Republic of the Philippines

Central Mindanao University

University Town, Musuan, Bukidnon

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
________________________________
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity, BPED 52

Learning Guides

Preface

The pandemic, COVID-19, has brought about the reason for this subject:
Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity, to answer the call of the Philippine government to
academically adjust in the “new normal” condition by which virtual class, if possible, will be
adopted. For students who have difficulty or no access to good internet service for virtual class,
the University facilitates for their individual learning guide copies by way of designated drop-
point-receive address. The specific assignments/requirements for the learning guides were
painstakingly considered by following the many, if not all, of the Commission on Higher
Education’s inputs in addition to the Central Mindanao University’s academic task force’s preferred
system.

These Learning Guides were organized into six (6) units: Introduction to Exercise
Physiology (Unit 1), Nutrition and Energy (Unit 2), Energy Transfer (Unit 3); The Physiologic
Support System (Unit 4); Exercise Training and Adaptations (Unit 5); and Optimizing Body
Composition, Successful Aging and Health-Related Exercises (Unit 6).

A Unit Outline on the Table of Contents following the approved format for every unit as
per CHED Circulars and CMU academic task force’s preference will help the student construct a
conceptual framework and identify the key points. Each unit (if possible) is provided with
informative illustrations.

Learning activity per topic and mandatory assessment exercises are provided at the end
of each unit to measure the understanding of basic concepts being taught. The Central Mindanao
University through the Physical Education Department strives to find ways in the field of teaching
methodology which covers the topics crucial for physiology of exercise and physical activity
subject students and lecturers. It is the aim of Learning Guides to help the students to be
knowledgeable and better prepared for their future profession as Physical Educators.

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Table of Contents

Unit I - Introduction to Exercise Physiology

1. Past
2. Present

Unit II – Nutrition and Energy

1. Macronutrients and Micronutrients

2. Food Energy and Optimum Nutrition for Exercise
3. Nutritional and Pharmacologic Aids to Performance

Unit III - Energy Transfer

1. Fundamentals of Human Energy Transfer

2. Human Energy Transfer During Exercise
3. Measuring and Evaluating Human Energy-Generating Capacities
During Exercise
4. Energy Expenditure During Rest and Physical Activity

Unit IV – The Physiologic Support System

1. The Pulmonary System and Exercise

2. The Cardiovascular System and Exercise
3. The Neuromuscular System and Exercise
4. Hormones, Exercise and Training

Unit V – Exercise Training and Adaptations

1. Training the Aerobic and Aerobic Energy Systems

2. Training Muscles to Become Stronger
3. Factors Affecting Physiologic Function: Environmental and Social
Aids to Performance

Unit VI – Optimizing Body Composition. Successful Aging, and Health-Related Exercise

1. Body Composition, Obesity, and Weight Control

2. Exercise, Successful Aging, and Disease Prevention
3. Clinical Aspects of Exercise Physiology

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General Instructions

For the Bachelor of Physical Education Students of the Central Mindanao University who
are enrolled in the Physiology of Exercise, Learning Guides give a simplified understanding of the
subject, it pertains to teaching Physical Education. The table of contents is in line with the format
of the University’s approved syllabus and is therefore commensurate to the one semester compact
learning for the future physical educators. The General Instructions to be followed:

For each unit, the students are advised to strictly follow the table of contents and deep
understanding of each topic including the proceeding/supporting topics during and after class
session - always be ready for class discussion, oral/written quiz;

Every possible resources, both institutional and personal, related to networking shall be
considered by everyone to catch up with the updated lectures – laptop, personal computer,
mobile phone device, etc.;

By following the University set up in joining the lecture guides, through google meet, the
students are advised to wear proper dress and hair codes – collared white polo/ CMU PE shirts,
comfortable pants, shoes and socks;

Each student must have a soft and hard copies of compilation of notes/lectures within 15
days of the receiving them, which will be checked as graded project in two evaluation periods:
mid-term and final term;

It is advised that as Bachelor in Physical Education major student, extra work such as further
reading, searching and educational discussions outside of class will conscientiously be observed;
and

The lecturer/instructor preferred this lecture guides in a very simple and practical approach
so as to be learned easily, however, each student must be punctual in taking the learning activity
and complying the required assignment study without being repeatedly reminded verbally nor
virtually.

Everybody is encouraged to actively participate in all class activities, however,

answers/queries/clarifications will be entertained upon being recognized by the instructor. If
possible, make a pre-edited copy of your answer/query/question etc. before raising it to the
lecturer.

Under the University’s Guidelines through Student Handbook, all student must adhere to
proper decorum, protocol and academic-related instructions as mandated by the CMU Board of
Regents under the cmu administration headed by the President.

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UNIT I – Introduction to Exercise Physiology from Past to Present

Time Allotment

This Learning guide will be discussed for six (hours), equivalent to four (4) sessions.

Introduction

Unit I introduces the students to the origins of exercise physiology which highlights the
contributions from scholars in the United States and Nordic countries that fostered the scientific
assessment of sport and exercise as a respectable field.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, the students must have:

1. Remembered the earliest development of Exercise Physiology;
2. Understood the scientific method and exercise physiology; and
3. Viewed the exercise physiology as important undergraduate/BPED
academic major subject.

Topics

Origins of Exercise Physiology

 Earliest Development
 Early United States Experience
 Exercise Physiology
 Course of Study: Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training,
 Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University, 1893
 Exercise Studies in Research Journals
 First Textbook in Exercise Physiology
 Allied Health & Leisure Science
 The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
 Summary

Scientific Method and Exercise Physiology

 General Goals of Science

 Hierarchy in Science
 A Fact is a Fact
 How to Discern Reliable Historical Research
 Collecting Source of Material (Primary Sources, Secondary Sources)
 Criticizing Source Material
 Summary

The Exercise Physiologist

 What do Exercise Physiologist do?

