PILING

PILING DESIG
DESIGNN AND
AND CONST
CONSTRUCTION HONG KONG
RUCTION IN HONG KONG

SHING
YUNG KEUNG SHING

BEng
BEng HKPU
HKPU

thesis submitted
A thesis submitted in partial
partial fulfilment
fulfilment of the
the requirements
requirements for
for

the Degree
Degree of Master
Master of Science in Applied Geosciences
Geosciences

of the University of Hong Kong

of

June 2001
June 2001
 DECLARATION
DECLARATION

II declare
declare that this represents my own
dissertation represents
this dissertation except where due
own work, except

that it has not been previously included

acknowledgement is made, and that
acknowledgement

dissertation or report
in aa thesis, dissertation submitted to this
report submitted other
any other
this University or to any

institution for aa degree,

institution degree, diploma or other qualification.
other qualification.

Signed ..........l .. i ................................

Name. . .YUNG KEUNG SHING ...............

Date . . . . . .JUNE 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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 ABSTRACT

There
There has been rapid urban development in Hong Kong since 1970s. Increasingly heavy
1970s. Increasingly
foundations
foundations are being constructed to support high column loads of tall buildings. The
common practice in Hong Kong is for piled foundations to be designed by the piling
contractor during the tender period. The larger contractors can variety of types and
offer a variety
can offer
can choose the most suitable type for the conditions. The smaller contractors are under
pressure to offer their type of pile in conditions although this may not be the most suitable
pressure
one. Choice of type purely on the basis of cost is wrong. Even if the engineer responsible
for the building does not design the piling, he should at least consider the suitability of the
different types and invite tenders only for the type suitable for the conditions. The aim of
different
this paper is to review the current design and construction practices for deep foundations in
this
Hong Kong
Hong different geological conditions.
Kong and study the choice of the pile type under different
New directions
New in piling design and some guidelines for choice of pile type are also
directions in
suggested.
suggested.

ii
 Contents
Contents

Declaration
Declaratio n i

Abstract
Abstract ii

t
ii

U
Table of
Table of Contents in
iii

\
Figures
List of Figures vi
vi

O
List of Tables vi

\
O
Photos
List of Photos vi

l
\
Chapter 11 Introduction 1

Chapter
Chapter 2 Common
Common Types
Types of Piles In Hong Kong 2

2.1 Introduction
Introduction 2

2.2 Steel H-pile

Steel 2

2.3 Machine
Machine Bored
Bored Pile 2

2.4 Mini-pile
Mini-pile 3

2.5 Rock Socketted

Rock Socketted H-pile 4

Chapter 3 Design Used Types of Pile

Widely Used
Design of Widely 5

3.1 Introduction 5

3.2 Loading Bearing

Loading Bearing Capacity
Capacity 5

3.2.1
3.2.] Steel H-piles
Steel 5
3.2.2 Bored Piles
Machine Bored 6
3.2.3 Mini-piles 6
3.2.4 Socketted H-Piles
Rock Socketted 7
00

3.3 Lateral Load

Lateral Load Capacity
Capacity 8

3.3.1 Mini-piless
Mini-pile 8

iii
3.4 Uplift Capacity
Uplifi Capacity 8

3.4.1
3.4.1 Steel H-piles
Steel 9
3.4.2
3.4.2 Bored Piles
Machine Bored Piles 9
3.4.3
3.4.3 Mini-piles & Rock Socketted H-Piles
Mini-piles & 9

Chapter 4
Chapter Local
Local Practice
Practice of
of Construction
Construction 10

4.1 Introduction
Introduction 10

4.2 Steel H—pile

Steel H-pile 10

4.3 bored pile

Machine bored 10

4.4 Mini-pile
Mini-pile 12

4.5 Rock socketted H-pile 12

Chapter 5 Choice of
of Pile Type 13

5.1 Introduction
Introduction ' 113
3

5.2 Ground Conditions

Ground 13
l3

5.2.1
5.2.1 Review of
Review of Hong Kong
geology of
of geology 13
5.2.2
5.2.2 Typical ground conditions of
Typical ground conditions Hong Kong
of Hong Kong 13
13
5.3 Geotechnical phenomena associated with piling 14

5.3.1
5.3.1 Reclamation Fill 14
5.3.1.1
5.3.1.1 Driven H-pile 14
5.3.1.2
5.3.1.2 Machine dug bored, rock socketted H-pile ' 1144
and mini-pile

5.3.2
5.3.2 Quaternary Deposits
Quaternary Deposits 14
5.3.2.1
5.3.2.1 Driven H-pile 15
5.3.2.2
5.3.2.2 Machine dug bored, rock socketted H-pile 15
and mini-pile
mini-pile

5.3.3
5.3.3 Granite Saprolite
Granite 15
~15
5.3.3.1
5.3.3.1 H-pile
Driven H—pile 15
5.3.3.2
5.3.3.2 Machine dug bored, rock socketted H-pile 16
and mini-pile

5.3.4
5.3.4 Granite
Unweathered Granite 16

5.3.4.1 Machine dug bored-piles

bored-piles 16

5.4 Nature of Loading

Loading 16

iv
 5.5 Site Conditions 16

5.6 and cost

Time and 17

5.7 Choice of pile types 17

5.8 Case studies 18

Chapter 66 Conclusions
C o n c l u s i o n s aand Recommendations
n d Recommendations

6.1 Conclusion 20

6.2 New Direction of Design 21

6.2.1 Introduction 21
6.2.2
6.2.2 Driven
Driven H-Pile
H-Pile 21
21
6.2.3
6.2.3 Machine
Machine Bored
Bored Pile
Pile 21
21

6.3 Recommendation Issues for fiirther

Recommendation further studies 22

References
References

v
List Tables
of Tables
List of

Table 1.
Table 1. Classificat ion of Different
Classification Different Pile Types.

List of Figures
Figures

Figure. ofHong
geologyof
Thegeology
Figure. 11 The Kong.
HongKong.

Photos
List of Photos

Photo. 11 H-pile works with hydraulic hammer.

The typical setup of driven H—pile

Photo.. 2
Photo The welding between the connection of H-piles is checked by a technician.

Photo. obstructions such

The obstructions
Photo. 33 The fi l l was
such as boulder or rock fill and backfilled
was drilled and sand
backfilled with sand
before starting the driving H-pile works.

final set is recorded by a labour and supervised by aa resident engineer.

Photo. 4 The final

Photo. 55 Installation of hydraulic oscillator for sinking casing.

Photo. 66 Installation
Photo. & drill bit body to form rock
Installation of hydraulic reverse circulation rig &
socket.

Photo. 7 Close view of drill bit

Photo.

Photo. 88 Welding connection between casings

Photo.

Photo.. 9
Photo A typical drilling machine for mini-pile

10 Close view of down-the-hole drill rig.

Photo.. 10
Photo

Photo A completed mini-pile.

11 A
Photo.. 11

vi
v1
1.0 - INTRO DUCTION
INTRODUCTION

There
There has
has been
been rapid
rapid urban
urban development
development in Hong Kong
Kong since 1970s. Increasingly
Increasingly heavy foundations
foundations are
being
being constructed to support
support high column
column loads of
of tall buildings. The common practice
practice in Hong Kong is
for
for piled
piled foundations
foundations to be designed
designed by the
the piling
piling contractor
contractor during
during the
the tender
tender period.
period. The
The larger
larger
contractors
contractors can
can offer
offer a variety
variety of types
types and
and can
can choose
choose the
the most
most suitable
suitable type
type for
for the
the conditions.
conditions. The
The
smaller contractors are under
under pressure
pressure to offer
offer their type of pile in conditions
conditions although this may not be
the most
most suitable
suitable one. Choice
Choice of type
type purely
purely on the
the basis
basis of cost is wrong.
wrong. Even
Even if the
the engineer
engineer
responsible
responsible for
for the
the building
building does not
not design
design the
the piling,
piling, he should
should at least
least consider
consider the
the suitability
suitability of the
the
different
different types
types and
and invite
invite tenders
tenders only
only for
for the
the type
type suitable
suitable for
for the
the conditions.
conditions.

Objective
Objective

The aim of this

The this paper
paper is to review
review the current
current design
design and construction
construction practices for deep foundations
foundations in
Hong Kong
Hong Kong and
and study the
the choice of the
the pile type
type under
under different
different geological
geological conditions.
conditions. New directions
directions in
in
design and some
piling design some guidelines
guidelines for choice
choice of
of pile type are also
also suggested.
suggested.

Layout
Layout

This report
This report is divided into six chapters. The introductory
introductory chapter
chapter presents a brief background
background
information about the piling industry
information industry in Hong Kong and state the main objective
objective of the report.
report. Chapter
Chapter 2
four types
will introduce four types of most commonly used pile types in Hong Kong. Chapters
Chapters 33 and 44 will review
the current
current practices of
of design
design and construction of the pile types in Hong Kong. Chapter
Chapter 55 will provide
guidance on the factors that
guidance that should be considered in choosing
choosing the most appropriate
appropriate pile type, especially
for different
for different geological
geological conditions.
conditions. It suggest the
It will also suggest ways to consider
the ways the most
consider the type of
suitable type
most suitable
piling based
piling based on the
the past
past cases reported
reported in Hong The final
Kong. The
Hong Kong. final chapter concludes the
chapter concludes finding of the
the finding the
report and
report and recommend
recommend some
some issues further studies.
for further
issues for studies.

