 10-12F

Micro Farad - uF = 10-6F
The Capacitor
Defined
• A device that stores
energy in electric field.
• Two conductive plates
separated by a non
conductive material.
• Electrons accumulate on
one plate forcing
electrons away from the
other plate leaving a net
positive charge.
• Think of a capacitor as
very small, temporary
storage battery.
The Capacitor
Physical Construction
• Capacitors are rated
by:
▫ Amount of charge
that can be held.
▫ The voltage handling
capabilities.
▫ Insulating material
between plates.
The Capacitor
Ability to Hold a Charge
• Ability to hold a charge
depends on:
▫ Conductive plate
surface area.
▫ Space between plates.
▫ Material between plates.
The Capacitor
Behavior in DC

• When exposed to DC, the capacitor charges and

holds the charge as long as the DC voltage is
applied.
• The capacitor essentially blocks DC voltage from
passing through.
 The Capacitor
Behavior in AC

• When AC current is applied, during one half of

the cycle the capacitor accepts a charge in one
direction.
• During the next half of the cycle, the capacitor is
discharges then recharged in the reverse
direction.
• During the next half cycle the pattern reverses.
• Essentially, it appears that AC current passes
through a capacitor
The Capacitor
Behavior

• A capacitor blocks the passage of DC

• A capacitor passes AC
The Capacitor
Capacitance Value
• The unit of capacitance is the farad.
▫ A single farad is a huge amount of capacitance.
▫ Most electronic devices use capacitors that
have a very tiny fraction of a farad.
• Common capacitance ranges are:
▫ Micro  - 10-6

▫ Nano
n - 10-9

▫ Pico p - 10-12
The Capacitor
Capacitance Value
• Capacitor identification
depends on the capacitor
type.
• Could be color bands,
dots, or numbers.
• Wise to keep capacitors
organized and identified
to prevent a lot of work
trying to re-identify the
values.
Capacitors in Circuits
+
• Two physical factors
affect capacitance Charged plates far
apart
values.
▫ Plate spacing
-
▫ Plate surface area
• In series, plates are
far apart making
capacitance less C1C2
C1  C2
Capacitors in Circuits

• In parallel, the +

surface area of the

plates add up to be
greater, and close
together.
-
• This makes the

C1  C2
capacitance more the
Capacitor
The Inductor
• There are two fundamental principles of
electronics:
1. Moving electrons create a magnetic field.
2. Moving or changing magnetic fields cause
electrons to move.
• An inductor is a coil of wire through which
electrons move, and energy is stored in the
resulting magnetic field.
The Inductor
• Like capacitors,
inductors temporarily
store energy.
• Unlike capacitors:
▫ Inductors store energy
in a magnetic field, not
an electric field.
▫ When the source of
electrons is removed,
the magnetic field
collapses immediately.
The Inductor
• Inductors are simply
coils of wire.
▫ Can be air wound
(nothing in the middle
of the coil)
▫ Can be wound around a
permeable material
(material that
concentrates magnetic
fields)
▫ Can be wound around a
circular form (toroid)
The Inductor
• Inductance is measured in Henry(s).
• A Henry is a measure of the intensity of the
magnetic field that is produced.
• Typical inductor values used in electronics are in
the range of milli Henry (1/1000) and micro
Henry (1/1,000,000)
The Inductor
• The amount of
inductance is
influenced by a
number of factors:
▫ Number of coil
turns.
▫ Diameter of coil.
▫ Spacing between
turns.
▫ Size of the wire
used.
▫ Type of material
inside the coil.
 Inductor Performance With DC
Currents
• When DC current is applied to an inductor, the wire in
the inductor momentarily appears as a short circuit and
maximum current flows.
• As the magnetic field builds (changes) there is a
tendency for the current flow to slow down (due to an
opposition cause the the changing magnetic field).
• Finally, the magnetic field is at its maximum and the
current flows to maintain the field.
• As soon as the current source is removed, the magnetic
field begins to collapse and creates a rush of current in
the other direction, sometimes at very high voltages.
Inductor Performance With AC
Currents
• When AC current is applied to an inductor,
during the first half of the cycle, the magnetic
field builds as if it were a DC voltage.
• During the next half of the cycle, the current is
reversed and the magnetic field first has to
decrease the reverse polarity in step with the
changing current.
• Depending on the value of inductance, these
forces can work against each other, making for a
less than simple situation.
The Inductor
• Because the magnetic
field surrounding an
inductor can cut
across another
inductor in close
proximity, the
changing magnetic
field in one can cause
current to flow in the
other … the basis of
transformers
Laws and Principles of
Electricity and Electronics
Laws and Rules
• Ohm’s
• Kirchhoff’s
• Voltage Divider
• Current Divider
• Thevenin’s
• Norton’s
Reminder: Elements in series
• Two elements are in series if
• 1. They have only one terminal in
common (i.e., one lead of one is
connected to only one lead of the other).
• 2. The common point between the two
elements is not connected to another
current-carrying element.
Reminder: Resistors in series
• The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum
of the resistance levels.
Ohm’s Law