 The Exercise Physiologist/Health-Fitness Professional in the Clinical Setting

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 Sports Medicine and Exercise Physiology: A Vital Link

 Training and Certification by Professional Organizations
 ACSM Qualifications and Certifications
 Health and Fitness Track (Exercise Leader, Health/Fitness Instructor,
Health/Fitness Director)
 Clinical Track (Exercise Test Technologist, Preventive/Rehabilitative Exercise
Specialist, Preventive/Rehabilitative Program Director)
 Summary

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Earliest Development

The first real focus on the physiology of exercise likely began in early Greece and
Asia Minor. Exercise, sports, games, and health concerned has ever reached earlier
civilizations; the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures, the great biblical empires of David and
Solomon, Assyria, Babylonia, Medina and Persia, and the empires of Alexander. The
ancient civilizations of Syria, Egypt, Greece, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, and China
also recorded references to sports, games, and health practices (personal hygiene,
exercise, training). The greatest influence on Western Civilization, however, came from the
Greek physicians of antiquity-Herodicus (ca. 480 B.C.). Herodicus, a physician and athlete,
strongly advocated proper diet in physical training. His early writings and devoted
followers influenced Hippocrates, the famous physician and “father of preventive
medicine” who contributed 87 treatises on medicine, including, several on health and
hygiene.

Five centuries after Hippocrates, Galen emerged as the most well-known and
influential physician that ever lived. Galen began studying medicine at about age 16. Over
the next 50 years, he enhanced current thinking concerning health and throughout his
life, Galen taught and practiced “laws of health”.

Galen wrote about 500 essays related to human anatomy and physiology, nutrition,
growth and development, the benefits of exercise and deleterious consequences of
sedentary living, and diverse diseases and their treatment. One of the first laboratory-
oriented physiologist, Galen conducted original experiments in physiology, comparative
anatomy, and medicine; he dissected animals (e.g., goats, pigs, cows, horse, and
elephants). As physician to the gladiators (probably the first Sports Medicine physician),
Galen treated gladiators’ torn tendons and muscles using surgical procedures that he
invented and recommended rehabilitation therapies and exercise regiments. Galen’s
writings about exercise and its effects might be considered the first formal “how to”
manuals about such topics, which remained influential for the next 15 centuries.

Early United States Experience

By the early 1800s in the United States, European science-oriented physicians and
experimental anatomists and physiologist strongly promoted ideas about health and
hygiene. Before 1800, only 39 first-edition American-authored medical books had been
published; several medical schools were founded (e.g., Harvard Medical School, 1782);
seven medical societies existed (the first was the New Jersey State Medical Society in
1766); and only one medical journal existed (Medical Repository, initially published in
1797). Outside the United States, 176 medical journals were published, but by 1850, the
number in the United States had increased to 117.

Medical journal publications in the United States increased tremendously during

the first half of the 19th century. Steady growth in the number of scientific contributions
from France and Germany influenced the thinking and practice of American medicine. An
explosion of information reached the American public through books, magazines,
newspapers, and traveling “health salesmen” who sold an endless variety of tonics and
elixirs, promising to optimize health and cure disease. Many health reformers and
physicians from 1800 to 1850 used “strange” procedures to treat disease and bodily
discomforts. To a large extent, scientific knowledge about health and disease was in its
infancy. Lack of knowledge and factual information spawned a new generation of

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“healers,” who fostered quackery and primitive practices on a public who wanted almost
anything that seemed to work. If a salesman could offer a “cure” to combat gluttony
(digestive upset) and other physical ailments, the product or procedure would become
the common remedy.

The “hot topics” of the early 19th century (not much different than today) included
nutrition and dieting (slimming), general information about exercise, how to best develop
overall fitness, training (gymnastic) exercises for recreation and preparation for sport, and
personal health and hygiene. Although many health faddists actually practiced “medicine”
without a license, some enrolled in newly created medical schools (without entrance
requirements), obtaining the M.D. degree in as little as 16 weeks. Despite this brief
training, some pioneer physicians contributed to medical practice and subsequent
development of exercise physiology as we know it today.

By the middle 19th century, fledgling medical schools began to graduate their
students, and many assumed positions of leadership in academia and allied medical
sciences. Interestingly, physicians either taught in medical school and conducted research
(and wrote textbooks) or became affiliated with departments of physical education and
hygiene and oversaw programs of physical training for students and athletes.

Exercise Physiology

Much like biochemistry represents a field distinct from biology and chemistry,
exercise physiology has become a separate field of study from physiology because of its
focus on functional dynamics and consequences of movement. Exercise physiologist try
to determine how the body (subcell, cell, tissue, organ, system) responds in function and
structure to (1) acute exercise stress, and (2) chronic physical activity. The exercise
physiologist also studies exercise and training responses related to environmental factors,
such as heat, cold altitude, microgravity, and under-water conditions.

