Project team

Principal Investigators

(Asian Institute of Technology – School of Environment, Resources and

Development)
1. Dr. C. Visvanathan, Professor, Urban Environmental Engineering and
Management Program.
2. Dr. Ing. Josef Tränkler, Associate Professor, Urban Environmental
Engineering and Management Program.

(Anna University – Centre for Environmental Studies)

1. Dr. Kurian Joseph, Assistant Professor in Environmental

Engineering, Center for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai,
India.
2. Dr. R. Nagendran, Professor of Environmental Science, Center for
Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai, India

Research Staff:

1. Mr. P. Kuruparan
2. Mr. Tenzin Norbu
3. Dr. A. Selvam
Preface

The Asian Regional Research Programme on Environmental Technology

(ARRPET) funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
(Sida) was broadly aimed at conducting research on environmental issues relevant
to Asia. One of the projects undertaken for study in Phase I of ARRPET was
Sustainable Solid Waste Landfill Management in Asia.

This report is an alternative option to solid waste management based on the

application of earthworms and generally termed as vermicomposting. This report
describes the various treatments with earthworms from industrial sludge to kitchen
waste. It also highlights the biology of these worms and how to maintain and
prepare suitable bedding for this biological treatment of solid waste. This report also
provides basic information and vermicomposting experiences, should one be
involved in vermicomposting or breeding of the worms.

It is believed that this report would be useful to any person and government
agencies involved in vermicomposting; industrial organizations; researchers as
well as to other scholars.

We would like to thank Dr. Radha D. Kale, Professor of Zoology, University of

Agricultural Sciences, GKVK Campus, Bangalore - 560 065, India for critically
reviewing this document and providing inputs, wherever necessary.

On behalf of the project team, we take this opportunity to thank SIDA for
sponsoring this timely and interesting study.

C. Visvanathan
Ing. J. Traenklar
Kurian Joseph
R.Nagendran
 Table of Contents

Project team................................................................................................................1
Preface .......................................................................................................................2
Table of Contents........................................................................................................3
List of Figures .............................................................................................................4
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................5
2. BIOLOGY OF EARTHWORMS...............................................................................5
2.1. Classification of earthworm ..................................................................................6
2.2. Types of Earthworms ...........................................................................................8
2.3. Reproduction........................................................................................................9
3. TREATMENT WITH EARTHWORMS...................................................................11
3.1 Role of earthworms in organic matter recycling ..................................................11
3.2 Vermitechnology and Vermiculture .....................................................................13
3.3 Vermitech System in Waste Management .........................................................14
3.4. Vermitech for Sludge Processing.......................................................................18
3.5 Other applications of vermiculture and vermicomposting....................................21
4. VERMICOMPOSTING PRACTICE ................................................................23
4.1. Bedding Material ................................................................................................23
4.2. Vermicomposting Systems.................................................................................25
4.3. Methods to harvest earthworm and the vermicompost ......................................28
4.4. Common problems and their solutions...............................................................31
4.5. Application of zeolite in vermiculture..................................................................34
5. RESEARCH POTENTIAL .....................................................................................35
6. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................36
7. REFERENCES .....................................................................................................36
 List of Figures

Figure Title Page

1 Alimentary canal of an earthworm 2
2 Classification of earthworms 3
3 Occupying levels 3
4 Copulation in earthworms 5
5 Earthworm cocoon 6
6 Earthworm hatchlings emerging from cocoon 6
7 Composition of Municipal Discards 10
8 Vermireactor 14
9 Sludge age and growth rate of E.foetida 14
10 Volatile solid removal pattern for primary sludge 16
11 Vermifilter to recharge groundwater 16
12 Vermifilter with water recovery 17
13 Bedding preparations 18
14 Vermicomposting-(windrow system design) 20
15 Vermireactor 22
16 Worm swag 24
17 Wormbin used for vertical separation 24
1. INTRODUCTION
Urban conglomerations, with their ever-increasing population
and consumerist lifestyle generate voluminous solid wastes.
A substantial portion of solid waste is non-toxic and organic in
nature. Existing methods to its treatment and disposal are
rather expensive.
Vermicomposting technology is one of the best options
available for the treatment of organics-rich solid wastes. The
term vermicomposting is coined from the Latin word ‘Vermis’
meaning to the ‘worms’. Vermicomposting refers to composting or natural
conversion of biodegradable garbage into high quality manure with the help of
earthworms. Earthworms play a key role in soil biology; they serve as versatile
natural bioreactors to harness energy and destroy soil pathogens. The worms do
so by feeding voraciously on all biodegradable refuse such as leaves, paper (non-
aromatic), kitchen waste, vegetable refuse etc. Earthworms have been used for
waste stabilization for many years, especially in Southeast Asian and European
countries.
Highlighting the role of earthworms, Charles Darwin called them the unheralded
soldiers of the soil. From then on, different experimental studies have been carried
out to study the role of earthworms in maintaining the soil fertility and also in the
degradation of the organic matter present in the soil. Different scholars have tried
the possibility of utilizing earthworms for the break down of organic wastes such as
animal wastes, vegetable wastes and municipal sludge. Earthworms maintain
aerobic conditions in the mixture, ingest solids, and convert a portion of the organic
matter into worm biomass and respiration products, and expel the remaining
partially stabilized matter as discrete material (castings). Ronald and Donald
(1977a) have reported that the earthworms and the microorganisms act
symbiotically to accelerate the decomposition of organic matter.
The driving forces behind the introduction of vermiculture and other reuse
processes, is the global recognition of the need to recover organic material and
return this to the natural cycle. Legislations are being enacted to prevent the
dumping of organic material into landfills. Simultaneously, as the cost structures for
dumping are increasing, people are becoming more aware of the need to change
their practices. There is pressure for waste processing and the consumption of the
end products. To be a viable alternative, large-scale vermiculture must be
ecologically and commercially sustainable, capable of being operated without
subsidy, on a competitive basis.
2. BIOLOGY OF EARTHWORMS
The earthworm is a tube shaped segmented invertebrate. Its body holds its shape
because it’s full of a liquid called coelomic fluid found between the body wall and
the alimentary canal. If one were to view a cross section of the worm body it would
resemble a target, with the center representing the internal organs and the outer
circle representing the bodywall.
Earthworm has a long, cylindrical body with a pointed head. In some species the
posterior end is slightly flattened, while in others the body is cylindrical throughout.
Rings that surround the moist, soft body allow the earthworm to twist and turn,
especially since it has no backbone. With no true legs, bristles (setae) on the body
move back and forth, allowing the earthworm to crawl. Earthworm breathes
through its body surface. Detailed morphological and anatomical description of
different species of earthworms is available in Aiyyar and Ananthakrishnan (1993).
Figure 1 shows the alimentary canal of an earthworm. Food is ingested through the
mouth into a bag like structure referred to as crop. In some species a distinct crop
is absent. Later the food passes through the gizzard, where ingested stones grind
it up. After passing through the intestine for digestion, what’s left is eliminated as
castings.

Figure 1 Alimentary canal of an earthworm (Lumbricus).

Source: Martin, 1976

2.1. Classification of earthworm

Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Annelida
Class : Oligochaeta
Order : Opisthopora
Family : Lumbricidae
Genus : A large number of genera have been described in literature
Species : A large number of species under each genus have been
described in literature
According to their feeding habits, earthworms are classified into detritivores and
geophagous as shown in Figure 2 (Ismail, 1997). Detritivores feed near the soil
surface. They feed mainly on the plant litter and other plant debris in the soil.
These worms comprise the epigeic and the anecic forms. Geophagous worms,
feeding deeper beneath the surface ingest large quantities of organically rich soil.
These are generally called as humus feeders and comprise of endogeic
earthworms.
Epigeic earthworms are surface dwellers serving as efficient agents in
fragmentation of organic matters on the soil surface. The anecics feed on the
organic matter mixed with soil and live deep in soil and make permanent burrows.
Endogeic earthworms live within the soil surface and derive their nutrition from the
organically rich soil they ingest. The distribution of earthworm in the soil is
influenced by several factors like soil texture, temperature, moisture, pH, inorganic
salts and the organic matter (Govindan, 1998)
Earthworms are also classified based on their occupying level in the soil and the
feeding behavior as shown in Figure 3 (Bouche, 1977 as cited in Ismail, 1997). The
Anecic types burrow deep in the soil but come to the surface at night to forage for
freshly decaying residues.