• The mathematical relationship

▫ E=I*R
• Doing the math
Ohm’s Law
• In 1827 George Ohm proved there was a direct
relationship between Voltage (E), Current (I),
and Resistance (R) in an electrical circuit. This
relationship is known as Ohm’s Law.
• Ohm’s Law states that current in a circuit is
proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
Ohm’s Law
• There is a
E  I *R
mathematical
relationship between E
the three
components of R
electricity. That
relationship is I
Ohm’s Law.
▫ E = volts
E
▫ R = resistance in
ohms
▫ I = current in amps
I
R
 Ohm’s Law

E = Voltage - Volts
I = Current - Amps
R = Resistance or Reactance
(Impedence) - Ohms
Question
a. Find the total resistance for the series circuit of the figure below
b. Calculate the source current Is.
c. Determine the voltages V1, V2, and V3.
d. Calculate the power dissipated by R1, R2, and R3.
e. Determine the power delivered by the source, and compare it to the
sum of the power levels of part (d).
Power
• Transforming energy from one form to another
is called work. The greater the energy
transformed, the more work that is done.
• There are six basic forms of energy and they are
light, heat, magnetic, chemical, electrical, and
mechanical energy.
• The unit for measuring work is called the
Joule (J).
Power
• Power (P) is the rate at which work is
performed and is measured by the unit called
Watt (W). Watts = Joules per second.
• The output Power, or power ratings of
electrical, electronic or mechanical devices can
be expressed in Watts (W) and describes the
number of Joules of energy converted every
second.
Power
• Power is the rate at which electric energy (W)
is converted to some other form and can be
expressed mathematically as P = I x V.
• This formula states that the amount of power
delivered to a device is dependent on the
electrical pressure (or voltage applied across the
device) and the current flowing through the
device.
Power Formula
• The Power Formula is the relationship
between Power (P), Voltage (E), and Current (I).

P
P = Power -Watts
E = Voltage - Volts
I = Current - Amps

E I
Power Formula
• The Power Formula states that if the voltage
in a circuit changes, the current in the circuit
also changes. The power required from a circuit
changes any time loads are added (power
increases) or removed (power decreases).
• The Power Formula is used when
troubleshooting and to predict circuit
characteristics before power is applied.
Combining Ohm’s Law and Power
Formula
• Ohm’s Law and the Power Formula may be
combined mathematically and written as any
combination of Voltage (E), Current (I),
Resistance (R), or Power (P).
• Ohm’s Law and the Power Formula are
limited to circuits in which electrical resistance
is the only significant opposition to the flow of
current. This limitation includes all DC circuits
and AC circuits that do no contain a significant
amount of inductance and/or capacitance –
which we will learn about later.
Combining Ohm’s Law and Power
Formula
 64

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The algebraic sum of the voltage that rises and
drops around a closed loop is equal to zero
• ET - V1 - V2 - V3 - ∙∙∙ - Vn = 0
 65

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• Another way of stating KVL is:
▫ Summation of voltage rises is equal to the
summation of voltage drops around a closed loop

V1 + V2 + V3 + ∙∙∙ + Vn = ET
 66

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• the applied voltage of a series circuit
equals the sum of the voltage drops
across the series elements.
 67

