4 Loading and load securing

4.1 Packaging and marking

4.1.1 Packaging receptacles and packaging aids
4.1.2 Unitization and palletization
4.1.2.1 Part 1
4.1.2.2 Part 2
4.1.2.3 Part 3
4.1.3 Securing goods in packaging receptacles
4.1.4 Marking goods
4.1.4.1 Part 1
4.1.4.2 Part 2
4.2 Packing and stowage methods
4.2.1 Preparatory work
4.2.1.1 Selecting and checking CTUs
4.2.1.2 Before packing
4.2.1.3 Stowage planning
4.2.2 Using segregating materials
4.2.3 Dunnage
4.2.4 Basic stowage methods
4.2.4.1 Part 1
4.2.4.2 Part 2
4.2.4.3 Part 3
4.2.5 Packing rules
4.2.5.1 Part 1
4.2.5.2 Part 2
4.2.5.3 Part 3
4.2.6 Useful hints
4.2.7 On completion of packing
4.2.8 Final work in the door area
4.3 Load securing
4.3.1 General load securing methods
4.3.2 Achieving a tight fit using container components
and special components
4.3.3 Achieving a tight fit by filling in gaps
4.3.4 Achieving a tight fit by bracing
4.3.5 Achieving a tight fit by lashing
4.3.6 Friction securing
4.3.7 Securing against tipping and other hazards
4.3.8 Securing by nailing
4.4 Load securing equipment
4.4.1 Lashing materials
4.4.1.1 Part 1
4.4.1.2 Part 2
4.4.1.3 Part 3
4.4.2 Wood
 4.4.3 Filling material
4.4.4 "Artificial tight fit"
4.4.5 Friction and friction-enhancing mats

Preface

Load securing cannot be defined as simply the physical secu ring of a consignment using
friction and tight-fit methods. Instead, it should be taken to be the "Safety of loads and
protection against potential damage by loads" and should cover:

 protection of the goods against all forms of damage and/or

 protection of the environment against potentially damaging effects of the cargo.

An all-inclusive approach such as this may encourage greater interdisciplinary thinking

and consideration of the problems of load securing in context rather than as an isolated
issue. Load securing, in its broadest sense, is dependent on a number of factors:

 the characteristics of the goods that are being transported

 the construction and/or manufacturing features

 the types packing and packaging used

 the cargo transport units chosen for transportation

 the aids and devices used during packing

 the packing methods

 the securing methods

 the materials used to secure the load

 the finish of the materials used to secure the load

 the transport methods and routes used etc.

As always, the people responsible for the overall process play a critical role. Only when
these people have been trained properly and have the right experience is it possible to
minimize damage. Only the use of the correct and appropriate forms of load securi ng is
able to prevent damage being caused to the goods that are being transported as well as
to equipment, public property and the environment.

Note regarding legal stipulations

Packing of containers and cargo securing in or on containers must be car ried out in
accordance with the "C TU packing guidelines" published by the "International Maritime
Organization". The exact title of the document is "IMO/ILO/UN EC E Guidelines for Packing
of C argo Transport Units (C TUs)".

The "Scope" section of the C TU guidelines contains information about situations where
these guidelines are not applicable. This states:
They do not cover the filling or emptying of tank containers, portable tanks, or
road tank vehicles, or the transport of any bulky cargo in bulk packagings.
 CTU guidelines do not apply to tanks and bulk cargo

The "Definitions" section defines a number of terms:

bulk cargoes means cargoes which are intended to be transported without any
intermediate form of containment in bulk packagings or portable tanks.
cargo means any goods, wares, merchandise and articles of any kind which are
intended to be transported.
dangerous cargoes means packaged, dangerous, hazardous or harmful
substances, materials or articles, including environmentally hazardous substances
(marine pollutants) and wastes, covered by the International Maritime Dangerous
Goods (IMDG) Code. The term "dangerous cargoes" includes any empty
uncleaned packagings.
overpack means an enclosure used by a single shipper (defined in section 8 of
the German "Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Sea Ordinance", GGVSee, as the
"producer or shipper") to contain one or more packages and to form one unit for
convenience of handling and stowage during transport.

Examples of overpacks are a number of packages either:

1. placed or stacked on to a load board such as a pallet and secured by
strapping, shrink-wrapping, stretch-wrapping or other suitable means; or

2. placed in a protective outer packaging such as a case or crate;

packaging(s) means receptacles and any other components or materials
necessary for the receptacle to perform its containment function.
packages means the complete product of the packing operation, consisting of the
packaging and its contents as prepared for transport.

Faulty packaging will affect the entire duration of the transport

unit load means a number of packages that are:

1. placed or stacked on and secured by strapping, shrink -wrapping or other
suitable means to a load board such as a pallet;
2. placed in a protective outer enclosure such as a pallet box;

3. permanently secured together in a sling.

 Failure to implement unitization correctly makes packing and securing
more difficult

In the case of hazardous materials, the unitization shown on the left represents a failure
to comply with the General Provisions of the IMDG code.

Unlike conventional methods of loading, closed containers offer better protection against
robbery, theft and climate conditions. This is also a form of load securing or, to put it
another way, protection of the load.

Loading containers
in the rain

For all moisture-sensitive cargoes, namely the vast majority of all general cargo,
measures must be taken to ensure that the goods to be loaded are not stored in the open
whether it be for long or short term storage, and that they are only packed in roofed
areas.

The basic requirements for preventing damage and thus protecting the load are:

1. container-suitable construction of loads, goods and/or packaging, including

container-suitable palletization and unitization, as well as

2. the appropriate packing of the load into the container, and if this is not sufficient,

3. supplementing the packing measures by the use of suitable load securing

mechanisms.

If these three rules are observed, the container is able to carry out the protective function
it was designed for. Failure to comply with these basic rules, however, means that the
containers are endangered by their own cargo.
Damaged end wall, caused by
a badly packed and
unsecured cargo

Palletization in a form not

suitable for containers
 Palletization in a form
suitable for
containers

The only criticism that can be leveled at the pallets is the way the straps have been placed
and the fact that this has been carried out using steel strapping. The use of plastic
strapping and edge protectors would have been preferable. Top marks, however, must be
awarded for the fact that the second layer has been placed on top of interlayer dunnage.

This section of the C ontainer Handbook has been designed to show the basics required in
order to transport cargo without damaging it or anyone/anything else.

The "Scope" section of the C TU packing guidelines states:

These Guidelines are not intended to conflict with, or replace or supersede, any
existing regulations or recommendations which may concern the carriage of cargo
in CTUs.
This is intended to stress the fact that other regulations will still continue to be valid. For
example, the German railroad regulations in which § 1 makes the following statement
about the state of the cargo:
The cargo must be in a state that does not permit it to present a d anger to the
safety of the railroad.
This paragraph affects, in the first instance, the manufacturers, shippers and packers of
goods. Other areas of law also have similar regulations - including insurance law. Both the
nature and the state of the packaged load and its packaging must meet all requirements
for correct transportation. As we have already seen, and we will continue to see, this is
very often not the case.

Load securing considerations are an issue as early as the design of products. The
manufacturer intends selling their products. To do this, the goods are going to have to
travel some distance - in particular goods designed for export. Since the manufacturer has
a vested interest in getting their products to their customers in a undamaged state , it
makes sense for the producer to enable or facilitate correct securing of the load by
incorporating appropriate lashing points. Strictly speaking, the German Law on the Safety
of Equipment, for instance, requires the manufacturer to do so.

Since once a load is passed on to the carriers, packing companies, cargo handlers,
transport companies etc. the load is no longer in the power of disposal of the shipper,
these companies are thus responsible for checking to ensure that the consignment is in a
condition suitable for transportation. If faults are detected, measures must be taken to
ensure that the goods are made suitable for transport (again).

In the case of hazardous goods, damaged packages must not be loaded under any
circumstances. Instructions to the contrary should not be observed.
4.1.1 Packaging receptacles and packaging aids

The influence of packaging receptacles and packaging aids on load securing

C hoosing the right type of receptacle and packaging aids has a direct influence on the
security of a load, the prevention of damage and the costs of storing, handling and
transportation. The main tasks of transport packaging are:

 to protect the cargo from loss, damage or depreciation,

 to protect people, the environment and the transportation vehicle from potential
damage caused by the cargo, and also

 to enable high levels of mechanization and rationalization of storage, handling and

transportation processes.

These tasks can only be achieved by careful selection of packaging methods, packaging
receptacles and aids as well as correct packing.

Modifications are relatively easy to implement for cartons, crates and cases. However,
fiber, plastic and steel sheet packaging can only be modified gradually since many filling
plants and packaging lines are designed specifically for use with special receptacles. Thus,
solutions must be found that take account of the needs of all concerned. This can on ly be
achieved in conjunction with manufacturers, industrial associations and standardization
committees. This process also requires considerable investment.

The design of fiber drums, barrels, canisters, pails, corrugated barrels, quick lever-closure
drums etc. must be revisited and modified in the long-term, both with regard to the
fundamental design and the dimensions of the receptacles.

The risk of damage during transport is disproportionately large for some of the packaging
receptacles commonly in use. Furthermore, transport using some of the existing
packaging receptacles requires considerable outlay in terms of materials and personnel if
the goods packed in these containers are to reach their destination without damage.

Risk of damage when using

commonly available packaging
receptacles

The closures on fiber drums, the handles on buckets, pails, canisters, and other similar
containers can cause to damage to cargo stored on top of or next to them as a result of
high point loading. Professional loading requires the use of additional dunnage, and
increases the amount of stowage space lost during packing as well as increasing personnel
costs.

Disadvantages of commonly available drums/quick lever -closure

drums

As a result of loads caused during transportation, drums of this type ride up over the
corrugations of neighboring drums. This encourages the formation of transport gaps and
the damage associated with these. If the levers of quick lever -closure drums extend
beyond the edge of the drum, these may snag. The consequences of this include
unintentional opening of the drums and/or damage to the drums.
 Additional measures to avoid design-related gaps

Avoiding the formation of gaps by using a different drum design

Transport damage caused by gaps formed as a result of the design of the receptacles can
only be prevented by employing further materials which leads to additional costs for
materials and personnel, or by selecting a different type of drum with wider corrugations
and recessed closures. It is obvious that, in the long-term, the selection of a better drum
is the more cost-effective solution.

C areless packing is one of the main causes of accidents and damage. Fundamental errors
are often made as early as design and production of the goods. This is because storage,
handling and transport are rarely taken into consideration at this stage. The same applies
to the production and use of various packaging receptacles and packaging aids: These
simply do not meet the requirements.

In the majority of cases, however, it is the "packer" who makes the mistakes responsible
for damage suffered during transportation. A package is only appropriate for carriage
when it is able to withstand all the manipulation to be expected during storage, cargo
handling and transportation, also in terms of keeping the environment protected from the
goods. Not all packaging faults will cause damage, but the risk to the contents is increased
considerably.
 Machine component intended for packing into
a container

Because the machine component itself has not been designed to be transported by forklift
truck, it has been placed on a pallet (and not secured) for transportation within the
company. Simply maneuvering the component into a container is already fraught with a
number of difficulties. In order to be able to secure it correctly, considerable outlay in
terms of materials and staff hours will be required. If the packaging is designed to act as
protection against climatic conditions or corrosion, then the damage to th e plastic film that
is likely to be caused by necessary securing measures is likely to have negative
consequences for the cargo.

What is required is a skid which can be transported using forklift, similar to the floor of a
case, and to which the machine component can be bolted. Securing would then be easy.
The skid plus machine component could be secured in place in the container using vertical
bracing.
 Lack of securing in the container as a result of the method of
packing

The packing staff often give up when attempting to properly secure objects that are not
suitably packaged. The load is simply placed in the container and left to its own devi ces.

Packaging which is
unsuitable for handling

This case does not have any lower skids. In order to be able to comply with the sling here
hoisting instructions given by the symbol on the case, or for transportation using a forklift,
the forklift operator must force the forks under the case to lift it.
 Packaging that
is not suitable
for storage

The lower skids of this package are completely missing at the rear, and are breaking away
at the front. Thus the package is no longer suitable for transportation.

In practice, people fail to assign as much importance to the issue of the suitability of
packaging for transportation as they should. The issue affects all types of transportation
and is thus not specific to maritime transport alone. It is, however, of particular
importance when loading containers for maritime transportation.

The following basic principles may be used to assess the suitability of a load for
transportation:

 Loads must be in a state which does not, in any way, affect safety during
transport.

 A load is secured appropriately for carriage if, when loaded and handled in the
proper manner, it is unable to cause damage to persons, to handling or
transportation equipment or to other cargo.

The term "safe for carriage" must be defined in such a way that it is clear to all persons
involved in the process. The average lay person can assume that manufacturers of goods
and the people and companies entrusted with their transportation are specialists in their
field. If the terms shipping and carriage are used, they also cover the storage, handling
and transportation of the goods as well as all associated preparation and final work.

It must also be assumed that specialists are aware of the different demands made of
small, large, display and sales packaging and are able to differentiate between these
demands and the demands made of combination and transportation packaging and load
units.

Transportation packaging must be constructed in such a way that it is suitable for carriage
in order to ensure that it meets all the demands of handling, storage and transportation.
This applies to all aspects: protection of the goods, protection of the environment from th e
goods, or issues relating to handling, packing, stowage, securing etc.
Unfortunately in some areas, concepts such as ordinary commercial packaging, overseas
packaging and seaworthy packaging are still often used. C oncepts such as packaging
suitable for transport or fit-for-purpose packaging are preferable, since such concepts are
used in transport insurance law.

The manufacturers and shippers of goods must, at the very least, inform themselves of
the following issues and construct/select suitable packaging formats accordingly.

All measures for protecting the goods from damage must focus on the loads experienced
during storage, handling and transportation. Goods should always be packed safely if they
require protection from complete, or partial loss or from damage, or if the goods
themselves represent a risk to the environment. If these basic principle s are generally
adhered to and the relevant ISO , EN or DIN standards and other technical regulations are
also observed, the best conditions for damage -free transportation can be achieved.

In the area of hazardous goods, legislation has generally taken account of th e above
factors in the form of special packaging regulations. But what is the use of introducing
packaging regulations for hazardous goods when they can (and must) be packed into a
container with other goods which are less suitably packaged.

Not all packaging faults will cause damage. However, the risk is increased considerably.
Poor packaging has an additional psychological effect: Bad packaging promotes
carelessness and incorrect handling among handling staff.
 An example of bad packaging

It will be difficult to stow other items on top of this crate since part of the contents extend
above the top of the wooden crate.

Incorrectly constructed wooden crate

Packing a C TU with packages of this type causes additional expense since so much
interlayer dunnage must be employed in order to stack other objects on top of the c rate
while ensuring that the contents of the wooden crate do not suffer damage.

4.1.2 Unitization and palletization

4.1.2.1 Unitization and palletization, Part 1

The influence of faulty unitization and palletization on load securing

C arelessness and poorly trained personnel are the main reasons for damage caused as a
result of faulty palletization and unitization. The following applies: Once again, gaps are
the main cause of all mechanical transport damage!

This carton really is in an exposed location. Would anyone actually load this pallet into a
mixed consignment container? It is more likely that the steel straps will be cut away and
the carton loaded as an individual item.

Palletization which actually increases freight costs

The combination of packaging receptacles, pallet and stretch wrap does not automatically
result in a so-called "palletized load", as the example above shows. Only if the handling o f
pallets can be rationalized using ground conveyors can we really speak of palletized
goods. These are handled by a number of companies at a cheaper rate.

Errors that occur frequently are demonstrated by these photographs:

Goods that are not safe for carriage

The quick lever-closure drums shown here are basically not suitable for transportation,
since the lids are able to push each other open. This applies to both conventional methods
of stowage and to palletization. If this does not happen when the goo ds are wrapped, as
in this case, then it will occur at the very latest when the load is jolted during transport.

Pallets do not usually have diagonal bars which means that are very susceptible to
asymmetric forces. In particular when used in containers, pallets can only really be used
sensibly when they can be packed flush and have level sides and surfaces. Gaps make it
more difficult to pack and secure the load. Shrink and stretch wrap must firmly bond the
goods to the pallets. This bond should be able to withstand the normal loads caused by
handling. That is not the case here.

When loads arrive at a container packing station in such a pitiful state, the drums should
be packed individually. It is obvious that drums or pails designed for use in containers can
save on costs.

This picture demonstrates the potential danger that may arise when badly packed pallets
are not rigorously unpacked, and instead an attempt is made to load them despite their
obvious deficiencies:

An accident waiting to happen due to badly loaded pallets

Despite the fact that this is not permitted, a loader can be seen climbing onto the pallet
lifted by the forklift truck in an attempt to stabilize the load. This attempt fails and the
drums fall to the ground.

The package illustrated appears, at first glance, to be a perfectly good shrink -wrapped
pallet containing boxed goods. The wider dimensions of the load toward the top, i.e. the
fact that they extend beyond the bounds of the pallet, may mean that the goods are
forced into a gap that is too small for them because they no longer have dimensions
suitable for the means of transport. The cartons stacked on top restrict the options for
packing other goods on top of this package. In the real world, many packers would slice
open the shrink wrap and load these two cartons separately. This subsequently increases
the probability of incorrect delivery. A possible reason for this type of un acceptable
palletization is that producers tend to apply their pricing/discounting system to round
numbers like, for example, 50 or 100 instead of matching it to the capacity of loading
aids, transport aids or means of transport.
 Two cartons too many!

The most frequently seen error is pallets that are not packed flush.
 Incorrectly packed pallets containing boxed goods

Whether the goods are too small for their pallet, extend beyond the bounds of the pallet
or are placed diagonally on the pallet, all these instances encourage c areless loading into
vehicles and containers, make load securing more difficult and can ultimately lead to the
load being damaged.
 Faulty palletization

Bad palletization is not restricted just to boxed goods. When loading containers with
hazardous goods you will often see badly shrink-wrapped or badly strapped pallets.

Load unit that is not suitable for

transportation
These load units cannot be stacked. Under the slightest acceleration, the badly wrapped
film will not be able to hold the plastic canisters and tin drums in place on the pallet.

These load units are generally well packed, the surfaces are level and they can be
stacked. Unfortunately, however, the sides are not perfectly flush with the pallet base.
There are still gaps that should be filled.
Deficiencies when forming load units
Note: Ignore
palletization ...
 ... at your peril!

Goods that are palletized this badly cannot be stowed safely and without gaps, as the
regulations require, without additional outlay in terms of work and materials.
 Upper and lower images:
Load units that contravene the regulations
 Upper and lower images:
Unacceptable packing of pallets with drums

In road and rail transportation, actions that contravene the general guidelines on
palletization can be compensated for by additional outlay on stowage and securing. In
maritime transportation and when dealing with hazardous goods, packages of this nature
are clearly in breach of the law. The general provisions of the German GGVSee, a German
translation of the IMDG code state that the unitization and labeling of items and unit loads
to be transported must be carried out in accordance with the regulations. In section 10.18
of the IMDG code, unit loads are defined as a number of packages that are

1. placed or stacked on and secured by strapping, shrink-wrapping or other suitable

means to a load board such as a pallet;

2. placed in a protective outer enclosure such as a pallet box;

3. permanently secured together in a sling.

In accordance with section 10.18.2, packages that contain hazardous goods, that are
permitted to be transported in accordance with the code, may only be transported in unit
loads if the following conditions are fulfilled:

1. It may occur that the packages in a unit load will need to be separated. In this
event, it must be ensured that the individual packages can be handled safely.

2. The unit loads should be compact, have as regular a form as possible, and for the
most part, vertical sides. The top of the unit load should be level. It must be
possible to stack the unit loads. They must be constructed and secured in such a
way that it is unlikely that the individual packages can become damaged.

3. The unit loads must be sufficiently strong to withstand repeated loading and
stowing operations and they must be able to bear unit loads with a similar specific
mass which are stacked on them to a height commonly occuring during
transportation.

4. The material used to bind a unit load together must be compatible with the
substances contained in the unit load and must remain effective under the
influence of moisture, extreme ambient temperatures and sunlight.
 Palletization of plastic canisters contrary to regulations

Without the additional use of appropriate corner rails or cover boards, the straps alone will
not be able to hold the plastic receptacles in place for very long. It is only possible to
stack further unit loads on top of these with additional effort. When stowing the second or
third layer, the goods stowed below must be protected from potentially damaging
pressure by the use of additional measures.

Deficiencies can also be observed in the unit loads shown below:

 Upper and lower images: Unit load with serious deficiencies

C hanging proportions lead to increased freight costs since the outer dimensions a re
measured. If the pallet placed on top of these drums can be brought into the correct
position, it will no longer be able to bind the load together securely. The tape wrapped
around these cartons and the stretch wrap round the cases must be used correctly.

All in all, the only recommendation that can be made here is to separate the packages and
load them individually.
 Unit load with obvious deficiencies

If the lower pallet is intended to be part of the unit load then it should be firmly bonded to
the rest of the load. That is obviously not the case here. Without the pallet, this "pack of
three" cannot be handled by forklift truck and thus cannot be loaded rationally. The
stretch wrap itself is unable to provide sufficient stability.