EARTHWORMS

DETRITIVORES

Epigeic GEOPHAGUS

Anecic

Endogeic

Figure 2 Classification of earthworms (adapted from Ismail, 1997)

Epigeics
Dung
Litter

Anecics

Endogeics

Figure 3 Occupying levels

f th i th il
2.2. Types of Earthworms
Ronald and Donald (1977b) have described the six common types of earthworms
found in Europe. These are:
1. The native night crawler, or Lumbricus terrestris
2. The common field worm, or Helodrilus caliginosus
3. The green worm, or Helodrilus chloroticus
4. The manure worm, or Eisenia foetida
5. The slim earthworm, or Diplocardia verrucusa
6. The redworm or Lumbricus rubellus.

The most common types of earthworms used for vermicomposting are banded
worms (Eisenia fetida) and redworms or red wigglers (Lumbricus rubellus). Often
found in aged manure piles, they generally have alternating red and buff-colored
stripes. They are not to be confused with the common garden or field earthworm
(Allolobophora caliginosa) and other species. Table 2.1 highlights some major
species of earthworms employed in vermiculture

Table: 2.1 Types of composting earthworms

Earthworm
Description
Species
The red wiggler is the most common type of composting worm. It
can process large amounts of organic matter and, under ideal
conditions, can consume feed proportional to its body weight
Red Wigglers
each day. It also reproduces rapidly, and is very tolerant against
(Eisenia fetida)
variation in growing conditions. Other names for red wigglers
include Tiger worms, Garlic worms, Manure worms, and
Brandling worms.
The redworm is a very good composting worm. In bright light, it
is a very wriggly and is not at all suitable for fish bait. Redworms
are very effective in aerating and mixing the soil, and consume a
Redworms
large amount of organic material, although less than red
(Lumbricus
wigglers. These worms are commonly found in decomposing
rubellus)
animal manures and compost piles. Other names include
bloodworms and red wriggler (but not the same as the worm
described above).
The Red Tiger worm makes an excellent composting worm. It is
a close relative of the Red Wiggler (E. fetida) and is commonly
Red Tiger
used as a bait worm because they exude coelomic fluid, which
(Eisenia andrei)
attracts fish. These worms are very active wigglers in sunlight.
Other common name for this is Tiger worm
 Blue worms have become more popular in recent years as a
composting worm. These worms do very well in warm climates,
but their degradative potential drops in the cold. Although these
Blue Worms
worms eat fairly large amounts of organic materials and are fairly
(Perionyx
prolific breeders, they are also very sensitive to changes in their
excavatus)
growing environment. In such case, these worms will migrate to
other suitable area or may move out side the bin. Other common
names include Indian Blue and Malaysian Blue worms.
The African Nightcrawler can be a good composting worm, but is
very sensitive to changes in its environment. The entire
African contents of some worm bins have been known to move out in
Nightcrawlers less than a day if the prevailing conditions are not suitable for
(Eudrilus them. These worms also perform much better in warmer
eugeniae) climates and are not recommended for areas where the
temperature falls below 10° C. The other common name for
this worm is the giant nightcrawler.

2.3. Reproduction
Earthworms that are sexually mature have a prominent band around their body,
which is called as the Clitellum. This is usually visible around 8 - 12 weeks of age.
During copulation, the worms will join together at the clitellum (sometimes for quite
a long period of time). Reproductive material is exchanged. When the worms
separate, a ring of mucus material forms at the clitellum of each worm. This
process is known as copulation (Figure 4).
Sperm from the other worm is stored in sacs. As the mucus slides over the worm, it
encases the sperm and eggs inside. After slipping free from the worm, both ends
seal, forming a lemon-shape cocoon approximately 3.2 mm long. Two or more
baby worms will hatch from one end of the cocoon in approximately 3 weeks. Baby
worms are whitish to almost transparent and are 12 to 25 mm long. Redworms
take 4 to 6 weeks to become sexually mature.
 figure 4: copulation in earthworms

The worm will then wriggle backwards, and the mucus ring slips off over the head.
The ring seals, forming a 'capsule' (also called an 'egg'). All the necessary
reproductive material is sealed inside. The worm capsule, when first deposited is
soft and milky white. This quickly hardens and turns a light lemon colour. The
capsule goes through various colour changes through different toning of yellow,
then to a rusty brown colour. Capsules are almost ready to hatch when they are
the rusty colour.
The capsule is about the size of a grape seed, but size is related to the size of the
worm, with larger worms producing larger capsules. Figure 5 shows the size of
cocoons compared to a gem clip.
Capsules generally take an average of 1 month to hatch
but depending on conditions can take more or less. Worm
capsules have been known to survive drought conditions
for 12 months or more, hatching when conditions become
suitable again. They can even survive in the digestive
systems of birds and animals ( Ref to be given by AIT).
Each capsule can produce up to 20 baby worms, but the
Figure 5 Earthworm cocoons
average survival is about 4. ( Ref to be given by AIT).
Figure 6 shows the young worms emerging from the cocoon or egg.
 Figure 6 Earthworms hatchling, emerging from cocoon.