Course of Study: Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training,

Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University, 1893

Few of today’s undergraduate Kinesiology major programs could match the strong
science core required (for the Physical Education major, at Harvard in 1893). Below is the
4-year course of study as listed in the 1893 Harvard course catalog. Along with core
courses, Professor Fitz established an exercise physiology laboratory. The following
describes the laboratory’s objective:

First Year___________________________________________________________________________________

Experimental Physics
Elementary Zoology
Morphology of Animals
Morphology of Plants
Elementary Physiology and Hygiene
General Descriptive Chemistry
Rhetoric and English Composition
Elementary German

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Elementary French
Gymnastics and Athletics

Second Year________________________________________________________________________________

Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Geology
Physical Geography and Meteorology
Experimental Physics
General Descriptive Physics
Qualitative Analysis
English Composition
Gymnastics and Athletics (Sargent & Lathrop)

Third Year (at Harvard Medical)__________________________________________________________

General Anatomy and Dissection

General Physiology
Histology
Hygiene
Foods and Cooking [Nutrition] (at Boston Cooking School)
Medical Chemistry
Auscultation and Percussion Gymnastic and Athletics

Fourth_Year________________________________________________________________________________

Psychology
Anthropometry
Applied Anatomy and Animal Mechanics [Kinesiology]
Physiology of Exercise
Remedial Exercise
History of Physical Education
Forensics
Gymnastics and Athletics

“A well-equipped laboratory has been organized for the experimental study of the
physiology of exercise. The object of this work is to exemplify the hygiene of the muscles, the
conditions under which they act, the relation of their action to the body as a whole affecting
blood supply and general hygienic conditions, and the effects of various exercises on
muscular growth and general health.”

Exercise Studies in Research Journals

In 1898, three articles on physical activity appeared in the first volume of the
American Journal on Physiology. Other articles and reviews subsequently appeared in
prestigious journals, including the first published review in Physiological Reviews (2:310,
1922) on the mechanisms of muscular contraction by Nobel laureate A. V. Hill. The
German applied physiology publication, Internationale Zeitschrift fur Angewandte
Physiologie Einschliesslich Arbeitsphysiologie (1929-1940; now European Journal of Applied
Physiology), became a significant journal for research in the area of exercise physiology.
The Journal of Applied Physiology, first published in 1948, contained the classic paper by

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J.M. Tanner on ratio expressions of physiological data with reference to body size and
function (a “must read” for every exercise physiologist). The official journal of the
American College of Sports Medicine, Medicine and Science in Sports, first appeared in
1969. It aimed to integrate both medical and physiological aspects of the emerging fields
of sports medicine and exercise science. The official name of this journal changed in 1980
to Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Publications emphasizing applied and basic
exercise physiology research have increased as the field has expanded into different areas.
The World Wide Web offers unique growth potential in this regard. The first web-based
exercise physiology journal (Journal of Exercise Physiology-Online
http://www.asep.org/jeponline/JEPhome.htm, Official Journal of the American Society of
Exercise Physiologist) first appeared in April, 1998.

The scope of exercise physiology is expanding at such a rapid rate that it is now
difficult to keep up with knowledge dissemination. Exercise physiology-related research
commonly appears in journals representing almost every branch of medical/biological
science.

First Textbook in Exercise Physiology

Debate exist over the question: “What was the first textbook in exercise
physiology?” Several textbook authors give the distinction of being “first” to the English
translation of Fernand Lagrange’s The Physiology of Bodily Exercise, originally published in
French in 1888. We disagree. To deserve such historical recognition, a textbook should
meet at least the following three criteria in our opinion:

1. Provide sound scientific rationale for major concepts

2. Provide summary information (based on experimentation) about important
prior research in a particular topic area (e.g., contain scientific references to
research in the area)
3. Provide sufficient “factual” information about a topic area to give it academic
legitimacy

The Lagrange book represents a popular book with a “scientific” title about health and
exercise. Based on the aforementioned criteria, the book fails to exemplify a bona fide
exercise physiology text; it contains less than 20 reference citations. If not the Lagrange
book, what text qualifies as the first exercise physiology text? Possible pre-1900
candidates for the “first” include these four choices:

1. Combe’s The Principles of Physiology Applied to the Preservation of Health, and

to the Improvement of Physical and Mental Education. New York: Harper &
Brothers, 1843
2. Hitchcock and Hitchcock’s Elementary Anatomy and Physiology for Colleges,
Academics, and Other Schools. New York: Ivison, Phinney & Co., 1860
3. Kolb’s insightful book, Physiology of Sport. London: Krohne and Sesemann, 1893
4. Martin’s Text, The Human Body. An Account of its Structure and Activities and
the Conditions of its Healthy Working. New York: Holt & Co., 1896

What’s in A Name?

A lack of unanimity exists for the name of departments offering degrees (or even
coursework) in exercise physiology. The table below lists 49 examples of names of

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departments in the United States that offer essentially the same area of study. Each
provides some undergraduate or graduate emphasis in exercise physiology (e.g., one or
several courses, internships, work-study programs, laboratory rotations, or in-service
programs).

ALLIED HEALTH____________________________________________________________________________

Allied Health Sciences Human Performance

Exercise and Movement Science Human Performance and Health Promotion
Exercise and Sport Science Human Performance and Leisure Studies
Exercise and Sport Studies Human Performance and Sport Science
Exercise Science Interdisciplinary Health Studies
Exercise Science and Human Movement Integrative Biology
Exercise Science and Physical Therapy Kinesiology
Health and Human Performance Kinesiology and Exercise Science
Health and Physical Education
Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance
Human Biodynamics
Human Kinetics
Human Kinetics and Health
Human Movement
Human Movement Sciences
Human Movement Studies
Human Movement Studies and Physical Education

LEISURE SCIENCE__________________________________________________________________________

Movement and Exercise Science Sport and Exercise Science

Movement Studies Sport Management
Nutrition and Exercise Science Sport, Exercise and Leisure Science
Nutritional and Health Sciences Sports Science
Performance and Sport Science Sport Science and Leisure Studies
Physical Culture Sport Science and Movement Education
Physical Education Sport Studies
Physical Education and Exercise Science Wellness and Fitness Wellness Education
Physical Education and Human Movement
Physical Education and Sport Programs
Physical Education and Sport Science
Physical Therapy
Recreation
Recreation and Wellness Programs
Science of Human Movement

The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory

Over a 20-year span, Harvard Fatigue Laboratory scientists published at least 352
research papers, monographs, and a book dealing with basic and applied exercise
physiology, including methodological refinements in blood chemistry analysis and
simplified methods for analyzing fractional concentrations of expired air. Other research
included acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise under the environmental
stress of altitude, heat, and cold exposure. Most of the physical activity experiments used

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human exercising on either a treadmill or bicycle ergometer. These studies formed the
cornerstone for future research efforts in exercise physiology; they included assessment
of work capacity and physical fitness, cardiovascular and hemodynamic responses during
maximal exercise, oxygen uptake and substrate utilization kinetics, exercise and recovery
metabolism, and maximal oxygen uptake.