Less than perfect:

A unit load that is not flush

The benefits afforded by the efficient handling of unit loads are lost if gaps are left in the
cargo. For the purposes of load securing, it would be more effective if each of the cases
had been strapped separately.

Pallets should always be packed in such a way that the goods being transported, whether
it be in cartons, sacks, pails, drums or canisters, are always flush with the pallet.
Furthermore, only pallets should be used which are suitably dimensioned for the intended
transportation method and the handling equipment that will be used.

Pallets that are appropriately dimensioned

for transportation by truck
The trays containing empty cans are designed for use with the pallets used here. The
pallets themselves are compatible with the dimensions currently used for road and rail
vehicles, swap bodies and inland containers in Europe. Thus, two pallets can be loaded
next to each other widthways or three pallets lengthways. For the purposes of overseas
transportation, there are currently very few containers with a n internal width greater than
2.4 m. Thus, these pallets are not suitable for transportation in overseas containers. The
European transportation market now has a small number of C PC s or "C ellular Palletwide
C ontainers".

Pallets that are not designed for the container

The packing receptacles are not designed for the pallet, and the pallets themselves are
not designed for use with this container. This makes loading and unloading more difficult
and increases the amount of securing that is required.
The risk of damage also increases.

It would have been more sensible to use pallets or pallet-like bases sized 116 cm x 116
cm for transport in the container. This would have allowed two units to be loaded into the
container next to each other in normal steel corrugated containers. The goods themselves
should be packed in modular unit load packaging such as cartons, canisters, drums etc.
which would allow a clean block to be formed on the pallet.

Telescope cartons with pallet-

like bases designed for use in
the container
Here the requirement for harmonized dimensions has been implemented and not just in
terms of width, but also in terms of height. The telescope cartons fit tightly into the
container and need no additional securing.

The stability of the cartons is, however, a possible po int of criticism. Whether these are
likely to survive the rigors of transportation is a matter of doubt. Interlayer dunnage with
a large surface area would improve the situation. It may even be possible to support this
dunnage for the lower and middle layer. If the contents are heavy it may be necessary to
find out whether the four lengthwise slats on the pallet-like bases would cause pressure
damage on the bottom of the cartons.

C ontinued in Section 4.1.2.2

4.1.2.2 Unitization and palletization, Part 2

Continued from Section 4.1.2.1: The influence of faulty unitization and

palletization on load securing

Load dimensioned
to suit the internal
measurements of
the container

This example also shows that the dimensions of packaging receptacles can be designed to
fit the internal dimensions of the containers themselves. Transportation modules of this
type can help save costs.
 Faulty unitization

The strapping as shown above is faulty. This method is unable to provide a stable unit
load. The unpleasant tendency of corrugated drums to ride up over the corrugations can
be prevented by appropriate unitization on pallets, but this will still not cure the tendency
of pallets to ride up against each other.

Four drums with a maximum diameter of 585 mm can be stowed next to each other in
standard containers. From the loading point of view, the most sensible option is to use
drums with wide corrugations and a diameter of 580 mm, loaded onto pallets with
dimensions of 1,160 mm x 1,160 mm.

Acceptable form
of unitization

Formation of a unit load in the format shown above is acceptable, but its quality should
not be overestimated. Since the strapping is vertical, it is unable to provide resistance to
shifting. As a result, the top wooden board can easily shift. Diagonal strapping would be
ideal but is extremely difficult to implement.

The picture below makes this problem clear.

 Diagonal shifting of the "lid" of a unit load

The "lid" used for this unit load is an inverted pallet. In this case, only two straps have
been used for unitization but at least the drums were wrapped in shrink film first.
Nevertheless: simply as a result of the transportation by road from the shipper to the
container packing station, the "lid" has already shifted.

In series production it would make sense to affix a "lozenge" to both the pallet and the lid
which would ensure a 100 % tight fit for the drums after strapping:

Pallet and lid with "lozenge" can guarantee a tight fit.

Side view of the

strapped pallet
In order to reduce the risk of torn strapping, it would make sense to introduce pallets and
lids which have grooves cut specifically to take straps.

Catastrophic unit load

This example also requires additional effort in order to guarantee that the plastic canisters
reach the recipient in an undamaged state.

The pictures below provide particularly vivid examples of poor packaging and unitization:
Wooden feet that extend beyond the pallet/or are higher than they are wide always cause
problems during loading, packing and securing. The loaded surface area is too small and
results increased loads on the cargo stowed underneath. Even experienced stowage and
loading personnel can only partially compensate for this by using additional dunnage.
 Note: It's a well-known fact that small feet, narrow and tall,
are likely to collapse.

The use of steel strapping to hold packages in place should be avoided. The use of st eel
strapping without any edge protectors is particularly critical.

Unsuitable "feet" on packaging receptacles

Note: Stability comes when the wide edge is facing down.

Even the slightest of lateral forces are enough to collapse the feet of this plywood case.
This combination package shows an "ALTO" arrow which simply indicates the top of the
item, and not "transport this way up".

This selection of frequently observed packaging faults is just the tip of the iceberg. There
is also a whole range of other weaknesses that indicate that the transportation of goods in
general, and the packing of containers in particular, are operations that do not always run
as smoothly as they could.

The requirement laid down in virtually all national and international legislation, regulations
and agreements, namely that goods should be "packed safely" is unfortunately all too
frequently not put into practice.
 Very poorly wrapped unit loads

These unit loads have fallen apart when being transported from the warehouse to the
loading ramp on the company premises - despite being very carefully deposited by the
forklift operator.

Insufficiently wrapped carton

on a Europallet
C ompanies very rarely respond appropriately and immediately when confronted with badly
packed goods, despite the fact that they have the opportunity to do so.

Generally the shipper is responsible for all consequences caused by a lack of packaging or
by poor quality packaging. In particular, the shipper is responsible for compensating
companies for damage caused as a result of such faulty packaging.

Consolidated package that is unsuitable for transportation

A company which accepts goods for carriage that already show ob vious evidence of
damage is entitled to demand that an entry is made in the consignment note by the
shipper documenting the state of the goods explicitly.

Load that is only fit for writing off

Pallets that are not loaded flush require additional securing. The ba dly applied steel
strapping requires particular care when handling these loads using a forklift truck since
they are easily torn away when applied in this manner. It is very difficult to assess
whether or not the damage to the carton has also resulted in d amage to the goods inside
it or will do so subsequently.

If the lack of packaging/faulty packaging is not entered in the shipping documents by the
shipper or the party delivering the consignment, then the company responsible for the
onward transportation is required to document these faults.
 Fit for writing off: Crates without sufficient diagonal
bracing

Every wooden crate that does not have sufficient diagonal bracing should be classed as
faulty packaging.

Fit for writing off: Crates without sufficient diagonal

bracing

The lack of diagonal supports has already caused deformation of this wooden crate.
Depending how sensitive the packed goods are, this deformation could cause damage. In
addition, this example shows evidence of loading and securing errors.

Damaged chipboard pallet

As observations in many container packing stations have shown, pallets made of

chipboard are not suitable for overseas transportation purposes. They are too weak and
are very susceptible to damage. As a result of the very small surface areas of their fee t,
they also apply high loads to the objects they are standing on and can thus often only be
used in conjunction with materials that are able to distribute this load.
 The damaged feet of a chipboard pallet pose a risk
to other goods.

C hipboard pallets are easily damaged even when subjected to very low loads. Both the
sharp edges that remain and the reduction in surface area that results will further increase
the loads on other cargo.

Insufficient wrapping of a chipboard pallet

 Increased pressure
as a result of small
surface areas

Unsuitable solution
to the problem

This pallet is too big for the carton. This causes gaps when packing the C TU. Since
chipboard pallets are very sensitive to bending forces, the steel strapping may break off
parts of the pallet. This means that the carton is no longer bonded securely to the pallet.
In order to get around this problem, the carton and its pallet were loaded on their side.
But this is not a particularly good solution because this can cause problems for handling
staff and may even damage the contents.
 Unit load that is not fit for transportation

Unacceptable unit load

Such badly packed pallets can only be loaded safely with a high outlay in terms of
personnel and materials. The holes in the lower telescope carton indicate that an
inexperienced forklift operator was entrusted with handling this pallet.

This unit load clearly shows the lack of understanding that has gone into unitizing the
load. The consequence of this poor unitization will be that the packages will be split and
loaded into the C TU individually.
 In accordance with the IMDG code:
Load unit that contravenes the regulations

If a company is not prepared to load packages of this type individually, considerable effort
must be put into correct load securing.

Unit load not suitable for transportation

With many packages, gaps remain when the packages are loaded next to each other. In
other cases, the stretch wrap is too weak or does not form a firm bond with the pallets or
other bases. Other unit loads cannot be stacked or have faulty strapping etc.
 Above and left:
Faulty unitization hinders the
correct packing of containers

Loads of this type make it impossible to pack the container tightly without additional work
and materials.
 Well packed unit loads are
level and can be stacked. The
ones shown here do not fall
into this category.

The process of packing a container is made more complicated if unit loads are delivered
which cannot be stacked. If unit loads are so heavy that they cannot be packed on the top
layer or cannot be fitted into this space, then the packages must be split and loaded
manually.
 Faulty unit load

The faults are: No stable bond between the stretch wrap and the pallet base, the
strapping cuts into the boxes, the surface is not level and thus does not allow anything to
be stacked on top of it.

The sides of
the unit load
are not flush.

Since the sides of the unit load are not flush, additional work is required in order to fill the
gaps.

C ontinued in Section 4.1.2.3

4.1.2.3 Unitization and palletization, Part 3

Continued from Section 4.1.2.2: The influence of faulty unitization and

palletization on load securing

According to the IMDG code, the unit loads should be compact, have as regular a form as
possible, and for the most part, vertical sides. The top of the unit load should be level. It
must be possible to stack the unit loads. They must be constructed and secured in such a
way that it is unlikely that the individual packages can become dam aged.

This unit load does not comply with the IMDG code

The requirements of the IMDG code have not been met. Nor have they been met by the
following unit loads:

The main faults are:

No firm bond to the

pallet, pallet is not
loaded flush, unit
cannot be stacked.
 Load unit that does not comply with the regulations

Load unit that does not comply with the regulations

This pallet carrying hazardous goods is not packe d flush. The bond to the pallet is not
secure enough and there is a large gap in the top layer.
 Irregularly shaped
unit loads hinder
packing work.

Unit loads that are as irregularly shaped as the one shown here make packing work more
difficult. It may be necessary to split this unit and to load the packages individually.

The projection of the load beyond the edges of the pallet

is a potential source of damage

One of the drums was already dented when the pallet was delivered by truck because the
load extends beyond the edge of the pallet. Part of the strapping had become loose and
the lid had shifted slightly.

It will only be possible to transport this load without damage by investing a considerable
amount of effort for load securing. Since this load comprises C lass 8 hazardous goods for
maritime transport, this marks a violation of the law.
 Loading gaps and faulty strapping increase the risk of damage.

The violation of the law is even more obvious here:

Insufficient strapping - no bond to the pallet

This cannot be termed a unit load. The drums must be loaded individually.

There are no bounds to some people's imagination when it comes to dreaming up

methods of forming unit loads. The few pictures below should serve to illustrate the
problem.
Damage is inevitable if loads are packed into a container in this state. Unless, of course, a
huge amount of work and materials are invested during handling to repack, improve the
packaging and to secure the load in place safely.
 Violation of the unitization regulations

In place of the outlay required to unpack the pallets, dispose of the wrapping film, and to
then pack the items properly and secure them in the container etc. it would possibly b e
worthwhile to procure a (used) box pallet or case and load the pails in that. It should also
be borne in mind that such a breach of regulations would incur a fine if the authorities
were to carry out an inspection.
 Above and right:
Faulty formation of unit loads -
Violation of loading guidelines

These plastic drums also are not firmly secured to their pallet by the wrap. The gaps
between the unit loads are an obvious violation of the regulations for the transportation of
hazardous goods.

Incomplete strapping

The strapping is missing on two sides and on the lower and middle sections of the load.
The existing strapping is badly placed. The edge protectors used are only partially
effective in this case and they are missing on the other two sides of the pallet. If the film
that has been used is a shrink cover then the packers forgot to put the pallet in the shrink
oven as well.
 Unit that is unable to withstand a significant load

The use of weak packaging hinders the efficient packing of containers. Additional
measures for damage prevention are required. Not only that, no edge protectors were
used when strapping the load.

Rectangular dunnage placed on edge is liable

to collapse.

This rectangular dunnage has been used incorrectly: Here a groove can been seen that
has been cut specifically to take steel straps or plastic strapping in order to ensure that
the strapping does not break or tear when it comes into contact with the fl oor. Used
incorrectly as we can see here, the dunnage is likely to collapse. It is also increases the
load on the surface it is standing on.
 Correct use of dunnage Incorrect use
of dunnage

Risk of damage is increased when dunnage is used on edge.

The example given below shows the effort that must be invested in order to counteract
the problems of faulty packaging and how unsatisfactory the ultimate solution is:
 Above and left:
Unit load that
does not comply
with the IMDG code

A number of mistakes have been made in packing this container: The palle t holding the
drums has not been loaded hard up against the right-hand container wall. A wooden pallet
has been placed vertically between the chipboard pallet and the drum pallet, but this does
not fill the gap completely.

In violation of the regulations, this loa d surface is not even.

The drainage cocks for the drums (1) have been placed on top of the drums and stretch
wrapped in place.

The only possible way of stacking other items on top of these drums would be to create a
level surface using dunnage placed lengthways and then widthwise.
 Risk of drainage cock being damaged by a packer standing on it

The gap behind the drum pallet must be filled in manually. Since the packer must ensure
that he does not stand on the drainage cock, he is unable to handle the heavy carton (5)
safely and it is distorted as a result of being accidentally placed on the edge of the drum.

The shrink-wrapped drainage cocks mak e packing work more difficult

The stowage gap above the drum pallet is only partially filled here. Behind package (3)
there is a gap because the drainage cock of the second drum is located here.
 Packing work is hindered by the shrink -wrapped drainage cocks

A gap has also been left for drainage cock (1) in front of package (3) and next to package
(4). If the drainage cocks had been shrink-wrapped at the bottom of the drums, a wooden
board could have been used as interlayer dunnage to allow the remainder of the stowage
space in the container to be filled out more efficiently. It is correct and sensible to ensure
that the hazardous goods drum pallet is packed in the vicinity of the container doors.

4.2 Packing and stowage methods

4.2.1 Preparatory work

4.2.1.1 Selecting and checking CTUs
4.2.1.2 Before packing
4.2.1.3 Stowage planning
4.2.2 Using segregating materials
4.2.3 Dunnage
4.2.4 Basic stowage methods
4.2.4.1 Part 1
4.2.4.2 Part 2
4.2.4.3 Part 3
4.2.5 Packing rules
4.2.5.1 Part 1
4.2.5.2 Part 2
4.2.5.3 Part 3
4.2.6 Useful hints
4.2.7 On completion of packing
4.2.8 Final work in the door area

Unlike the transportation of general cargo on conventional ships, containers represent

small, closed loading areas or loading platforms of a specific dimension. The first definition
applies primarily to box containers, whereas the second applies to platform containers.
The height and width dimensions may be exceeded to a certain degree.

"Stowage methods" is still a frequently used term in the industry. But the use of
containers and other cargo transport units (C TUs) demands further distinctions in the use
of terms, because not only do the C TUs themselves have to be loaded and unloaded but
also, the containers have to be positioned on land or on various means of transport. It is
therefore necessary, for regulations such as the C TU guidelines, to define terms to
distinguish between the various activities. The "Definitions" sections includes the
following:
Packing means the packing of packaged and/or unitized or overpacked cargoes
into CTUs.

Packing/stuffing a container Packing a semitrailer

Terminal staff often refer to "stuffing" the containers in this context. It is often also
carried out at "packing centers". It is essential that all dead space in containers is filled.
Unpacking means the removal of cargo from CTUs.

Unpacking/stripping an import container containing coffee bags

Terminal staff often refer to this activity as "stripping".

Stowage means the positioning of packages, IBCs, containers, swap-bodies, tank
containers, vehicles or other CTUs on board ships, in warehouses and sheds or in
other areas such as terminals.
 Stowage on board a
full
container ship

Container stowage on land

It should be obvious that every container load ne eds to be packed carefully. Where
necessary, packing should be supplemented by appropriate load securing measures:

Unfortunately, not
everybody thinks that
the need for careful
packing is obvious.

Here we see household effects which were not stowed properly.

 It is often difficult to pack
carefully.

Here we can see commercial goods. Packages with different dimensions often present the
packing staff with problems which are difficult to resolve. If the dimensions of the
packages do not meet the requirements of modularity, any gaps which remain must be
filled in rigorously.

Inspecting an
outgoing container

On arrival in port, random checks are occasionally performed to ensure that a load has
been packed and secured correctly. However, these checks are mainly limited to a small
number of containers carrying dangerous goods. They are arranged or performed by the
harbor police or by the shipping company. It is unusual or even impossible for a load to be
checked or corrected during a sea voyage. Loading and securing must therefore always be
performed correctly. Stowage and securing errors made prior to acceptance of the
container or which arise during the voyage can thus have more serious consequences than
errors with a non-containerized load. Time is also a significant factor: On a long sea
voyage, even minor initial deficiencies can develop into serious losses. The proportion of
containers considered inadequate is alarmingly high. Around 70%!

There are a number of national and international regulations relating to shipping and
transport which provide important guidelines on how to handle and package goods, as
well as how to pack and secure them. These legal stipulations are supplemented by a
number of civil-law regulations and contracts, in particular special conditions for individual
means of transport. Further information can be found in the recommendations of special
organizations or various companies. Loads can only be transported safely around the
globe by observing some fundamental issues. The only way to prevent damage from
arising is by packing and unpacking in a professional manner and by using appropriate
packing and securing methods. All preparation and final work must be fully integrated in
operational organization procedures. The remaining units in this section of the C ontainer
Handbook address and explain a number of important issues.
4.2.1.1 Selecting and checking CTUs

From an economic perspective, the most suitable type of c argo transport unit is the one
which best harmonizes the volume-to-payload ratio of the container with the stowage
factor of the cargo. This provides the best utilization of the space and weight constraints.
Other aspects that must be considered when selecting a C T U include: Type of product,
weight, center of gravity, substructure and load-bearing surfaces, type of packaging,
permissible loading capacity and/or stackability, load securing options, and other similar
aspects. The internal dimensions, door dimensions a nd other similar information can be
obtained from the owners of the C TUs or the relevant leasing companies or can be taken
from their prospectuses beforehand.

In all cases, the C TU should be inspected. Not only for reasons of cargo care, but also for
reasons of liability and accident prevention. "EIR"s are usually used at the handover
points. This abbreviation stands for Equipment Interchange Receipt. They are receipts for
the handover of containers, trailers, chassis and similar cargo transport units and items of
equipment. On the basis of a visual inspection, the EIR lists, or marks in the diagrams
printed on the form, all defects found on a C TU, for instance. If an inspection reveals, for
instance, that a container exhibits damage which has not previous ly been documented,
the costs for restoring or repairing it must be borne by the person who was previously
responsible for the container. Thorough inspection and true and accurate documentation
must therefore be in the interests of all parties involved.

The C TU guidelines require a thorough inspection of the cargo transport units before they
are packed. A number of issues are listed in the guidelines as a guide for visual inspection.
For exterior inspection, the C TU guidelines prescribe the following:
2.1.1 The structural strength of a container depends to a great extent on the
integrity of its main framework comprising the corner posts, c orner fittings, main
longitudinal and the top and bottom end transverse members which form the end
frame. If there is evidence that the container is weakened, it should not be used.

Fractures on a container

2.1.2 The walls, the floor and roof of a CTU should be in good condition, and not
significantly distorted.

These containers may not be packed.

 Slightly deformed
container
side walls

This container can still be used. However, the distortion must be recorded in the EIR, the
Equipment Interchange Receipt.

Doors in a technically sound state

2.1.3 The doors of a CTU should work properly and be capable of being securely
locked and sealed in the closed position, and properly secured in the open
position. Door gaskets and weather strips should be in good condition.
If containers are placed on an uneven surface, they become distorted. It is then only
possible to open and close the doors with force. Fork -lift trucks are frequently misused in
this way. "Dirty tricks" like this must be avoided. Unevenness of the gr ound or underlying
surface must be leveled out before setting down the containers - possibly by using simple
aids such as hardwood strips.

Top:
Plate as per UIC leaflet
on a swap-body
 Left:
CSC plate

2.1.4 A container on international voyages should be affixed with a current

International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) Safety Approval Plate. A
swap-body may be required to have a yellow code plate, fixed at its side wall (for
details see UIC leaflet 596), which proves that it has been codified in conformity
with the safety rules of European railways. Such swap-bodies need not be affixed
with a CSC plate, but many of them will have one in addition to the yellow code
plate.

Traces of removed placards

2.1.5 Irrelevant labels, placards, marks or signs should be removed or masked.

Placards which have not been completely removed can lead to

mistakes! Are they still valid after all?