3. TREATMENT WITH EARTHWORMS

3.1 Role of earthworms in organic matter recycling
The role of earthworms in humificaton and breakdown of plant litter in natural soil
has been known since the time of Darwin, but their potential to stabilize the organic
refuse into useful components has been known only recently. Edwards (1998)
reported five earthworm species (D. veneta, E. eugeniae, P. excavatus and
P.hawayana and E. fetida) to be the most potential earthworms for breakdown of
organic refuse. Generally most organic wastes can be broken down as such,
except for those, which might need some degree of pretreatment prior to feeding.
Earthworms are highly adaptable to different types of organic waste, provided, the
physical structure, pH and the salt concentration are not above the tolerance level
(Seenappa, et al., 1995). In most of the cases, the feedstock is thermophilically
composted in windrows (turned twice weekly), for 15 to 30 days before being fed to
earthworms.
Extensive research on decomposition of animal manure viz. pig waste, cattle dung
and poultry waste using earthworms has been done in the United Kingdom. The
main emphasis of the research there has been the conversion of animal and
vegetable wastes into useful materials and then harvesting earthworms from the
waste on a commercial basis (see Butt, 1999).
In Wilson, North Carolina, more than five tons per week of swine manure solids is
being vermicomposted. Temperature and moisture are controlled through the use
of greenhouse curtains, shade cloth, fans, and an automatic mister. Castings are
lifted and conveyed from the beds every other month by a retrofitted machine, and
a harvester separates earthworms and eggs from the castings (NCSU, 1997).
Earthworms convert the smelly organic matter into a dark, odourless,
homogeneous material called castings or vermicast which is an ideal plant growth
supplement. It is often referred to as 'Black Gold' by gardeners. Earthworms feed
partly on the waste itself, but mostly on the microorganisms produced during
decomposition. Their movement through the waste assists the break down and
aeration of the material, providing ideal conditions for microbes to flourish, which in
turn accelerates the decomposition rate of the organic matter. The waste entering
the earthworm gut is subjected to biochemical break down by the enzymes
secreted in the gutwall of the animal and by the microorganisms therein. The
resulting product is a colloidal humus that acts as a slow release fertilizer. The
nutrients are easily available to plants, but resist leaching. The rate of
decomposition also depends on the type of litter.
3.1.1 Fragmentation and breakdown
The rate of organic matter breakdown depends mainly on the type of litter. Very
soft plant and animal residues may be decomposed by the soil micro-flora Tougher
plant leaves, stems and root material do not break down easily; they are first
disintegrated by the soil animals, including earthworms. Earthworms, thus have an
important role in this initial process of the organic matter cycle. Soils with few
earthworms have a well-developed layer of un-decomposed organic matter lying
on the soil surface. Many types of leaves are not acceptable to the earthworms
when they first fall on the ground, but require a period of weathering before they
become palatable. It is believed that this weathering leaches the water-soluble
poly-phenols from the leaves (Edwards and Lofty, 1976). These tiny creatures are
responsible for the translocation of the accumulated organic debris from the soil
surface to the subsurface layers and during this process much of the organic
materials are ingested, macerated and excreted. Earthworms are also known to
contribute several kinds of nutrients in the form of nitrogenous wastes (Lakshmi
and Vijayalakshmi, 2000).
3.1.2 Consumption and Humificaton
Earthworms are reported to consume more organic matter from the soil surface
than all of the other smaller soil animals put together (Ronald and Donald, 1977a).
The amount they turn over depends on the availability of total suitable organic
matter.
If the soil physical conditions are suitable, the abundance of earthworms increases
until the food becomes a limiting factor. The smaller earthworms that feed on the
litter produce cast that are almost entirely fragmented litter, whereas the larger
species consume large proportion of soil, and there is less organic matter in their
casts. The final process in organic matter decomposition is the humificaton, in
which the large organic particles are converted into a complex amorphous colloid
containing phenolic materials. Only about one fourth of the organic matter
becomes converted to humus (Edwards and Lofty, 1976).
The major contributions of earthworms are in breaking up of organic matter,
combining it with soil particles and, enhancing microbial activity. They also mix the
humified material into soil.
3.1.3 Nitrogen mineralization
Earthworms greatly increase the soil fertility, and part of this must be due to the
increased amounts of mineralized nitrogen that they make available for the plant
growth. There have been reports of increase in the amount of nitrogen in the soil in
which the earthworms are reared (Edwards and Lofty, 1976). This may be due to
the decay of the bodies of dead earthworms, which are rich in proteins. Govindan
(1998) reported that earthworm body contains 65% protein, 14% fats, 14%
carbohydrates and 3% ash. Similarly, Ronald and Donald (1977a) reported that
72% of the dry weight of an earthworm is protein and that the death of an
earthworm will release up to 0.01 g of nitrate in the soil. Also, earthworms
consume large amount of plant organic matter that contains considerable
quantities of nitrogen, and much of this is returned to the soil in their excretions.
Hand et al., (1988) have reported that nitrogen mineralization would be greater in
the presence of earthworms and this mineral nitrogen is retained in nitrate form.
3.1.4 Effects on the C/N ratio
Plant roots in general cannot assimilate the mineral nitrogen unless the
Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio is in the order of 20:1 or lower (Edwards and Lofty,
1976). Earthworms help to lower the C/N ratio of fresh organic matter during
respiration (Ronald and Donald, 1977b). To assess the role of earthworm in
lowering the C/N ratio, the consumption of the carbon must be measured, and this
can be done approximately, by measuring the respiration. But the disadvantage of
laboratory studies is that they do not always reflect the actual situation. Daniel and
Karmegam (1999) conducted an experiment in vermicomposting using selected
leaf litter and cow dung mixtures (1:1) and showed a substantial variation in the
C/N ratio, Electrical conductivity, NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) and
organic carbon compared to controls without earthworms. There was a remarkable
reduction in C/N ratio of vermicompost than in the compost. Similar results were
obtained on utilization of weeds (B. diffusa, P. odorata, S. acuta and T.
portulacastrum) as substrate for vermicomposting (Daniel and Karmegam, 2000).
3.2 Vermitechnology and Vermiculture
Vermitechnology represents a relatively new and environmentally sound approach
in the management of Municipal refuse (Loehr et al., 1988). Earthworms have the
potential to be used in Vermitechnology systems for industrial or municipal
applications. Such systems require significant investments of capital up front. Their
commercial viability depends on what payments a producer of waste will pay as
well as what price can be obtained for the vermicast and associated products that
come out at the end of the process. The demand for compost worms from this
source really depends on additional facilities being set up. Approximately 60% or
more of household waste in Asian region is of an organic type that could be
recycled using Vermitechnology. Many Governments in this region have committed
to reduce the amount of organic wastes going to landfill. There are thus
environmental, economic and regulatory reasons for an increase in demand for
compost worms. One area that is poised for development in future is ‘contract
waste management’ using vermiculture.
Vermitech is an integrated operation and quality assurance process which focuses
on product quality and public health.
Vermitech System has a number of benefits:
9 No odour
9 Cost effective Pollution free Valuable end product
9 Destruction of pathogens
9 Low green house emissions
9 Established on site - no cartage
9 Scalable to suit any volume
9 Environmentally Sustainable process
3.3 Vermitech System in Waste Management
In many of the developing countries the prevailing method of solid wastes disposal
is open dumping (UNEP, 2001). This practice has become increasingly expensive
and hazardous to the environment. Therefore, the need to explore and recognize
the role of earthworms in waste management is rather urgent.
For millennia, earthworms have been preparing soil for the colonization and
evolution of plants. They have played a commendable role in human directed
‘agriculture’. Their value in supporting the waste disposal and management
systems is being realized by the day. Earthworms, in dense culture and in large
quantities, can physically handle virtually any biological waste. Vermitech, based
on this inherent ability of earthworms has the capacity to handle large quantities of
organic wastes and is seen as a viable industrial process capable of sustained
commercial operation.
The core of the Vermitech system are the process beds in which millions of worms
are regularly fed with organic waste and from which worm stabilised organic
matter, referred to as vermicompost, is harvested for sale to agricultural markets.
The Vermitech system of waste management can be used to process streamed or
even un-streamed shredded wastes. The worms will convert all the organic
material including the paper labels on plastic bottles and the cardboard lining of
milk cartons leaving a totally converted dry residue of comprising castings and
inorganic solids which can be separated by simple screening.
3.3.1. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste
With the dawn of consumerist culture and the drastic variation in the composition of
waste problem is of its disposal (Figure 7). The solid waste so generated can be of
two types: biodegradable or organic and non- biodegradable. The organic waste
includes mainly kitchen waste, straw, hay, paper and animal excreta and ash,
stone, cinders, plastics, rubber and metals generally dominate the non
biodegradable portion of the waste.
The residential and the commercial portion make up to about 50 to 70 percent of
the total Municipal solid wastes (MSW) generated in a community. The actual
percentage distribution of the various components depends on the following
factors:
 9 Extent of the construction and demolition activities
9 Extent of the municipal service provided
9 Types of water and wastewater treatment facilities that are used and
9 Standard of living

7% 8%

15%
31%

9%
4%
8% 3%
11% 4%
wood food scraps
Yard trimmings glass
Metals Paper & Paper board
other inorganics Textiles
Rubber and leather Plastics

Figure 7 Composition of Municipal Discards (Robert and Paul, 1997)