1
2.0 -— COMMO
2.0 COMMONN TYPES
TYPES OF
OF PILES KONG
PILES IN HONG KONG

2.1 Introduction
2.1 Introduction

This
This chapter will review
review four common
common types
types of piles including
including steel H-pile, machinedug
steel H-pile, bored pile, mini-
machine dug bored mini-
pile (Odex drilling system) and rock socketted H-pile which are widely used in the recent building
socketted H—pile
foundations methods ooff
materials, methods
types will be described according to their materials,
foundations in Hong Kong. All these pile types
installation, degree of displacements and modes
degree of of load transfer. The classification
modes of of pile
classification of type is
pile type is
summaried iinn table
summaried table 11..

2.2 Steel
2.2 H-pile
Steel H-pile

Steel H used in the early part of

were used
H section piles were wharves and jetties.
of this century for wharves 1970s, it
jetties. In the 19705,
areas which are usually driven
came into general use for high rise buildings in marine reclamation areas
weathered rock mass.
through the Quaternary deposits and embedded in the partially weathered

bearing piles and develop shaft

steel bearing
H-Piles are generally called steel resistance under axial
shaft resistance axial load. They are
can easily be extended. They have much stronger tensile capacity than
easy to handle and drive and can
Steel HH pile is favourable
concrete pile. Steel favourable for densely congested of its relatively low impact
congested site because of
of sub soil causing less effect
on displacement of adjacent structures.
effect on adjacent

However, steel piles are more expensive than driven concrete piles and are more prone to corrosion
deflection upon striking
attack. Although they can withstand hard driving, they are susceptible to deflection
boulders. Even if they do not meet boulders, they tender to wander. When they are driven to aa bearing on
toe must be made to prevent damage
hard rock, some strengthening work such as welded-on shoes at pile toe
from overdriving.

2.3 Machine
2.3 Machine Bored Pile
Bored Pile

Machine-dug piles are formed by rotary

Machine-dug or percussive
boring, or
rotary boring, methods of
percussive methods boring, and subsequently
of boring,
followed by filling
bars followed
reinforcement bars
installing reinforcement concrete. A steel casing is sunk into the
filling the hole with concrete.
before the soil is excavated
ground before from inside it. Casings are usually
excavated from lengths joined
usually in 6m to 8m lengths joined to
reach the
reach the required depth. The
required depth. The strength and security
strength and security of joints are subjected to high
of the joints is important; joints
and aa failure
stresses and
stresses cause serious
can cause
failure can difficulties. This
serious difficulties. type of pile is classified
This type pile.
replacement pile.
classified as the replacement
There no definite
is no
There is line between
dividing line
definite dividing between bored piles and
bored piles diameter bored piles. Generally,
large diameter
and large
over 600mm
diameters over
diameters considered large.
are considered
600mm are up to
Piles up
large. Piles diameter and
3000mm diameter
to 3000mm at levels deeper
founding at
and founding
than 1100m
than below ground
0 0 m below can be
ground can commonplace and
be commonplace with equipment
formed with
and formed available in
equipment available Hong Kong.
in Hong Kon
El;
with deep
Buildings with
Buildings basements penetrating
deep basements beneath the
penetrating beneath the Quaternary deposits and structures imposing high
Quaternary deposits hig g ._—_ -.

2
2 We
{THU-
' LEI'EI'IE‘EJ '
 concentrated
concentrated loads
loads are often founded on large-diamete
large-diameter bored piles in which rest
r bored rest on slightly to
to
moderately weathered rock as end
moderately weathered end bearing
bearing piles
piles or
or embedded
embedded in
in saprolite
saprolite as
as either
either end
end bearing
bearing or
or skin
skin
friction
friction piles
piles depending on the design
design assumption
assumptions.
s.

Negative soil displacement occurs during boring and indeed, granular deposits may be loosened
Negative loosened by the
boring action. This is in contrast to H-pile
H-pile which
which produces
produces ground
ground compaction
compaction in granular
granular deposits.
Besides, the rough and irregular interface between the pile and the soil which is formed during the boring
action tends to improve
improve load transfer.
transfer. Belling
Belling out piles bearing
bearing in soil has little practical effect on their
practical effect
load capacity or settlement characteristics. Belling out piles bearing on hard rock can
can serve aa useful
useful
purpose such as to spread
purpose spread the load
load across aa joint or over aa wider area of variable weathering.
weathering.

2.4 Mini-Pile
2.4 Mini-Pile

variants has been conducted for over 30 years

Minipiling in its many variants years following its inception in Italy.
Italy.
From 1965,
From 1965, similar systems
systems became Germany, mainly in the underground construction
became popular in Germany, construction of
roads, subways and metros
roads, metros as in Munich, Hannover, and Berlin. In the early 19705
1970s the original Italian
patents began
patents began to expire and so the growth of new proprietary systems was further stimulated as
satisfy foundation problems in urban
progressively more ingenious schemes had to be devised to satisfy
environments.
environments.

Mini-pile, also known as micro-pile, usually has aa diameter less than 250 mm and consists of one to four
reinforcement bars which extend
nos. steel reinforcement extend into
into aa rock
rock socket.
socket. A permanent steel casing should be
provided above the rock socket
socket level and the voids around the reinforcement
reinforcement bars
bars should be grouted.
grouted.
The mini-pile
The mini-pile construction
construction tends to minimise
minimise the
the ground
ground disturbance
disturbance and it can be constructed to
considerable depths i.e. over 30m through
considerable through all types of soil, rock and obstructions, virtually any
obstructions, and in virtually
direction. They have very high slenderness ratio, and transfer
high slendemess transfer load almost wholly
wholly by shaft friction,
friction,
eliminating any
eliminating any consideration
consideration of
of under-reaming.
under-reaming.Most
Mostfeature
featuresubstantial
substantialsteel
steelreinforcing
reinforcingelements
elementsand
and
loading in both
can sustain axial loading reinforcement can be designed
both senses. The reinforcement designed to resist bending
bending stresses
safely and at small displacements
safely displacements..

Mini-piles are often

Mini-piles often used on sites with confined
confined conditions structures such as Mass Transit
conditions or near structures
Railway or pre-war
Railway pre-war buildings which are sensitive
buildings which sensitive to vibration movement caused
ground movement
vibration and ground caused by
installation of driven piles or other types of piles. Mini-piles
installation underpinning of existing
Mini-piles are also used for underpinning
structures, for
structures, for industrial
industrial or
or domestic dwellings in (a) weak soils, (b) swelling soils, (c) shrinkable soils,
and reduction
and reduction of differential
differential settlement
settlement between
between old and new construction, purposes of
construction, and even for the purposes
the remedia
the remediall works
works for short piles.

3
 Rock Socketted
2.5 Rock
2.5 H-Pile
Socketted H-Pile

Some
Some systems
systems of composite
composite piles
piles have
have been
been developed
developed to
to deal with special
deal with special site
site conditions.
conditions. Steel
Steel H-pile
H-pile
can
can be
be installed
installed as
as a column
column to
to form
form a load-carrying
load-carrying element
element placed
placed within
within pre-bored
pre-bored hole
hole previously
previously
installed
installed into
into rock
rock i.e.
i.e. grade
grade III
III or
or better
better rocks
rocks with
with total
total core
core recovery
recovery greater
greater than
than 85% and then filled
and then filled
works is similar
drilling works
with cement grout. The drilling for the
those for
similar to those except insertion
mini-pile except
the mini-pile but
insertion of H-pile but
not steel
not bars and
steel bars also aims
and it also minimising the
aims at minimising ground disturbance.
the ground result, we can
disturbance. As a result, as
classify it as
can classify
holes should
pre-bored holes
replacementpile. The pre-bored enough to enable
large enough
should be large installation of H-piles
the installation
enable the and to
H-piles and
allow sufficient
allow concrete cover
sufficient concrete for corrosion
cover for protection purpose.
corrosion protection This type
purpose. This is normally
pile is
type of pile used where
normally used where
bed rock
bed level is relatively
rock level and overlain
shallow and
relatively shallow soft soil. All
layers of soft
overlain by layers bond
to the bond
All load is transmitted to
between the rock and grout through
strength between
strength steel section.
through the steel suitable for
Also, it is suitable
section. Also, installation
for pile installation
where adjoining
where structures are
adjoining structures sensitive to percussive
are sensitive piling.
percussive piling.

.
ammo
l

.32:
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4
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" H. 4 .
E!
3.0 —
3.0 - DESIGN
DESIGN OF
OF WIDELY
WIDELY USED TYPES
TYPES OF
OF PILES
PILES

3.1
3.1 Introduction
Introduction

Generally, the design of the piles is based on empirical design rules and such rules together with
isolated load tests on working piles, form the basis for approval of the foundation design and
construction by the Hong Kong Building Authority. Since
Since both bearing capacity and settlement of
piled foundations depend on many factors including the method of installing the pile, empirical
correlations between basic site investigation data and observed pile performance are invaluable in pile
frequently used which do not take into account
design. However, in Hong Kong, correlations are frequently
important factors controlling the behaviour of piles and the use of such correlations can produce
results which vary between overconservative and unsafe design. New techiques such as piles formed
formed
systems are also being introduced
under bentonite, pressure grouted piles and new proprietary piling systems
into Hong Kong and there is an increasing need to consider pile design within aa more general
framework which recognises the various factors involved. The material of Chapters 33 and 4 is
extracted from the local building regulation (1984) and General Specification
extracted Specification for Civil Engineering
Works (Hong Kong Government, 19923).
1992a).