Lashing point on a semi-trailer

2.1.6 A vehicle should be provided with lashing points for securing it aboard ships
(refer to ISO 9367-1: "Lashing and securing arrangements on road vehicles for
sea transportation on Ro/Ro ships - General requirements - Part 1: Commercial
 vehicles and combinations of vehicles, semi-trailers excluded" and to ISO 9367-2:
Lashing and securing arrangements on road vehicles for sea transportation on
Ro/Ro ships - General requirements - Part 2: Semi-trailers".)

Canvas covers

2.1.7 When canvas covers are used, they should be checked as being in
satisfactory condition and capable of being secured. Loops or eyes in such canvas
which take the fastening ropes, as well as the ropes themselves, must be in good
condition.

Loading a
swap-body

2.1.8 When loading swap-bodies, it should be borne in mind that in most cases,
the bottom and floor of swap-bodies are the main areas of their structural
strength.
C hecking vehicles includes checking the loading are a, the side walls, the locking
equipment, the support legs, the load securing devices, the supports used to guide the
cover, the slats used to guide the cover, the canvas covers and the section where canvas
cover is closed.

When performing an interior inspection, the C TU guidelines stipulate the following:

Scrape marks on the roof of an O.T. Has this already rusted through?

2.2.1 A CTU should be weatherproof unless it is so constructed that this is

obviously not feasible. Previous patches or repairs should be carefully checked for
possible leakage. Potential points of leakage may be detected by observing if any
 light enters a closed unit. In carrying out this check, care should be taken to
ensure that no person becomes locked inside a unit.
There was one case in which employees locked a colleague inside a container during a
check before a work break as a practical joke. During the break, the container was then
removed. The employee, who suffered from claustrophobia, then had a heart attack.
Practical jokes of this kind must be severely sanctioned by the company.

Crack in a container Hole in a plywood container

2.2.2 A CTU should be free from major damage, with no broken flooring or
protrusions such as nails, bolts, special fittings, etc. which could cause injury to
persons or damage to the cargo.

Lashing eye on a flatrack

2.2.3 Cargo tie-down cleats or rings, where provided, should be in good condition
and well anchored. If heavy items of cargo are to be secured in a CTU, the
forwarder or shipping agent should be contacted for information about the cleat
strength and appropriate action taken.

Notice regarding the

fitness for loading of a
container

2.2.4 A CTU should be clean, dry and free of residue and persistent odors from
previous cargo.
This point in the C TU guidelines relates to the fitness for loading of cargo transport units.
For further information on this subject, see the sec tion on "Preparatory work".
2.2.5 A folding CTU with movable or removable main components should be
correctly assembled. Care should be taken to ensure that removable parts not in
use are packed and secured inside the unit.
This is particularly important for flatracks. Notices describing how to set up and fold these
C TUs safely are generally attached to these containers. For further information, see the
section "Other markings".

4.2.1.2 Before packing

Section 3.1 of the C TU guidelines deals with actions required before packing. The following
are some of the points defined in the guidelines:
3.1.1 Before packing a CTU, careful consideration should be given as to how the
unit will be presented during the packing operation. The same applies for
unpacking. The CTU may be presented for packing or unpacking as follows:

- loaded on a semi-trailer chassis together with a truck;

- loaded on a semi-trailer chassis, but without a truck;
- loaded on a rigid truck or chassis;
- standing on the ground;
- standing on its supporting legs (in case of class C swap-bodies);
- loaded on a rail-car;
- loaded on an inland barge; or
- loaded on a seagoing vessel.
Any of these configurations is possible. The actual packing or unpacking situation
often depends on site and facility considerations. However, whenever the CTU is
presented on a chassis or on supporting legs, special care should be taken in
planning the packing or unpacking operation.
3.1.2 A CTU to be packed should rest on level and firm ground or on a trailer or a
rail-car. If a CTU is on a trailer, care should be taken to ensure the trailer cannot
tip while the container is being packed, especially if a lift truck is being used. If
necessary, the trailer should be propped. Brakes should be securely applied and
the wheels chocked.
The C TU guidelines highlight particular hazards with illustrations and relevant comments.

40' high cube container loaded on a chassis

The support legs of the chassis are designed in such a way that they can carry the total
permissible weight of the load or their own maximum payload. However, the support legs
are unable to bear additional forces which would arise e.g. by driving into a container of
this kind with a fork-lift truck.
 Risk of accident: Inadequate support

The C TU guidelines also provide a warning regarding inadequate support of semi-trailers.

Dangerously inadequate support of a chassis

There is a very great risk of the pallet collapsing at the slightest horizontal movement of
the semi-trailer. During loading and unloading, the position of the loading area in relation
to the horizontal plane changes, because the vehicle rides up and down on the
suspension.

Correctly
supported chassis
 Correctly supported chassis - detail

Thanks to the wheels and the handles, the support can be moved without a vast amount
of effort. The wheels are effectively deactivated when the support is loaded against the
spring and reactivated when the load is relieved.

Adjustable-height
support -
detail view

Approved supports are inspected and bear a n appropriate approval plate with the
necessary data on their permissible loading capacity.

This is a genuine picture

For reasons already given, the height of the chassis changes with the container during
handling. The supports must therefore be regularly checked and adjusted. Any
continuation of work under these conditions would represent a breach of regulations.

A swap-body standing on its support legs

3.1.3 When a swap-body standing on its supporting legs is packed, particular care
should be taken to ensure that the swap-body does not tip when a lift truck is
used for packing. It should be checked that the supporting legs of the swa p-body
rest firmly on the ground and cannot shift, slump or move when forces are
exerted on the swap-body during packing.
A swap-body can be shored provisionally by stacking hardwood pallets with a sufficient
loading capacity horizontally on top of each other or by using cross-beams made of
squared lumber of a sufficiently large cross-section. These aids would also have to be
checked regularly and their height adjusted. As this is only possible in practice if work is
interrupted, such provisional solutions are not recommended. As a precautionary
measure, swap-bodies should be provided with additional support if fork -lift trucks are to
be driven into them. The C TU guidelines only advise that fork -lift trucks do not drive onto
the swap-bodies too quickly. The picture below illustrates the danger of the legs bending.
It is better to never drive onto a swap-body with fork-lift trucks - or even to move loads
horizontally in other ways with heavy equipment, if the containers are only standing on
their legs - but unfortunately this is common practice.
 Potentially lethal
negligence

Before driving onto a swap-body, it should always be checked that the supports are sound
and are securely fastened. Here, not only is one "leg" deformed, but the diagonal support
is even fastened with "ropes"!

The relevant German trade association also demands:

The employer may only use ground conveyors for driving onto containers and
vehicles if no dangerous concentrations of health-threatening exhaust gas
substances can be produced in the inhaled air.
Devices for reducing the quantity of dangerous substances in exhaust gas include, for
instance, exhaust purification systems with catalytic converters. For guidelines on the use
of vehicles driven by Diesel engines, see the German Technische Regeln für Gefahrstoffe
TRGS 554 "Dieselmotoremissionen" (Technical Regulations for Hazardous Substances
"Diesel engine emissions").

For information on securing the vehicle to be loaded or unloaded against unintentional

movement, see Section 37 Para 2 of the German Accident Prevention Guidelines (UVV) for
vehicles.

4.2.1.3 Stowage planning

Working and general stowage plans are prepared and used in normal maritime transport.
The same practice should be adopted when packing other cargo transport units.

The C TU guidelines even make this an obligation: Section 3.1 of the C TU guidelines deals
with actions required before packing. The following are some of the points defined in the
guidelines:
3.1.4 Packing should be planned before it is started. This should make it
possible to segregate incompatible cargoes and produce either a tight or
secured stow, in which the compatibility of all items of cargo and the
nature, i.e. type and strength, of any packages or packaging involved are
taken into account. The possibility of cross-contamination by odor or
 dust, as well as physical or chemical compatibility, should be considered.
This point gives some fundamental guidelines as to basic stowage methods.
C orresponding explanations and illustrations are provided in section 4.2.4 in this C ontainer
Handbook.

Not packed tightly and securely! Packed tightly and securely

3.1.5 The planned cargo should not weigh more than the maximum payload of
the CTU. In the case of containers, this ensures that the permitted
maximum gross weight of the container (which includes the payload)
marked on the CSC Safety Approval Plate will never be exceeded (see
also Annex 3). For CTUs not marked with their maximum permissible
gross weight, tare weight or any other features, any of these values
should be known before packing starts. According to CEN standards, a
swap-body of class C (7.15 m to 7.82 m) will have a maximum gross
mass of 16,000 kg and a swap-body of class A (12.0 m to 13.6 m) will
have a gross mass of up to 32,000 kg.

Information on a 20' and a 40' conta iner

Annex 3, which is referred to under this point, deals with the consequences of overloading
C TUs. Precise planning of packing is indispensable. Planning becomes even more
important when the amount of the load to be packed is sufficiently large, in that it ensures
that the containers are utilized to their maximum in terms of space and weight. This is the
only way to minimize transport costs. A detailed packing plan is indispensable for this.

The volume-to-payload ratio of the containers can be determined from their volume and
payload information, which can be obtained beforehand from prospectuses or documents
provided by the container owners. The volume-to-payload ratios for the containers shown
are calculated as follows:
20' container = 33.5 m³ / 21.75 t = 1.54 m³/t

40' container = 67.7 m³ / 26.74 t = 2.53 m³/t

This means that for every metric ton of payload on the 20' container, 1.54 m³ of packing
space is available, and on the 40' container there is 2.53 m³ available per metric ton of
cargo mass. The volume-to-payload ratio of a transport container therefore answers the
question "How many cubic meters of stowage volume are available per metric ton of
payload?"

The dimensions and masses of the items to be loaded can be used to determine the
stowage factor of the load. Assuming that a consignment of 200 metric tons is to be
loaded: The volume of the items is calculated to be 440 m³. The net stowage factor of the
cargo is calculated by dividing the cargo volume by the cargo mass. Net stowage factor of
the cargo = 440 m³ / 200 t = 2.2 m³/t. This means that, if the load is packed with no
wasted space, a volume of 2.2 m³ would be required for every metric ton of cargo. Since
most loads are not 100% suitable for modular packing, certain losses will result from
stowage or packing. Experienced practitioners can estimate these losses well or know
from their own records what values are to be take n for calculation purposes. This
information can also be obtained from relevant specialist literature. For our example, let
us assume stowage loss of 10 %. The gross stowage factor will then not be 2.2 m³/t but
in fact 2.42 m³/t. Experts also say: "C argo is stowed by a factor of 2.42". A comparison
with the volume-to-payload ratios of the containers immediately reveals that economical
transport can only be expected with the 40' containers.

If a consignment of 300 m³ volume and 230 t mass were waiting for loading and it were
known that 15% stowage loss is to be expected, the net stowage factor of the cargo
would be 300 m³/ 230 t = 1.30 m³/t and the gross stowage factor 1.5 m³/t. In this case,
experts would say: "C argo is stowed by one and a half times" or: "C argo is stowed by a
factor of 1.5". By comparing the numeric values, it can immediately be seen that only 20'
containers can be considered for economical transportation.

Other aspects must of course still be considered, such as factors relevant to a particular
transport route or to the destination countries, etc. These points are dealt with in the
following and other sections of this Handbook. Notes can also be found in the C TU
guidelines:
3.1.6 Notwithstanding the foregoing, any height or weight limitation along the
projected route that may be dictated by regulations or other
circumstances (such as lifting gear, handling equipment, clearances an d
surface conditions) should be complied with. Such weight limits may be
considerably less than the permitted gross weight already referred to.

3.1.7 Stowage planning should take account of the fact that CTUs are generally
designed and handled assuming the cargo to be evenly distributed over
the entire floor area. Where substantial deviations from uniform packing
occur, special advice for preferred packing should be sought.
This applies indirectly to the line load of containers. This is determined by dividing the
payload of the containers by a calculation length. For 20' containers, this calculation
length is 2 m less than the container length, for 40' containers 3 m less. It can also be
expressed as follows: In order to obtain the calculation length, 1 m is subtra cted from
each end for 20' containers and 1.5 m from each end for 40' containers.

Determining the calculation length

for the line load for 20' containers

Determining the calculation length for

the line load for 40' containers

The payload, maximum gross weight (MGW), net, capacity weight (C AP WT) or whatever
is specified on the container as the permissible payload, is divided by the relevant
calculation length. The result is the permissible line load.

divided by

equals

for the 20' container for the 40' container

a permissible line load of:

It must be noted that the payload should actually be given in Newtons and the line load in
Newtons per meter or daN/m or kN/m, if the line load is assumed to be a force. If the line
load is regarded as a "line mass", the units kilogram per meter or metric tons per meter
would be completely correct.

For older 20' containers with a payload of around 18,000 kg, the permissible line load is
this around 4.5 t/m, while for older 40' containers with an average payload of 27,000 kg it
is -3.0 t/m. On more modern containers, the values are considerably higher: On some 20’
containers, as much as 6.75 t/m. If necessary, the current values must be determined for
every loading operation.
3.1.8 When a heavy, indivisible load is to be shipped in a CTU, due regard
should be given to the localized weight-bearing capability of the unit. If
necessary, the weight should be spread over a larger area than the actual
bearing surface of the load, for example by use of properly secured
baulks of timber. In such a case the method of securing the load should
be planned before packing is started and any necessary preparations
should be made.
For instance, a machine part weighing 20 t and 3 m long could not simply be loaded into
the 20' container described above without additional measures being taken. There would
be a danger of it damaging the container floor.

Container floor
seriously deformed
due to overloading

The machine part used as an example (20 t weight, 3 m long), exerts a load of 6.666
metric tons per running meter. This is calculated by dividing 20 t by 3 m. Since forces are
involved, a correct calculation would have meant dividing the normal force of 19,620 N by
the length of 3 m. This would have produced the correct values of 65,400 N/running
meter, 6,540 daN/running meter or 65.4 kN/running meter. C ompariso n with the
permissible line load of the container of 5,437.5 kg/m (5,334.2 daN/m or 53.342 kN/m)
immediately reveals that loading cannot be carried out unless additional measures are
taken.

Bottom cross members of a container deformed due to

overloading

In this example, this means that the weight of the case has to be distributed over a larger
number of bottom cross members. This can be achieved by laying squared lumber
longitudinally across them. The required length of the squared lumber is determined by
dividing the weight of the case (or more correctly the "normal force") by the permissible
line load of the container. In the example, this would be 20,000 kg divided by 5,437.5
kg/m = 3.68 m ( 19,620 daN / 5,334.1875 daN/m = 3.68 m).

Non-permissible loading of 20 t machine box: Line load

too great

Permissible loading with appropriate line load

An older model of container would not have been permitted to be used for transport, due
to its low permissible payload of 18,000 kg. A more modern model of container with a
payload of 24,000 kg has a line load of 6 t/m. The box could be loaded into a container of
this kind without requiring any further measures. If the box is to be loaded with very very
light but bulky items in the 40' container in the example, the following calculation would
need to be made: 20,000 kg / 2,971.1 kg/m = 6.73 m. In the 40' container described, the
box would have to be placed on squared lumber which was at least 6.73 m long. As far as
practical considerations are concerned, it should be noted that where possible squared
lumber with a large vertical edge length should be used, e.g. 8 cm x 16 cm or 10 cm x 20
cm etc. Half-sizes of this kind are generally less expensive. However, since there is a
danger of them collapsing, they must be braced firmly laterally to prevent tilting.
Preferably, this should result in a wooden lattice with a large height.

3.1.9 If the planned cargo of an "open topped" or "open sided" CTU will project
beyond the overall dimensions of the unit, special arrangements should
be made. It should be borne in mind that road traffic regulations may not
allow such overhangs. Furthermore, CTUs are often loaded door -to-door
and side by side, thus not permitting any overhang.

Photographic
representation: Flatrack
with overhang on both
sides in the cellguides of
a ship

It can clearly be seen from this photographic representation that three slot rates must be
paid for transport, since the two adjacent slots on the ship must be kept free.

Photographic
representation: Flatrack
with overhang on one
side in the cellguides of
a ship

If the center of gravity of the flatrack makes it technica lly possible to load it with an
overhang on one side and it is also possible to load it in this state on the ship - after
agreeing this with the shipping company - , only two slot rates will have to be paid.
 Marking for overwidth
loads for road transport

Overwidth road vehicles must be marked with red and white, diagonally striped plates.

On board the ship, overheight flatracks can

only be stowed as the uppermost container
either in the hold or on deck. Ships with flaps
can segregate individual stowage areas from
others and could also store the flatrack in
another position. As one slot must be kept
free above the flatrack, two slot rates must
also always be paid.

Overheight flatrack

3.1.10 The center of gravity of the packed cargo should be at or near the
longitudinal center-line of the CTU and below half the height of the
cargo space of the unit. (see also 3.2.5 and other relevant sections.)

Prescribed center of gravity

for loaded containers

3.2.5 The weight of the cargo should be evenly distributed over the floor of a
container. Where cargo items of a varying weight are to be packed into a
container or where a container will not be full (either because of
 insufficient cargo or because the maximum weight allowed will be
reached before the container is full), the stow should be so arranged and
secured that the approximate center of gravity of the cargo is close to the
mid-length of the container. If it is not, then special handling of the
container may be necessary. In no case should more than 60 % of the
load be concentrated in less than half of the length of a container
measured from one end. For vehicles, special attention should be paid to
axle loads.

Ideal load distribution in a container with a payload of

18,000 kg

Maximum permissible weight shift for containers

If necessary, the real center of gravity of the container must be determined by cal culating
its moment.
3.1.11 When planning the packing of a CTU, consideration should be given to
potential problems which may be created for those who unpack it, e.g.
cargo falling when doors are opened.
 Danger to persons due to
badly packed containers

This cartoon figure appear amusing, but in the real world, dreadful incidents have
occurred. To cite only one accident here: C otton bales weighing around 220 kg falling out
onto a worker injured him so severely that he suffered serious fractures to his spi ne and
hip in addition to internal injuries to vital organs. The young man only survived thanks to
immediate medical attention and a number of operations. For the rest of his life, he is now
confined to a wheelchair. And all this simply because the cotton bales in the container
were badly packed and not secured.
3.1.12 Before a CTU is packed, it should be ensured that the personnel
responsible for the packing are fully informed about all the risks and
dangers involved. As a minimum requirement some sketches showing
the basic rules of CTU packing should be available. The present
Guidelines should also be readily available. If necessary, the shipper and
the packing personnel should consult each other regarding any special
feature of the cargo to be packed into the units. In particular,
information on possible dangerous cargoes should be considered very
carefully. Consideration should also be given to the provision of
appropriate training for personnel involved in packing CTUs.
Data sheets with a plan view and/or side view of different containers, in which the items
to be packed are drawn in to scale, should be provided for planning packing.

Blank form for a packing plan

 Blank form for a packing plan with dm² grid

Blank form for a packing plan with dm² or cm² grid

The actual design of the packing plans is of little significance. What is crucial is that they
contain all the most important information, e.g. the interior dimensions of the container,
and that the stowage plan can also provide important evidence in the event of any
subsequent (legal) disputes.

When planning packing and illustrating it in the forms, the following points must be
considered: How are an even load along the floor and an acceptable center of gravity to
be achieved? What goods will have to be brought in using a fork -lift truck? Will any other
ground conveyors need to be used? Is manual handling necessary - or even desired? Do
all items have a sufficient loading capacity? C an they be stacked? Will items have to be
packed on top? C an the necessary basic stowage rules be met for all items? Are
dangerous cargoes also to be loaded? Has unloading also been considered? And so on.

It should be checked whether the stowage factor of the cargo has previously been
determined using the weights and dimensions of the cargo and compared with the
volume-to-payload ratio of the container. This is always good practice; moreover, this
procedure gives all less experienced staff an insight into what is feasible. It goes without
saying that the maximum payload of the container must not be exceeded.
3.1.13 When packing a CTU, the shipper and persons responsible for packing
should bear in mind that any failure to pack and secure the cargo
correctly may result in additional costs that they will have to bear . If, for
example in railway transport, a unit is found not to be properly packed
and secured, the rail-car may be marshalled out of the train into a
siding and the transport can only be continued once the cargo has been
properly secured. The shipper may have to pay for this work, especially
for the repacking and resecuring operation, as well as for the additional
time during which the rail-car has been used. In addition, he may be
held responsible for any delay of the transport operation.

3.1.14 Not all handling equipment is suitable for container packing. Lift trucks
used for container packing and unpacking should have a short lifting
 mast and a low driver's overhead guard. If the lift truck operates inside
the container, equipment with electric power supply should be used.
Container floors are built to withstand a maximum wheel pressure
corresponding to an axle load of a lift truck of 5,480 kg or 2,730 kg per
wheel. Such an axle load is usually found on lift trucks with a lifting
capacity of 2.5 t.
The short lifting mast and low driver's overhead guard alone do not say anything about
the usefulness of the fork-lift truck. If these values are less than the height of the door,
the fork-lift truck container can de driven into the container, but it is not a utomatically
clear whether load can be stacked. This is where free lift is crucial. The higher the forks
can be lifted without changing the total height, the more suited the fork -lift truck is for
stacking and working in the container.