3.3.2. Feeds for Vermitech systems

3.3.2.1 Animal manures
Use of animal manure as primary feed for earthworms is very common in
Vermitech systems. For instance, Vermiculture Production Centre in Pinar del Rio
Province, one of the largest of Cuba's 170 vermicomposting centres uses cow
manure as its primary feedstock for earthworms, in addition to pig and sheep
manure, sugar cane pulp, coffee pulp, and other crop residues.
Cattle solids are the most suitable of all animal wastes for earthworm biomass
increase They usually do not have materials that deter the growth of earthworms.
Cow dung slurry is a suitable substrate for vermicomposting, both when mixed with
solid materials or on applying to the surface of bedding materials containing
earthworms. Hand et al. (1988) have reported that the mixture of slurry with paper
tissue waste produce better growth of earthworms and cocoon production per unit
of slurry consumed.
Horse manure is also suitable for the growth of earthworms. Horse manure
contains 0.7 % of nitrogen, 4.38 % of protein and 60 % of organic matter, trace
amounts of phosphoric acid and potassium oxide (Ronald and Donald, 1977a) and
can therefore be applied directly as feed. Further, the use horse manure does not
warrant the addition of any other material for moisture retention, aging or porosity
and above all, it does not require to be checked for acidity.
Waste from the piggeries is probably regarded as the most productive refuse for
growing the earthworms. If in the form of slurry, the solids from the waste must be
separated either by sedimentation or other mechanical means. Edwards (1998)
reported the presence of some inorganic salts and some ammonia in pig wastes,
which have to be washed out and then pre-composted for about two weeks or
longer prior to earthworm inoculation.
Poultry wastes are higher in protein content, nitrogen and in terms of phosphoric
acid than any other animal manure (Ronald and Donald, 1977a). The fresh waste
generated from the poultry farms contains significant amount of inorganic salts,
and if used directly might threatened the survival of the worms (Edwards, 1998).
These wastes have to be pretreated by composting, washing or simply by aging
process to reduce the inorganic salt content and the heating potential.
3.3.2.2 Paper pulp and card board solids
Paper and cardboard are excellent materials, both for feeding and for the bedding
of earthworms due to their cellulose content. Earthworms convert cellulose into its
food value faster than the proteins and other carbohydrates (Ronald and Donald,
1977a). These wastes do not need any special pretreatment and can be applied
directly as a feed.
3.3.2.3. Compost and waste products
Spent mushroom compost is also a good medium to grow earthworms. According
to (Edwards, 1998) it is low in plant nutrients. Brewery waste needs no
modification, in terms of moisture and the worms can process it quickly.
3.3.2.4. Urban waste
In Hobart City Council, Tasmania, (Australia) earthworms digest about 66 cubic
yards of municipal biosolids per week, along with green mulch. Zeolite mixed in with
the feedstocks helps balance the pH and absorb ammonia and odors. About two-
thirds of this volume becomes vermicompost, which is then sold to the public. The
City of Hobart is currently saving $56,000 per year from avoided landfill tipping
fees, and they are receiving an equal amount of revenue from their sales of
vermicompost. Similar observations in Indian context are also available (Datar et
al., 1997).
3.3.2.5 Kitchen and Yard Waste
Vegetable scraps from kitchen and other yard wastes provide ideal feed bed for
growing earthworms. Ram Mohan (2001) has reported on the usefulness of
predigested food waste for growing Lampito mauritii and Perionyx excavatus
species. In a study carried out at the Anna University campus in Chennai, India the
author has reported a compost yield equivalent to 20% of the original weight of the
waste in 30 days.
In the south of France, 20 tons of mixed household wastes are being
vermicomposted on daily basis. After the initial pretreatment of the waste, the
organic materials are processed in 'lombricubateurs' (earthworm tanks) with a
capacity of 15 ton per day, using 1000 to 2000 million redworms , Eisenia andrei.)
A 725-bed Rideau Regional Hospital in Ontario Vermicomposts 375 kg of wet
organics produced each day. After reducing the bulk of the food waste by 50% by
removing the water the worm feed is prepared by mixing with shredded newspaper.
Earthworms are inoculated into the feed and grown in soil bedding.
3.3.2.6. Industrial Wastes
Wastes from the canning plant and potato chip or corn chip manufacturing unit are
excellent food for worms (Ronald and Donald, 1977a). Wastes generated from
vegetable oil factory (flowers and plants) are also considered suitable as feed
(Kale,1998). The food waste from domestic households and restaurants and other
yard waste are used as feed and are also good growth media for earth worms.
Wastes from logging and carpentry industries and sugar factories are also used as
substrate to feed earthworms. When the earthworms are reared in the ratio of 1:1
sawdust and pressmud, the cast generated shows 1.2 times more CFU (Colony
Forming Units) than saw dust and 1.6 times more than the pressmud
(Parthasarathi et al., 1999).
Earthworms can partially detoxify wastes. The fly ash waste generated from the
thermal power plants is creating a major disposal problem due to its heavy metal
content although it is supposed to be very rich in microbial biomass. It was found
out that the organic waste, sisal green pulp, parthenium and green grass cuttings
admixed with 25% of fly-ash proved to be a potential valuable material for E.
foetida biomass (Saxena et al., 1998). The vermicompost so produced contains
higher NPK content than the other available commercial manures.
In some cases, earthworms are also used in the management of distillery waste
containing wastes of malt, spent grain wash, yeast and molasses settled at the
bottom of the lagoon. Seenappa, et al., (1995) observed that the total volume of
cow dung leaf litter should be proportional to the total volume of distillery waste
and pressmud to have positive impact on the growth and production of worm
biomass. Lakshmi and Vijayalakshmi (2000) reported that the filter pressmud from
the sugar factory could be used as a feed in the vermicomposting units. It is seen
that after worms have worked on it, this pressmud is converted to nutrient rich
manure and its physico chemical features improved after vermicomposting.
3.3.3. Choice of earthworm
There are many earthworm species that have the potential to be used in waste
management and in sludge stabilization systems. Since earthworm growth and
reproductive rates are the way of indicating their potentials, proper choice of
earthworm is an important factor that might affect the rate of waste and sludge
stabilization. Neuhauser (1998) has used five species of earthworms to determine
the optimum temperature for growth and reproduction in dewatered (10-12 %
solids) aerobically digested sludge for twenty weeks. He estimated the over all
reproductive capability of four species namely, D. veneta, E. eugenia, P. excavatus
and P.hawayana by using the total number of cocoons produced over the study
period and found E. foetida to be the appropriate species to use in
vermistablisation studies. Ismail (1997) reported that the local worms could be
used effectively in the combined process of litter and soil management since the
introduction of foreign species may create a complex chain of interaction amongst
the soil organisms that may lead to the competition among the species for the
food.
3.4. Vermitech for Sludge Processing
This is a relatively new process known as vermicomposting or vermistablisation of
sewage sludge (bio solids). It is not a true composting, as the process does not
involve heat. It is a very complex mechanical, chemical and biological
transformation. Given the nature of the worm behavior and the bed design and
management, the resultant product has a higher stabilization and soil supplement
value than traditional composting which relies on mechanical incorporation of
sludge with green waste in large compost heaps.
Maximum reduction of the volatile solids is a goal of any sludge stabilization
system. If earthworms are to be useful in stabilizing sludge they must increase the
rate of volatile solids reduction, thereby increasing the stabilization rate. Figure 8
shows the reactors used by Loehr et al. (1988) for vermistablisation studies.
According to them E. foetida increases the rate of volatile solid sludge destruction
when present in aerobic sludge. There are many fundamental factors that have to
be evaluated to assure the technical and economic success of sludge conversion.
Pre-treatment of the sludge prior to feeding and the appropriate loading rate are
vital to ensure ideal environment for worm activity ensuring the conversion of all
wastes. Under favorable conditions, earthworms and microorganisms act
symbiotically to accelerate and enhance the decomposition of the organic matter.
Increase in the sludge solids destruction rate reduces the probability of putrefaction
occurring in the sludge due to anaerobic conditions. The rapid degradation of
organic matter may be due to the increased aeration and other factors brought
about by the earthworms (Loehr, et al., 1988). Bhiday (1995) reported that the
aerobic and the anaerobic stages of the sludge help convert the organic matter into
the right form for rapid consumption and digestion by the earthworms.
 Stabilized solids
accumulation

26 cm
3 cm sand ( > 0.6 mm)

3 cm No 1 gravel (13 - 19 mm)

effluent drain

No 2 gravel (19 - 38 mm)