3.2
3.2 Load Bearing
Load Bearing Capacity
Capacity

3.2.1 Steel
3.2.1 Steel H-piles
H-piles

Having selected aa particular grade

grade and size of the H-pile, working load in compression is equal to the
product of cross-sectional area and allowable material compressive stress. Steel sections must comply
with the requirements of
of BS4360 for Grades 43A, 50B and 55C or other equivalent grades
grades acceptable
to the Building Authority. According to CP2004, the permissible steel working stress must be 30% of
stress of the steel based on the grade
yield stress grade and thickness of the H-pile for driven pile and subject to
direct bearing force only. The pile has to be driven until the penetration under each
each blow reduces to an
amount calculated for aa given value of ultimate load capacity (working load multiplied by aa safety
safety
factor) from aa dynamic resistance formula of the Hiley type. Advance estimates of the depth at which
'set' are made from aa rule of thumb which relies on Standard
a driven pile is likely to reach this ‘set’ Standard
Penetration
Penetration Test results (the ‘driven
'driven pile length
length SPT rule');
rule’); a pile which reaches ‘set’
'set' at a lesser depth
will be suspect. The SPT N value at which H-pile is expected
which H-pile expected to 200. The rule has been applied
without geological or geographical limit.
without geological

For long piles exceeding

For long exceeding 45m in length, the bearing capacity calculated by the modified Formula'
modified Hiley Formul

will
will be
be verified
verified by static formula
by static in-situ loading
and in-situ
formula and loading test. The splicing
test. The joints for
splicing joints lengthening cof
for the lengthening
piles
piles shall have than that of the pile section itself.
strength not less than
have a strength
55
 For
For H-pile
H-pile found
found on rock,
rock, the
the piles should
should be driven
driven to a level
level where the values achieved
the set values achieved is less
less
than 25mm per 10 blows.
blows. In this connection,
connection, sufficient
sufficient bore-hole
bore-hole information
information is required
required to ascertain
founding level
the founding level of pile and
and Pile Dynamic
Dynamic Analyzer
Analyzer (PDA) should
should be used
used to check
check whether
whether
sufficient energy is used to drive the pile to refusal
sufficient refusal and to control the driving stress within a limit such
such
that
that the pile is not
not damaged
damaged during
during pile driving.
driving.

3.2.2 Machine
Machine Bored
Bored Piles
Piles

In
In local
local design
design practice
practice of machine
machine bored
bored piles subject
subject to an
an axial
axial load
load a sufficient
sufficient cross-sectional
cross-sectional area
area
of concrete
concrete is provided
provided so that
that the
the notional
notional pressure
pressure on the
the ground
ground below
below the
the base
base does not
not exceed
exceed an
an
allowable
allowable value,
value, on the assumption
assumption that
that the
the entire
entire load
load applied
applied at
at the
the head
head of the
the pile
pile is transmitted
transmitted to
the
the base.
base. For
For piles
piles founded
founded in
in unweathered
unweathered rock
rock the
the ‘safe
'safe bearing
bearing capacities’
capacities' for
for rock
rock (granite
(granite and
and
volcanics)
volcanics) stated
stated in
in Table
Table 1.
1. For
For piles
piles embedded
embedded inin and
and underlain
underlain by
by weathered
weathered rock
rock zones with grade
zones with grade
IV and V materials, “zero fi'iction/base pressure SPT
IV and V materials, "zero friction/base pressure SPT rule” rule" approach
approach is
is employed which ignores
employed which ignores the
the
contribution
contribution to
to resistance
resistance from
from load
load transferred
transferred in
in shaft
shaft friction.
friction. The
The SPT N values
SPT N values used
used are
are those
those
measured
measured at
at the
the intended
intended founding
founding depth
depth in
in the
the ground
ground investigation
investigation borehole;
borehole; the
the procedure
procedure also
also
includes confirmatory SPT testing during pile construction. Allowable base bearing pressure of 1.2
includes confirmatory SPT testing during pile construction. Allowable base bearing pressure of 1.2
MPa is associated with SPT N value of 180 (for 'dry' conditions) and 240 ('below ground water‘). On
MPa is associated with SPT N value of 180 (for 'dry' conditions) and 240 ('below ground water'). On
the other hand, the pile capacity due to shafi fi'iction can be assumed and checked such as by
the other hand, the pile capacity due to shaft friction can be assumed and checked such as by
loading test on
loading test trial piles
on trial for the
piles for actual site
the actual sub-soil condition.
site sub-soil formula correlating
Empirical formula
condition. Empirical correlating
the SPT
the SPT N values with
N values the shaft
with the friction parameter
shaft friction may be
parameter may adopted as
be adopted Allowable shaft
follows: Allowable
as follows: shaft
friction N == 0-40.
friction == 5*N/3 kPa, where N contribution of
0-40. The contribution friction from
of friction fill layer
from fill and marine
layer and marine
deposit layer
deposit the design
layer in the bored piles
design of bored both bearing
piles both on rock
bearing on and founded
rock and saprolite is not
in saprolite
founded in not
negative skin friction
included whereas negative friction is taken
taken into consideration.
consideration.

Mini-pile
3.2.3 Mini-pile

system must be capable of sustaining the anticipated loading requirements

The mini-pile system requirements within
acceptable settlement limits and all elements of the system must be operating at safe stress levels. In
In
detail, attention must be paid to settlement, bursting, buckling, cracking and interface
interface considerations
together with corrosion resistance,
resistance, and compatibility with the existing ground
ground and structure
structure (during
construction).
construction).

Mini-piles, owing to their

Mini-piles, their slendemess,
slenderness, should
should be designed
designed to resist
resist axial
axial compression
compression or
or tension
tension forces
forces
capacity of the
only. The capacity the mini-piles
mini-piles should
should be calculated
calculated using
using the
the reinforcement
reinforcement elements.
elements. Capac .
Capacity
of the
the grout
grout should
should not
not be used
used due
due to the
the consideration
consideration of the
the strain
strain compatibility
compatibility and
and the
the quality 5 :E:
quality of
grout achieved
grout achieved during
during construction.
construction. The
The allowable
allowable compressive
compressive stress
stress of the
the reinforcement
reinforcement should I3 '
should not

66
 exceed
exceed 175 MPa and the allowable tension
tension stress
stress should not be exceed
exceed 230 MPa due to wind loading.
The steel casing
casing can
can serve
serve as a protective
protective layer
layer to the
the grout,
grout, especially
especially in the
the case where
where the
the grout
grout
cover
cover provided
provided is insufficient.
insufficient. Mild
Mild steel casing
casing should
should be left
left permanently
permanently and
and should
should not
not be removed
removed
after the completion of the pile. The steel casing should not be used to take any vertical load or any
afier
A stress level of 0.5 MPa for rock not inferior
tension load. A inferior than moderately decomposed,
decomposed, moderately
moderately
III or IV) and of 0.7 MPa for
strong to moderately weak rock/(grade III for rock
rock not
not inferior
inferior than
than slightly
slightly to
to
moderately decomposed (grade I or II), moderately strong rock be
be used
used as
as the.
the maximum
maximum allowable
allowable
for compression
bond stress both for compression and
and tension
tension between
between grout
grout and
and rock
rock socket.
socket. Pile
Pile load
load test
test is
is required
required
carried out
to be carried out if the above
above proposed
proposed bond
bond stresses
stresses are
are exceeded.
exceeded. The
The allowable
allowable bond
bond stress
stress between
between
reinforcement and
reinforcement and grout
grout should
should be 1.25
1.25 MPa.
MPa. The
The equivalent
equivalent diameter
diameter of the
the bars
bars should
should be
be used
used to
to
check the
check the bond
bond stress.
stress. Bundled
Bundled bars
bars effect
effect should
should be
be considered
considered in
in welding
welding the
the bond
bond stress
stress between
between
grout and
grout and steel
steel bars.
bars. The
The allowable
allowable buckling
buckling capacity
capacity of
of the
the mini-piles
mini-piles should
should be
be checked.
checked. Euler’s
Euler's or
or
Davison's buckling
Davison’s buckling formula
formula are
are used
used to
to check
check the
the allowable
allowable buckling
buckling capacity
capacity of
of the
the piles.
piles. Casing
Casing
cannot be
cannot be used
used in
in checking
checking the
the buckling
buckling capacity
capacity of
of the
the mini-piles.
mini-piles. The
The pile
pile head
head details
details of
of the
the mini-
mini-
piles should
piles should be
be designed
designed such
such that
that it
it can
can resist
resist the
the designed
designed compressive
compressive load
load or
or tension
tension load.
load. For
For
mini-piles founded
mini-piles founded inin soils,
soils, trial
trial pile
pile is
is to
to be
be carried
carried out
out to
to ascertain
ascertain the
the soil
soil friction.
friction. Otherwise,
Otherwise,
conservative soil
conservative soil friction
friction should
should be
be used
used and
and to
to be
be verified
verified by
by loading
loading tests
tests afierwards.
afterwards. Long
Long term
term
creep effects
creep effects should
should also
also be
be considered
considered for
for mini-piles
mini-piles founded
founded in
in soils.
soils. For
For long
long mini-piles,
mini-piles, say
say more
more
than 20
than 20 metres,
metres, verticality
verticality should
should be
be checked
checked to
to ensure
ensure that
that no
no eccentric
eccentric moment
moment would
would be
be induced
induced in
in
mini-piles. For
mini-piles. For mini-piles
mini-piles founded
founded in
in soils
soils where
where the
the steel
steel casing
casing is
is removed
removed afterwards,
afterwards, post
post grouting
grouting
should be
should be used
used to
to ensure
ensure that
that no
no necking
necking exists
exists in
in the
the piles
piles shaft.
shaft. Post
Post grouting
grouting to
to aa pressure
pressure of
of three
three
bars is
bars is normally
normally required
required and
and actual
actual pressure
pressure to
to be
be applied
applied depends
depends on
on the
the depth
depth of
of the
the pile.
pile.