More information is provided on axle loads and working with fork -lift trucks in other
sections of this Handbook.

Fork-lift truck with a large free lift for loading box containers

3.1.15 If the CTU floor is at a different height level than the loading ramp, a bridging
unit may need to be used. This may result in sharp bends between the loading
ramp and the bridging unit as well as between the bridging unit and the CTU
floor. In such cases the lift truck used should have sufficient ground clearance to
ensure that the chassis does not touch the ramp when passing these bends.

Sufficient ground clearance for a fork -lift truck

4.2.2 Using segregating materials

The term "segregation" is used to describe the visible segregation of packages or batches
of cargo.

It can be useful to segregate loads in a transport container which are of the same type
type but destined for different recipients if the goods could otherwise be confused or
subsequent sorting work might be required. Sorting involves considerable time outlay
which can lead to additional costs. Segregating goods in good time is therefore critical for
cost-effective delivery of goods to their final destination or to interim destinations.

It is thus of great economic significance for conventional maritime transport and for
storage. Segregation plays a less important role in the transport of cargo with containers
and other cargo transport units.

Segregation is unnecessary if there is no danger of goods being confused because they

have different package dimensions, a different shape or color or other different
characteristics.

Transport law stipulations require that the consignor, carrier or shipper of a cargo provide
the goods for delivery in a suitable condition, meaning that the goods must be both
complete and in an undamaged condition. Such legislation may lead to an obligation to
segregate the goods.

In principle, two different methods are used for segregation:

 spatial segregation and

 optical segregation using appropriate materials.

Spatial segregation of batches of cargo or individual packages is relatively easy to carry

out on shore. On open spaces, and in sheds or warehouses, the sto rage spaces are
indicated by appropriate location specifications, chalk marking or similar markings. For
domestic transport, spatial segregation is achieved by delivering the different batches in
separate vehicles or freight cars or by packing them separately in such vehicles or cars.
Virtually the same principle applies for container cargoes.

The following requirements must be met when segregating cargo batches of the same
kind or with the same appearance using segregation materials:

 The materials used must not cause any damage to the goods or their packaging,
either by depreciation of their sales value or as a result of loss or shrinkage;
 Marking of the goods must not be rendered illegible by segregation;
 Segregation must be clearly recognizable.

With the exception of talcum, all materials described in the section "Dunnage" (see section
4.2.3) are used as segregation materials, e.g. wooden boards, wooden panels and walking
boards, squared lumber, planks, boards and wooden dunnage, sailcloth, canvas and
tarpaulins, reed, rattan or bamboo mats, films, cardboard and paper etc. The properties of
these materials and their benefits and disadvantages are also described in the section
"Dunnage" and will therefore not be discussed further here.

Materials which are only used for segregation are:

 Thin synthetic plastic nets or cargo nets

 Ropes, cloth strips or jute fabric strips
 Paints, marking pens, etc.

Thin synthetic plastic nets are relatively inexpensive. Segregation with these nets is
easily recognized and does not cause any loss of stowage space. In addition, they are
easy to transport and store, clean and reuse. Another benefit is that they do not hinder
any necessary ventilation measures. A disadvantage is that they pose a hazard if anyone
becomes entangled in them. To a certain extent, they are a trip hazard. They cannot be
used to segregate bulk cargo.

Much the same applies to cargo nets as to thin nets. They are also expensive, more
bulky and very difficult to free from odor infection. Under certain circumstances, they can
cause pressure marks on the cargo.

Ropes are suitable for segregating long cargo items, such as structural welded steel
mesh, roundwood and cut lumber, TOR steel etc., provided there is no risk of pressure
marks. Fiber ropes are preferable to wire ropes, since the latter can cause rust damage.
Impregnated ropes could cause a cargo to be infected by odors.
Strips made of various materials or adhesive strips are preferable to ropes, as they
do not cause pressure marks and lead to smaller cavities and spaces. They are also
generally cheaper. C loth strips or jute fabric strips should never be used for fatty or ganic
cargoes, as they could encourage or cause the cargo to ignite spontaneously.

Marking pens and paints can be used to indicate packages which belong together or the
same batches, by means of clear signatures, color codes or stripes. They are only sui table
for segregating goods if they do not restrict the further processing and actual marking of
these, and if value of the goods does not depreciate as a result of any segregation
indications. For instance, descaled metal sheets must not be marked with wa x crayon, as
otherwise it will subsequently be impossible to coat them without additional work. In the
case of soft or absorbent woods, partial or total damage could be caused by using e.g.
water-based paints.

Sufficiently heavy-duty and dense materials should be used to segregate bulk goods.
Otherwise, parts of the various batches could become mixed if the segregation materials
were to tear or develop leaks. C overs made of sailcloth, tarpaulin, canvas or strong plastic
sheeting are suitable. The materials used to segregate grains and foodstuffs must be non-
toxic and neutral in odor.

4.2.3 Dunnage

Dunnage materials or, more simply, dunnage, is the name used for all materials which are
not firmly attached to the cargo transport unit, the cargo or its packaging, and are used to
protect the load. This includes: Wooden dunnage, beams, planks, boards, wedges,
plywood and hardboards, walking boards, mats, paper, sailcloth, canvas and tarpaulins;
plastic and metal sheets, spray covers; cardboard and paperboard, packing paper, oiled
paper and fabric paper, talcum powder etc.

Whether a material is to be classed as dunnage, segregation or load securing material

does not depend on the material itself but on its application.

The main functions of dunnage are:

 Protection against sweat and condensation water

 Protection against moisture and liquids
 Protection against soiling and contamination
 Protection against mechanical damage

Sweat water can occur as container sweat or cargo sweat. It is primarily the roof
surfaces that are susceptible to container sweat with the sides and the floor of the
container only being a secondary source of problems. Top dunnage and side dunnage can
absorb sweat dripping from the container roof until they reach saturation point. This can
sometimes significantly delay, or even completely prevent, moisture damage. Dunnage
cannot protect against cargo sweat, although this is rarer when goods are transported in
containers.

To ensure protection against moisture and liquids , cargoes which are at risk and
sensitive parts of the means of transport must be shielded. A check must be made for any
possible leakage in the means of transport or other cargo items. Potential causes of this
could be leaky walls, doors and roofs on the cargo transport units, or damaged drums,
cans and other similar packaging receptacles for "wet cargoes". The effects of wet or very
moist load securing materials must also be taken into account.

Protection against soiling and contamination must be ensured. This can be caused by
the presence of contaminating goods or contaminated components on the cargo transport
units. C ontaminating goods must also be enclosed by dunnage to prevent them from
damaging other goods or parts of the means of transport.

Preventive measures are always needed to protect against mechanical damage , if

contact with components on the cargo transport unit itself or other loads or load items
could cause mechanical damage. For instance, it can be necessary to adequately protect
the load against contact with corrugations, corner posts, doors, lashing points, stanchions,
edges and corners of other cargo items, load securing materials, protruding nails, screws
etc. Appropriate dunnage must also be used to reduce the effects of harmful pressure
forces.

The nature of the materials used must ensure that the packages or the cargo transport
unit are adequately protected. The materials themselves must not be wet, moist, odor -
tainted or contaminated. The quality of the material must determined for each individual
case by assessing the value and susceptibility to damage of the load, the means of
transport, the intended protection and other similar factors. The special properties of the
particular type of dunnage used must be taken into account.

Wooden dunnage made of squared lumber, planks, boards, slats and battens, are very
suitable for distributing pressure, bridging or lining cavities and gaps, creating air
channels and enhancing friction. If wooden dunnage is laid too tightly, it impedes air
circulation (this is a particular consideration for ventilated containers), causes a significant
loss of stowage space and thus increases costs. Large spaces promote air circulation but
can cause mechanical damage to the packages if the load-bearing area is too small. Wood
easily absorbs moisture and releases it into the environment at a low vapor pressure. If it
has a strong intrinsic odor or has taken up a foreign odor, it must not be used with odor-
sensitive loads. Since wood can be infested by pests, only wood which has been
impregnated against insects or fumigated may be used on certain trade routes. To
distinguish such treated wood from normal wood, it must be appropriately stained or
marked in some other way.

Wooden boards, wooden panels, walking boards, chipboard and hardboards are very
suitable for distributing pressure and have a high loading capacity provided they are
sufficiently thick. Since water-repellent, pest-proof or fire-retarding wood is odor-tainted
as a result of such treatment or could have other harmful effects, it must virtually never
be used with foodstuffs or similar items.

Mats made of rattan, bamboo, reed etc. only protect against surface dirt, not against
dust. They absorb moisture and under certain circumstances release it back into the
atmosphere. This can protect adjacent loads. Mats are easy to put in place and roll back
up again, and do not cause any significant loss of stowage space. Provided a container is
actively ventilated, mats can release back into the atmosphere any sweat or drops of
water they have absorbed.

Canvas has a water-repellent impregnation and therefore not suitable for odor -sensitive
goods. They are dust-tight. They impede air circulation.

Tarpaulins are watertight, dust-tight and airtight and very expensive. They must be
handled with care if a long life is to be expected. It is very rare that tarpaulins will not be
needed as a cover to protect against moisture and similar influences.

Jute coverings protect against surface dirt but not dust. They are breathable and allow a
minimal amount of ventilation. They pass on absorbed moisture to the wrapped or
surrounding cargo items. When used with fatty organic goods, jute coverings can
spontaneously ignite or promote the spontaneous combustion of other goods.

Sailcloth has similar properties to canvas.

Plastic sheeting is available in a number of different thicknesses. It is neutral in odor,

inexpensive and generally acid-proof and alkali-proof. It is watertight, dust-tight and
airtight but only impervious to water vapor to a limited degree. It has a low loading
capacity if it is not sufficiently thick. C omposite sheeting is often very heavy -duty but
comparatively expensive.

Paper, e.g. normal kraft paper, is inexpensive and dust-tight, but very sensitive to
moisture. Fabric paper has a higher strength. Oiled paper is watertight. Tissue paper is
acid-free.

Dispersible material such as talcum powder and similar materials can be used to
prevent cargoes from caking together.

Depending on their use and application, a distinction is made between:

  Floor dunnage
 Interlayer dunnage
 Top dunnage
 Side dunnage

Floor dunnage is used for the following tasks:

 Dissipating and localizing sweat and moisture

 Protecting the load from moisture and dampness on moist or wet stowage
surfaces or stowage spaces
 Dissipating or restraining moisture leaking out of the load, to protect other
packages or the cargo transport unit
 Protecting the load from soiling, contamination or mechanical damage from the
stowage surface or stowage spaces
 Protecting the cargo transport unit against negative influences from the goods

There are no generally binding regulations for laying dunnage. The condition, properties
and intended protective action of the available materials and similar considerations must
be taken into account. In many cases, only compromises can be considered, since some
fundamental requirements can contradict each other; especially if materials are to assume
a number of protective functions simultaneously.

The following guidelines are intended to help make practical decisions. Since not all
variants can be shown, the action and decisions taken will need to reflect the given
circumstances. How to lay dunnage most appropriately and what materials are to be used
depends on the stowage space, the structural design of the cargo tran sport unit and the
restrictions anticipated during transport. These include the climatic zones through which
the cargo will travel, changes in weather, storage duration and voyage duration,
anticipated mechanical, climatic and biotic shipping stresses etc.

Wooden dunnage is differentiated according to the quantity and thickness of the wood
used and the method used to lay it:

 Simple wooden dunnage comprises boards laid out side by side.

 Double dunnage or criss-cross dunnage comprises boards laid at right angles to or
obliquely over each other.
 Raised dunnage can comprise planks or squared lumber laid in single layers or a
combination of boards, planks or beams laid at right angles to or obliquely over
each other. Another good option is to use pallets as stowage surfaces.

The orientation of and space between the wood used depend on the intended protective
effect and the nature of the means of transport or the stowage space:

If the main aim is to dissipate moisture or damp, the wood at the bottom must be laid in
such a way that water and other fluids are conducted along the quickest route outside or
to any available discharge outlets and do not produce any accumulation of damp. It is not
practicable to dissipate liquid to the outside in standard containers which have not been
structurally modified, since these containers are spray -tight and thus generally prevent
water from flowing out freely. If actively or passively ventilated containers can be used,
criss-cross dunnage can enhance the ventilation effe ct. When laying out dunnage, it
should be remembered that ships are not constantly on an even keel. They can be
trimmed by the stern or trimmed by the bow. Rolling and pitching cause the deck to slope.
These slopes, as well as any special factors in the ship's construction, must be taken into
consideration when laying out wooden dunnage. With open containers, dunnage can be
laid out transversely. Liquids can immediately flow out when the ship rolls. If the ends of
the wooden boards are taken right up to the side rails, load forces are distributed
appropriately at the same time. It should be remembered that closed containers are
spray-tight and that dissipation of moisture to the outside only happens to a limited
degree and then only slowly.

If a good distribution of load forces is the primary consideration, the wood at the bottom
must be laid out in such a way that as many load-bearing components of the cargo
transport unit are covered as possible.

If good moisture dissipation is as important a consideration as a good distribution of load

forces, the best possible compromise must be reached, for instance by laying out the base
wood diagonally.

If the most important consideration is to protect against mechanical damage, it is

essential that potential shifting or movement resulting from shipping stresses and typical
for the particular means of transport are taken into account.

If goods which are sensitive to dirt, moisture or mechanical damage are loaded, additional
materials such as mats, jute cloth, paper, sheeting etc. are to be used as required.

If there is a danger of dampness or contamination of the packaging spreading to the

contents, dunnage must be laid with special care.

If plastic sheeting and similar materials are used to prevent dampness f rom penetrating
the cargo, their orientation the way they are arranged play an important role. In these
cases, consideration must be given to where damp could enter and where it can be
dissipated. Under no circumstances must "water pockets" be allowed to f orm, which would
enable collected damp to enter the cargo. Dunnage must first be laid out at the point
where most water is able to penetrate.

Interlayer dunnage Floor dunnage

Laying out floor dunnage to protect from damp in containers will always be necessary
when "wet goods" are stowed together with moisture -sensitive goods. Occasionally, criss-
cross dunnage and double dunnage will be necessary. Damp must be prevented from
infiltrating sensitive cargoes by laying dunnage at appropriate heights and using additional
material, e.g. plastic sheeting. In box containers, it is generally more appropriate to lay
out wooden dunnage in a longitudinal direction, because of the distribution of load forces
and the use of ground conveyors. On open containers, it should be laid out transversely.
In both cases, the load-bearing components must be bridged for heavy packages so that
the permissible line load is not exceeded.

On open chassis and trailers, wood must be laid out to distribute load forces in such a way
that the load is taken by the vehicle's chassis. Walking boards made of glued-laminated
plywood at a size of 1 m x 2.5 m, for instance, or wooden boards of a suitable length and
adequate dimensions are very suitable for this. Floor dunnage made of wood or plastic
sheeting is used to prevent contamination. Since it is possible that cargo transport units
can be transported on deck, sufficient protection against damp must be ensured. When
distributing load forces, the vehicle chassis and cross memb ers must be covered.

Floor dunnage is very often not needed for freight cars with a wooden floor. If there is a
risk of damp infiltration with moisture-sensitive cargoes, appropriate measures must be
taken. On covered freight cars, the preferred orientation of the wood is longitudinal, in the
door area it is transverse. On open freight cars and freight cars with sliding walls, wood is
preferably to be laid out transversely for loading and unloading with ground conveyors.
Exceptions to this must be made when end-loading platforms are used. The design of the
chassis and of the side rails and cross members must be taken into account with regard to
the distribution of load forces. Here, inexpensive materials such as paper, plastic sheeting
etc. are sufficient for protection against contamination.

What has been said about freight cars applies in principle to cargo transport units for road
transport. On box bodies, however, wood should always be laid longitudinally where
possible, for handling reasons.

To be able to effectively protect cargo before packing and after unpacking cargo transport
units, dunnage can also be required in stores, sheds, warehouses, hangars and open
areas. This can be for leveling out storage areas, protecting against damp and dirt or f or
distributing load forces. The orientation should be suited to the transport paths and the
equipment used. The materials used must be able to provide the necessary protection.
Especially on open areas, weather changes such as rain, snow, ice etc. must be taken into
full account. Other factors to consider are bacteria on the ground and rot pathogens which
could damage the cargo.

Side dunnage has similar functions to floor dunnage:

 Protection against damp or moisture penetrating from the side as a resul t of

sweat or leakage from other cargo, but also protection of other cargo or of the
means of transport against liquids escaping from the side of a load.
 Protection against soiling and contamination on the sides, both of a single load
against other loads or from parts of the means of transport, or protecting the
latter against a specific load.
 Protection against mechanical damage or other damage, such as chafing, tearing,
chemical reactions etc. both with regard to a specific cargo and to other cargoes
or parts of the means of transport.

The same materials are used for lateral dunnage as for floor dunnage. The use of wooden
dunnage, however, is less significant.

To protect against damp or moisture or harmful dust penetrating from the sides,
watertight and dust-tight materials such as plastic sheeting, oiled paper and tarpaulins are
to be used. Under certain conditions, canvas a nd mats should also be used, but never
wrappers or paper.

Sweat formation always occurs when temperature differences are too high, either with a
positive temperature difference against the load or a negative temperature difference
against components of the means of transport. For further information on this, see section
10.3.4 "Sources of sweat". The risk of sweat is higher on cargoes with a high water
content. If there is a risk of cargo sweat (section 10.3.6.4) and the cargo is sensitive to
moisture, it is urgent that a corrosion protection method is used (see http://www.tis-
gdv.de/tis_e/verpack/inhalt1.htm). Wrapping cargo in plastic sheeting can have the
opposite effect to that which is desired. Since hot air rises, water vapor can condense
under the sheeting.

Practical experience shows that wooden dunnage boards, wooden boards, mats etc.
provide good protection against mechanical damage. Whether or not it is necessary to use
additional materials depends on the particular circumstances.

Top dunnage is laid to prevent the consequences of leakage, sweat formation, bad
weather, vertical shipping loads etc., which could damage a particular cargo or the cargo
transport unit and its components.

The main functions of top dunnage are:

 Protection against damp or moisture penetrating from the top or escap ing upward
  Protection against dust or substances which threaten contamination or chemical
reactions, either penetrating from the top or escaping upward
 Protection against mechanical damage anticipated to arise from above or acting in
an upward direction

All previously described materials can be used as top dunnage materials.

To protect against damp or moisture penetrating from the top, or to prevent moisture
from being allowed to permeate upward, plastic sheeting, oiled paper, tarpaulins and
other watertight materials have proved themselves in practice.

If only small quantities of moisture are anticipated, the best materials to use are ones
which can absorb small quantities of water.

The type of nonwoven fabric shown can absorb relatively large qu antities of dripping
water. Since the weight increases when these properties are used, it must be attached
carefully.

Special absorbent,
nonwoven fabric
cover as top dunnage

When using watertight materials, it is essential that liquid which has collec ted in
depressions (water pockets) is prevented from flowing into the cargo when the vehicle
moves. For this reason, plastic sheets etc. must overlap each other properly or wood,
cargo items or the stowage method must be used to create an appropriate slope .
Respiring organic goods, such as tobacco, coffee, cocoa, fish meal etc., which are
transported in passively ventilated containers, must not be covered with airtight materials
or materials impervious to water vapor.

If top dunnage is used to protect against contamination or to prevent harmful chemical

reactions, the same principles apply as for protecting against damp, but the materials
must be dust-tight and chemically compatible. A certain degree of air circulation must also
be ensured here occasionally.

Interlayer dunnage variously has the functions of floor dunnage, side dunnage or top
dunnage, depending on how it is arranged. It is laid between two different batches or
individual goods in a batch or load type.

Interlayer
dunnage on a
load of pails

In some cases, it simultaneously helps secure the load by increasing friction, improving
the distribution of load forces or improving the stability of the load.
All materials which have been described can be used. In addition, powdery substances
such as talcum powder. They are introduced in the form of an intermediate layer or are
sprinkled between layers, to prevent loads from sticking together, e.g. with bales of raw
rubber.

Interlayer dunnage comprised of mats provides adequate firmness and pr otects against
mechanical damage.

Here, wooden dunnage boards were used to create a level packing surface. But will the
bottom left carton of the load be able to bear the load packed on top of it? This ought to
be supported from beneath using vertical squared lumber.

Interlayer dunnage
made of wooden
dunnage used as a
leveling aid

Inadequate interlayer
dunnage of wooden
dunnage boards

Further measures should to be taken here as well. As in so many cases, inadequate

unitization is responsible for additional work - which sadly is not very productive in this
case.

Left and bottom:

Missing interlayer
dunnage
 In both examples, the use of interlayer dunnage
is urgently recommended.

4.2.4.1 Basic stowage methods, Part 1

Stowage instructions and basic stowage methods

To be able to provide and follow appropriate instructions, it is necessary to be familiar

with some of the fundamental concepts and principles which apply in this field. To ensure
that they are well understood, some of them will be explained here.