6 cm

26 cm
Figure 8 Vermireactor (adapted from Loehr, et al., 1988)

3.4.1. Factors affecting the stabilization of the sludge

The role of earthworm in stabilization of municipal sewage sludge is greatly linked
to the aerobic condition of the sludge, ash content or the sludge age, the moisture
content and the loading rate.
3.4.1.1. Sludge age

56
500
Final earthworm Wt.(mg)

55
400
Ash content (%)

54

300 53

200 52

51
100
50
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Sludge age ( weeks)
Worm w eight(mg) Ash content

Figure 9 Sludge age and growth rate of E. foetida (Neuhauser, 1988)

It is also very important to relate the rate of earthworm growth to the age of the
sludge, i.e., the time after the sludge is removed from the aerobic reactor and
dewatered. As the sludge ages, its nutritive value to the earthworm decreases
rapidly after about twelve weeks removal from the digester, whereas the ash
content of the sludge increases with the time, an indication of sludge stabilization
(Loehr et al., 1988). Figure 9 shows the relationship between sludge age, ash
content and worm growth.
3.4.1.2. Moisture content of the sludge
Both excessive and insufficient moisture can adversely affect earthworm growth. A
series of experiments were conducted to determine the moisture content of the
media that will exist in vermistablisation units. In an experiment conducted by
Neuhauser (1988), an aerobically digested sludge was dewatered to moisture
content of 75% and exposed to a temperature of 250C. E. foetida species were
placed and their growth recorded for four weeks. It was found out that optimum
worm growth occurred when the total solid content of the media was 9-16 %.
3.4.1.3. Nutrient content of the sludge
In some cases, the nutritional value of the sludge also plays an important role in
the stabilization of the sludge as well as the growth of the worms in it. The major
concerns being the nitrogen and the phosphate content in the sludge. The waste
from the mining industries that contains sulfur is also fed to the worms, which else
if not, creates a major disposal problem as well as nuisance to the public. Kale and
Sunitha (1995) investigated the use of sulfur waste residue in a vermicomposting
system by mixing it with organic matter. According to them, the optimum mixing
ratio of the sulfur waste residue to the organic matter is 4 percent, at which, they
observed the maximum number of young earthworms.
3.4.1.4 Loading rate
Loading rate of the sludge should be carefully monitored according to the type of
sludge and its moisture content and other chemical properties. It has been
reported that, at a loading rate, as high as 1 kg of volatile solids/m2/week operation
of LSVS reactors involved in stabilizing the primary sludge will be satisfactory
(Loehr, et al., 1988). At the same time, the optimum loading rate for the waste
activated sludge and the aerobically digested sludge were recorded to be 1
kg/m2/week and 1.2 kg/m2/week, respectively (Figure 10).
Failure occurred in those reactors, where the liquid no longer flows through the
accumulated sludge solids, resulting in ponding of the media and development of
anaerobic conditions. Other possibilities to make these waste more palatable to the
worms is to aerate the sludge in rotor drums to encourage the aerobic microbes
before feeding them to earthworms. This study clearly indicates the stabilization of
a primary sludge or the removal of volatile solid in liquid sludge vermistablisation
(LSVS) units. The liquid that drained from the reactor contains the by-products of
the stabilization that occurred in the reactor.
 18000
16000
Volatile solids, mg/l

14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Time, days

Drainage Added liquid s ludge

Figure 10 Volatile solid removal patterns for primary sludge (Loehr, et. al., 1988).

3.5 Other applications of vermiculture and vermicomposting

3.5.1 Applications in aquaculture

The most common method of solid waste disposal in aquaculture is land
spreading, which causes pollution of soil, surface and ground water bodies
resulting in untimely death of aquatic organisms. Vermicomposting of such waste
controls water and soil pollution, thereby ensuring better survivability and growth of
fish, prawn and other aquatic organisms within its natural habitat. The application
of vermicastings, which is a high-grade organic fertilizer to the aquaculture ponds,
reduces the input cost and makes the aquaculture process more profitable. It also
helps in combating the harmful effects against chemical fertilizer if so ever present
in the receiving water.
Large-scale vermiculture has the potential of supplying earthworm meal as a
substitute for fishmeal. Earthworm meal contains all the essential amino acids
required in fish feed. The methionine and lysine availability is higher than that of
the normal fishmeal. There is also an increasing demand for protein-rich raw
materials in other animal-feed industry.
3.5.2 Vermifilter to Recharge Ground Water
 Plants: Arum, Cannas, Banana

Sewage Inlet

30-cm. bed of vermicastings

Recharge of groundwater

Figure 11 Vermifilter to recharge ground water

(Bhawalkar, 1995)

Earthworm increases the hydraulic conductivity and natural aeration by granulating

the clay particles. They also grind the silt and sand particles, increasing the total
specific surface area, which enhances the ability to adsorb the organics and
inorganics from the wastewater. This is ideal for dilute wastewater (such as
sewage). Figure 11 shows the vermifilter that could be used to recharge ground
water. The loading rate of wastewater is calculated as 2m2/m3 of sewage.
Earthworms ensure bio-sanitation and prevent sewage sickness through effective
regeneration of adsorption ability with their bacterial farming along with their
grazing act on surplus bacterial biomass (Bhawalkar, 1995).
 Recycle For reuse

Wastewater inlet
Vermicastings
(30 cm)

Sand 2 cm Pump
Rubble 10 cm
Boulder 30 cm
Liner with clay
or PCC

Figure 12 Vermifilter with water recovery

(Bhawalkar, 1995)

3.5.3 Vermifilter with water recovery

Figure 12 shows a typical vermifilter unit with water recovery. It is possible to have
single or multiple stage vermifilter depending on the strength of the wastewater
and desired quality of renovated water. In principle, a single unit can produce any
given purity of water by increasing the recyclable ratio, which reduces the organic
loading. The first stage achieves roughing filtration and the second stage achieves
polishing (Bhawalkar, 1995).
4.VERMICOMPOSTING PRACTICE
Vermicomposting practices vary from place to place and country to country.
Literature on this aspect is readily available (Edwards and Lofty, 1976; Kale, 1998).
A general account on Vermicomposting practice as applicable to many regions is
summarized below.
4.1. Bedding Material
It is important to provide earthworms with an environment that is close to the
moisture content of the earthworms themselves. Their body wall must be moist for
respiration to occur. However, the bedding cannot be fully saturated, or the
earthworms will suffocate. The required moisture content of approximately 75%
should be maintained. The bedding should be damp, about the consistency of a
damp sponge. Although there are a number of commercially available bedding
materials made from things like coconut fiber or peat moss, newspaper and
cardboard make a very suitable bedding material because it is readily available,
provides excellent moisture retention, and preparation is relatively simple.
In general, materials needed for preparing the bedding are:
9 Newspaper (black & white only) or shredded paper, it works as a carbon
source or it also looks into the prevention of protein poisoning if so ever
occurred.
9 Garden soil (worms need the grit for digestion, but don't use potting soil
because it may contain chemicals)
9 Crushed eggshell that may serve as a source of calcium.
9 Grits or pebbles for proper drainage, to be used in the bottom layer of the
bed.
4.1.1 Bedding Preparation
As shown in Figure 13, for the bedding preparation, some shredded and soaked
newspapers (as a source of cellulose and to retain adequate moisture), and some
crushed eggshells (for calcium supply) are needed. Garden soil and crushed
eggshell are mixed well before putting them in the bin. Earthworms are placed in
the bin along with bedding material. The worms will retract down in the bedding
layer to avoid the light. With its lid open the bin is placed near a light for an hour to
encourage the worms to move down into the new bedding material.