3.2.4 Rock
3.2.4 Rock Socketted
Socketted H-Pile
H-Pile

The capacity
The capacity of the
the pre-bored
pre-bored H-piles
H-piles are
are based
based on calculations
calculations using the H-piles
using the Capacity of
H-piles only. Capacity
grout should
the grout should not
not be used
used due
due to the
the consideration
consideration of the
the strain and the
compatibility and
strain compatibility quality of
the quality
grout achieved
grout achieved during
during construction.
construction. The
The permissible
permissible steel working
working stress
stress must
must be 45% the yield
45% of the yield
stresses due to axial
stress of the steel based on the grade and thickness of the H-pile. The combined stresses
load and
load and bending
bending moments
moments shall
shall be limited
limited to 50%
50% of the
the yield
yield stress.
stress. The
The maximum allowable bond
maximum allowable bond
stress between
stress between grout
grout and
and rock
rock for
for rock
rock with
with core
core recovery
recovery greater
greater than
than 85%
85% is 0.7 MPa. For grouting
MPa. For grouting
under ground
under ground water,
water, a reduction
reduction factor
factor of 0.8 shall
shall be applied
applied to the
the stresses.
stresses. Higher
Higher values
values may
may be
adopted subject to field
adopted subject field tests
tests and
and geological
geological conditions.
conditions. The
The maximum
maximum allowable
allowable bond stress between
bond stress between
grout and
grout and steel H-pile
H-pile should
should be in accordance
accordance with
with BS 5950 part
part III requirement.
requirement.

7
3.3
3.3 Lateral Load Capacity
Load Capacity

The lateral load capacity of a pile will be

be limited by shear
shear capacity of the soil, structural (i.e. bending
moment and shear)
shear) capacity
capacity of pile
pile section,
section, and excessive deformation
deformation of the pile. piles subject
For piles
pile. For subject to
lateral
lateral loading,
loading, the failure
failure mechanism short piles
mechanism of short piles under loads as compared
lateral loads
under lateral long
compared to those of long
piles
piles differ, design methods
different design
differ, and different stiffness factors
appropriate. The stiffness
are appropriate.
methods are factors will determine whether
determine whether
flexible member (i.e. long pile).
(i.e. short pile) or as a flexible
a pile behaves as a rigid unit (i.e. pile). As the surface soil
layer can be subject to disturbance, suitable allowance should be made in the design.

The bending
bending moment
moment and
and shearing force in a pile
shearing force pile subject lateral loading
subject to lateral using the
assessed using
loading may be assessed
method of Matlock and Reese. This method models the pile
method beam embedded in a
pile as an elastic beam
non- homogeneous
homogeneous, or non-
homogeneous, According to this model,
homogeneous soil. According capacity of a long
structural capacity
model, the structural long
flexible pile
flexible pile is likely to govern ultimate lateral
govern its ultimate capacity.
loading capacity.
lateral loading

piles founded
Relatively short end-bearing piles, e.g. piles fixed against
founded on rock, with toe being effectively fixed
fixed
both translation and rotation, can be modelled as a cantilever encastred at the bottom and either fixed
free at the top depending on restraints on pile head. The lateral stiffness
or free overburden can be
stiffness of the overburden
stiffness.
represented by springs with appropriate stiffness.

3.3.1 Mini-pile
Mini-pile

Mini-pile should not be used

Mini-pile should any lateral
resist any
used to resist slenderness or high
load due to the slendemess
lateral load flexure and
high flexure and
pile caps. If raking mini-piles are used to
progressive collapse. Any lateral load should be resisted by pile
progressive
resist lateral load, they should only be designed to resist no the vertical load.

3.4
3.4 Uplift Capacity
Uplift Capacity

For piles
For piles under tension, a proof
under tension, normally required
proof test is normally tension capacity
justify the tension
required to justify than the
unless than
capacity unless
assumed tension capacity is less than half of the compressive capacity resulting only from
from shaft

fi‘iction and bond between the pile

friction In any case, the adequacy of the soil mass
pile and surrounding soil. In
together with the weight and
together possible shear
and possible shear resistance cone supporting
rock cone
resistance of the rock pile will be
supporting the pile
checked for
checked for uplifting However, the shape
effect. However,
uplifting effect. shape or vertical angle of the rock
vertical angle depending
rock cone may vary depending
joint pattern
on the rock joint pattern as determined field test. The dowels bar
suitable field
determined by suitable detailing will be
other detailing
bar or other
added connection of pile
added to the connection pile head sufficient loading
for the sufficient
head for between the pile
transfer between
loading transfer and pile
pile cap and pile
failure of pile
occurrence of the failure
and without occurrence when subjected
pile cap when uplift force.
subjected to uplifi force.
E
i‘lif

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.
3.4.1 Steel
Steel H-piles
H-piles

For H-pile, in view of

For driven H-pile, associates with the distribution of
of the uncertainties associates residual stresses
of residual after
stresses afier
available capacity
driving and the available
driving been partially mobilised, the skin friction under
already been
capacity having already
be taken conservatively
tension be
tension 75% of
as 75%
conservatively as higher values
compression, unless higher
of that under compression, be
can be
values can
justified by a sufficient
justified sufficient number of load tests.

Machine Bored
3.4.2 Machine
3.4.2 Piles
Bored Piles

friction for
friction of bored piles under tension may be calculated in the same way as for skin friction
Skin friction
compression piles.

3.4.3 Mini-pile
3.4.3 & Rock
Mini-pile & H-Pile
Socketted H-Pile
Rock Socketted

uplift capacity
The uplifi
The tensile bond
based on the tensile
capacity is based strength between
bond strength rock and grout.
between the rock grout.

E
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4.0
4.0 — LOCAL PRACTICE
- LOCAL PRACTI CE OF
OF CONST
CONSTRUCTION
RUCTION

4.1
4.1 Introduction
Introduction

This
This chapter will review the current practice
practice and acceptance
acceptance criteria for different
different types of piling
construction.
construction.

4.2
4.2 Steel. H-Pile
Steel H-Pile

Steel H-pile is commonly driven by more efficient

efficient and less air polluting hydraulically hammers. The
typical setup showing the driving H-piles works is shown in Photo 1.
1. Lengthening of pile is permitted
and details and welding procedure of welded joints should be in accordance with BS 5135, and Code
of Practice for Structural Use of Steel 1987. normal visual
subject to normal
1987. The welding should be subject visual
inspection which is shown in Photo 2. The joints should be designed and constructed to maintain the
position of the pile sections. In guiding the pile, a balance
alignment and position between
balance has to be struck between
freedom for slight pile movement within
providing suitable directional control, and allowing some freedom
occur as
the guides, particularly at the base of the frame. Twist or slight lateral shifts often occur is
as aa pile is
75mm and a maximum
driven. A positional tolerance of 75mm vertical piles are
maximum of 11 in 75 on axial line for vertical
specified figures.
typically specified figures. A allowed for
A deviation from line of 11 in 25 is generally allowed raking piles. The
for raking The
outside of
outside steel pile has
the steel
of the to be coated
has to with bitumen as
coated with corrosion protection. In
as corrosion the
general the
In general
protected
protected region cover the
should cover
region should region from
the region level to
ground level
from ground minimum below
metres minimum
to 22 metres below the level
tide level
the tide
or lowest
or ground water
lowest ground water table recorded in
table recorded ground investigation
the ground
in the report. If
investigation report. If underground obstruction
underground obstruction
is encountered,
is encountered, predrilling shall be
method shall
predrilling method carried out
be carried to break
out to through the
break through obstruction and
the obstruction sand
and sand
filled before
filled the pile.
driving the
before driving pile. It in Photo
indicated in
is indicated
It is Photo 3. To ensure
3. To that the
ensure that settlement requirement
the settlement is
requirement is
the final
achieved, the
achieved, including 10
set including
final set by aa drop
driven by
blow driven
10 blow hammer is
drop hammer recorded and
is recorded shown in
and shown Photo 4.
in Photo 4.