Summary

1. Exercise physiology as an academic field of study consists of three distinct

components: (1) a body of knowledge built on facts and theories derived from
research, (2) a formal course of study at institutions of higher learning, and (3)
professional preparation of practitioners and future leaders in the field.

2. Exercise physiology has emerged as a field separate from physiology because

of its unique focus on the study of the functional dynamics and consequences
of movement.

3. Galen (131-201 A. D.), one of the first “sports medicine” physicians, wrote
prolifically, producing at least 87 treatises on topics related to human anatomy
and physiology, nutrition, growth and development, the benefits of exercise
and deleterious consequences of sedentary living, and diseases and their
treatment.

4. Austin Flint, Jr., M.D. (1836-1915), one of the first American pioneer physician-
scientists, incorporated studies about physiological responses to exercise in his
influential medical physiology textbooks.

5. Edward Hitchcock, Jr., (1828-1911), Amherst College Professor of Hygiene and

Physical Education, devoted his academic career to the scientific study of
physical exercise and training and body size and shape. His text on anatomy
and physiology, coauthored with his father significantly influenced the sports
science movement in the United States after 1860. Hitchcock’s insistence on the
need for science applied to physical education undoubtedly influenced
Harvard’s commitment to create an academic Department of Anatomy,
Physiology, and Physical Training in 1891.

6. George Wells Fitz, M.D. (1860-1934), created the first department major in
Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training at Harvard University in 1891; the
following year, he started the first formal exercise physiology laboratory in the
United States. Fitz probably was first to teach a formal exercise physiology
course at the university level.

7. The real impact of laboratory research in exercise physiology occurred in 1927

with the creation of the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory at Harvard University’s
business school. Two decades of outstanding work by this laboratory
legitimized exercise physiology as a key area of research and study.

8. The Nordic countries played an important historical role in developing the field
of exercise physiology. Danish physiologist August Krogh (1874-1949) won the
1920 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for discovering the mechanism that
controlled capillary blood flow in resting or active muscle; Krogh’s basic

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experiments led him to conduct other experiments with exercise scientists

worldwide. His pioneering work in exercise physiology continues to inspire
exercise physiology studies in many areas including oxygen uptake kinetics and
metabolism, muscle physiology, and nutritional biochemistry.

9. Publications of applied and basic exercise physiology research have increased

as the field expands into different areas. The World Wide Web offers unique
growth potential for information dissemination in this area.

10. The American College of Sports Medicine, with over 30,000 members from
North America and more than 70 other countries, represents the largest
professional organization in the world for exercise physiology (including allied
medical and health areas).

11. One theme unites in 2300-year in history of exercise physiology: the value of
mentoring by professors who spent an extraordinary amount of time “infecting
students with a love for science.

Scientific Method and Exercise Physiology

Every exercise physiology student should become familiar with the methods of
science to help separate fact from “hype” - most often encountered in advertising of
health, fitness, and nutrition products. How does one know whether a product actually
works? Does warming up really “warm” the muscles to prevent injury and enhance
subsequent performance? Will breathing oxygen on the sidelines during a football game
help the athletes recover? Does vitamin intake above recommended levels “supercharge”
energy metabolism during exercise? Understanding the role of science in problem solving
helps one to answer these and many other questions. The following section examines the
goals of science, including different aspects of the scientific method of structured problem
solving.

GENERAL GOALS OF SCIENCE

The two distinct goals of science often seem at odds. One goal serves mankind: to
provide solutions to important problems and improve life’s overall quality. This view of
science, most prevalent among nonscientist, maintains that all scientific endeavors should
exhibit practicality and immediate application. An opposing goal, predominant among
scientist, maintains that science should describe and understand all occurrences without
necessity for practical application; understanding phenomena becomes a worthy goal in
itself. The desire for full knowledge implies being able to (1) account for (explain)
behaviors or events, and (2) predict (and ultimately control) future occurrences and
outcomes. Regardless of one’s position concerning the major goal of science, its general
objectives include being able to understand, explain, predict, and control phenomena.
Scientist employ the scientific method to achieve these goals.

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HIERARCHY IN SCIENCE

Full appreciation of science requires understanding its structure and its three
levels of conceptualization (Fig. 1.14):

 Finding facts
 Developing laws
 Establishing theories

Fig. 1.14 Foundations of science: facts, laws, and theories

Fact Finding

The most fundamental level of scientific inquiry requires the systematic

observation of measurable (empirical) phenomena. Often referred to as fact finding, this
process requires standardized procedures and levels of agreement about what constitutes
acceptable observation, measurement, and data recording procedures. In essence, fact
finding involves recording information (data) about the behavior of objects. Facts
represents only the first level in the hierarchy of scientific inquiry.

Fact gathering occurs in many ways. We usually observe phenomena through

visual, auditory, and tactile sensory input. Regardless of the observation method, to
establish something as fact demands that different researchers reproduce observation
under identical conditions on different occasions. For example, the healthy human heart’s
four chambers and the average sea level barometric pressure of 760 mm Hg represent
indisputable, easily verifiable “facts.” Facts usually take the form of objective statements
about the observation, such as: “Jesse’s body mass measured on a balance scale equals
70kg (154 lb),” or “Jesse’s heart rate on rising after 8 hours of sleep averages 63 beats per
minute.”