4 lbs. 1.5 gallons 1 crushed 1 handful Putting into the

shredded cool tap egg shell garden soil bin
newspaper water
Figure 13 Bedding preparations

4.1.2 Feeding
Vegetable and fruit scraps, tea bags, eggshells, stale bread, and houseplant
trimmings etc., are used as feed. Dairy products and slaughterhouse wastes are to
be avoided during the initial stage, as these can attract undesirable insects and
create malodour. Heavily salted foods are also to be avoided as they might trigger
the migration of worms from the bin or their death. It is best to collect food scraps
separately in a small bucket and feed the worms once or twice a week. Following
this procedure, (Norbu, 2002) observed that partial burial of the food (in the vermi
bed), not only removed the ants and other mites but also created a better
environment for the worms to feed.
4.1.3. Ideal environment for earthworms

The following are the environmental conditions,

which are vital and may affect the breeding,
cocoon production and hatching of young
earthworms.
4.1.3.1. Temperature

In Vermicomposting, temperatures are kept generally kept below 350C (Riggle and
Holmes, 1994). Most worm species used in vermicomposting require moderate
temperatures from (10-350C). While tolerances and preferences vary from species
to species, temperature requirements are generally similar.. In general,
earthworms tolerate cold and moist conditions far better than they can hot and dry
conditions (Slocum, 2001).
4.1.3.2. Moisture
Earthworm requires plenty of moisture for growth and survival. They need
generally moisture in the range 60 –75 %. The soil should not be too wet else it
may create an anaerobic condition and drive the earthworms from the bed (Ronald
and Donald, 1977a). It is very important to moisten the dry bedding material
before putting them in the bin, so that the over all moisture level is well balanced.
4.1.3.3. pH
Edward and Lofty (1976) and Chan and Mead (2003) have reported that
earthworms are pH sensitive and generally most of them survive at pH ranging
from 4.5 to 9. The alteration of pH in the wormbed is due to the fragmentation of
the organic matter under a series of chemical reactions. As cited by Edwards and
Bohlen, (1996) in Chan and Mead, (2003), the soil pH is a major factor limiting the
abundance and distribution of earthworms.
4.1.3.4. Feed
The first step in starting a vermicomposting unit is to arrange for regular input of
feed materials for the earthworms. These can be in the form of nitrogen rich
material like goat manure cattle dung and pig manure. When the material with high
carbon content is used with C/N ratio exceeding 40: 1, it is advisable to add
nitrogen supplements to ensure effective decomposition. All organic matter should
be added only as a limited layer as an excess of the former may generate heat
(Ismail, 1997). Generally, 5–10 % of the feed is assimilated in the body of the
earthworms and the rest are excreted in the form of a nutrient rich cast (CAPART,
1998).
4.2. Vermicomposting Systems
Vermicomposting systems are employed purposely for volume reduction,
extraction of organic (pollutant) load, cost and energy reduction and rapid
processing. Any of the following systems may be adopted for vermicomposting
depending on the availability of space, nature of waste / bedding material, quantity
of waste to be processed etc.
4.2.1 Windrow system
This system of vermicomposting deals with construction of windrows under shade
to avoid direct sunlight (Box 1). The first layer of a new windrow should be 10 to 15
cm high. Redworms can be reared at production centre in a concrete nursery or
shallow rectangular boxes prior to their inoculation in the windrows. A typical
windrow system is shown in Figure 14. The worms feed from the bottom till the top
of the bed. The windrow has to be monitored daily and when signs of surface
feeding are noticed, another 7 to 10 cm layer of feedstock can be added. Thick
layers of feedstock are avoided because they impede oxygen penetration into the
windrow. This can cause the worms to migrate to the upper surface before lower
layers are thoroughly digested, creating anaerobic fermentation. The windrows are
irrigated with center post sprinkler up to twice daily to maintain optimum moisture
content of 80 % throughout the windrow.
1m

Temperature probe
Boundary wall
0.15m thick concrete
1m wall
air flow

Separation wall
(Cross section on A-A)

6m

A A
2.5 m

Water sprinkler system

7m

Drainage

Figure 14 Vermicomposting, (windrow system design)

Box 1. VERMICOMPOSTING IN WINDROWS
Vermicomposting Technology is used by Periar Maniammai College of Technology for Women
(PMCTW) campus, Thanjavur, TamilNadu, India for decomposing the organic wastes produced
in the campus. Wastes from various sources such as hostel, kitchen, canteen, college and
agricultural fields of the campus are collected and segregated manually. The slurry from three
biogas plants (two cow dung based and one night soil based) is also used for the production of
vermicompost.
The segregated biodegradable wastes and slurry from the biogas plants are fed into the
composting bed. The size of the bed is 3m (Length) X 1m (width) X 0.5m (height). 350 numbers
of such surface level beds are available, covering an area of 5 acres of land. Each bed consists
of about one ton of waste and 5kg of earthworm (Eisenia Foetida, a California worm).
The bed is prepared by filling alternate layers of
cow dung and solid waste of 150 – 200 mm
thickness, and then earthworms (approximately 5
kg) are introduced in the bed. To ensure aerobic
condition and to reduce the temperature the material
is turned at specific intervals. Turning is done
manually using long rakes. First turning is given 4 to
7 days after filling and the second turning is given
after 5 to 10 more days. Water is sprinkled over the
beds periodically to maintain sufficient moisture
content.

30 days are required for complete decomposition. After 30 days the decomposed material is
collected and sieved. The end product resembles dark brown colour humus or soil. The net
weight of harvest from each bed is estimated as 30-40% of the input weight.
During these 30 days the 5 kg of worm is increased into 6 kg of worms. The total life cycle of the
worms is about 220 days. They produce 300-400 young ones within this life period. The length
of these worms are 2-3 inches and reddish brown in colour, and adapted to all climatic
conditions. Though these are different kinds of worms in the known 3000 species of worms, this
particular type belongs to the surface dwellers, feed only on plant and animal waste. This
consumes the waste per day almost equivalent to its weight. The beds are covered with coconut
leaves to avoid sunlight. Avoiding sunlight, watering and aeration are the important prerequisites
for the effective production of worms and vermicompost.
The end product of the sieved compost is used as a soil conditioner or manure for the
agricultural fields and nursery of the campus. Farmers from near by villages are buying this
compost for their land. The production cost of compost is estimated as Rs 1.40 and it is sold for
Rs.3. The cost of worms of 1 kg (contains not less than 2000 worms) is Rs.1000.
Source: Field Study and Discussion with Plant in Charge Dr. Sukumaran and Ms.Jayalakshmi,
2003
4.2.2 Wedge System
This modified windrow system maximizes space and simplifies harvesting because
there is no need to separate worms from vermicompost. Organic materials are
applied in layers against a finished windrow at a 45-degree angle. The piles can be
constructed inside a structure or outdoors if they are covered with a tarpaulin or
compost cover to prevent leaching of nutrients. A front-end loader is used to
establish a windrow 1.2 to 3 m wide by whatever length is appropriate. Spreading a
30 to 45 cm layer of organic materials the length of one end of available space
starts the windrow.
Up to 0.45 kg of worms is added per square meter of windrow surface area.
Subsequent layers of 5 to 7.5 cm of organics are added weekly and preferably
more addition in colder seasons. After the windrow reaches two to three feet deep,
worms in the first windrow will eventually migrate toward the fresh feed. Worms will
continue to move laterally through the windrows. After two to six months, the first
windrow and each subsequent pile can be harvested.
4.2.3. Reactor Systems
Reactor systems have raised beds with mesh bottoms. Feedstocks are added daily
in layers on top of the mesh or grate. Finished vermicompost is harvested by
scraping a thin layer from just above the grate, and then it falls into a chamber
below. These systems can be relatively simple and manually operated or fully
automated with temperature and moisture controls.