4.3
4.3 Machine Bored
Machine Pile
Bored Pile

For piles founded on rock, predrilling sunk to at least 5m below the founding levels of the piles is
installation works. The records of the predrilling is
before the installation
carried out for each bored pile before
construction of the piles.
intervals during the construction
submitted to local authority at suitable intervals

A number
A of piling
number of piling machines A ring, capable of
machines use hydraulic oscillators for sinking the casing. A
over aa limit
adjustment over
adjustment range, grips the casing and forces it down with aa semi-rotary action imparted
limit range,
by hydraulic rams. The oscillator needs aa secure anchorage to take the reaction from the rams.
by hydraulic ram .-
uses aa penumatically
system uses
Another system
Another The: @ F
penumatically powered swinghead secured to the top of the tube. Th -
.13:
gives the
swinghead gives
swinghead tube aa semi-rotary
the tube semi-rotary action which is slower than the hydraulic oscillator but neec
action which needs ‘iffi' ’5‘

10
10
no reaction
reaction anchorage.
anchorage. In some types of ground, casings can
types of Photo 5
special vibrators. Photo
can be sunk by special
shows
shows typical of aa hydraulic oscillator.
typical setup of

The most
most common method
method of break up hard
of excavation is by hammer grab supplemented by chisels to break
materials. In another method augers are used for drilling in dry ground and drilling buckets in wet
another method
core bit when boulders are encountered. The bit cuts an annulus through the
ground with aa special core
pass the casing. If the core is large
large enough to pass
boulder large break it up by
necessary to break
large it may be necessary
shown in
chisel for removal. Reverse circulation drilling can also be used in hard ground and is shown
A close view of drill bit body is given in Photo 7.
Photo 6. A
Photo

A
A precast necessary to have an oversize
of aa steel tube. It is necessary
used instead of
precast concrete casing can be used
of the
friction during the sinking of
cutting shoe and bentonite can be used around the shaft to reduce friction
friction becomes
casing. When hard ground is reached or the friction becomes-too can be
great the excavation can
too great
continued by hand if it is practicable to dewater the bore. With this method it may thus be possible to
steel casing which cannot usually be taken down to more than 40 to 45m. It is
go deeper than with aa steel
go
large diameter bored
necessary to de-water large
not necessary of the
bored piles. The casing should be kept in advance of
excavation to prevent loss of ground in soft ground and to reduce deterioration of the bearing surface
if the pile is to be founded in residual soil. Photo 88 indicates the process
process of welding connection of
casing. When the piles are to be founded
casing. area in
founded on hard rock it may be better to prepare the bearing area
After the bottom
dry conditions if dewatering is practicable. Afier has been
bottom has been prepared
prepared and cleaned, any
shaft is concreted. If the bore is wet
necessary is put in position and the shafi
reinforcement necessary
reinforcement concrete
wet the concrete
must be placed
must placed by tremie. Lack of care of unsuitable
care in planning the tremie operation and the use of
can lead
equipment can
equipment to poor
lead to Precast casings
concrete. Precast
poor concrete. casings are steel casings
in but steel
left in
are left extracted. The
are extracted.
casings are
properties for the
required for
properties required concrete in
the concrete the shaft and the care
in the necessary in extracting the casing are
care necessary
similar to
similar to the requirements for
the requirements driven cast-in-place
for driven delays in the concreting operation are
Long delays
cast-in-place piles. Long
likely cause problems
to cause
likely to problems in extracting the
in extracting Remedial work
casings. Remedial
the casings. large diameter piles is usually
on large
work on
much more
much expensive and
more expensive consuming than
time consuming
and time work on
remedial work
than remedial on the smaller cast-in-place piles. It is
the smaller
always worth
always taking great
worth taking care to
great care avoid it.
to avoid it.

of bored
Belling out of bored piles in Hong Kong soils is only considered practicable if done after inspection
can be dewatered.
confined to large diameter bored piles as they can
of the ground. It is therefore confined

bored pile is completed, post

When the bored interface
post proof drilling will be carried out at the concrete/rock interface
successful core-drilling at the interface, aa pipe of not less than
facilitate successful
for each of these piles. To facilitate
150 mm diameter may be left in at about llm
150 carried
m above the interface. The core-drilling should be carried
down to
down at least
to at least 1lm
m below interface.
the interface.
below the

]
111
4.4 Mini-Pile
Mini-Pile

Before
Before starting the construction
construction work of mini-pile,
mini-pile, sufficient
sufficient pre-drilling
pre-drilling will be carried out to
identify
identify the quality of the founding rock and founding levels. The holes must sink to the grade
grade ID
III or
better rocks with a core recovery
recovery greater than 85%. The number
number of pre-drill
pre-drill boreholes
boreholes required
required is
such that the pile tip of
of every such pile should be within 55 metres from aa pre-drill hole.

The construction of mini-pile consists of the following sequence of activities: (i) Drilling, and
flushing
flushing out the hole (permanent steel casing of sufficient
sufficient thickness i.e. less than 5 mm thick through
incompetent materials such as soil strata or fractured
fractured rock). The drilling machine is revealed in Photo
99 and drilling process
process is shown
shown in
in Photo 10;
10; (ii) Inserting of reinforcement elements four 50mm
50mm dia.
bars. Couplers will be used and staggered for lapping of
high yield bars. of reinforcement
reinforcement bars. Spacers will
between the bars.
also be provided to control the spacing between bars, (iii) Filling temporary casing with minimum
non-shrink cement grout with minimum characteristic compressive strength of 30 MPa at 28 days.
Grout tubes should extend to the whole length of the pile. In general the diameter of the rock socket
should not be less
less than 190
190 mm. Verticality, inclination and alignment of the mini-pile must be
be
13 shows aa finished
checked during installation. Photo 13 finished minipile.

rockhead profile
To verify the rockhead profile and hence assess
assess the adequacy of the socketted length for these
these types
types
of piles, some additional proof drill holes should be sunk into the rock mass and down to at least 5m
below the founding levels. The number of post-installation boreholes will be at least 2 for sites with
100 or less piles; or 1%
100 1% of the number of piles for sites with more than 100
100 piles. Assessment report
report
with aa rockhead contour plan based
based on the ground investigation, the predrilling and the post-
installation must
installation must be
be submitted
submitted to
to building authority.

4.5 Rock Socketted

Rock Socketted H-Pile
H-Pile

The requirement and process of predrilling and post

The post construction proof drilling for prebore H—pile
H-pile is
undertaken as similar to the case of
of mini-piles. A
A temporary casing is required in predrilling process
process
III or better rocks with total core recovery
down to bedrock level (Grade II] recovery more than 85%) to prevent
H pile 'is
soil from falling into the predrilled hole. Before the steel H is inserted in the hole, ensure the
socket-in from debris and soil by flushing
socket-in depth is free from flushing with air or water. Infilling
Infilling above the rock
socket level
socket level can be of cement grout or high slump concrete. Casing can be withdrawn for economical
reasons. Verticality
reasons. Verticality of
of the
the pile needs
needs to be observed. The prebored holes should be large enough to
installation of steel H-piles
enable the installation H-piles and to allow a minimum
minimum cover of 40 mm to the steel H-piles
and the
and the grout should be non-shrink
non-shrink and have a minimum
minimum characteristic strength
strength of 30 MPa at 28 davs.
days.

12
12
5.0 -- CHOICE
5.0 CHOICE OF TYPE
PILE TYPE
OF PILE

5.1 Introduction
5.1 Introduction

This chapter provides

provides guidance
guidance on the factors that most appropriate
that should be considered in choosing the most
pile type,
type, especially for different geological
geological conditions. It will also show the ways
ways to consider the most
suitable type of based on the past
of piling based past real cases reported in Hong Kong.
cases reported

5.2 Ground
5.2 Conditions
Ground Conditions

5.2.1 Review
5.2.1 Geology of
of Geology
Review of Hong Kong
of Hong Kong

The geology
The geology of age
of acid volcanic rocks of Middle Jurassic age
of Hong Kong consists predominantly of
of granitic
intruded by cupolas of granitic rocks, large batholith extending approximately
of aa large
rocks, which form part of
1300km across
1300km Foochow. The
across South China from Hainan to Foochow. granite, believed to be
of the granite,
The intrusion of
Cretaceous, was followed by acid and basic
Cretaceous, was basic dyke swarms. Outcrops of
swarms. Outcrops sedimentary rocks occur only in
of sedimentary
of the New Territories
the northern part of formation.
Territories and as small intercalations within the volcanic formation.
has resulted in the formation of aa drowned coastline indented by numerous rias, which
sea level has
Rising sea
infilled to form alluvial flats,
have become infilled has resulted in
steep slopes has
flats, whilst deep weathering on steep
deposits of
extensive deposits
extensive soils and
residual soils
of residual In addition
colluvium. In
and colluvium. addition to deposits, man
natural deposits,
the natural
to the modified
has modified
man has
superficial geology
to the superficial of the area
geology of of the coastal
area by extensive marine reclamation of coastal margins
geology of Hong Kong is shown in Figure 1.
of the harbour. The geology
particularly on both sides of

5.2.2 Typical
5.2.2 Conditions of
Ground Conditions
Typical Ground Kong
Hong Kong
of Hong

lot of piling works carried out on Hong Kong Island and Kowloon is through reclaimed land. The
A lot
A
between 2 and 10m
profile is typically between
soil profile of fill
10m of fill over marine deposits and residual soil. Occasionally
older alluvium may be present below the marine deposits. The fill
fill is usually loosely compacted
fill, the marine deposits may be up to 15m
granite. Beneath the fill,
decomposed granite.
decomposed 15m thick and comprise
consolidated clays and sands. The sand layers are loose and the clays are
normally or lightly over -— consolidated
weak and highly compressible.
weak

excavated through
reclaimed areas, piles are driven or excavated
In reclaimed fill and marine deposits to be supported
through the fill supported by
underlying residual soils. Elsewhere
underlying to-transfer the load through the more
Elsewhere in Hong Kong, piles are used to-transfer
weathered and compressible
highly weathered surface to the stronger less weathered
residual soils near the surface
compressible residual weathered
material at depth.
material

13
13
 In the urban areas,
areas, the founding material
material is usually soils derived from
from the insitu weathering
weathering of granite,
although
although occasionally piles are founded in soils derived fi'om
from the volcanics.
volcanics. Almost invariably the piles
are founded below the water table.