A Fact is a Fact

Facts exhibit no moral quality; once established, any question about facts arises
only from interpretation. Although some may disagree with the meaning and implications
of an establish fact (e.g., the average woman possesses 50% less upper-body strength

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than the average man), no question exists about the “correctness” of the observation (that
women have less upper-body strength than men). In essence, a fact is a fact. . ..

Interpreting Facts

Fact finding evaluates the observed object, occurrence, or phenomenon along a

continuum, either imagined or real, that represents its underlying measurable
“dimension.” The term variable identifies this measurable characteristic. Frequently,
quantification of the variable occurs by assigning numbers to objects or events to describe
their properties. For example, consider the variable percentage body fat with numerical
values ranging from 3% to 60% of total body mass. Other examples include the weight of
an object along a “heaviness” continuum, or heart rate rest to maximal exercise.

Some variables like 50-m swim time or blood cholesterol level distribute in a
continuous nature; they can take on any numerical value, depending on the precision of
the measuring instrument. Continuous variables are further classified into ordinal,
interval, and ratio numerical data, Ordinal variables have rank-ordered values (e.g., small,
medium, large bone frame size; first through tenth place finish in a race; standings in
league competition) according to some property about each person, group, object, or
event compared with others studied. In ordered ranking, no inference exists of equal
differences between specific ranks (e.g., race time difference between first and second
place finish equals difference between ninth and tenth place). Interval variables exhibit
similar properties as ordinal variables, except the distance between successive values on
an unbroken scale from low to high represents the same amount of change. For example,
in marathon running, the temporal 20-minute difference between a finish time of 2h:10
min and 2h:30 min equals that of 3h:50 min and 4h:10 min. The ratio scale possesses
properties of interval and ordinal scoring but also contains an absolute zero point. Thus,
a variable scored on a ratio basis with a value of 4 represents twice as much characteristic
as a value of 2; this does not occur with interval-scored variables like temperature, in
which 30oF is not twice as “hot” as 15oF.

In addition to continuous variables, some variables possess discrete properties.

Scores for discrete variables fall only at certain points along a scale, like scores in most
sporting events- “almost in” does not count in gold, soccer, basketball, or lacrosse.
Discrete variables occur when the score’s value simply reflects some characteristic of the
object (e.g., male or female, hit or miss, win or lose, true or false, infected or not infected).

How to Discern Reliable Historical Research

The purpose of historical research has changed through the ages. The earliest
writers of history focused on literary rather than scientific objectives; they preserved
beloved folktales, created epics to entertain or inspire, defended and promoted numerous
causes, zealously protected the privilege of a class, and glorified the state and exalted the
church. In contrast, ancient Greek scholars envisioned history as a search for the truth-the
application of extracting methods to select, verify, and classify facts according to specific
standards that endure the test of critical examination and preserve an accurate record of
past events. Historical research enlarges our world of experience; it provides deeper
insights into what has been successfully and unsuccessfully tried.

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Historical scholars collect and validate source materials to formulate and verify
hypotheses. Unlike experimental research, their methods feature observations and insight
that cannot be repeated under conventional laboratory conditions.

Collecting Source Materials

The Historian’s initial and most important problem-solving task seeks to obtain the
best available data. The historian must distinguish between primary source and
secondary source materials.

Primary Sources

Primary sources comprise the basic materials of historical research. This prized form
of “data” derives from:

 Testimony from reliable eyewitnesses and earwitnesses to past events

 Direct examination of actual “objects” used in the past

A historian collects evidence from the closest witness to the past event or condition.
Primary source materials include records preserved with the conscious intent of
transmitting information. For example, a newspaper account of what transpired at a
meeting has less intrinsic historical value than the meeting’s official minutes. Records of
past ideas, conditions, and events exist in written form (e.g., official records or executive
documents, health records, licenses, annual reports, catalogs, and personal records-
diaries, autobiographies, letters, wills, deeds, contracts, lecture notes, original drafts of
speeches, articles, and books), visual or pictorial form (photographs, movies, microfilms,
drawings, paintings, etchings, coins, and sculpture), mechanical form (tape recordings,
phonograph records, and dictations), electronic form (digital “memory” don disc or tape),
and sometimes oral form (myths, folktales, family stories, dances, games, ceremonies, and
reminiscences by eyewitnesses to events).

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources include information provided by a person who did not directly
observe the event, object, or condition. The original publication of a research report in a
scientific journal represents a primary source (often used by modern researchers to
provide context to their experiments), whereas summaries in encyclopedias, newspapers,
periodicals, the Internet, and other references qualify as secondary materials. The more
interpretations that separate a past event from the reader, the less trustworthy the
evidences becomes; the transition often distorts and changes the facts. For this reason,
secondary sources are less reliable. However, secondary sources acquaint a neophyte
historian with major theoretical issues and suggest locations for uncovering primary
source materials.

Criticizing Source Material

Historians critically examine the trustworthiness of their source material. Through

external criticism, the historian checks the authenticity and textual integrity of “data”
(time, place, and authorship) to determine its admissibility as reliable evidence.

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Enterprising and exacting investigation becomes part of external criticism-tracking down

anonymous and undated documents, ferreting out forgeries discovering plagiarism,
uncovering incorrectly identified items, and restoring documents to their original forms.

After completing external criticism, the historian engages in internal criticism to

establish the meaning and trustworthiness of a document’s contents. Internal criticism
determines the following:

 Conditions that produced the document

 Validity of the writer’s intellectual premises
 Competency, credibility, and possible author bias
 Correctness of data interpretation

Careful historical research provides insight about how past facts influence current events.
Whether an accurate record of the past predicts and influences future circumstances
remains a hotly debated topic among historians.