"Stowage for ready access" or "Packing for ready access" means that a load must be
immediately accessible. Ease of access may apply to a specific (intermediate) destination,
i.e. that a given load must be readily accessible in for instance Bremen and can be
unloaded without the need to move other loads.

Section 4.3.7 of the C TU guidelines state:

Dangerous cargoes consignments which form only part of the load of a CTU
should, whenever possible, be packed adjacent to the doors with markings and
labels visible. Particular attention is drawn to 3.3.1 concerning the securing of
cargo by the doors of a unit.

Cases with class 1.4G airbags:

stowed for ready access

The amber light has been selected because the load has not yet been adequately secured.
C AP products in the European C ommunity which ar e subject to customs checks should
also be stowed for ready access, so that customs staff have immediate access to the
goods. This avoids the need to restow:

The container had to be restowed to make the container door

accessible and the cargo had to be partially unloaded to allow access to
the CAP products for a customs inspection.

"Top stowage" (occasionally "on-top-stowage") means no further items are stowed on

top of the load. This instruction is not to ensure that a batch should be readily accessible,
but is issued because packages are particularly sensitive or fragile. If stowage of this type
is required, appropriate indications must be attached to the packages. Written instructions
such as "Do not overstow", "Please load on top" etc. are not necessarily u niversally
understood. Sensible, comprehensible markings can be more effective.

Symbol based on ISO Alternative marking suggestions

The original ISO symbol should be known universally. It must therefore be assumed that
this symbol is the most likely to be understood.

"Stowing or packing correctly for a fork-lift truck or a crane" means that

appropriate arrangements must be made to ensure that the goods can be lifted by a
ground conveyor or lifting gear without requiring special preparation and without any time
delay. The dimensions, strength and loading capacity of the aids used, such as squared
lumber, wooden dunnage boards etc. must ensure that the goods do not suffer any
damage during shipping. If necessary, stowage surfaces must be prepared with walking
boards, boards, cargo items with a high loading capacity or other usable aids, so that
work can be carried out safely and the batches that have already been loaded can be
overstowed with other loads.
 Correct stowage suitable for handling with fork lift trucks in a
box container

Cargo stack suitable for handling with fork -lift trucks and cranes

Bottom and intermediate dunnage must be arranged so that forks, strops, chains, claws
and similar cargo handling equipment and slinging equipment can be used without any
problems.

Tier means a layer or stack. It can mean either horizontal layers of cargo or cargo items
stowed vertically one above the other. If circumstances do not make it clear from the
outset what type of layer is meant, it makes sense to distinguish between a vertical tier
and a horizontal tier.
 Horizontal and vertical tiers

The stowage position on board container ships is generally documented according to the
bay-row-tier system or the bay-tier-row system. In this specific case, "tier" designates the
horizontal layers of containers. Layers are counted from the bottom to the top.

Extract from a bay plan showing

the containers loaded on deck

Loaded upright or loaded on its side relates to the shape of the consignment items. In
most cases, the meaning is clear.

Beam is upright Beam is on its side Rail is upright Rail is on its side
 Disk is upright Disc is on its Box is Box is on its side
side upright

Drum is upright Drum is on its side

The same applies for wheel rims, pipes, steel bars, narrow wire rod coils and other loads.
It is also rare for these to be confused.

With cylindrical, or roller-shaped goods, the expression "upright" should really be used
uniformly. Such cargo items are generally understood to be "upright" if

 the axis is vertical and the length of the axis is greater than the diameter or
 the axis is horizontal and the length of the axis is less than the diameter.

Paper roll is upright Gas cylinder is upright Coil is upright

 Coil is upright Tire is upright

The expression "on its side" also has a standard meaning for the same goods. By
definition, cargo is "on its side" if

 the axis is horizontal and the length of the axis is greater than the diameter or
 the axis is vertical and the length of the axis is less than the diameter.

Paper roll is on its side Coil is on its side

Gas cylinder is on its side

 Coil is on its side Tire is on its side

Differences in understanding of these terms, sometimes regional, however, can lead to

errors and misinterpretations and thus incorrect stowa ge.

Another problem arises if the length of the axis and the diameter are almost the same
size. This can easily lead to misinterpretations of the terms in practice:

Is the coil
upright or
on its side?

Is the roll upright

or
on its side?

Incorrect expressions in the loading instructions or an incorrect interpretation of correct

instructions frequently lead to damaged cargo. Such damage can be avoided if a reference
is made in the stowage instructions to the orientation of the axis. Instead of the
formulations "Load rolls upright" or "Load rolls on their sides", the expressions "Roll axis
vertical" ("eye to the sky") or "Roll axis horizontal and transverse" or "Roll axis horizontal
and longitudinal" should be used.

Misleading formulation Clear formulation

... load so that ... load so that

Ring axis/winding axis positioned vertically

Wire rod coils are upright
(English: "eye to the sky")

Ring axis/winding axis horizontal

Wire rod coils are on their (English: "eye to lie") or even better:
sides ... Ring axis horizontal longitudinally...or horizontal
transversely

C ylinders are upright C ylinder axis is vertical

C ylinder axis is horizontal, or even better:

C ylinders are on their sides C ylinder axis is horizontal and longitudinal
C ylinder axis is horizontal and transverse

As already mentioned, the terms "upright" and "on its side" are clear for most cargo items
such as billets, pipes, profiles, bars etc., but it can be necessary in certain cases to
provide or request more precise stowage instructions, such as "lying on its side" etc.

C ontinued in section 4.2.4.2

4.2.4.2 Basic stowage methods, Part 2

Continued from Section 4.2.4.1

To prevent subsequent claims, always ask if anything is unclear. It is more cost-effective

to obtain precise instructions from a superior or to make a telephone call to the customer
than to lose one's reputation or to have to answer a claim for damages. In most cases, it
is sufficient to use two arrows pointing upward to indicate that goods are to be
transported a particular way up.

Stacking means loading, packing or stowing packages in layers so that the edges of the
packages lie flush above each other.

Corrugated board cartons stacked

with and without a hardboard anchor

Pressure-sensitive cartons with homogeneous dimensions must always be stacked

carefully ensuring that the sides and end faces lie flush. This ensures that only the load-
carrying vertical sections are subjected to loads. When using cartons made of corrugated
board, it is essential to check where possible that the flutes of the boards are vertical. If it
could be disadvantageous that individual packages are not firmly connected to each other,
anchors made of materials with a large surface area, such as hardboard, paperboard,
plastic sheeting etc., are to be introduced during stowage.

Stacked cartons, with and without plywood anchors

Wall boards and ceiling boards, plastic profiles and similar loads generally have single or
double belt battens as "built-in packaging". To prevent any harmful loads from being
applied to the boards themselves, the belt battens must be stacked flush on top of each
other, and not for instance staggered to save on stowage space. Load securing material
must also be attached to these points.

Ceiling boards - loaded correctly,

packed one above the other

Ceiling boards - loaded in a staggered

pattern and thus incorrectly

For particular loads, stacked stowage is an essential requirement, e.g. for pressure -
sensitive cartons. In this case, any loads which arise must always be directe d onto the
load-bearing parts of a package. Even the smallest deviation from the vertical position can
cause damage to the cargo.

Correct: Packed edge to edge Incorrect: Untidy packing

 Damage caused by incorrect stacking

The risk of packing errors can be avoided by using adequate interlayer dunnage.

Indonesian tobacco bales also demand correct "stacking". The only intermediate layers
which are permitted are: plastic sheeting, kraft paper and other similar materials which
can be used to "anchor" the layers to each other. Despite not being bound tightly, the
stack as a whole is comparatively stable.

Possibility of ventilating Indonesian tobacco

bales with rolled up mats. Floor dunnage made
of wooden dunnage boards.

If gaps need to be left for reasons of ventilation or small gaps are required for stowage
considerations, they can be achieved by using rolled up mats or equivalent materials.
 Narrow lattices and laths to ensure air
circulation

If only narrow lattices, laths, boards or other strip-shaped materials can be used to ensure
adequate air circulation, it must be ensured that they are placed on parts of the load
which have sufficient load-bearing capacity.

With cardboard cartons, the load-bearing points are vertically below the side walls:

Correct: The wooden supports are placed on the load -bearing

parts of the cartons, i.e. the sides
 Incorrect: The wooden supports are placed on non-load-
bearing parts

Tightly filled paper bags or sacks should be stacked in the same way. If the bags do not
completely fill a hold or do not form a complete transverse tier, a sufficiently stable stack
or interconnection of bags or layers can be achieved by inserting wooden dunnage or
paper anchors or similar materials.

In most cases, it is sufficient to just insert the anchors in the top layers and/or on the
sides; Generally, segregation material, dunnage and load securing material should be
used sparingly, both for reasons of expense and to prevent stowage loss.

If dunnage has to be laid because "wet cargo" has to be packed together with dry cargo in
a container, the dunnage must be laid without large ga ps, otherwise, tightly filled paper
bags and similar loads could burst or tear and could "bleed".

Sufficient floor dunnage prevents the bags from "bursting".

Insufficient floor dunnage makes it easy for the bags to "burst"

High load levels are produced when stowing cargoes in lay ers with intermediate layers
made of squared lumber or wooden dunnage, since only linear bearing surfaces are
produced in the area of the bottom and intermediate layers. Only cargoes insensitive to
load forces may be stowed in this way. Harmful pressure ca n be reduced to an acceptable
level by using relatively soft wood or by using intermediate layers made of rubber.
 Stacking cargo with a sufficient loading capacity in layers

The pressure-sensitivity of fiber cement pipes or the susceptibility of ceramic pipes to

breakage must be taken into consideration when selecting the type of dunnage:

Side view View from the top Front view

Stowage of socket pipes in layers and in alternate orientation

Side view View from the top Front view

Stowage of socket pipes in layers

and in alternate orientation

All strong and resilient goods of various shapes or sizes can be packed in a

cross-tie stow. Remaining gaps must be filled. Wooden dunnage and similar
intermediate layers should also be used as anchors. The need to brid ge or pad out
stowage gaps can result from a difference in the dimensions of cargo items.

In principle, this involves the cargo items interlocking with each other. It can generally
be used to minimize the effort required for securing cargo. Methods like this improve the
stability of the cargo. But, as we have said: This method may only be used with resilient
goods.

A complete transverse cross-tie refers to stowage in which goods fill the stowage
space from side wall to side wall. Anchors do not need to be inserted if equivalent
measures are taken. This stowage method is suitable for all means of transport having
load-bearing side walls or with low lateral stresses, e.g. in rail transport. If the walls of a
cargo container are not sufficiently strong, the cargo items must be stowed as a cross-tie,
interconnected with anchors or secured using other special measures. It should always be
considered that the speed of unloading can be increased by selecting the right anchor
materials. The use of mechanical aids should be encouraged and not hindered in any way.
Some examples of a complete transverse cross-tie have already been provided under the
other stowage methods. The following warning must be taken seriously: "C omplete
transverse cross-tie stowage is only safe if the sides of the loading space can withstand
the load forces!"

Special care is required when loading curtainsiders, trucks with tarpaulins and roof bows,
open-sided containers etc. Vertical lateral tiers can be secured well on the "open" side,
e.g. in the direction of a container door, by staggering the layers backward as the tier
increases in height. The lateral tiers are then no longer vertica l but at a slight angle to the
vertical. A gradient of around 10° is recommended. At a stowage height of 2.5 m, the top
layer is offset from the bottom layer by about 0.40 m.

Diagonal stowage can be practicable under certain circumstances, from the point of
view of loading and unloading, on flatracks, trailers, container bolsters, trucks, certain
types of freight car and similar vehicles, so that a number of teams can work at the same
time. With this method, cargo of the same type or goods destined for the same recipien t
are loaded diagonally, to enable the cargo items to be accessed as quickly as possible. In
contrast to conventional ship cargo, all goods must be destined for a single place of
unloading. Onward transport with remaining diagonal load blocks is not possib le.

The term bilge and cantline refers to a loading method in which packages are stowed or
fitted into indentations produced by the round or rounded shape of other packages.

Genuine bilge and cantline stowage "on the quarter" is produced when stowing w ooden
barrels. This stowage method is only used very rarely nowadays.
 Wooden barrels stowed with the bilge and cantline method

There are some modified methods for stowing drum and barrel loads in containers, which
are to be found in the section dealing with the loading and securing of drum loads. The
term "bilge and cantline" is usually also used to mean "bilge and cantline on the quarter",
although this is not strictly correct.

Even better: Stowed bilge

Gas cylinders stowed with the
and cantline and with
bilge and cantline method
alternate orientation

The figure on the left is a good example of how thin rubber nets are used to increase
friction. The alternate orientation method makes it easier to load the cylinders with other
goods and reduces the overall risk of damage.

C ontinued in Section 4.2.4.3

4.2.4.3 Basic stowage methods, Part 3

Continued from Section 4.2.4.2

 Pipes stowed using the bilge and cantline method

If sensitive cylindrical cargo is stowed using the bilge and cantline method, the load forces
are transferred over two load-bearing lines onto the cylinders stowed below. The cylinders
in the bottom layer only rest on one load-bearing line. If wooden dunnage or squared
lumber is laid as floor dunnage, only load-bearing "dashes" are present for each cylinder,
which can cause harmful load forces. Items stowed using the bilge and cantline method
exert considerable forces on the layers below them as a result of their opening angle. Only
precise stowage can minimize these forces.

The lower a package lies in the gap, the greater the opening
angle and therefore the greater the forces transmitted

It should be remembered that at an opening angle of 120°, a package already exerts a

force of double its weight on the underlying packages and at 151°, this force is even four
times its weight. If packages of this type are in turn bearing heavy loads, they will exert
extreme downward forces. On welded pipes, the welded joints should not lie on the
contact lines between the pipes. If cargo items do not fit exactly into the vehicles,
improper stowage can result in gaps being left between the goods, which r esults in large
opening angles and resultant forces. If gaps cannot be avoided, they must be left on the
outer sides and padded out accordingly.

If cylindrical goods are loaded with stowage gaps and stowed with the bilge and cantline
method, a cargo item which protrudes low into the cantlines of the underlying layer could
exert considerable lateral forces on the stanchions or other edges of the loading area. This
would result in damage to the cargo and/or damage to the means of transport.
 Load forces on other cargo and components of the
means of transport caused by the opening angle

The middle pipe exerts lateral forces (red) as a result of its opening angle, which are
greater than its own weight (green).

With resilient cargo items and load-bearing walls of the means of transport, the forces
generated by the opening angles can be used to secure the cargo. The best-known
example is the locking coil. This method can be used on any type of cylindrical cargo item.
This is a good securing method, as long as other cargo items are prevented from riding up
elsewhere. If necessary, additional lashing must be used.

Principle of the locking coil

If the forces exerted by a cargo item are too great, they can damage other goods or
components of the means of transport. The gaps should therefore be no greater than half
the diameter of the cargo items. If all the items are of equal diameter, the lockin g element
then protrudes by around a third of its diameter into the cantlines of the layer below.
 Maximum protrusion for goods stowed with the bilge and
cantline method

Other goods can also be stowed using the bilge and cantline method, e.g. bagged cargo,
more robust paperboard cartons etc. Using this stowage method, the seams or edges in
all layers will lie in parallel. The packages of the vertical tiers are connected to each other,
but not to the packages of adjacent tiers.

Bags stowed longitudinally with the bilge and cantline method

Bags stowed laterally with the bilge and cantline method

 Cartons stowed with the bilge and cantline method

In a cross-tie stow, packages are stowed alternately longitudinally and transversely. In

this way, they are firmly interconnected:

Example of cross-tie stowage of bags

Full cross-tie stowage enables goods to be completely connected to adjacent tiers:

C argo items in one tier extend half-way into the adjacent layer. Full cross-tie stowage can
be recognized by the fact that no continuous lines can be seen either longitudinally or
transversely. If cargo items have different dimensions, the stow must be arranged in such
a way that cargo items which are as flat, long and stable as possible loaded in the
outermost tier with the long side pointing into the stack.

If bagged cargo is loaded in such a way that free -standing tiers remain at the edges, the
seams or closures should point into the stacks, as they are weak points of the packaging.
If this is not observed, bags can "bleed", which in turn endangers the stability of the
stack.

The following illustrations show partial cross-tie stowage, since continuous lines can be
discerned in each case. Only the individual blocks are interconnected within themselves.
By inserting anchors here, they can be connected to adjacent blocks.

Example of partial cross-tie stowage of bags

Example of partial
cross-tie stowage
of bags

Example of partial cross-tie

stowage of bags

Example of bags cross-tie stowed

on a pallet and with shrink-wrap

Chimney-style stowage is extremely well suited for forming pre-slung cargo. With
palletized bagged cargo, it is suitable for certain bag sizes. The bags are arranged layer by
layer so that they overlap around a cavity. The bags are thus c onnected to each other.
This produces a square footprint, which is very suitable for packing containers if it has the
correct dimensions.

Front view Layer 1, 3, 5, 7 ... Layer 2, 4, 6, 8 ...

 Principle of chimney -style stowage

Nearly all goods can be stacked using the bilge and cantline method or can be stacked
and offset, if sufficient interlayer dunnage is laid, allowing the load forces to evenly
distributed, and thus preventing point loading.

Soldier stow or soldier packing is used to describe the following arrangement of goods:

Soldier stowage of drums in a 20' box container

The 20 foot container used has an internal length of 5,895 mm and an internal width of
2,350 mm. The drums packed using soldier stow have an external diameter of 585 mm.
Exactly 40 barrels fit into the container using this stowage method.

The same container will also accommodate a total of 160 pails with an external diameter
of 290 mm using soldier stow:

Soldier stowage of pails in a 20' box container

Offset stowage can minimize loss of stowage space, but not always. Offset stowage of
the pails with an external diameter of 290 mm, for instance, will allow the contai ner to
accommodate a total of 172 pails:
 Pails stowed using offset stow in a 20' box container

The same container will only however accommodate 39 barrels with an external diameter
of 585 mm using offset stow - compared with 40 when using soldier stow:

Offset stowage of drums in a 20' container

Vertical bilge and cantline stowage would also be a way of describing offset stowage,
but it is not (yet) in use as a technical term. The term "vertical bilge and cantline
stowage" of drums (or other cargoes) makes it very clear what is meant, however.

Whether stowage space can be saved depends on the dimensions of the goods and the
dimensions of the means of transport. More goods can be stowed if the loading areas are
large and/or the load diameters are fairly small. This is only sometimes the case for fairly
small spaces and large load diameters.

Alternately raising loads can prevent damage, improve the usage of stowage space or
save on load securing materials.

Incorrectly loaded pallets make load securing more difficul t.

 Alternately raising loads reduces the outlay for load securing.

Drums, pails and similar cargo items have construction-related problems. C orrugated
drums ride up on the corrugations as a result of transport forces. If closures protrude over
the edge of quick lever-closure drums, the drums will snag on the closures. This results in
unwanted opening of the drums and/or damage to the drums. Resulting gaps can also
lead to further damage. The closures on fiber drums, the handles on drums, pails, cans
and other similar containers can cause damage to cargo stored on top of or next to them
as a result of high point loading. Alternately raising individual cargo i tems or groups can
reduce the risk of damage. For further information, see the section on drum loads and
mixed loads.

Manual interleaving of I beams and U profiles is rarely practiced. "Interleaved" loads are
often delivered as a bundle, however, and the n stacked using normal stowage anchors
and squared lumber anchors.

Nested stowage reduces loss of stowage space or can be used to create level cargo
surfaces for access with fork-lift trucks. Some variants have their own names. Manually
stowing on site is also becoming increasingly rare for this method, as it is growing much
more common for cargo to be stowed in bundles beforehand at the factory.

Nested I beams

Face stow refers to the loading of coils, rolls etc., with their axis oriented parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the skid or means of transport.
 Face stow of coils in a container

Braiding involves placing ring-shaped loads, such as tires, wire rod coils with a short
winding axis etc. in the core of other ring-shaped loads. Braiding has lost its importance
through the use of special vehicles and the now common practice of transporting smaller
batches in containers. The method is still used, however, on complete loads or fairly large
batches.

Braiding of car tires in a 20' container

4.2.5 Packing rules

4.2.5.1 Packing rules, Part 1

This section introduces some basic packing rules and prohibitions. It is strongly
recommended that staff observe these.
 Do not load
incompatible goods
together!

Stowing incompatible
goods together is
associated with risks!

If it is essential for incompatible goods to be stowed in a single container, the goods must
be segregated from each other so that they can no longer cause any damage:

Segregate
incompatible goods if
they have to be
loaded together!

Where such segregation is necessary, the precise method used needs to be chosen on a
case-by-case basis. C overing goods with plastic sheeting, wrapping them, introducing
barrier layers and similar measures are possibilities.

Do not pack odor-

releasing goods
together with odor-
absorbing goods!

If it is not possible to avoid packing odor-emitting and odor-absorbent cargoes together in

a container, they must be isolated from the atmosphere of the hold so that they cannot
influence each other:
 Odor-contamination
must be prevented!

Time is the factor that determines how extensive these measures should be and what
segregation materials are to be selected. The longer the duration of the journey or of
storage, the more resistant the screening materials have to be again st molecular
penetration/diffusion.