5.3
5.3 Geotechnic al Phenomena
Geotechnical Phenomena Associated With
WithPiling
Piling

5.3.1 Reclamation
Reclamation Fill
Fill

5.3.1.1 Driven
5.3.1.1 Driven H-Pile
H-Pile

When installing driven piles in any extensive marine reclamation

reclamation areas
areas of
of the territory,
territory, core-stones,
core-stones,
boulders, oversize
boulders, rock fill
oversize rock fill or
or man-made
man-made obstructions
obstructions within the made
made ground can
can impede
H-pile and damage
driving the H—pile damage the pile itself.

The possibility
possibility of negative friction on piles can affect
affect the choice of the pile type. Steel H piles
which have aa small surface area
area in relation to load
load capacity
capacity will attract aa lower
lower proportion
proportion of
of
negative reclamation fill.
negative friction in reclamation fill. Precast
Precast piles and steel tube piles can
can be given roughness
roughness to
reduce skin fi-iction.
reduce friction.

Machine Dug
5.3.1.2 Machine Dug Bored
Bored Pile,
Pile, Rock Socketted
Socketted H-pile
H-pile and
and Mini-pile
Mini-pile

excavation for machine dug bored

During excavation bored piles, drilling for mini—pile
mini-pile or prebored
prebored H-pile, even in
coarse reclamation fill,
coarse reclamation fill, there may be difficulties
difficulties in advancing
advancing the casing, and ground intrusion may
occur during withdrawal. Though
occur Though overbreak
overbreak requires some extra concrete,
concrete, some
some local reported
reported cases
cases
feasibility of bored pile construction
showed the technical feasibility fill.
construction work even in cobble sized fill.

5.3.2 Quaternary
5.3.2 Quaternary Deposits
Deposits

Marine and alluvial sands,

Marine sands, silts and clays of
of Quaternary age
age occur throughout the coastal
coastal areas
areas of
of the
northwest New Territories while the generally
Territory and form extensive plains in the northwest generally coarser
colluvial deposits occur sporadically in many parts of the urban areas. The potential exists for the
parts of
significant extra loads on piles which penetrate a thick compressible
development of significant compressible stratum, should
redistribution resulting
settlement of soil in contact with the pile shaft occur with time. The stress redistribution
fi'om
from the mobilization of
of negative skin friction
friction may cause aa reduction pressure in the
reduction in overburden pressure
toe region
toe region which in turn may reduce
reduce the bearing capacity of
of the pile. This phenomenon was
recognized over 25 years ago as a source of extra loading on piles penetrating
recognized Marine"
penetrating Hong Kong Marini
mud deposit.

114
4
5.3.2.1 Driven
5.3.2.1 H-Pile
Driven H-Pile

Some of
of the diverse time-dependent phenomena assoicated with pile driving in Quaternary soils
have been reported locally. There are , for example, aa number of documented cases in which piles
which had been left for aa time after driving exhibited an increase in driving resistance (set) when

redriven. This phenomenon, known as set-up, is attributed to build-up of pile shaft frictional
frictional
resistance as the excess pore water pressures which were induced by driving dissipate. Set-up is
resistance
liable to occur in any material in which pore water pressure tend to be increased by pile driving.

In some hillslope locatins, for example in parts of Mid-levels

Mid-levels area of Hong Kong Island, rockfall
rockfall
and debris flow deposits contain boulders which may impede pile driving. Whilst debris flow
flow
deposits would not generally be expected to be in very dense condition, cases have been recorded
of ground heave induced by driving pile groups in such material.

Machine Dug
5.3.2.2 Machine Pile, Rock Socketted
Bored Pile,
Dug Bored H-pile and
Socketted H-piIe Mini-pile
and Mini-pile

In constructing bored piles in aa Quaternary sequence containing soft clay or loose sand below the
water table, ground intrusion into the fluid
fluid concrete column may be experienced during casing
cases of
withdrawal and concrete segregation may occur when water collects in the shaft. In the cases
constructing pre-bored H-pile and mini-pile, no ground intrusion or concrete segregation will occur
if the casing firmly
firmly sits into true bedrock and not be extracted.

Granite Saprolite
5.3.3 Granite Saprolite

5.3.3.1
5.3. H-Piles
3.1 H-Piles

profile can seriously impede pile driving and it is not uncommon

Corestones in the weathered rock profile
different lengths. Completely
foundations in granite areas to consist of piles of markedly different
for building foundations
N values in the lower range will often have aa relatively high void ratio. As
weathered Granite giving N
would be anticipated, problems of induced ground heave and pile uplift are rare in such material
because driving cause substantial compaction. It is marked in sandy rather than clayey silt weathered
granite. Piles driven into completely weathered granite below the water table can be subject to
significant set-up, as would be expected in aa soil with high void ratio.
significant

15
15
5.3.3.2 Machine Dug
5.3.3.2 Machine Dug Bored-Piles
Bored-Piles

It is common for softening

softening to occur
occur rapidly in completely
completely decomposed
decomposed granite in the base of
excavations below groundwater table. Careful
Careful attention to shaft stability is required by designer or
contractor if a satisfactory
satisfactory pile is to be constructed
constructed in granite saprolite below
below the water table. Unless
adequately supported, shafts may be liable to failure under the action of
of gravity and hydraulic forces
forces
by wall collapse and base heave; the resulting
resulting spoil may cause concrete contamination
contamination and
accumulate as base debris. Bell-outs
Bell-outs are of special concern
concern in this regard.

5.3.4
5. Unweathered Granite
3.4 Unweathered Granite

5.3.
5.3.4.1 Machine Dug
4.1 Machine Dug Bored-Piles
Bored-Piles

of bored
As described above the traditional design of bored piles to be founded on unweathered rock is
achieved without the benefit of engineering science, relying on the fictional
fictional laminated ground model
and the presumed
presumed bearing pressure
pressure values of PNAP 141
141 -Table approach is not as
—Table 2. This approach
straightforward in application as may appear on first
first sight. In corestone-bearing profiles
profiles it is
frequently
frequently difficult
difficult to decide on the basis of the available borehole
borehole logs exactly where ‘rock
'rock head’
head' is
be met for the purpose
going to be purpose of
of determining the founding
founding depth of piles designed in this way.

5.4 Nature of Loading

Loading

magnitude of the imposed

Pile selection should take into account the nature and magnitude imposed loads. In circumstances
circumstances
individual pile spacing could result in the problem
where individual problem of ‘pile
'pile saturation’,
saturation', the use of large-diameter
large-diameter
replacement piles may need to be considered. For structures subject to cyclic and/ or impact
replacement impact lateral
loading such as jetties and quay structures, driven steel piles may be suitable as they have good
good energy-
absorbing characteristics. In the case of
of large theoretical lateral loads (e.g. tall buildings), piles with aa
high moment
high moment of
of resistance may have to be adopted.

5.5 Site
5.5 Site Conditions
Conditions

In selecting pile types, due consideration

consideration should be given
given to the constraints posed
posed by the operation
operation of the
equipment and site access. All driven piles and machine-dug
machine-dug piles require the use of large rigs. These
use'of
require substantial temporary works for sloping ground and sites with difficult
require difficult access. Headroom may be
restricted by legislation
legislation (e.g. sites near airports) or obstructions such as overhead
overhead services. In such cases,
large crane-mounted
large crane-mounted equipment may not be appropriate and mini-piles will be aa feasible option. The
construction of replacement
construction involve the use of drilling fluid.
replacement piles may involve fluid. The ancillary
ancillary plant may reql
require
:

6
l16
 considerable working space.
space. On the other hand, prefabricated
prefabricated piles similarly will require space for
storage and stockpiling. These two types of piles therefore
therefore cause operational
operational problems
problems in relatively
relatively small
sites.

5.6 Time
5.6 Time and
and Cost
Cost

The
The design
design engineer frequently has aa choice between
between aa number of
of technically feasible piling options for a
given site. The overall cost of the respective
respective options will be a significant
significant consideration.
consideration.

The
The scale
scale of
of the works is aa pertinent factor in that high mobilisation costs
costs of
of large
large equipment may not be
cost effective
effective for small—scale
small-scale jobs. The availability
availability of plant can also affect
affect the cost of the works.
Contractors may opt for a certain piling method,
method, which may not be the most appropriate
appropriate from
from a technical
point of view, in order to optimise the material,
material, equipment
equipment and plant available to them amongst
amongst the
ongoing projects.

The cost
The cost of
of piling in itself constitutes only part of
of the total
total cost of
of foundation works. For instance,
instance, the
cost of
cost of aa larger
larger cap for aa group of piles may sometimes offset the higher cost
cost of
of aa single large-diameter
large-diameter
of carrying the same
pile capable of same load. It is necessary
necessary to consider the cost
cost of the associated
associated works
works in
order to compare feasible
feasible piling options on an equal basis.

A most
A serious financial
most serious financial risk in many piling projects
projects is that of delay to project
project completion and
increase in financing
consequential increase financing charges
charges combined with revenue slippage. Such costs
costs can
can be much
greater than the value of the piling contract.
greater contract. The relative vulnerability to delay due to ground conditions,
therefore, ought to be
therefore, be aa factor in the choice of
of pile type.