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

a. Find RT.
b. Find I.
c. Find V1 and V2.
d. Find the power to the 4- and 6- resistors.
e. Find the power delivered by the battery, and compare it
to that dissipated
by the 4- and 6- resistors combined.
f. Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law (clockwise direction).
Voltage Divider Rule

R1
v1  R1i  v total
R1  R2  R3

R2
v 2  R2 i  v total
R1  R2  R3
The voltage across the resistive
elements will divide as the
magnitude of the resistance levels.
Application of the Voltage-Division
Principle

R1
v1  vtotal
R1  R2  R3  R4
1000
 15
1000  1000  2000  6000
 1.5V
Simplifying the Voltage Divider
Rule
Reminder: Elements in Parallel
• Two elements, branches, or networks are
in parallel if they have two points in
common
Reminder: Elements in Parallel
Reminder: Resistors in parallel
• For parallel resistors, the total
conductance is the sum of the individual
conductances.
𝟏
•G=
𝑹
Reminder: Resistors in parallel
The voltage across parallel elements
is the same.

For single-source parallel networks,

the source current (Is ) is equal
to the sum of the individual branch
currents.
Question: Resistors in parallel
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the
algebraic sum of the currents entering and
leaving an area, system, or junction is zero.
• In other words, the sum of the currents entering
an area, system, or junction must equal the sum
of the currents leaving the area, system, or
junction.
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
Current Divider Principle
 Current Division Principle
v R2
i1   itotal
R1 R1  R2
v R1
i2   itotal
R2 R1  R2

It can be also simplified as

(Especially considering
multiple resistors in parallel)
Application of the Current-Division Principle

R2 R3 30  60
Req    20
R2  R3 30  60
Req 20
i1  is  15  10A
R1  Req 10  20
•Voltage division •Voltage division and
•current division
•Current division
Although they are very
important concepts,
series/parallel equivalents and
the current/voltage division
principles are not sufficient to
solve all circuits.
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem – any resistive circuit or
network, no matter how complex, can be
represented as a voltage source in series with
a source resistance
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin Voltage (VTH) – the voltage present
at the output terminals of the circuit when the
load is removed

Insert Figure 7.18

Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin Resistance (RTH) – the resistance
measured across the output terminals with
the load removed
Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

Vt  voc

voc
Rt 
isc
Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
 Finding the Thévenin
Resistance Directly

When zeroing a voltage source, it becomes

a short circuit. When zeroing a current
source, it becomes an open circuit.

We can find the Thévenin resistance by

zeroing the sources in the original
network and then computing the resistance
between the terminals.
Computation of Thévenin resistance
Equivalence of open-circuit and Thévenin voltage
A circuit and its Thévenin equivalent
Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem

• Load Voltage Ranges – Thevenin’s theorem is

most commonly used to predict the change in
load voltage that will result from a change in
load resistance
Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem

• Maximum Power Transfer

▫ Maximum power transfer from a circuit to a
variable load occurs when the load resistance
equals the source resistance
▫ For a series-parallel circuit, maximum power
occurs when RL = RTH
Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem
• Multiload Circuits

Insert Figure 7.30

Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem
• Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent
circuit for the network in the shaded area of
the circuit below
Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem – any resistive circuit or
network, no matter how complex, can be
represented as a current source in parallel with a
source resistance
Norton’s Theorem
• Norton Current (IN) – the current through the
shorted load terminals

Insert Figure 7.35

Computation of Norton current
Norton’s Theorem

• Norton Resistance (RN) – the resistance

measured across the open load terminals
(measured and calculated exactly like RTH)
Norton’s Theorem
• Norton-to-Thevenin and Thevenin-to-Norton
Conversions

Insert Figure 7.39

 Step-by-step Thévenin/Norton-
Equivalent-Circuit Analysis

1. Perform two of these:

a. Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc.
b. Determine the short-circuit current In = isc.
c. Zero the sources and find the Thévenin
resistance Rt looking back into the
terminals.
2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to compute
the remaining value.

3. The Thévenin equivalent consists of a

voltage source Vt in series with Rt .

4. The Norton equivalent consists of a

current source In in parallel with Rt .
Maximum Power Transfer

The load resistance that absorbs the

maximum power from a two-terminal
circuit is equal to the Thévenin
resistance.
Power transfer between source and Graphical representation of
load maximum power transfer
…that’s all folks…
…thanks for your time…