Figure 15 Vermireactor

4.3. Methods to harvest earthworm and the vermicompost

Growth rate of earthworms is very fast and a mature adult can attain up to 1500
mg body weight and attain reproduction capability within 50-55 days of hatching
from cocoon (The Hindu, 2002). Redworms daily consume organic matter at the
rate equal to their body weight. On an average, one million worms weigh
approximately one ton. One million worms doubling every two months can become
64 million worms at the end of one year. Organic waste after being eaten by the
worms may yield half the weight in dry Vermicompost.
Since the worms double their number at least every 60 days, potentially large
quantity of worm bio mass will be available as pro-biotic food for animal, after the
first year. Therefore, after one year of the process 64 million worms could consume
approximately 64 tons organic waste daily and produces approximately 32 tons of
Vermicompost per day. This production can be done on a two acres.
In large-scale windrow vermicomposting, mechanical harvesters
are used. At the time when the height of the pile is more than 65
cm, irrigation is discontinued and the windrow allowed to partially
dry. To draw the worms to the windrow surface, a layer of fresh
feedstock is added and a brief irrigation is applied to moisten the
outer layer. After five to seven days, a front-end loader is used to
skim the top 10-cm of the windrow, removing with it
approximately 80 % of the worms. A second feeding and loader
pass can bring the worm harvest to 90 to 92 %. Population density is always
estimated before harvest so that worms can be used to inoculate new windrows.
For small-scale vermicomposting, windrows, reactors or any of the following
methods (whichever is appropriate) may be adopted:
4.3.1 Migration Method / Side way separation
In the migration method, the bedding is moved to one side of the bin and the fresh
bedding is placed on the empty side. The new feed is put into the side with the new
bedding. Gradually the worms will migrate towards the fresh bedding. The old
bedding is left for about a month to allow the new capsules to hatch. The compost
is then removed and some more fresh bedding is added.
4.3.2 Light Retraction Method
In the Light retraction method, new bedding is prepared for the worms. The
contents of the existing bin are emptied onto a sheet of plastic. The bedding is then
piled into mounds (one large or several small ones, whichever is easier). A bright
light is placed over the mounds or is exposed to sunlight. The worms quickly move
away from the light source, burying down to the bottom of the pile. After 10 to 15
minutes, the top of the bedding is scraped off. This procedure is repeated till the
worms huddle together at the bottom of the pile, with very little bedding material.
The worms are then placed immediately into the new bedding.
4.3.3 Sifting method
A sifting method can also be used to harvest the worms. In this method, the worms
and bedding are sifted through a coarse screen. Castings fall through the mesh,
while the worms stay behind. The sifting is done quickly and with a gentle shaking,
before the worms get a chance to wriggle down through the wire. There are also
special harvesters available that work in a similar way. These are mainly used in
large worm farms, where large amounts of worms need to be harvested quickly.
4.3.4 Using worm swag
When using the worm swag (Figure 16), harvesting becomes very easy, with
virtually no lifting. The swag is opened at the bottom, and the castings squeezed
out into a bucket. This is called a flow-through system, which means it is fed at the
top and harvested at the bottom. Once the Swag is established, castings can be
harvested on a weekly basis. Some flow-through
systems will have a grate at the bottom to either rake
the castings out, or wind a handle and the castings
drop out the bottom into a tray.
4.3.5 Vertical separation
In this method three trays are used, as the first
working tray becomes full, a new empty tray is simply
put on top, and feeding begins in the new tray, as the
worms will migrate upwards through the trays seeking
food (Figure 17). A piece of nylon or mesh window
screening, a bit bigger than the surface of the box is
laid flat on the surface of the vermicompost. (big
enough to flatten against the sides and some overlap Figure 16 Worm swag
at the top). The box is filled up with fresh bedding on
top of the screen and feeding with kitchen scraps is continued. The worms migrate
up through the screen into the new bedding as the food runs out below.