5.7
5. Choice of
7 Choice of Pile
Pile Types
Types

The choice of of pile is reached by first

of the most suitable type of first eliminating any types unsuitable for the
particular conditions and then comparing the advantages
particular advantages and disadvantages
disadvantages of
of the remainder. The factors
factors
to be considered are the ground conditions, the loads,
loads, the site conditions (including adjacent
adjacent sites), time
and cost just mentioned.
mentioned.

affect the choice in two ways. If firm

The depth of the bearing stratum can affect firm bearing occurs at great depth
it may be impracticable
impracticable to achieve full end bearing. Apart from
from this aspect, there are limits to the depth
to which
to which different
different types
types can be installed. The limits may be either practical or economical. Where the
friction piles a smaller diameter will give a relatively
ground conditions dictate friction relatively larger area to develop tl
the
friction. But if the loading is more than friction
friction. friction piles at the minimum bearing: ._-.
carry, end bearir
minimum spacing can cany,
.;‘-_ -.1:- ; E 5

l17
7
133211
MK U
' Lfll‘fll'ilii-
 piles,
piles, which
which can be installed at a closer spacing, must be used. A small site will limit the equipment
which can be mobilised and hence the choice of pile. Large diameter bored piles need more working
space
space than other
other types.
types. Where headroom
headroom is restricted
restricted such as
as may occur
occur in underpinning work the choice
may be
be restricted
restricted to pressure
pressure piles or micro piles. The vibration from driven piles may affect adjacent
adjacent
buildings, particularly if they are old or in poor
poor condition. This occurred too ofien
often in the
the early
early 19605
1960s
from lack of attention to this aspect of the choice of piles. As a result the Building
Building Authority
Authority instituted
adjoining buildings before
the inspection of adjoining before giving consent for piling works. In 1964 the statutory
statutory period
period
increased from
for consent was increased from 7 days to 28 days to allow time for these inspections.
inspections. Adjacent
Adjacent areas can
also be affected by noise. Diesel hammers
hammers are
are the
the noisiest
noisiest equipment
equipment used
used for
for driving
driving piles. Drop
piles. Drop
hammers are less
less noisy but appreciably slower. Of
Of the
the driven
driven piles,
piles, the
the bottom driven type
bottom driven type produce the
produce the
construction time required
least noise. The construction required will depend on the length
length of the piles and on the equipment
mobilized on the site. Under suitable conditions steel piles driven
that can be mobilized driven with diesel hammers
hammers need
the shortest
the shortest time.
time. Hand
Hand dug
dug caissons
caissons can
can also
also be
be quick
quick as
as aa number
number of
of them
them can
can be in progress
be in progress at
at the
the
same time. The real test
test comes
comes when
when difficulties
difficulties are
are encountered.
encountered. The
The length
length and
and cost
cost of
of delays
delays may
may
well outweight
well outweight aa difference
difference in
in price
price between
between different
different types
types friction
friction piles.
piles.

5.8 Case
5.8 Case Studies
Studies

There have been aa number of cases reported in Hong Kong of

There of large settlements and tilting of buildings
founded on piles driven through
founded through fill and soft marine
marine clays to the underlying decomposed granite. In
underlying decomposed
nearly all cases the settlement was associated
associated with negative
negative skin friction
friction forces developing on the piles
forces developing
combined with only aa relatively small penetration ooff the piles into the bearing stratum. One case reported
reported
involved an 18 which was first
18 storey building which first noticed
noticed to be tilting soon after completion
completion of the
increased to result in a final out of plumb of about
superstructure. Over a period of about a year the tilt increased
200mm. The cause of the tilt was directly attributable
attributable to insufficient penetration of the piles into the
insufficient penetration
decomposed granite despite the fact that the piles had been driven to a set.
decomposed

A similar situation arose

A arose with aa 53m high piled building which, after completion, tilted by about 0.5
degrees again over aa period of
degrees of about aa year.
year. This case
case is interesting in that the adjacent
adjacent building (founded
(founded
on piles
on piles to the decomposed granite) also tilted during construction of
of the 53m high building. Analysis of
of
the cause
the cause ooff this problem shows that dewatering was being carried out in the area. However, it seems
possible that the tilt of the two buildings
buildings could have been friction forces developing
negative skin friction
been due to negative
on the
on the piles
piles of
of both
both buildings as aa consequence ooff piling for the newer building since the piles for the two
buildings tilted towards each other.
buildings were very close together and the buildings

minimum pile depth into decomposed

Factual data concerning the minimum decomposed granite/beneath to '
required tr
granite/beneath soft clays required
u“
investigations into the cause of settlements of a large number 0of
control settlements as a result of investigations x

8
118
buildings
buildings in the Mong.Kok district of Kowloon. In this area, building settlements were
were occuring as aa
result of
of general
general dewatering from deep wells, adjacent construction activities and as aa result of
of
consolidation
consolidation associated with building loads. From these investigations,
investigations, the settlement
settlement of piled buildings
buildings
is related to both the thickness of the marine clay and pile penetration
penetration into the decomposed
decomposed granite and, in
most cases, settlement was only observed when the pile penetration
penetration into
into the
the decomposed
decomposed granite
granite was
was less
less
than about
than about 55m
m

Another useful
useful case history is that of a l7-storey building founded
17-storey building founded on cast in situ piles driven into the
decomposed granite. Both during and after construction the settlement of the building was monitored.
The total
The total building settlement
settlement was
was about
about 555mm,
5 m m , just
j u s t under half ooff which occurred aass aa result ooff

recompression
recompression of the decomposed
decomposed granite following
following swelling due to excavation.
excavation. The gross building
building load
kN/m . Recently, boreholes have been sunk in the road immediately adjacent to the
was about 240 kN/mz.
building in connection with development of
of the adjacent site. These show that the decomposed granite at
the site is about 20m thick and the S.P.T. N-value
N-value of the soil below the base of the piles is about 60 to 70
blows/300mm. proposed by
By extending semi-empFrom this data the constant (k) in equation proposed
Meyerhof, it can be evaluated for the decomposed granite and is found to be about 2.5 for recompression
Meyerhof,
and 44 for virgin compression. This is rather higher than normally associated with aa silty sand but is
consistent with other observations made by the authors elsewhere in Hong Kong where the ratio of the
compressibility modulus, E' (or I/mv) to the S.P.T. rN'
"N' value for the decomposed granite was found to be
relatively low.

m2 site at Tai Hang Road is situated on a steep slope and abuts existing buildings
The 450 m2 buildings on one side.
The site investigation
investigation also indicated
indicated a very large concentration
concentration of fresh
fresh granite boulders completely
boulders in the completely
decomposed granite. Temporary
decomposed Temporary support was required
required around three sides of the site, and the combination
combination
topography and geology
of topography geology acted against conventional
conventional piling. A mini-pile
mini-pile wall was therefore
therefore designed,
consisting of 193
193 piles, 140
140 mm in diameter and at 350 mm centres. The piles were installed
installed by the
ODEX drilling method using welded casings. Each pipe was socketed
socketed a minimum
minimum of 1.5
1.5 m into bedrock
bedrock
and filled
and filled with
with cement
cement grout.
grout. Excavation
Excavation then
then proceded
preceded in
in stages,
stages, allowing aa reinforced
reinforced concrete wall to
be cast
be cast against
against the
the mini-piles,
mini-piles, and inclined
inclined temporary
temporary anchors to be drilled into the underlying
underlying rock.

A small
A small but
but particularly interesting application is illustrated in the works executed recently at Causeway
Bay East
Bay East Concourse
Concourse (MTRC
(MTRC 430). Temporary support was needed'to
needed to support aa concrete floor slab,
construction. Once a column
around an existing caisson during top down construction. column had been placed
placed on the caisson,
the floor
floor loading would be transferred
transferred to the column, off the minipiles. The job site was very congested
due to
due to aa large
large number
number of simultaneous
simultaneous activities in the very limited
limited area: no large scale piling equipment
could have
could have been
been accommodated,
accommodated, and
and for
for the
the small
small number
number of
of piles to be installed, would not have been
economical in
economical in any
any event.
event. Eight
Eight minipiles were installed
installed by rotary methods
methods to an average depth of 14
14 m.

19
19
6.0 -— CONCLU
6.0 SIONS AND
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMM ENDATIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion
6.1 Conclusion

Traditionally, most foundation

foundation contracts are let out as design-and-build
design-and-build contracts. The conditions of
contract are typically written in such aa way that the contractor has to bear most if not all the risks,
including the responsibility of all necessary remedial works arising from unforeseen
unforeseen ground conditions
affect
and making good all defects which have violated the contract terms but which do not necessarily affect
performance of piles. Therefore, foundation works are often aa risky business in
the performance construction
the construction
in the
industry.

The situation is no better for foundation contracts which are based on the Engineer's design. The
foundation design is quite often prepared without due appreciation or sympathy for contractor as to
foundation
founding levels are feasible or realistic or
whether the proposed construction methods, pile diameter or founding
often
of aa good understanding by the design engineer on the construction method of piles has often
not. Lack of
led to some of the design assumptions being violated without the realization of the designer. A case in
point is the construction of large bored piles. The technique of telescoping casing is commonly used to
friction on the temporary casing. However, such aa technique may leave aa large gap between the
reduce friction
soil and the pile if aa permanent liner is used for the pile. If the designer relies on the subgrade reaction
of the soil to provide the lateral resistance of the building against wind loading, such aa design
assumption may become questionable unless measures are taken to fill
fill up the gap around the bored pile.
Design engineers need familiarize themselves with the construction techniques.