Summary

1. The ultimate aims of science include (1) explanation, (2) understanding, (3)
prediction, and (4) control.

2. Fact finding, developing laws, and establishing theories represent three

levels of scientific inquiry.

3. The term variable identifies measurable characteristics of an object,

occurrence, or phenomenon. The values for discrete variables fall only at
certain points along a scale (e.g., scores in most sporting events); continuous
variables take on any numerical value, depending on the precision of the
measuring instrument.

4. Variables are also categorized as either independent or dependent,

depending on their use and not on their inherent nature. For causal
relationships, manipulation of the independent X-variables changes the
value of the dependent Y-variable. Understanding how variables change in
relation to each other represents a higher level of science than simply
describing and quantifying individual variables. Association between
variables does not necessarily infer causality.

5. An experiment represents a set of operations to determine the underlying

nature of the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. Systematically changing the value of the independent variable and
measuring the effect on the dependent variable characterizes
experimentation (with control of other variables that might cause the
relationship).

6. The key feature of experimental research involves the control of conditions

imposed by the experimenter. Control increases the likelihood that
manipulation of an independent variable causes any observed change in a
dependent variable.

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7. Subject section, appropriate use of statistics, and ability to draw meaningful

inferences and conclusions from the data collected represent three
important factors for evaluating the quality of research design.

8. Field or epidemiologic studies investigate events as they occur naturally. In

exercise physiology, a field study might involve collecting data on the age,
body mass, percentage body fat, and aerobic capacity of elite triathletes and
their performance time during competitions, inability of the researcher to
experimentally vary the independent variable or exert full control over
potential interacting factors that might affect relationships limits research
findings.

9. Many factors interact to affect relationships among variables. These include

experimental testing effects, measurement errors, within-subject variability,
individual differences, experimenter expectation effect, and the Hawthorne
effect.

10. Interpreting facts leads to the second level of scientific process-creating

statements that describe (or summarize) relationships among facts. Law
only provide a general summary of the relationship among variables; they
do not explain “why” variables behave the way they do.

11. Theories attempt to clarify the fundamental nature of laws - they attempt
to explain the “why” laws. Theories offer abstract explanations of laws and
facts.

12. A theory’s absolute “correctness” remains elusive. The strength of the

experimental method lies in rejecting hypotheses that have direct bearing
on theories or predictions from theories. The noting of disproof represents
a key distinguishing feature of the scientific method.

13. Submitting research findings for critique by fellow scientists (peer review)
before their dissemination completes the process of scientific inquiry.

The Exercise Physiologist

Many individuals view exercise physiology as representing an undergraduate or

graduate academic major (or concentration) completed at an accredited college or
university. In this regard, only those who complete this academic major have the “right”
to be called “exercise physiologist.” However, many individuals’ complete undergraduate
and graduate degrees in related field with considerable coursework and practical
experience in exercise physiology (or related areas). Consequently, the title exercise
physiologist could also apply so long as their academic preparation is adequate.
Resolution of this dilemma becomes difficult because no national consensus exists as to
what constitutes an acceptable (or minimal) academic program of course work in exercise
physiology. In addition, there are no universal standards for hands-on laboratory,
experiences (anatomy, kinesiology, biomechanics, and exercise physiology),
demonstrated level of competency, and internship hours that would stand the test of
national certification or licensure. Moreover, because areas of concentration within the
fields are so broad, consensus certification testing becomes challenging. No national
accreditation or licensure exists to certify exercise physiologists.

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

What Do Exercise Physiologist Do?

Exercise physiologists assume diverse careers. Some use their research skills
primarily in colleges, universities, and private industry settings. Others are employed in
health, fitness, and rehabilitation centers, whereas others serve as educators, personal
trainers, managers, and entrepreneurs in the health and fitness industry.

Exercise physiologists also own health and fitness companies or are hands-on
practitioners who teach and service the community including corporate, industrial, and
governmental agencies. Some specialize in other types of professional work like massage
therapy, while others go on to pursue professional degrees in physical therapy,
occupational therapy, nursing, nutrition, medicine, and chiropractic.

Table 1.3 presents a partial list of different employment descriptions for a qualified
exercise physiologist in one of six major areas.

Table 1.3 Partial List of Employment Opportunities for Qualified Exercise Physiologists
COLLEGE GOVERNMENT
SPORTS COMMUNITY CLINICAL BUSINESS PRIVATE
UNIVERSITY MILITARY
Personal
Manage/direct Test/supervise
Fitness director/ Sports health/
Sport director Professor health/wellness cardiopulmonary
manager management Fitness
programs patients
consultant
Evaluate/supervise
special populations
(diabetes; obesity;
arthritis;
Health/fitness
Strength/ dyslipidemia; cystic Health/
Community director in Own
Conditioning Researcher fibrosis; cancer; fitness
education correctional business
coach hypertension; promotion
institutions
children; low
functional capacity;
pregnancy)

Director,
Exercise
Manager of Occupational Sports nutrition Sport
Administrator technologist in
state/national rehabilitation programs psychologist
cardiology practice
teams
Health/
Consultant Teacher Researcher fitness club
instructor
Instructor

The Exercise Physiologist/Health-Fitness Professional in the Clinical Setting

The well-documented health benefits of regular physical activity have enhanced

the exercise physiologist’s role beyond traditional lines. A clinical exercise physiologist
becomes part of the health/fitness professional team. This team approach to preventive

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

and rehabilitative services requires different personnel depending on program mission,

population served, location, number of participants, space availability, and funding level.
A comprehensive clinical program can include the following personnel, in addition to the
exercise physiologist:

 Physicians
 Certified personnel (exercise leaders, health-fitness instructors, directors,
exercise test technologist, preventive and rehabilitative exercise specialists,
preventive and rehabilitative exercise directors)
 Dietitians
 Nurses
 Physical therapist
 Occupational therapists
 Social workers
 Respiratory therapists
 Psychologists
 Health educators

Sports Medicine and Exercise Physiology: A Vital Link

The traditional view of sports medicine involves rehabilitating athletes from

sports-related injuries. A more contemporary view relates sports medicine to the scientific
and medical (preventive and rehabilitative) aspects of physical activity, physical fitness, and
exercise/sports performance. thus, a close link ties sports medicine to clinical exercise
physiology. The sports medicine professional and exercise physiologist work hand-in-
hand with similar populations. These include, at one extreme, the sedentary person who
needs only a modest amount of regular exercise to reduce risk of degenerative diseases;
at the other extreme are able-bodied and disabled athletes who strive to further enhance
their performance.

Carefully prescribed physical activity significantly contributes to overall health and

quality of life. In conjunction with sports medicine professionals, the clinical exercise
physiologist tests, treats, and rehabilitates individuals with diverse diseases and physical
disabilities. In addition, prescription of physical activity and athletic competition for the
physically challenged plays an important role in sports medicine and exercise physiology,
providing unique opportunities for research, clinical practice, and professional
advancement.

Training and Certification by Professional Organizations

To properly accomplish responsibilities in the exercise setting, the health-fitness

professional must integrate unique knowledge, skills, and abilities related to exercise,
physical fitness, and health. Different professional organizations provide leadership in
training and certifying health-fitness professionals at different levels. Table 1.4 list
organizations offering training/certification programs with diverse emphases and
specializations. The ACSM has emerged as the preeminent academic organization
offering comprehensive programs in areas related to the health-fitness profession. ACSM
certifications encompass cognitive and practical competencies that are evaluated by
written and practical examinations. The candidate must successfully complete each of
these components (scored separately) to receive the world-recognized ACSM

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

certification. ACSM offers a wide variety of certification programs through-out the United
States and in other countries (http://www.acsm.org/index.asp).

ACSM Qualifications and Certifications

Health and fitness professionals should be knowledgeable and competent in

different areas, including first-aid and CPR certification, depending on personal interest.

Health and Fitness Track

The Health and Fitness Track encompasses the Exercise Leader, Health/Fitness
Instructor, and Health/Fitness Director categories.

Exercise Leader

An Exercise Leader must know about physical fitness (including basic motivation
and counseling techniques) for healthy individuals and those with cardiovascular and
pulmonary diseases. This category requires at least 250 hours of hands-on leadership
experience or an academic background in an appropriate allied health field. Examples of
general objectives for an Exercise Leader in exercise physiology include to:

 Define aerobic and anaerobic metabolism

 Describe the role of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins as fuel for aerobic and
anaerobic exercise performance
 Define the relationship of METs (multiples of resting metabolism) and
kilocalories to levels of physical activity

Organizations Offering Training/Certification

Table 1.4
Programs Related to Physical Activity
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION
ORGANIZATION
AND CERTIFICATION
AFP Fitness Practitioner, Primary Aerobics Instructor,
Aerobics and Fitness Association of America (AFFA)
Personal Trainer & Fitness Counselor, Step Reebok
15250 Ventura Blvd., Suite 200
Certification, Weight Room/Resistance Training
Sherman Oaks, CA 91403
Certification, Emergency Response Certification
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Exercise Leader, Health/Fitness Instructor, Exercise Test
401 West Michigan St. Technologist, Health/Fitness Director, Exercise Specialist,
Indianapolis, IN 46202 Program Director
American Council on Exercise (ACE)
Group Fitness Instructor, Personal Trainer, Lifestyle &
5820 Oberlin Dr., Suite 102
Weight Management Consultant
San Diego, CA 92121
Canadian Aerobics Instructors Network (CAIN)
2441 Lakeshore Rd. West, P.O. Box 70029 CIAI Instructor, Certified Personal Trainer
Oakville, ON L6L 6M9
Canadian Personal Trainers Network (CPTN) CPTN/OFC Certified Personal Trainer, CPTN Certified
Ontario Fitness Council (OFC) Specialty Personal Trainer, CPTN/OFC Assessor of
1185 Eglington Ave. East, Suite 407 Personal Trainers, CPTN/OFC Course Conductor for
North York, ON M3C 3C6 Personal Trainers

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology CFC-Certified Fitness Consultant, PFLC-Professional

1600 James Naismith Dr., Suite 311 Fitness & Lifestyle Consultant, AFAC-Accredited Fitness
Gloucester, ON K1B 5N4 Appraisal Center
PFS-Physical Fitness Specialist (Personal Trainer), GEL-
The Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research
Group Exercise Leadership (Aerobics Instructor), ADV
12330 Preston Rd.
.PFS-Advanced Physical Fitness Specialist, Biomechanics
Dallas, TX 75230
of Strength Training, Health Promotion Director
Disabled Sports USA
451 Hungerford Dr., Suite 100 Adapted Fitness Instructor
Rockville, MD 20850
International Weightlifting Association (IWA)
P.O. Box 444 CWT-Certified Weight Trainer
Hudson, MD 20850
Jazzercise
2808 Roosevelt Blvd. Certified Jazzercise Instructor
Carlsbad, CA 92008
International Society of Sports Nutrition
Sports Nutrition Certification
600 Pembrook Dr.
Body Composition Certification
Woodland Park, CO 80863
National Strength & Conditioning Association (NSCA)
Certified Strength & Conditioning Specialist, Certified
P.O. Box 389009
Personal Trainer
Colorado Springs, CO 80937
YMCA of the USA Certified Fitness Leader (Stage 1-Theory, II-Applied
101 North Wacker Dr. Theory, III-Practical), Certified Specialty Leader, Trainer of
Chicago, IL 60606 Fitness Leaders, Trainer of Trainers