Do not pack
wettening goods
together with
moisture-sensitive
goods!

If, contrary to this rule, liquid cargoes or moisture -emitting cargoes have to be packed
into a common cargo transport unit, the moisture -emitting cargoes must be loaded at the
bottom:

Do not pack "liquid cargoes" ... but do pack "solid

on top of "solid cargoes"... cargoes" on top of "liquid
cargoes"!

These basic packing rules are also defined in the C TU guidelines. Point 3.2 demands:
Heavy cargoes should not be placed on top of lighter cargoes and liquids should
not be placed on top of solids. When it is intended that packages are to be
stacked on top of each other, attention should be paid to the strength of pallets
and the shape and condition of the packages. Attention is drawn to Annex 1 of the
IMDG code on stacking tests. It may be necessary in some cases to ensure
stability of such a stack by introducing dunnage or solid flooring between tiers of
the stow. In cases of doubt, especially with heavier packages such as
intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) for liquids, it should be ascertained from the
shipper or manufacturer of such packages whether or not they are designed and
strong enough to be stacked on top of one another, especially where part of the
 transport will involve a sea voyage. The center of gravity should be below the
half-height of the cargo space.

Special care is needed with IBCs !

The last sentence in Point 3.2.6 of the C TU guidelines contains a further rule:

The center of gravity should be below the half-height of the cargo

space.

The formulation "Heavy cargoes should not be placed on top of lighter cargoes and liquids
should not be placed on top of solids" does not mean that liquid containers may not be
packed next to or behind other cargo items. This will often be the case. Then, depending
on the quantity of liquids involved, floor dunnage, raised dunnage or criss-cross dunnage
should always be laid below the loads endangered by leaking liquids. For further
information, see also the section on "Dunnage" (4.2.3 of the C ontainer Handbook).

Another basic packing rule is:

Do not pack goods

which produce dust
together with dust-
sensitive goods!

If this packing rule cannot be observed, either the dust-producing goods must be
prevented from passing dust particles into the air in the stowage space or the dust-
sensitive goods must be protected against the dust particle s. How this kind of protection is
implemented in practice will depend on the outlay of materials and work. The most cost-
effective method should be used. This, however, only applies when the result is neutral -
otherwise, the better method must be preferre d.

Do not pack dirty

goods together with
dirt-sensitive goods!

The following also applies here: If this packing rule is unable to be observed, the sources
of the contamination must be neutralized or the goods at risk of contamination must be
protected by appropriate measures.

4.2.5.2 Packing rules, Part 2

The following packing rule is also not always practicable:

Do not pack pressure-

sensitive loads
together with loads
which exert pressure!

If the rule cannot be observed, steps must be taken to ensure that no pressure can be
exerted on the pressure-sensitive goods, or that the pressure can be sufficiently reduced
so that it cannot exert any damaging influence on the goods .

Appropriate measures must be taken if the following packing rule is not complied with:

Do not pack pointed

and sharp-edged
goods together with
goods which might be
damaged by them!

Either pad the pointed and sharp-edged parts or protect the sensitive goods aga inst
damage by using appropriate packaging or dunnage.

There is no alternative to this packing rule:

 Do not pack
foodstuffs together
with toxic
substances!

Failure to comply with this rule puts human life at risk or at least poses a real risk of
(serious) damage to health. It may also represent a breach of the law which could lead to
criminal proceedings.

The situation with this packing rule is different:

Do not pack heavy

goods with fragile
goods!

In practice, this rule will have to be broken more frequently. The risk to fragile goods can
be eliminated by taking appropriate load securing measures for the heavy goods.

A very important packing rule is as follows:

Chemically
incompatible goods
must not be packed
together!

This rule relates primarily to the entire range of dangerous goods - but it also affects
perfectly normal goods which can be damaged or have their marketability reduced by
chemical reactions. C hemical incompatibility does not always represent a danger to
humans, animals or the environment. The reader must understand that this Handbook
cannot offer detailed information on loading dangerous goods.

Special packing rules are dealt with in other se ctions of this book which do not have to be
mentioned here. To take an example: cargoes that can be damaged by magnetism, e.g.
floppy disks, hard disks etc. must not be packed together with (in immediate proximity to)
permanent magnets or similar. For advice on this, see for instance the section on
"Packaging and marking".

The following stowage rules are contained in Annex 5 of the C TU guidelines, although with
different illustrations, in the form of "Dos" and "Don'ts":
 DON'T concentrate
heavy loads on small
areas of the floor

DO distribute heavy
loads over a large
floor area

Further information on distributing loads is dealt with in the section on load secu ring aids
under "Wood" and under the line loads of containers.

DON'T secure loads in

a way that produces
heavy forces on small
areas of the inside
structure of a unit!

DO secure loads in a
way that forces are
distributed over a
large area of a unit!

This demand can be met by using appropriate squared lumber or other sufficiently strong
materials with a large surface area.

4.2.6 Useful hints

 Do not work in a too confined a space!

The area in which containers are packed should be spacious enough to prevent staff from
obstructing each other. If too many cargo items are made available in a tight space and
several fork-lift trucks are used, this can easily lead to a reduction in efficiency and
damage to the goods.

Use lift trucks with

lighting!

Quick changes from brightness to darkness are e xtremely demanding for fork-lift truck
drivers' eyes. They can cause damage by bumping etc. before their eyes have adjusted to
the darkness. Recommendation: Use lift trucks with adequate lighting!

When loading under tight space

conditions, there is a risk of damage. In
the case of bagged cargo, "bleeding"
paper bags can endanger the stability
of the entire block. To minimize the risk
of damage, a helper should hold a
sufficiently wide strip of hardboard
vertically between the cargoes when
the pallet is inserted.

Risk for bagged cargo pallets

Work on homogeneous cargo items should be carried out using attachments suited to the
goods in question. With heterogeneous loads, attachments should only be used if the
devices can be attached and detached very quickly. The drum clamp shown above is
picked up and put down by inserting or removing the fork. It is quickly secured by two
pins and released again by removing the pins. It is always more efficient to work with
fork-lift trucks equipped with a fork adjustment device and whose forks can be moved
laterally in parallel.

High-risk working methods

Packages are often mechanically ruptured by forks on loading and unloading as a result of
carelessness, inexperience etc. If the forks are used to push a package into place, the
forks can slip down and cause damage. This risk is particularly high if the equipment is in
poor condition and the tips of the forks are not exactly parallel horizontally. If the forks
are too long, goods stowed further behind are often also affected. Should damage of this
kind remain unnoticed, it can pose risks to the environment and in the case of dangerous
cargoes, cause substantial consequential losses and signify a violation of the law. As
Section 4.2.7 of the C TU guidelines says:
Packages of dangerous cargoes should be examined and any found to be
damaged, leaking or sifting should not be packed into a CTU.
Damage caused during stacking or when pushing a load into place can effectively be
prevented by using pieces of squared lumber of a suitable length and format, laid on
and/or fastened to the rear of the forks.

High-risk
working method

Packages should always be picked up resting fully on the fork and set down level. Loads
should not be pushed with slightly raised fork tips. This could otherwise cause damage to
the bottom of certain loads.

Faulty packaging

When handling long goods, the forks should be set as wide apart as possible from each
other. Here, however, the packaging is the main concern. If long goods have to be pushed
into containers, skids running in a longitudinal direction must be provided. Strapping must
not run along the belt battens at the bottom. They must run along a milled groove.
 Belt battens without a groove Belt batten with a groove

If overstowage of the cargo items is an issue, the steel strapping should run in a groove at
the top in the same way. An all-round groove is ideal. To prevent the strapping from
tearing off, suitable hardboard strips can be placed under the belt battens with the smooth
side facing down. This reduces friction, which in turn makes it easier to push loads in.

Correct arrangement of skids

C ases built like this are easy to push into containers provided they have been set down
with the front end in the door area. This has not been done here. Loads should not be
pushed over a ramp, since usually the metal sheets are textured or made of deck plate.

Inadequately packaged goods

Even the best packing company in the world cannot reasonably be expected to work well if
the goods they are delivered are atrociously packed. Here, the load unit was destroyed by
a braking maneuver of the fork-lift truck. Generally, only professionally prepared units
should be loaded. Matters may be improved in the long term by inspection of incoming
goods, good customer contact and regular quality control at the consignor end.

Inadmissible pushing

Pushing gently with a pallet as padding can be tolerated for certain goods in exceptional
cases. It cannot be tolerated with goods which could be damaged by such actions.

There is a considerable risk of damage on unloading at the destination, if th e packers do

not have the stripping of the container in mind when loading it. C argo must always be
packed in such a way that the cargo transport units can be unloaded as easily as possible.
This can also mean attaching belts, slings or similar to individual cargo items which can
then be used to pull out the items. If, for instance, it would be difficult for recipients to
attach slinging equipment to loads in open-top containers, the shipper should leave it in
place and tie it together in such a way that it is immediately accessible from the top.

When working with lifting gear and single hoisting points, auxiliary ropes should be
attached to the load or the hoisting equipment to be able to safely guide the cargo items.

4.2.7 On completion of packing

The C TU guidelines provide very detailed instructions on what action is to be taken after
packing has been completed. Special instructions are given for cargo transport units with
dangerous cargoes. Section 4.4.2 deals with the documentation. This states:
4.4.2.1 For transport by sea, regulation 5 of chapter VII of SOLAS 1974, as
amended, requires that the person responsible for the packing of dangerous
cargoes into a container or road vehicle shall provide a signed Container Packing
Certificate or Vehicle Declaration stating that the cargo in the unit has been
properly packed and secured and that all applicable transport requirements are
met.
4.4.2.2 The IMDG Code recommends the following declaration:
- The container/vehicle was clean, dry and apparently fit to receive the
cargoes.

- If the consignments include cargoes of class 1 other than division 1.4, the
vehicle or freight container is structurally serviceable in conformity with
Section 12 of the introduction to class 1 of the IMDG code.

- No incompatible cargoes have been packed into the vehicle or freight

container (unless authorized by the competent authority concerned in
accordance with 12.2.1 or 17.6.3.1 of the General Introduction to the IMDG
code).
- All packages have been externally inspected for damage, leakage or sifting,
and only sound packages have been packed.
 - All packages have been properly packed into the vehicle or freight container
and secured.

- Drums have been stowed in an upright position, unless otherwise authorized

by the competent authority.

- The vehicle or freight container and the packages therein are properly
marked, labelled and placarded.

- The dangerous goods declaration required in subsection 9.4 of the General

Introduction to the IMDG code has been received for each dangerous cargoes
consignment packed in the vehicle or freight container.
4.4.2.3 A Container Packing Certificate/Vehicle Declaration is not required under
the RID, ADR, ADN or ADNR regimes, even though they may be required for
inland domestic transport in certain countrie s. However, such certificates will be
needed if the transport operation includes sea voyages. They will then need to be
provided prior to loading, as port authorities, berth operators and shipmasters
may wish to sight them (or a copy) before accepting containers or vehicles
packed with dangerous cargoes into their premises or aboard their ship.
In accordance with Section 8 of the GGVSee, manufacturers and distributors have special
duties. Usually, they are referred to as the "shippers".
4.2.2 The shipper should also ensure that dangerous cargoes are packaged,
packed, marked, labelled, placarded and provided with the required signs, in
accordance with the applicable regulations. A declaration that this has been
carried out is normally required. Such a declaration may be incorporated into or
attached to the transport documents.
4.4.2.5 The functions of the dangerous goods declaration (see 4.2.2) and of the
Container Packing Certificate/Vehicle Declaration may be incorporated into a
single document; if not, these documents should be attached one to the other. If
these functions are incorporated into a single document, e.g. a Dangerous G oods
Declaration, shipping note, etc., the inclusion of a phrase such as "it is declared
that the packing of the cargoes into the container/vehicle has been carried out in
accordance with the provisions of section 17 of the General Introduction to the
IMDG code" is sufficient. Where both declarations are included in a single
document, separate signatures are required for the two declar ations.

Container set down, closed

and sealed correctly

3.3.3 After closing the doors, it should be ensured that all closures are properly
engaged and secure. Usually a seal is applied to a container. Care should be taken
that sealing procedures are carried out properly.

Correctly closed and sealed containers

 Correctly closed roof
on an open-top
container

When using flatracks with a load covered with a tarpaulin, it must always be taken into
consideration that the flats are transported on deck . The tarpaulins must therefore be
secured against storms.

This tarpaulin would

be torn in stormy
weather.

Better but still not 100% Tarpaulin secured

against storms
 Hinge mechanism on
a collapsible flat

3.3.4 Where CTUs have hinged or detachable fittings, a check should be made
that they are properly secured, with no loose equipment likely to cause a hazard
during transport.
A check should additionally be performed on refrigerated containers to ensure that the
correct refrigeration temperature has been set. C ontainers carrying dangerous cargoes
must be provided with the relevant placards. For further information, see the sections on
refrigerated containers and marking of containers with dangerous cargoes.

If a container is shipped to a country in which there are quarantine regulations regarding

the treatment of wood, e.g. Australia, New Zealand and C hina, it must be ensured that all
wood carried in the container conforms to these regulations. Either all parts must have
previously been fumigated or heat-treated and marked appropriately, or the entire
container must be subjected to special treatment. A copy of the wood treatment certificate
must always accompany the container. This should be stored directly inside the right-hand
container door or in a weather-resistant pouch on the outside of the door.

Notice on a plywood case Fumigation stamp

on a wooden wedge

4.2.8 Final work in the door area

The requirements laid down in the C TU guidelines with respect to a secure load face in the
door area can be met in a number of different ways. One option is to place a wooden
lattice or pallets against the last portion of the load and to brace these against the rear
corner posts:
 Lattice used to secure the face of a load

Lattices can also made by nailing inexpensive, untrimmed wooden dunnage boards
together. How lattices are to be placed in front of the load depends on the forces which
have to be absorbed and what type of load it is. In the case of stacked, palletized goods
which are firmly secured to the pallet, the variation shown on the right is suitable. Then,
the horizontal boards in contact with the load should cover the lower area, the seams of
the stack and the upper area. In the case of goods stacked in three layers, lattices must
therefore be made of four horizontal boards.

Bracing gaps in the door area of containers

If the mass to be braced is not too large, the bracing can be placed directly against the
lattice (left figure). If forces from larger masses are to be absorbed, an additional cross
piece (1) must be fitted.

If pallets suitable for use with containers are available, for instance with the dimensions
1,150 mm x 1,550 mm or 750 mm x 1,150 mm, they can also be used instead of a
lattice:
 Bracing with pallets designed for container use

Key: (1) Two pallets with the long edge placed transversely;
(2) Squared lumber fitted in the corrugations; (3) C ross pieces fitted in the
door area; (4) Squared lumber bracing; (5) Locking battens to prevent the
diagonal stays from sliding together.

If three pallets are arranged with the narrow edge running transversely, squared lumber
can be inserted between the pallet boards.

Securing by inserting squared lumber

inside pallets
 Key: (1) Three pallets arranged vertically
- with the narrow edge positioned transversely;
(2) Squared lumber inserted between the pallet boarding.

If double deck pallets are not used, but four-way pallets are used instead, for instance,
the completely boarded side should face the load:

Four-way pallet Arrangement of pallets

Unsatisfactory packaging results in errors in load securing which could only have been
prevented by additional outlay of material and work. The visible stowage gaps must be
filled in any case:

Stowage gaps between drums and other packages

This picture clearly illustrates points where harmful load forces can arise.
The C TU guidelines require that when during the final stages of packing a C TU, care
should be taken so far as is practicable, to build a secure face of the cargo. This is to
prevent cargo from falling out when the doors are opened. A board fitted between the
corrugations is not capable of ensuring this.

In order to come anywhere near fulfilling this requirement, it would have been necessary
to have fitted a number of transverse boards or - better still - a lattice made of several
boards:

It can be assumed that if the loads are otherwise correctly stowed, the boards or lattices
will be held in place by the container doors, preventing any longitudinal shifting of the
load. Since dynamic forces are no longer acting on the load when the container is opened,
it is not to be expected that cargo items will be able to fall out when the doors are
opened. In this way, the requirements of the C TU guidelines for a secure load face can be
met.

A similar situation can be expected for the following container, although the securing
forces of the diagonally fitted boards are not ideal:

Securing the face

of a load with
diagonally fitted
boards

It is important that the boards are placed and nailed to each other in such a way that their
position in relation to each other and to the container cannot change.

What is also unacceptable about this container is the quantity of old pallets which have
been used and the carelessness of the packing.

The issues are completely different when gaps remain in the door area on partly loaded
containers. Such primitive securing is in no way adequate here - whether boards or
squared lumber are used:
 Inadequately secured face of a load

At (1), the squared lumber could slip down and then become loose. This "securing",
already primitive enough, would then become ineffective. The usual error made in
packing, namely leaving loading gaps, is also to be seen in this container (2).

Securing with squared lumber by bracing it against the corner posts of the container, is
relatively quick and not excessively costly. Since the case (1) protrudes slightly out of the
face of the load, no optimum solution is possible here.

Securing by bracing against the corner posts

If the load is not braced against the corner posts, the wood fitted horizontally between the
corrugations cannot hold the face of the load securely. This can result in damage to the
container corrugations if the forces from the load become too high and the squared
lumber is pressed toward the door. Fitting squared lumber and boards in the container
corrugations is a very easy method of securing, but this method should be used on its own
only for very light loads. In all other cases, boards and squared lumber must be fitted
horizontally, supported against slipping down and also braced along the length of the
container.

With the previous method, the transversely fitted squared lumber is subjected to bending
stress across its whole width. The wood inserted at the container wall only has very little
to "get its teeth into" on the corner posts. Securing material must therefore cover a large
area and where possible be placed obliquely against the corner posts to ensure a high
load-bearing capacity:

Bracing against
the corner posts
with medium-
heavy goods
- Top view

If the total weight of the load in the container is heavy or extremely heavy, additional
squared lumber bracing against the doors must be provided.

Bracing against
the corner posts
with heavy goods
- Top view

Bracing against
the corner posts
with very heavy
goods
- Top view
 Inadequately packed container section

It is constantly forgotten that during transport, the vehicle is subject to changes in speed
and direction. The inertia forces resulting from these changes set the load in motion
relative to the vehicle.

Securing of the face of the load in the door area of this container is inadequate and needs
to be improved in several ways:

Incorrectly loaded container with dangerous goods

Dangerous cargoes were loaded in this container. But not - as the regulations demand - in
the door area; instead they were "concealed" within the rest of the load. See Section 4.3.7
of the C TU guidelines for the relevant regulation. This states that "dangerous cargoes
consignments which form only a part of the load of a C TU should, wherever possible, be
packed adjacent to the doors with markings and labels visible."

Attention has already been drawn to the special measures required for securing cargo by
the doors of a unit several times. It is dubious whether the two crossed boards can
actually prevent the load from falling out if the container has traveled for some distance.
This is partly because the boards were not beveled:

No beveling on the ends of the boards

The fitted board does not have enough "to get its teeth into" in the groove of the
container corrugations to withstand the potential loads.

Improved grip by beveling the ends of the board

Beveled boards can withstand loads acting toward the doo r much better.

A weak point of all securing measures of this kind, however, is that the boards slip away
toward the top and then no longer provide any protection.

Diagonally inserted boards can escape upward

Theoretically, one viable solution to this would be to brace the boards toward the top, but
it would be difficult or awkward to achieve this in practice.
 It is not always possible to secure boards by nailing

It is not always possible to secure diagonally inserted boards by nailing. This type of
securing method should therefore be avoided entirely. Horizontally fitted boards or lattices
are suitable for relatively light loads. Squared lumber or other lumber measuring
5 cm x 8 cm is a better solution for medium heavy goods. Professional bracing must be
built for heavier loads.

4.3 Load securing

4.3.1 General load securing methods

4.3.2 Achieving a tight fit using container components and special
components
4.3.3 Achieving a tight fit by filling in gaps
4.3.4 Achieving a tight fit by bracing
4.3.5 Achieving a tight fit by lashing
4.3.6 Friction securing
4.3.7 Securing against tipping and other hazards
4.3.8 Securing by nailing

A lot of material has been published about load securing in the last few years. The
necessity for correct load securing has been unanimously confirmed by experts. However,
the most effective methods are subject to fierce discussion. New regulations have been
introduced and old regulations have been reworked. A range of recommendations and
handbooks have appeared on the market designed to help the user, but these books do
not always live up to expectations.

When selecting load securing methods and using load securing materials, economic
considerations should obviously play a significant role, but safety sh ould never be
compromised as a result.