The current practice of foundation design is largely based on aa structural engineering approach. It needs
A rational
to be augmented by aa better understanding of the geotechnical behaviour of pile foundations. A
engineering approach is required in the assessment of adequacy and acceptance of bored piles with
minor defects. No advancement in the design practice of pile foundations can be made unless the
government authorities are willing to take positive steps to relax and revise the code to encourage more
foundations and the consulting engineers are prepared to embark on new
rational designs of pile foundations
frontiers in piling design. Close partnership between various parties, and the appreciation that perfect
frontiers
workmanship are not possible in reality, are required to bring about any real advancement in the design
of deep foundations in Hong Kong

20
6.2 - New Direction of Design

6.2.1 Introduction
Introduction

The purpose of section

section is to provide
provide suggestions
suggestions for
for new directions for their
directions for their design and Recommend
design and Recommend
further studies.
for further
issues for

6.2.2 Driven H-pile

The termination criteria for been based on the Hiley's formula

piles in Hong Kong have .been
for the driving of piles formula
for n its accuracy. Evidences based oon
for decades. Even so, little research has been done oon n limited data
suggested that the Hiley's formula piles; Past experience on
formula tends to the ultimate capacity of driven piles.
information on piles driven by drop hammers and the already banned
formula has been built on information
Hiley's formula
justify the use of empirical factors
diesel hammers. There is currently a lack of local experience to justify factors in
formula for
the Hiley's formula often have to
for hydraulic hammers in use nowadays. Therefore, the contractors often
for driving the pile
use drop hammers for final set. Research is thus urgently needed in this area.
pile to final

piles founded
Driven piles fact, there are plenty
In fact,
founded on rock should be allowed. In plenty of evidence based on many
piles end-bearing on rock to conclude that the piling system
completed buildings supported by driven piles
framework has yet to be established. A practice
practice, although a complete theoretical framework
do work in practice,
promulgate the types of ground conditions for
note can be issued to promulgate piles founded
for which driven piles founded on rock
performed well based on past
are known to have performed past case studies of completed buildings. The regulatory
flexible approach in permitting
authorities should consider taking a flexible founded on rock for
permitting driven H-piles founded for
for trial piles.
these suitable conditions and waiving the need for piles.

Machine Bored
6.2.3 Machine pile
Bored pile

The practice using bell-outs

practice of using discontinued. The presence
should be discontinued.
bell-outs should bell-out tends to trap
presence of a bell-out trap soil
debris at the pile piles with a bell-out, a small socket has to be formed
pile toe. For piles formed when constructing the
A straight-sided rock socket of the same length can perhaps serve the
sloping sides of the bell-out. A
purpose of increasing the axial capacity equally well if we take into account in the design the shaft
resistance in the socket and the increase in bearing capacity of rock at the pile confinement
pile toe due to confinement
effective along a vertical shaft than in
of the rock socket. The development of shaft resistance is more effective
the bell-out. It appears that the performance pile foundation
performance of the pile foundation would not be much improved by the
construction bell-out, which is adopted only to meet the paper
construction of bell—out, paper requirement of allowable bearing
stress.
StI'CSS.

21
21
 The requirement
requirement for a minimum
minimum length of rock socket for the bored piles should.
should be encouraged
encouraged as its
presence will offer
offer significant
significant confinement
confinement to the pile toe and may help spread the pile load over a
large spatial extent within the bedrock,
bedrock, thus reducing
reducing the bearing pressure at the founding
founding level of the
bored
bored pile. As such, the presence of aa weathered
presence of seam within the bedrock near
weathered soil seam toe will
near the pile toe
then be less of a problem. With the enhanced strength-and
strength-and deformation properties of concrete and soils
deformation properties
under confinement
confinement of the rock socket, a bored pile may still be acceptable
acceptable even with some observed
minor defects. The rock socket can therefore
therefore be considered
considered as a relatively
relatively low cost insurance
insurance strategy-

t
The approach of allowable bearing pressure (which is basically aa structural engineering approach) has
been firmly
firmly rooted in the current design procedures for foundation,
design procedures foundation, in the Building
Building Regulations
Regulations and
government design specifications
other government
other bearing
design bearing
specifications in Hong Kong. As raised earlier in this paper, aa design
kPa or higher can
capacity of 5000 kPa
capacity bored piles are founded on firm
can be achieved easily even if the bored firm soil
sufficient embedment of the pile into the soil. Therefore,
provided that there is sufficient
provided of the
performance of
Therefore, the performance
bored pile is dependent on the tolerable settlement of
bored bored piles.
of the building supported by the bored

Recommendations for further

6.3 Recommendations
6.3 studies
further studies

been built in Hong kong

tall buildings have been
Many tall areas. The lateral load is aa critical
because of limited areas.
kong because
Unfortunately, we have adopted aa very old and conservative British
factor in the piling design. Unfortunately,
as code of practice for wind pressure CP 3. So, the wind code used for piling design
standard such as
standard
should be
should reviewed.
b e reviewed.

reported in Hong
been reported
Pile failure which are directly attributable to recorded seismic activity have not been
earthquakes
reason for this is that Hong Kong has not experienced any strong earthquakes
Kong. One possible reason
so. In the current design
since urban development commenced within the last century or so.
since practice in
design practice
Hong Kong ,, no explicit provision is made for earthquake loading in routine foundation design. In fact,
fact,
records due to neighbour areas have been recorded .by
some vibration records
some Observatory. As aa
by Hong Kong Observatory.
adjacent countries or places should be taken into account in
earthquake of adjacent
result, extra loading due to earthquake
of piling.
the design of

{:5
J?

22
" H. 4 .
re;
 REFERENCES
REFERENCES

BSI (1986). British Standard

Standard Code of 8004 : 1986). British
Foundations (BS 8004
Practice for Foundations
of Practice
Standards Institution,
Standards 149p.
Institution, London, 149p.

Buildings
Buildings Ordinance
Ordinance and
and Building Regulations - Chapter
Building Regulations Chapter 123,
123, Hong
Hong Kong Government.
Kong Government.

Bruce, D.A. & Yeung, C K. (1984). A

& Yeung, of minipiling with particular
A review of regard to Hong
particular regard
no. 6,
Kong Engineer, vol. 12, no.
Kong applications. Hong Kong 31-54.
pp 31-54.
6, pp

Davies, R.V. &

Davies, & Chan, A. K. C. (1981). Pile design Engineer,
design in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Engineer.
9,no.3,pp21-28.
vol. 9, no.3, pp 21-28.

Fraser, RA.
Fraser, of bored piles. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 13, no. 11 pp
Design of
R.A. (1985). Design 37-49.
pp37-49.

Haswell, C.K. &

Haswell, Umney, AR.
& Umney, Transit
Trial tunnels for the Hong Kong Mass Transit
A.R. (1978). Trial
Railway. Hong Kong Engineer, vol 6, no. 2, pp 15-23.
Railway.

Specification for Civil Engineering

General Specification Government, 1992.
Engineering Works, CED, HK Government,

Geo Publication No. 1/96. Pile Design

Geo Construction (1996), 348p
Design and Construction

(Reprinted, 1993)
Guide to Site Investigation (1987), 368p. (Reprinted,

Building settlements in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Third

Lumb, P. (1972). Building Southeast
Third Southeast
Asian Conference on
Asian Kong, vol. 1, pp 115-121.
on Soil Engineering, Hong Kong,

Notes for Authorized persons and Registered Structural

Practice Notes (PNAPs)
Structural Engineers (PNAPs)
PNAP 66
PNAP & 141
66 &

A note on the design

Malone, A.W. (1987). A
Malone, diameter excavated piles in Hong
design of large diameter
Kong Engineer, vol. 15, no. 99 pp 15-17.
Kong. Hong Kong

Malone, A.W. (1990). Geotechnical phenomena associated with piling in Hong Kong,
Malone,
Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. 23, pp 289-305.
Quarterly Journal
Quarterly
Table
Table

I
$#
E
 Pile Type Loading
Loading Method
Method of Ground
Ground Material
Material
Transfer
Transfer Installation
Installation Disturbance
Disturbance

Steel H-Pile
Steel H-Pile Friction
Friction Driven Displacement
Disglacement Steel
Machine Bored Pile End BearinL
Bearing Bored Reglacement
Replacement Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced
Mini-Pile (Odex Method)
Mini-Pile (Odex Friction
Friction Bored Replacement Grout
Steel & Grout
H-Pile
Rock Socketted H-Pile Friction
Friction Bored Replacement Steel Bar & Grout
& Grout

Table
Table 1. Classification
Classification of
of Differenet
Differenet Pile
Pile Types
Types

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If:
3&3.
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Photo
Photo

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Photo 1. The typical setup of driven H-pile Works with hydraulic hammer.

The welding between

Photo 2. The between the connection of
is checked
H- piles is checked by aa technician.
 obstructions such as
The obstructions
Photo 3. The fill was
as boulder or rock fill was drilled backfilled
drilled and backfilled
with sand before starting the driving H-pile works.

Photo 4. The final resident engineer.

supervised by a resident
recorded by a labour and supervised
final set is recorded
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Photo
Photo 5 - Installation
Installation of Hydraulic
Hydraulic Oscillator
Oscillator for sinking casing.
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Photo 66 -— Installation of Hydraulic Reverse Circulation Rig

Rig &
& Drill Bit Body to form Rock Socket
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 Photo 7 - Close View of Drill Bit

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Photo 8 - Weldi
Weldinng
g conne
connecction
tion betwee
between
n casing
casingss
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Photo 9 - A typical drilling machine for mini-pile

10 - Close view of down-the—hole

Photo 10
Photo drill rig.
down-the-hole dn'll
Photo completed mini-pile.
Photo 1111 -A completed mini-pile.

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