Figure 17 Wormbin used for vertical separation

4.4. Common problems and their solutions
The most common problem is the unpleasant odours caused by lack of oxygen in
the compost due to overloading of food waste, and when the bin contents become
wet. The solution is to stop adding food waste until the worms and microorganisms
have broken down the initial feed and to gently stir up the entire contents to
promote aeration. The drainage holes may be checked for blocking. If the drainage
is insufficient additional holes can be drilled.
Worms have been known to crawl out of the bedding if conditions are not favorable
for them. If this migration is not triggered by moisture content of the soil, then the
bedding may be acidic. Avoid adding citrus peels and other acidic foods to the
bedding as these might reduce the pH of the bedding soil. One can overcome this
acidic medium by adding a little garden lime and cutting down on acidic wastes.
4.4.1 Fruit flies
To control fruit flies:
♦ Fresh food scraps should not be added,
♦ The food scraps may be buried under the bedding,
♦ Calcium carbonate (lime from stone, not "quick lime") may be sprinkled in the
bin, or
♦ A petri-dish filled with vinegar may be placed in the bin.
♦ A plastic sheet or piece of old carpet or sacking may be kept on the surface of
the compost in the bin
4.4.2. Temperature
Heat causes more problems for vermicomposting than cold. A red wiggler
becomes inactive once the temperature of the bedding rises above 29oC. This
could be avoided by placing the bin under shade at all times, if placed outdoors
during the warm seasons. Evaporative cooling of the moist bedding keeps the bin
cooler than the air temperature, but may need to add more water during the
summer. The greater danger of overheating the worms arises from heat produced
within the bin, which could be reduced substantially by feeding small amount of
food frequently rather than a bulky food at one time. In general, worms like cool
weather. They are at their highest activity and reproductive levels as the weather
cools in the fall and warms in the spring.
4.4.3. Aeration
It is important to construct the bin to allow adequate airflow. Holes may be drilled
on the upper sidewall of the bins for air circulation. Holes drilled on the lid may
allow water inside during the rainy season.
The type of bedding used also influences air circulation. Coarser bedding such as
chopped leaves allows more air to circulate than fine textured bedding such as
peat moss or shredded paper. As the composting process progresses, the bedding
becomes more finely textured. This can be alleviated to some extent by
periodically adding fresh bedding.
Other ways to promote aeration includes occasional fluffing of the bedding
material, avoidance of deep bedding (a maximum of 30 cm), over-feeding and
over-watering.
4.4.4. Acidity (pH)
The decomposition of organic matter produces organic acids that lower the pH of
the bedding soil. The best way to deal with this is to add several cups of ground
limestone to the bedding and in the application of Zeolite in proper amount.
Limestone will serve dual purpose - maintaining the acidity and acting as a source
of calcium to the worms. Other products, which can be used, are powdered
limestone, dolomite limestone. Baking soda should be avoided because of its high
sodium content.
4.4.5. Mite Pests
Insects are attracted to earthworm beds due to its moist and organic environment.
If the bedding is not properly maintained, acidity build up in the bedding soil may
invite the mites as they are attracted towards an acidic, moist environment.
Although small populations of mites thrive in all worm beds, they might create
problems when present in excessive numbers. The mite populations at high levels
can also cause worms to bury deep in their burrows without feeding.
4.4.5.1 White or Brown Mites
White or brown mites are not predaceous and tend to feed only on decaying or
injured worms. However, during infestations, these mites can devour much of the
food in earthworm beds, depriving earthworms from the nutrients.
4.4.5.2 Red Mites
These mites first appear as small white or gray clusters, resembling mould, which
under magnification would reveal the clusters of juvenile red mites in various
stages of development. The adult red mite is smaller than white or brown mites
with bright red colour and an egg-shaped body with four pair of legs. The red mites
are known to be parasitic on earthworms. It attaches to the worm and relishes its
coelomic fluid. They are also capable consuming the cytoplasmic fluids from egg
capsules.
4.4.5.3 Mite Prevalence and Prevention
Proper care of worm beds can prevent a harmful buildup of mites. One or more of
the following conditions are usually associated with high mite population:
♦ Excess water -- Beds that are too wet create conditions that are more favorable
to mites than to earthworms. Excessive wetting of beds may be avoided by
adjusting watering schedules, improving drainage, and turning bedding frequently
♦ Overfeeding – Excess food can lead to an accumulation of fermented feed in
worm beds and lower the pH of the beds. The feeding schedules may be adjusted
and modified according to seasonal variations. The pH of beds should be
maintained to neutral (pH = 7), using calcium carbonate as the buffering agent
♦ High moisture content feed or fleshy feed -- vegetables with high moisture
content can attract high mite populations in worm beds. Use of such feed should
be limited, and if still, high mite populations persist, this feed should be
discontinued until mite populations are under control.
4.4.5.4 Mite Removal
Several methods have been suggested for removing mites from earthworm beds.
However, any type of mite removal, physical or chemical, will only be temporary
unless worm-bed management is altered to make conditions less favorable for
mites. The following techniques range from low- to high-intensity measures.
♦ The worm beds should be exposed to sunlight for several hours, however one
should make sure that the earthworms are not directly exposed to sunlight. The
amount of water and feed should be reduced. This will further encourage the mites
to leave the beds.
♦ Moistened newspapers or burlap (jute) bags may be placed on top of the beds,
and these can be removed as mites accumulate on them. This procedure may be
repeated until mite populations are substantially reduced.
♦ Pieces of watermelon or potato slices may be placed on top of the worm beds.
The peels could then be removed with the mites.
♦ The bed may be watered heavily without flooding. This will compel the mites to
move up to the surface. The mites can then be scorched using a hand-held
propane torch. This procedure may be repeated several times, at three-day
intervals, if needed.
♦ Light sulphur dusting will kill the mites. Or bed may be wetted (as suggested
above) and then the sulphur added directly to the mites. Sulphur should be applied
at the rate of approximately 2 g per 0.93 square meter of bed. Sulphur will not
harm the worms, but in time, it may increase the acidity of the bed.
In the past, some chemical pesticides have been used in worm beds. However,
due to their biomagnification, it is not advisable to use these chemical compounds.
Although safer miticides do exist in the market they are not specifically made for
the Vermibed.
4.4.6. Odour Problems
One of the biggest impediments towards backyard composting is the malodour that
might develop if the beddings or bins are not properly maintained. In limiting the
malodours, one should
♦ Reduce the amount of food
♦ Stir the bin thoroughly, especially at the bottom
♦ Add paper if the bedding is soggy
♦ Apply zeolite proportionately
And if odours still persist, the best solution may be to start over, using new
bedding, a minimal amount of scraps.
4.5. Application of zeolite in vermiculture
Zeolite is a very unique mineral with a cage-like skeletal structure that allows it to
trap, hold and exchange materials from its internal structure. It is an insoluble and
chemically stable aluminium silicate mineral that was formed from the glass
component of volcanic ash millions of years ago.
Zeolite is employed in commercial systems using large numbers of earthworms to
stabilise organic waste and to produce vermicast by treating various organic
wastes, including domestic organic matter, abattoir waste, green waste, fruit and
vegetable waste, wood pulp and cardboard, sewage sludge, animal manures, etc.
The application of zeolite with correct blend of carbon and nitrogenous wastes
could considerably reduce the odour problem, and it is due to this reason that
large-scale operations are virtually odourless and are operating in relatively low
costs.
In vermiculture, nitrogen values decrease rapidly, mainly due to volatilization. By
applying Zeolite, the nitrogen can be trapped through cation exchange; it further
prevents the atmospheric loss. In an acidic medium, the leaching of heavy metal
from the waste threats the fertility of the soil and lives of earthworms. This too can
be mitigated by using zeolite. Heavy metals are exchanged and trapped in the
zeolite, and cannot be extracted by plants or earthworms. This process also
inhibits bioaccumulation of heavy metals in worms. Zeolite helps to raise and lower
the pH of wastes through cation exchange, as distinct from lime, which will only
raise the pH. To obtain maximum benefits from zeolite in vermiculture, it is
important to have the zeolite well mixed with the organic waste. Typical
applications will use 3 to 5% of zeolite on a weight to volume basis (30 – 50) kg of
zeolite per cubic metre of waste.
4.5.1. Benefits of zeolite
Zeolite provides the following benefits: (http://www.squirmy-rms.com/zeolite.htm)
♦ Improves the conversion i.e., reduces the time required to convert organic
waste to a valuable by-product, vermicast.
♦ During the conversion process zeolite reduces or eliminates the production of
foul or unpleasant odours by absorbing gases such as ammonia and hydrogen
sulphide.
♦ Ties up some undesirable materials such as heavy metals and prevents their
release to the environment as well as reducing potential bio-accumulation of these
elements in worms.
♦ Provides a 'safer' environment for worms by buffering pH.
♦ Increases the nutrient value of the vermicast by tying up nitrogen which
otherwise would be lost.
♦ Adds to the cation-exchange capacity of vermicast, which helps promote
sustained release of nutrients for plant growth.
♦ Water Absorption / Desorption: the ability to reversibly absorb water without any
chemical or physical change in the zeolite matrix. (Desorption is the release of the
water).
5. RESEARCH POTENTIAL
There is a greater need to find out an alternate solution for the sustainable solid
waste management in tropical countries. The consumption of organic wastes by
earthworms is an ecologically safe method in the natural conversion of many of our
organic wastes into an extremely environmentally beneficial product. The tiny
creatures' ability to devour virtually any organic waste-livestock manure, rotten
food, even ratty T-shirts and excrete it as premium organic fertilizer (dubbed "black
gold" by organic farmers for its nitrogen richness) is proving profitable for a host of
non-squeamish entrepreneurs. Research findings, developmental programs and
application aspects of MSW composting by earthworms in tropical countries need
to be propagated and commercialized.
Due to its simplicity and flexibility vermiculture may be carried out on large
centralized scale or suburban to household scale with normal composting
methods. At least 9-12 months are required to obtain homogeneous organic matter
of comparable maturity. The vermitechnology could be used to compost MSW (for
recycling organic matter) as a pretreatment prior to land filling. Research on this
field could include the following:
1. Comparison of vermicomposted MSW and windrow composted MSW in
respect of the following aspects:
♦ Volume reduction
♦ Leachate characteristics after landfilling
♦ Methane Gas emission
♦ Variations in pH, acidity, nutrients

2. Comparative study of the stabilization rate of heavy metal and toxic

substances in MSW
3. Comparative study of the stabilization rate of pathogenic and toxic
microorganisms
4. Comparative study of the decomposition rate of MSW by adding different
ratio of sludge cake
5. Optimizing the Vermicomposting process to achieve most efficient process
outcome by changing important variables such as
♦ Variety of earthworm
♦ Various moisture content
♦ Thickness of the bedding layer
6. CONCLUSION
Vermicomposting for resource recovery and recycling of MSW is one of the fastest
growing sectors in waste management. The application of Vermitechnology and
vermiculture is not new for composting, as it is a natural contributor for farming and
gardening. In North America, Europe, Asia and African regions, and in several
other countries earthworms are being used for various waste treatment options.
They could help waste managers for minimizing waste input to landfills and saving
precious groundwater resources. In addition, vermicomposting will be helpful for
managing domestic solid waste problems and could stabilize wastes with low
toxicity, pathogens and heavy metals. The eco-solid waste management could
successfully promote vermicomposting as a viable alternative for the disposal of
solid wastes.
7. REFERENCES
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Casting and soil,
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trapezoids, an exotic earthworm’, Urban & Fischer Verlag,
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Together”,
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http://www.oldgrowth.org/compost/forum_vermi as of March 2003
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Newspaper Thursday, Jan 17, 2002:
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Vermicomposting,
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URL:http://www.yelmworms.com/vermicomposting.htm as of March 2003
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Vermicomposting, Indoor Composting with Earthworms,
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Zeolite – The Perfect Worm Bin Companion
http://www.squirmy-worms.com/zeolite.htm as of March 2003