This part of the Handbook is designed to provide the user with information, particularly
with regard to the practical techniques of load securing. But at the same time, as far as
this is possible, the background and context will also be discussed from the theoretical
point of view. It is impossible to do full justice to this topic given the limited number of
pages available. However, the author hopes that this work will offer a suitable introduction
to this topic.
4.3.1 General load securing methods

Because C argo Transport Units (C TUs) are carried on all types of transport vehicle we
shall here introduce some specific terms for loading and securing methods as used by
each industry. Almost all fields of shipping refer to load securing in one way or another,
yet each field has its own specialist terms. § 2 of the German rail traffic regulations (EVO)
defines a general obligation to secure loads. This states:
EVO - § 2 - Stowage
The objects to be loaded must be fundamentally safe and secure and should not
be able to move as a result of jolts or vibrations that can be expected under
normal operating conditions. The possibility of longitudinal movement is permitted
insofar as the magnitude of this movement is limited by the use of appropriate
means and there is no risk posed to safety.
This paragraph provides an important piece of information, namely that rail transport
permits two fundamentally different securing methods:

The sliding loading method allows cargo to move in the direction of impact as a result
of the jolting forces that occur during rail transportation. With this method, jolting energy
is absorbed by friction work. The magnitude of deceleration in g (1 g = 9.81 m/s²)
corresponds to the size of the friction coefficient between the package and the loading
surface. The lower the friction coefficient, the lower the forces acting on the cargo, but the
greater the travel and vice versa. As a result of the limited travel which is possible, this
method is geared toward the friction between wood and wood with travel of at least 1.5 m
on each side of the object. If the possible travel is less than 1.5 m, then the use of no n-
slip materials placed between the load and the floor of the freight car is required.

The German railroad authorities recommend the use of this method for sensitive loads, for
example, machines etc. if the properties of the load and the length of the lo ading area
permits the method and if the goods are not in danger of tipping. The lower end edges of
the load should be beveled in order to ensure that they do not snag on uneven areas of
the freight car floor. If the bottom surface of the goods does not allow them to slide, they
should be firmly attached wooden skids or sleds. The leading edges of the skids should be
shaped like runners.

The sliding loading method - Side view

The sliding loading method - Plan view

The loads must be secured against sideways movement. Squared wooden guide rails
attached next to the loaded goods or sleds in such a way that the load not prevented from
sliding have proved themselves in practice.

Any movement by the load must not cause permitted axle loads to be excee ded. Thus, the
maximum permissible load of the freight car cannot be fully exploited. The axle load must
not exceed the value that results when the sum of the tare weight plus the permitted
maximum load is divided by the number of axles or bogies. The rati o of the axle loads of
cars with two axles must not exceed 2:1, that of bogie cars must not exceed 3:1.

If the floor surface is of the same nature, goods will slide the same distance, regardless of
their mass. Thus a number of partial loads or load group s consolidated as blocks can be
loaded on a car using the sliding loading method. The loading guidelines require a gap of
50 cm between the individual goods/groups. When using this type of loading, several
consecutive jolts during switching should not occur in the same direction. C ars loaded in
this manner are specially checked at the switching yards.

The term rigid loading comes from the loading guidelines published by the UIC
(International Rail Union) and is used as a blanket term to cover both compact loading
and individual securing.

The term "rigid loading" means exactly what it says: the load must be secured on or in a
cargo transport unit in such a way that it is unable to move. If this demand is met, the
load is unable to topple, fall down or become damaged/cause damage in any way.
However, the term does not specify the method of securing that is to be used.

The term "compact loading" also clearly indicates the concept. A compact load is one
which is stowed without gaps or, insofar as gaps remain, where these gaps have been
filled by resilient material.

The term also immediately suggests that the C TUs must have borders of sufficient load
bearing capacity around the loading area in order to allow a compact unit to be formed in
which nothing is able to move. Even this simple description makes it clear that a C TU that
does not have fixed side or end walls is not suitable/only partially suitable for securing
loads in this way.

Individually secured loads are attached to the transport unit using special load securing
aids. The term does not, however, indicate exactly how securing is to take place. It does
however, imply that certain components must be available or certain requirements must
be in met in order to allow loads to be secured individually: These components may be
lashing points or other securing mechanisms on either the transport unit itself or the load.

If these load securing measures are carried out correctly, both of the important
requirements of load securing will have been met: The load is unable to slide or tip. If we
go into more detail, tipping can fall into two categories.

There's still time to ask for information.

4.3.2 Achieving a tight fit using container

components and special components

This type of tight-fit is designed to transfer the forces from an item either directly to
components of the transport unit, such as the walls or stanchions or directly via parts of
the load which are capable of withstanding these forces. This cost-effective method of load
securing has already been referred to as compact loading. If the packages have the right
shape, size, strength and compatibility they can be packed together in tight contact. This
forms a coherent loading block. If this block is unable to move in any direction, then no
further securing measures will be required.
 Compact loading
in a box
container

This method of packing may also be described as a complete longitudinal and transverse
block. All the inertia forces acting on the load are transferred directly by the load to the
components of the means of transport. The prerequisite is that the components of the
transport unit are capable of withstanding such forces long -term.

A virtually complete
compact load
of cases in a
container

Goods can often be packed successfully against the end walls and the sides. If the
packages do not fill the entire length of the container, appropriate securing mechanisms
should be used in the door area. If there is a risk of the packages working loose from the
block as a result of the movement of the ship, then additional lumber bracing or other
similar securing mechanisms should also be applied on top of the load.

Tight-fit for special receptacles traveling on a special flatrack

 The half height open top
containers in situ, as seen from the
end

The flatracks shown here were specially designed to accommodate stacked receptacles.
They are used to deliver securing elements such as stacking cones, twist locks, bridge
fittings and other similar items used for securing containers on board ships. Solutions of
this type are also suitable for transporting other small items. T aking into account the costs
of packing and securing items, the use of a more expensive special container may, in the
long run, actually pay for itself, particularly as the half-height saves on transport volume.

Platform containers of normal construction can usually be loaded in a compact/tight-fit

fashion if the dimensions of the load are identical to the dimensions of the container
loading area:

Compact stowage of a case on a flatrack with stanchions

This constellation is very rarely seen in practice. Shortcuts are not permitted in the field of
load securing, but if the intended dimensions of a case are very close to those of the
loading area of a real flatrack then it is possible to make the case fit the flatrack by
building it slightly larger than originally planned. The additional costs invested in building
the case are recouped by the costs saved on securing the case, and the risks of c arriage
are also lower.
 Compact tight-fit securing of
a power substation using
specially shaped stanchions
crosswise on a flatrack

The load shown here is a substation. An overwidth such as this would normally require a
considerable load securing outlay. The adjustable stanchions shown in blue (and which
must be specially manufactured) can be used to ensure an excellent lateral tight fit. In
reality, cargo items are not so large that they reach as far as the end walls. In this case,
therefore, they would need to be braced with wooden beams or similar material. Securing
by lashing would be even more work-intensive. Even if the items to be sent were the
same length as the container, the overwidth would prevent the cargo from being loaded
hard up against the end walls since the containe r would no longer fit into the slots of the
ship. A possible solution would be to use a flatrack with special stanchion pockets that
allow the load to be secured as a tight-fit.

Stanchion pockets on a specially designed flatrack

Power substation secured using

removable stanchions and
adjustable stanchions - Side
view
 Power substation secured using removable stanchions
and adjustable stanchions - Top view

The means of transport are often only partially filled. Gaps may arise as a result of the
characteristics of the load or for packing reasons. If so, then the load must be secured
using the appropriate methods. Special securing measures may b e required if there are
edges on the means of transport or the edges available are not able to bear the load, as is
the case when using partially open/open means of transport. In these cases, other
methods will need to be used. These are described in the following sections.

4.3.3 Achieving a tight fit by filling in gaps

This method of compact loading involves leaving gaps that must be filled in. When us ing
box containers, these gaps may be longitudinal or transverse and should be filled in
appropriately unless there is a better way of securing the cargo. Filling is usually the
better and more economical method since lashing inside box containers requires
considerable effort. The situation with platform containers is different; here lashing is
often more suitable. Objects suitable for filling in gaps are wooden battens, which will be
discussed in the next section, paperboard which can be used for very small gaps, boards
and individual pieces of squared lumber for small gaps and pallets for larger gaps. If
smooth surfaces are available or measures can be taken to eliminate sharp edges, then
airbags may also be used.

Incorrect
securing
by filling
C ompact packing and filling of gaps can only be implemented effectively if all parts of the
load are sufficiently robust. Here, for example, the movement of the ship and the
container while at sea would, sooner or later, destroy the cartons that are marked fragile.
The gaps that occur as a result of this would then put the wooden cases at risk. The fact
that the upper of the two cartons has been loaded upside down is not particularly good,
but it is also not forbidden. If the shipper wishes to ensure that a packaged item is
transported upright, it must be marked accordingly.

Correct filling
of spaces

The gap has been left between the two strong wooden cases and filled in using boards and
squared lumber (a). The cartons were loaded into this space. The remaining spaces were
filled in using old pallets (b). The forces acting on the wooden cases are transferred from
case to case by the squared lumber and onto the side walls of the container. The pallets
are simply transferring the forces from the cartons to the case on the right.

An important note referring to the use of "old materials" is given in section 3.2.12 of the
C TU guidelines.
When deciding on packaging and cargo-securing material, it should be borne in
mind that some countries enforce a garbage - and litter-avoidance policy. This
may lead to limitations on the use of certain materials and imply fees for the
recovery of packaging at the reception point as well as similar problems for the
shipper of the cargo. In such cases, reusable packaging and securing material
should be used. Increasingly, countries are requiring timber dunnage and
packaging materials to be debarked.
According to Section 8 of the GGVSee "shipper" is understood to mean the manufacturer
or distributor.
 Filling a space in the vicinity of the door

The space remaining in the vicinity of the door

is filled in using upended pallets placed across
the space and squared lumber beams fitted
into the corrugations of the container. C are
must be taken if the overall mass of the load is
large, since the use of this method could cause
damage to the corrugations.

If possible, the load should be braced against

the door posts in the vicinity of the doors. If
this is not possible, the door area can be filled
in, but in such a way that the load is spread
over a sufficient area that no harmful pressure
points arise.

Corrugations run the

risk of being damaged

Filling in space left in the middle of a container

Leaving spaces in the middle of a container and filling them in requires the packer to
calculate the required dimensions exactly. With good planning this is not a problem. There
is an advantage to this, since it allows the distribution of weight to be better organized.

Using airbags to fill in a space left in the middle of a container

Since airbags should not be used in the vicinity of the door for safety reasons, the obvious
option is to leave space in the middle of the container. The airbags can be affixed and
partially inflated before loading the cases in the door area. Once the cases h ave been put
into place, the left-hand door is closed and the airbags can be inflated fully.

Impractical method of filling a gap in the middle of a container using

airbags

Theoretically it is possible to determine the size of the gap and to fully inflate the airbags
before loading the boxes. However, this runs the risk of the airbags being crushed without
the packers being able to monitor this, since the height of the cases means that the
airbags are no longer accessible. This method of securing is practical when used with
containers which have side doors and with platform containers which can be accessed
from the side.

4.3.4 Achieving a tight fit by bracing

Bracing elements made of wood are a tried and tested method of load securing when
packing containers. Squared lumber, battens and other elements are fitted in in such a
way that spaces within the load are bridged. Bracing between the cargo and the container,
and between the items of cargo are both commonly used methods. The latter is the more
cost-effective solution since the required securing forces are generally lower.

Wooden bracing elements used to fill in gaps or empty spaces can often be made quickly
and simply. Occasionally, however, they are feats of craftsmanship that require a great
deal of experience and ability.
 Horizontally bracing, poorly Well placed horizontal
placed in part bracing elements

The important issue when bracing is that the forces must be transferred to the load -
bearing components of the cargo transport unit or the packaged items that surround the
gap. From a technical point of view, the bracing elements in both examples are equally
well made. Horizontal elements are nailed onto vertical elements. The bracing elements
are formed by the wooden beams that are cut to fit and placed transversely on top. The
majority of this work can be done in advance outside the C TU. Only the bracing must be
put in place inside the container. The advantage of the method shown on the right is that
the bracing elements are placed level with the strongest parts of the cases, namely the
top and the bottom.

This form of bracing (see the next figure) assumes that the packages either side of the
gap are of almost identical height. Two transverse lengths o f squared lumber are placed
on the floor at the bottom of the space (a); depending on the forces that can be expected,
at least two or more pieces of lumber are cut to fit and placed horizontally (b). Outside
the transport unit, boards are prepared (c) which can then be nailed to the fitted lumber
beams (d). This prepared bracing element is then lowered into place from above. All
elements are stapled in place to prevent them from moving or are cross -braced with
wooden boards.

Tight-fit using a very simply made form of brac ing

Using squared lumber fitted into a space in the way shown above is only possible if the
packaged items are able to withstand such point loading. If the cases are not strong
enough to allow the ends of the bracing beams to be placed against them directly, boards
(e), planking or squared lumber can be additionally used to distribute the load forces. If
this is not sufficient, vertical bracing elements or other methods of bracing should be
used. The section on wood contains a number of other useful tips, as well as r ules of
thumb for calculating strength. Additional tips can also be found in the examples.

Bracing an overheight case on a 40' flatrack

The traffic lights here are on amber. There are a number of things to bear in mind with
regard to the woodwork and the lashing that have been used here. This picture is only
designed to indicate the wide range of bracing methods that can be used to create a tight
fit.

It is often the case that insufficient attention is paid to the bracing of gaps and/or the
work is carried out in an unprofessional manner:
 Badly braced spaces in a container

Space 1 allows the packaged items to slide around on the floor. Package 2 can slide both
in the direction of the door and in the direction of the space. Package 4 can move forward
into space 3 or escape to the side. Bracing element 5 is able to shift upward and
downward on the right, and as a result of point loading may even damage the wa ll of the
container. On the left, the bracing is able to move in all directions because it has not been
fixed into place.

Neat packing and the professional use of beams and boards enables the remaining gaps to
be braced without subjecting parts of the load or the container walls to point load forces.

An example of professional bracing

The picture shown here is of a stuffed container destined for an international voyage
carrying, among other things, dangerous goods. In accordance with legal requirements a
signed container packing certificate was available which testified that the container had
been correctly packed and that the load had been secured adequately. It is difficult to
believe that anyone could possibly issue this certificate for the load shown here.

The provisional bracing of the gap with a pallet (1) is not sufficient.

Goods are put at risk by provisional filling using a pallet

The red arrow (3) shows the foot of the pallet putting pressure on the wall of the drum.
The cartons are not strong enough to ensure that they will survive without damage. The
green arrow (4) shows where forces can be transmitted via the corrugations of the drum.

In order to ensure an even distribution of forces, walking boards, chipboard or hardboard

(2) are required in addition to the pallet (1).

Filling in a space using a pallet and plywood

Key: (1) = Pallet placed vertically;

(2) = Plywood board placed vertically;
(3) Transmission of forces to the drum;
(4) and (5) = Transmission of forces at the corrugations of the drum.
This alone is not sufficient to provide 100% protection from damage. An important factor
is that the forces from the drums are absorbed at the top of the boxes.

This can be achieved by laying pallets on top of the cartons in conjunction with squared
lumber or using a simple construction made of squared lumber and boards. The latter can
be prepared outside the container and then put into place.

Different bracing elements

The option of boards (6) plus squared lumber (7) was used for the load shown here, which
meant that the forces were transmitted to the top rims of the drums.

Absorbing the forces at the top of the goods in cartons

Every space in the load represents an increased risk of danger. Spaces should therefore
always be filled in.
 Badly wrapped pallets
and spaces in the
load

Filling in
spaces in
the load using two
pallets

With goods that are liable to topple or palletized goods, as in (1) and (2), that are badly
bonded to the pallet, it is not only the floor region which must be filled out, but a greater
surface area as shown in the picture on the right where two pallets have bee n used for
this purpose (3).

At a first glance, the container looks relatively well packed:

 Faults in a container packed for export

The heavy case has not been braced at floor level. The forces from the case are able to
work in all horizontal directions. Depending on the method of transportation and the
forces that occur as a result, the cartons at the front (1), side (3) or rear (4) can be
damaged by the case (2) or may even be crushed completely.
Here a roll angle of 30° is shown. Such transverse forces occur when a container is
transported on a ship in the usual fashion, namely with fore and aft stowage. To put the
risks in perspective, it can be assumed that on a long voyage a container will be subjected
to several tens of thousands of these roll oscillations. During pre- and post-carriage by rail
or by road, the objects in front of or behind the case are the ones most at risk. The same
would apply if the container was to be stowed athwartships on the vessel.

The possibility of the packages being crushed could have been avoided by using squared
lumber in the floor region between the case and the sides of the container.

View from the top View from the side

Frame used to brace a case against

the end wall of the container

The squared lumber beams (a) lying lengthways are designed to brace the case which has
yet to be loaded. They are raised (c) in such a way that the case is braced at the level of
the bottom of the case. Squared lumber or boards are pla ced at the end wall of the
container and the front end of the case; these serve to distribute the load forces (b).
The cartons and pallets of batch (1) are then loaded into this section of the container and
secured appropriately above the height of the case that is still to be loaded.

Once the case has been loaded, the space at the right of the container can then be
braced:

Bracing in the space at the right of the container - Plan view

The wooden bracing elements (d) and the wooden beams that are designed to distribute
the load forces (e) are raised by beams placed below them to the extent that the frame is
at the same level as the robust bottom of the case . The number of wooden elements used
to form the bracing will depend on the weight of the case and can be calculated using a
rule of thumb. For each square centimeter cross-section of a wooden element, a force of
30 daN can be absorbed.

The next two images illustrate more clearly how the frame is raised using wooden
elements (f).
 Bracing in the space at the right of the container
- View from the right

Bracing in the space at the right of the container

- View from the door

If cases are at risk of tipping, they must also be braced close to the lid of the case. This is
not necessary in this particular instance.

4.3.5 Achieving a tight fit by lashing

Lashing refers to the use of steel strapping, chains, steel wire, textile straps, ropes and
other securing materials which are fixed, on the one hand, to the packag e and, on the
other hand, to the C TU and then tensioned lightly. The important factors that determine
the effectiveness of the lashings are the quality of the materials and the fixing points as
well as the directions in which the lashings work. This means that lashing angles also play
a critical role. Lashing a package is intended to prevent it from moving longitudinally or
laterally and to stop it rising from the loading surface or tipping. A lashing is used to
create a tight fit. The term direct lashing is also used.
The quantity and thickness of the required lashings will depend on the weight of the load
that is to be secured, on the anticipated forces, on the maximum securing load of the
lashings and the lashing angles. More information can be found in the relevant sections
dealing with the materials and in the lashing examples.

Lashing has a less important role to play when secur ing packages in box containers. Since
the lashing points in the container usually have a maximum securing load of 1,000 daN
(corresponds to a mass of approximately 1 t), the use of lashing must be restricted to
lighter packages. Another consideration is the fact that lashing points are often not
accessible as a result of spatial restrictions and the space occupied by packages. When
securing loads in open top containers a higher MSL can generally be assumed - often in
the region of 2,000 daN (corresponds to a mass of approximately 2 t). Platform -style
containers, on the other hand, offer good lashing facilities, which means that lashing is
virtually indispensable on such cargo transport units.

Horizontal lashings with longitudinal components

- View from the top

Horizontal lashings with longitudinal components

- View from the side

Horizontal lashings have no vertical component. Horizontal lashings attached

longitudinally, as shown here, have no lateral components. The package is simply held in
place longitudinally by this type of load securing.
 Horizontal lashings with horizontal components
- View from the top

If the lashings are absolutely parallel to the horizontal transverse axis, they will have no
longitudinal or vertical components. A package secured in this manner is thus exclusively
secured in the transverse direction.

The lashing shown here, however, also has a slight ve rtical component as a result of the
position of the lashing points.

Horizontal lashing
with transverse and vertical
components
- Lateral view
 Vertical lashing without
horizontal components
- Lateral view

A purely vertical lashing has no horizontal component at all. These lashings are thus
unable to exert either a longitudinal or a transverse securing effect. Longitudinal and
transverse forces can cause the load to move. If this happens, the purely vertical lashings
are displaced sideways and sometimes placed under considerable tension. The tension
that is created as a result of the load moving exerts a force on the load pushing it down
on the container floor. This increases the frictional forces on the floor. Frictional forces for
each lashing are calculated using the product of the MSL and the friction coefficient.

Vertical lashings with slight

horizontal transverse
components
- Lateral view

The German VDI guidelines refer to lashings of this type as inclined lashings. Such
lashings form a lashing angle with the horizontal plane, which is referred to as α.
 Diagonal lashings with horizontal longitudinal and transverse
components and vertical components - View from the top

Diagonal lashings with horizontal longitudinal and transverse

components and vertical components - View from the side

Diagonal lashings form a lashing angle α with the horizontal plane and a further lashing
angle β with the horizontal longitudinal direction of the transport unit. According to the
terms defined by the VDI, lashings of this type are referred to as diagonal lashings.

With the diagonal lashings shown here, the vertical components are the greatest. The
horizontal longitudinal components are considerably smaller, and the horizontal transverse
components even smaller still.

C ross lashings are simply a special form of diagonal lashing. These are adv antageous if
the lack of space requires greater horizontal components.
 Cross lashings with
horizontal and vertical
components
- Lateral view

Diagonal lashings with small Cross lashings with better

horizontal transverse horizontal transverse
components components

The package on the right is considerably better secured laterally than the one on the left.
Under such conditions cross lashings are often suitable. But beware: This no longer
applies if the package is to be secured against tipping.