Health/Fitness Instructor

An undergraduate degree in exercise science, kinesiology, physical education, or

appropriate allied health field represents the minimum education prerequisite for a
Health/Fitness Instructor. These individuals must demonstrate competency in physical
fitness testing, designing and executing an exercise program, leading exercise, and
organizing and operating fitness facilities. The Health/Fitness Instructor has added
responsibility for (1) training and/or supervising exercise leaders during an exercise
program, and (2) serving as an exercise leader. Health/Fitness Instructors also function as
health counselors to offer multiple intervention strategies for lifestyle change.

Health/Fitness Director

The minimum educational prerequisite for Health/Fitness Director certification

requires a postgraduate degree in an appropriate allied health field. Health/Fitness
Directors must acquire a Health/Fitness Instructor or Exercise Specialist certification. This
level requires supervision by a certified program director and physician during an
approved internship or at least 1 year of practical experience. Health/Fitness Directors
require leadership qualities that ensure competency in training and supervising personnel
and proficiency in oral presentations.

Clinical Track

The title Clinical Track indicates that certified personnel in these areas provides
leadership in health and fitness and/or clinical programs. These professionals possess

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

added clinical skills and knowledge that allow them to work with higher risk, symptomatic
populations.

Exercise Test Technologist

The Exercise Test Technologist administer exercise test to individuals in good

health and various states of illness. They need to demonstrate appropriate knowledge of
functional anatomy, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, electrocardiography, and
psychology. They must know how to recognize contraindications to testing during
preliminary screening, administer test, record data, implement emergency procedures,
summarize test data, and communicate test results to other health professionals.
Certification as an Exercise Test Technologist does not require prerequisite experience or
special level of education.

Preventive/Rehabilitative Exercise Specialist

Unique competencies for the category Preventive/Rehabilitative Exercise

Specialist include the ability to lead exercises for persons with medical limitations
(particularly cardiorespiratory and related diseases) and healthy populations. The position
requires a bachelor’s or graduate degree in an appropriate allied health field and an
internship of 6 months or more (800 hours), largely with cardiopulmonary disease patients
in a rehabilitative setting. The Preventive/Rehabilitative Exercise Specialist conducts and
administers exercise tests, evaluates and interprets clinical data and formulates an exercise
prescription, conducts exercise sessions, and demonstrates leadership, enthusiasm, and
creativity. This can respond appropriately to complications during exercise testing and
training and can modify exercise prescriptions for patients with specific needs.

Preventive/Rehabilitative Program Director

The Preventive/Rehabilitative Program Director holds an advanced degree in

an appropriate allied health-related area. The certification requires an internship or
practical experience of at least 2 years. This health professional works with
cardiopulmonary disease patient in a rehabilitative setting, conducts and administers
exercise tests, evaluates and interprets clinical data, formulates exercise prescriptions,
conducts exercise sessions, responds appropriately to complications during exercise
testing and training, modifies exercise prescriptions for patients with specific limitations,
and makes administrative decisions regarding all aspects of a specific program.

Summary

1. A close link ties sports medicine to clinical exercise physiology. The sports
medicine professional and exercise physiologist work side-by-side with similar
populations. These include, at one extreme, the sedentary person who needs
only a modest amount of regular exercise to reduce risk of degenerative
diseases and patients recovering from surgery or requiring regular exercise to
combat a decline in functional regular exercise to combat a decline in functional
regular exercise to combat a decline in functional capacity brought on by

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

serious illness. At the other extreme are able-bodied and disabled athletes who
strive to enhance sports performance.

2. In their clinical role, exercise physiologist alongside sports medicine

professionals test, treat, and rehabilitate individuals with diverse disease and
physical disabilities.

3. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has emerged as the

preeminent academic organization offering comprehensive certification
programs in several areas related to the health-fitness profession. ACSM
certifications encompass cognitive and practical competencies that are
evaluated by written and practical examinations.

Learning Activity

In your BPED 52 Compilation of Notes/Lectures, please answer the following questions

(handwritten only):

1. Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity, BPED 52, is a pre-requisite to

almost all movement-related subjects. To maximize the accumulation of
knowledge, what are the important strategies that the Central Mindanao
University considered?
2. To be successful in learning the Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity,
explain on how you will be able to achieve it.
3. Thoroughly read this unit (I) and fully understand. Be ready for discussion and
graded oral recitation/quiz.

Assessment Exercise

Please answer the questions below and send your output to our BPED 52 google
classroom:

1. What is morphology? Explain the difference between morphology of animals with

morphology of plants.
2. Provide the meaning of the given terminologies and provide their relationship/s to
physiology of exercise and physical activity:
- Physical Geography and Meteorology
- Qualitative Analysis
- Histology
- Auscultation and Percussion Gymnastic and Athletics
- Anthropometry
- Remedial Exercise
- Forensics
3. Based on Table 1.3, page 23, Partial List of Employment Opportunities for Qualified
Exercise Physiologist, which area: Sports, College/University, Community, Clinical,
Government/Military, Business or Private do you choose and what position: Sport
Director, Strength/Conditioning coach, Director/Manager of state/national teams,
Consultant? Why?

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 BPED 52, Unit 1

References

1. www.merriam.webster.com
2. www.healthline.com
3. www.practicalclinicalskills.com
4. McArdle, W.D., Katch, I.F., Katch, L.V. (2006), Essentials of Exercise Physiology,
3rd Edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

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