Ineffective components for Effective components for

securing against tipping securing against tipping
 Optimum lashing angle to The real lashing angle is close
protect against tipping, but to the optimum to protect
impossible to implement against tipping.

The optimum angle for securing against tipping is to imagine a line to the outside at right
angles to the line connecting the lashing point and the tipping edge:.

A clear warning must be issued against the so-called round turn lashings where the
lashing material is fixed at one side, wrapped around the object and then fixed at the
other side:

Round turn lashing

Round turn lashings allow the loads to move freely.

 Round turn lashings
are similar to the
diabolo toy principle

Loop lashings are unfortunately rarely used as a form of tight-fit securing although they
are extremely effective. This method can be used very effectively with all long, cylindical
loads.

Loop lashing used to secure a

piece of machinery
- Lateral view

Loop lashing used to secure a piece of machinery

- View from the top
 Loop lashing used to secure a piece of machinery
- Side view

Loop lashings can be used anywhere where the lashing can be wrapped around a
component of the load. To create a loop lashing, the lashing material is fixed to a lashing
point on the means of transport, wrapped around the load and back to the side it started
from and, if possible, secured to a second lashing point.

When using separate lashing points, the permitted lashing force of a single strand of the
lashing can be increased by a factor of up to two at best. With a lashing point with a
permitted load of 2,000 daN (approximately 2 t) and a permitted lashing force of a single
strand of lashing material of 2,000 daN (approximately 2t) as well, this will result in a
maximum of 4,000 daN (approximately 4 t) securing force. The opening angle between
the ends of the lashing material leads to a certain reduction: With a maximum possible
angle of 90° in the three diagrams this is 30%. The pretensioning force in the lashing will
also reduce the securing force. However, depending on the circumstances, the frictional
forces may be increased.

There are numerous possible variations on the loop lashing principle. A little imagination
and experience will show that this principle can be used to solve a multitude of load
securing problems.

The weaknesses of the round turn lashing and the strengths of the loop lashing have been
investigated by the Fortbildungszentrum Hafen Hamburg (the training center at the port in
Hamburg) in a very effective test. Part of this series of photos is shown here:

The lashings have been

applied - The tipping
process begins.
 An angle less than 30° has
been reached - part of the
friction forces are still
effective.

The round turn lashing

fails, the loop lashing
remains firm.

Impact: The round turn

lashing fails even more,
the loop lashing still
remains firm!

If there are no securing points, lashings can be attached with "head loops".

Head loops with spring

lashings in the form of a
cross lashing

Note that the lashing shown in this sketch is not sufficient for carriage. It is only shown to
illustrate the principle of head loops (green) and lashings attached to them (magenta).
Securing using head loops will usually require two members of staff. This method is much
too time-intensive to implement alone. The term spring lashing is used to described
lashings that run from the outside to the inside, regardless of whether they cross. Head
loops can take a number of different forms. This C ontainer Handbook and the GDV C argo
Securing Manual contain a number of samples in the various examples.

Figure of eight head loop Head loop with padding

If layered goods run the risk of the head loop cutting in between the individual packages,
then a figure of eight head loop can be used to achieve the same result. The use of the
head loop as shown above, requires the packages to be stable enough to take the full MSL
of the lashing. If this is not the case, boards, lattices, walking boards, square lumber
dunnage and other similar aids can be used to cushion them in order to meet the
prerequisites for the head loops. This is usually needed when se curing bundles, IBC s,
units, bagged cargo pallets, or other similar packages.

The majority of securing errors are made when making and s ecuring the lashings. This
picture shows the use of a hook which has already been bent open, and which has also
been inserted in the wrong direction. The chain tensioner shown has not been used
correctly. It must be tightened down by at least 45° and must not protrude at right angles
as shown here, otherwise there is a danger that the link of the chain could escape from
the lug of the tensioner. The lashing angles are not suitable. High vertical components
have been achieved, but the longitudinal and transverse components are too low.

Faulty fixing and errors

 Tight-fit securing of rolls of paper
using a WisaFix lashing cover

This example shows the use of a load securing tarpaulin with textile straps that have been
secured to the ends of the roll trailer, thus ensuring a tight-fit. This type of securing is
only suitable for ocean-going transport if the roll trailers are stowed in a "tight-fit"
constellation next to each other and either along the length of the ship or athwartships.
Since the load has simply been strapped down at the sides of the roll trailer, the securing
is sufficient for terminal transport, but not for ocean-going transport.

4.3.6 Friction securing

Friction securing or friction loop securing means that the frictional forces between the
packages and the intermediate layers or underlying surface are g reater than the forces
caused by transportation and which are working on the load. Only if this requirement is
fulfilled when the load is packed and can be maintained during the entire transportation
process, can the load be considered "secure". A simple e xample taken from everyday life
is the passenger traveling on a bus who places their foot on top of their briefcase in order
to prevent it sliding away from them in a corner or during acceleration and deceleration.

Friction loop made of

steel strapping

The best-known and most frequently used form of friction securing is the round turn or
friction loop. The VDI guidelines and other road traffic publications refer to this method as
tying down, and to the lashing as a tie-down. The rail transport industry uses the term tie -
down.
Whatever term is used, the guidelines are referring to the same method: With the aid of
tensioning elements, a certain degree of pretensioning is introduced into the lashings
which effectively puts additional artificial weighting on the secured package. This causes
additional frictional forces on the bottom of the package. In conjunction with the "normal"
frictional forces this will give the overall securing force of a given lashing. The
effectiveness of this method of securing increases with the friction and the effective
pretensioning.

If tie-down lashings can be referred to as "advantageous" at all, this is as a result of f act

that the frictional forces act in all directions. Thus, it is not significant from which side of
the object the tie-downs are applied.

Frictional forces act in all directions.

The general securing principle is that the vertical components of the pretensioning force
introduced to the lashing aid increase the downward pressure between the load and the
surface it is resting on, thus generating additional frictional forces.

How tie-downs work

The smaller the vertical components and the frictional values, the lower the securing
forces that can be achieved:

The relationship between pretensioning and

the vertical component for lashing angles

Where tensioning aids are applied to just one side of an object, the pretensioning force
decreases towards the opposite side. The rougher the contact surfaces over which the
material passes, the lower the pretensioning force on the opposite side. The use of smooth
edge protectors helps to ensure that as much of the pretensioning force created on the
one side is distributed to the other as possible. Jolting may cause the pretensioning force
on the tensioned side to decrease and to increase on the side that is not tensioned.
 Migration of pretensioning force during transport

If it is not possible to use smooth edge protector corners with tensioners used on one side
only, it is sensible to tension the lashings on alternate sides.

Incorrect installation of fixed lashing tensioners and steel

strapping

The lashing capstans would have been more useful if three of them had bee n installed on
each side of the flatrack. Here, it is not ideal that all the steel straps are tensioned on the
same side.

What is important is that the pretensioning force always remains constant. Thus, it is only
sensible to use tie-downs with elastic materials. Wire rope, chains and even steel straps
are unsuitable for use as tie-downs unless they can be rendered elastic by the use of
special padding materials.

The securing forces only exist if the pretensioning force can be

maintained.
This wooden case clearly shows that the ste el strapping has left an impression in the wood
of the case. Just a few more jolts and the pretensioning force will be reduced to nothing.
The use of a piece of tire rubber, as shown in the picture on the right, can effectively help
maintain the pretensioning force by making use of the elasticity of the rubber.

Steel wire and tire Decrease in the pretensioning

rubber force

When transporting materials that give way easily, a padding with a high degree of
recovery, like tire rubber, is not going to be very effective. As the picture shows, the loss
of pretensioning force is dramatic. Here, a new 16 mm steel wire rope lost tension,
dropping from approximately 2,700 daN to approximately 2,100 daN during a 20 minute
coffee break. Unfortunately steel wire ropes tend to lose tension. In this ex ample,
however, the use of tire rubber is an ideal method of reducing damage to the tarpaulins
and to the load.

The magnitude of the pretensioning forces that can be introduced into the lashing material
is dependent on the tensioning forces used, the lev erage on the tensioning element and
the elasticity of the lashing material. Experience shows that the following lashing materials
are able to attain the following pre-tensioning forces in the lashing material when
tensioned with normal physical effort:

 Normal ratchet tensioners approximately 300 daN per side

 Tensioner for single-use webbing approximately 500 daN

 Long-lever ratchet tensioners approximately 500 - 750 daN per side

 C ommonly available spindle tensioners and capstans 500 - 1,000 daN

 Manual steel strap tensioners 1,000- 1,500 daN

 Lashing turnbuckles approximately 3,000 daN

These values are not definitive; they are based on practical experience gained in a sea
port. Practitioners should calculate the appropriate values for their field de pending on the
materials used. The use of special tensioning aids may make it possible to apply greater
pretensioning force. The use of pretension indicators is recommended. These allow both
accurate measurement of the pretensioning force during lashing, as well as allowing the
residual pretensioning force to be checked during transportation. However, it must be said
that this is of little use if the containers cannot be checked during the transportation
process.

For reasons that will not be explained here, the pretensioning force is only permitted to
be, at the most, half of the MSL or the permitted lashing force of a single lashing.
The vertical component of the pretensioning forces decreases as the lashing angle of the
tie-down decreases. From a mathematical point of view, the rate of decrease is by the
sine of the lashing angle. The following values can be used as guidelines:

Lashing Magnitude of the vertical

Graphical representation
angle component
90° 1.00 or 100 %
75° 0.97 or 97 %
60° 0.87 or 87 %
45° 0.71 or 71 %
30° 0.50 or 50%
15° 0.26 or 26%

0° 0.00 or 0%

Influence of the lashing angle on the vertical component

The table below shows examples of the magnitude of the overall securing forces of tie -
downs with a total pretensioning force of 600 daN when used with various lashing angles
and coefficients of friction.

Total Friction
Lashing Vertical
pretensioning force
angle component 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
in daN
15° 0.26 16 31 39 47 62 78 94
30° 0.50 30 60 75 90 120 150 180
600 45° 0.71 43 85 107 128 170 213 256
60° 0.87 52 104 131 157 209 261 313
90° 1.00 60 120 150 180 240 300 360

Securing forces depending on pretensioning force, lashing angle and

friction

The table shows that with a total pretensioning force of 600 daN, a lashing angle of 90°
and a coefficient of friction of 30% it is possible to achieve a securing force o f 180 daN per
tie-down. Thus, in order to secure a load with a mass of 9 t, 50 (fifty !) tie -downs will be
required. This shows that tie-downs have only limited use as securing aids. In addition to
this, tie-downs require an equal distribution of the prete nsioning force on both sides. This
can be achieved by using tensioning elements in pairs, centrally or alternately.

The effective securing forces can be very accurately calculated on site with very little
effort and some basic mathematics, as long as the pretensioning and frictional forces are
known or can be estimated with some accuracy.
 Determining the vertical component of the pretensioning
force of a lashing

The effective length of the lashing aid in the example is measured at 1.00 m (dark -green
line). The vertical component of the lashing in the example is 0.80 m (light-green line).
The vertical component of the pretensioning force is thus 80% or 0.8 (always divide the
smaller value by the larger value). Multiplying the value with the pretensioning force of
the lashing aid and the coefficient of friction between the package and the surface will give
the securing force. With a pretensioning force of 500 daN and coefficient of friction of μ =
0.3, the lashing applies a securing force of 0.8 x 500 daN x 0.3 = 120 daN.

Using conventional materials it would be possible to use tensioners on both sides - but this
is not practical. The central use of tensioning aids in container loads is a potential source
of accidents since staff need to climb on top of the load. Prefabricated load securing
materials usually only have tensioning elements that are not located in the middle and
would thus require additional outlay in terms of material and work. Thus, it is
recommended that tie-downs should be secured on alternate sides if they are used at all.
Shifting of the load is more likely to occur if the tension is not distributed equally. Tie -
down lashings can only be used in box containers under certain circumstances. They are
easy to use with all forms of platform container, but are not to be recommended.

As has already been mentioned, in order to ensure adequate securing of the load, it is
necessary to maintain the pretensioning during the entire transportation process. Even the
slightest of gaps in the load, the settling of the load, yielding or compression of the load,
or the cutting of lashing aids into the load as a result of a lack of edge protectors can all
reduce the pretensioning force to zero.

Loads which have an overhang are unsuitable for tie -down lashings for another reason:

Potential
movement of the load
caused by too little
securing force applied
to a wide load

As a result of the unsuitable lashing angle in the lower area, it will be practically
impossible to attain sufficient pretensioning force regardless of the type of lashing
material used. Thus, the risk is particularly high that the package will shift during
transport.

Poor Not good, but better

To summarize, friction loops or tie-downs can only really be used as an effective form of
securing if there are no gaps in the stow, or if any gaps are filled. With small gaps, the
use of wedges or tapered blocks is recommended. Larger gaps in the load should be
braced using wood or another equally strong material. It must also be possible to create
sufficiently high pressure. If this is not possible, loads should be secured using other
methods. Lashing materials without sufficient elasticity are not suitable for use as ti e-
downs. Those with a suitable degree of elasticity, for example lashing straps, will
gradually lose their pretensioning force during use. This process will be accelerated if the
load is exposed to vibrations.

Tie-downs must thus be checked and, if necessary, tightened at regular intervals. Since
this is not possible when a load is stowed in a container, tie -downs are not suitable for
securing loads inside containers. Again: If another method of load securing can be used,
tie-downs should be avoided!

One thing tie-downs always do is to create a direct lashing acting against vertical
movement.

Friction securing can also be achieved using wedges. Another variation is to to put
pressure on the load forcing it down. In the event of an absence of available/ accessible
lashing points, this method of securing may be used in box containers. The prerequisite is
the accessibility of components of the means of transport that are able to withstand this
load.

Principle of downward
pressure
- Example

Depending on the magnitude of the securing forces to be created, the sensitivity of the
packages and the resilience of the components of the means of transport, squared
lumber, planking and boards can be used. C aution: At very sharp angles, driving the
diagonal stays in laterally can create extreme vertical forces.

4.3.7 Securing against tipping and other hazards

The stability of packages will depend on the position of the center of gravity and the load
bearing area. Gravitational forces act on the center of gravity. These act vertically and
downwards. On a steep incline, the gravitational force is divided into two components: one
acting vertically to the plane and one in the direction of the slope, the shear force. Each of
these forces acts on the center of gravity.

Inertia forces arising as a result of a change in speed or direction within a given time
period will also act on the center of gravity. They may cause packages to slide or topple.

Horizontal forces and Tipping goods

gravitation

When an object tips, the center of gravity is raised. If the center of gravity remains within
the tilting edges, the package will return to its normal position, as soon as external forces
cease to act on it.

Unstable position Lever arm of the

stability moment

If the center of gravity of an object is located dire ctly over the tilting edge, the package is
unstable. The degree to which the center of gravity must be raised before it reaches that
position is a measure of the stability of the object. The product of the weight of the object
and this distance gives the stability moment.

Large stability moment Larger stability moment

The lower the center of gravity, or the greater the lower surface area of the package, the
greater the stability moment.

Toppling
If the center of gravity moves beyond the tilting edge then the package will topple.

A number of different methods can be used to prevent tipping.

Combining a number of units that are liable to tip to

form a single block

Bundling

Increasing the lower surface area by using blocks or lashings

Lashing with head loops in

the absence of lashing
points

C aution: When using this method, the opposing forces created are not as high as those
sketched previously.
 Using bracing elements to
prevent tipping

Using diagonal stays to

prevent tipping

C aution! This method is recommended in a number of publications, including the C TU

guidelines. Be warned. Our tests have shown that the uprights can be levered out of
position. The steeper the angle, the greater the risk.

The packing and formation of load units is responsible for protecting against shifting or
racking:

Shifting or racking

Improvements must be made if packages or unit loads are clearly too weak. This may be
done using walking boards, wooden lattices etc. and additional strapping.

A collapsed unit load

 Before - After

The collapse of an entire unit load as a result of packaging that is not strong enough
and/or excessive stack loads can be avoided by selecting out or rej ecting packaging that is
not strong enough, by improving the packaging, employing sufficient interlayer dunnage
and by building "dummy decks".

4.3.8 Securing by nailing

A popular method of securing loads is to use wooden constructions that are fixed by
nailing. Squared lumber and wooden wedges are generally used, but also planks and
battens. These solid wooden constructions can only really be effective if the nails used are
strong and long, and can penetrate deep into the wood and into a surface which will take
nails.

Container floors

C ontainer floors generally have a thickness of just 25 - 30 mm. Also, the majority of floor
types will be damaged by the use of nails. Thus, these methods cannot really be
recommended for securing in containers. They could be used on softwood planking , as is
sometimes used on platform containers, but are not suitable as the only form of securing
for heavy goods. Another variation is to create an additional, strong, specially -designed
base made of planks or squared lumber beams and driving nails into th is.

Wooden beam 5 cm x 12 cm

If the method is not used for light packages that are at risk of tipping, as it usually is,
then it must be ensured that only top-quality wood is used, with a thickness of at least 50
mm. Top-quality in this case means, healthy, free from cracks and dry. Shear strength
and extraction resistance are influenced by the diameter of the nails, the penetra tion
through the wood, the penetration into the underlying surface, the angle at which the nail
is driven in, and the properties of the nail surface. Nails with grooves or with coatings will
have higher resistance than ordinary wire nails.

Experience suggests that a nail, 5 mm thick, that is driven in vertically and which
penetrates through 50 mm of the grain side of a piece of wood, and is driven in to a depth
of 40 mm can be expected to offer 400 daN of resistance. Our own testing suggests that
this value can be halved for wet wood. If the nail is driven in along the grain the values
can also be halved. The resistance values are also influenced by the pattern of nails in the
wood and the distance between the nails.

Securing using wooden beams Nail strip for a nail gun

Nails should always be driven in vertically or at a slight angle to the direction of loading.
They should not be too close to the edge of the piece of wood, and should not run in a line
along the grain. Nails can be driven in efficiently using a com pressed air nail gun.
Magazines of nails, either rolled or in strips provide a source of nails that can be used with
very little physical effort.

When using wedges to secure loads, badly cut wedges are often selected. Basically,
wedges should be cut and positioned in such a way that the long side of the wood, i.e. the
grain side, is the side that is nailed, and not into the grain.

Correctly cut wedge for securing cylindrical objects

Wedges of this type are also called chocks, roll or pipe wedges. The critical fac tor is that
the grain side of the wood is available to take the nails.
 When used as a wedge for loads with vertical surfaces: Wrong

This is the same wedge, but now it is placed differently. If a packer were to use this to
secure a case, they would need to drive a na il into the grain. The wedge would split either
during nailing or on one of the first jolts during transportation. Tests have shown that
when wedges are used incorrectly barely half of the resistance values are achieved than
would be achieved if used correctly.

(Almost) correctly cut wedge for goods with vertical surfaces

A wedge of this nature can be referred to as a crate wedge. Here, it is obvious what is
meant. The nail can be driven into the grain side - and rightly so. However the slope of
the flank is too steep.

Correctly cut crate wedge

Here the slope of the flank is much better suited to the requirements of a crate wedge.

When used as a wedge for cylindrical objects: Wrong

If the crate wedge was to be turned the other way, it would make an incorrect pipe
wedge.

Sawing patterns for pipe wedges

There is no waste material when cutting pipe wedges. Any flank angle is possible. The
right angles are always at the outside edge of the piece of wood.

Sawing patterns for crate wedges

When cutting crate wedges, make one cut at the required flank angle and then continue at
right angles. Any flank angle is possible. The steeper the starting angle, the slimmer the
wedge. The right angles are always on the inside of the piece of wood.

If the packers are using wedges for both cylindrical and right-angled loads, a plentiful
supply of both types should be made available.

Pallet with pipe wedges Pallet with crate wedges

As a general rule, however, very little attention is paid to the instructions described here:
 Incorrectly cut crate
wedges, or pipe
wedges used as crate
wedges

It can be seen clearly that the wedges have already started to split. The function and
effectiveness of the nails are to be doubted. They appear to be located too high up to
fulfill the following requirements: For each wedge, at least three nails ar e necessary, one
tension nail and two to hold the wedge in place.

Minimum conditions for nailing wedges and boards

The tension nails have the task of pulling the boards and wedges close to the load in order
to eliminate any damaging gaps.

Nails in boards (left: holding nails, right: tension nails)

With boards, the nails can also be driven in against the direction of loading.
 Wedge-shaped board cut to fit

This type of securing with wood is not usually capable of achieving the result expected of
it.

Securing that
has no effect

This form of board is not able to counteract the nail being lifted out of the floor.

Wrong type of wedge,

in the wrong place

This wedge has been cut incorrectly. It has thus already split as a result of a hammer blow
or a jolt during transportation. The effective height is too small, the nails can easily be
levered out.

Incorrectly cut wedges

Incorrectly cut wedges

 Correctly cut wedges - but
insufficient securing

Simulation of a 30° roll angle of a vessel

Radial wedges Tank wedge with

a nose for the nail

Specially designed wedges of a variety of shapes can be used to secure special types of
load. The securing effect is achieved by the shape of the wedge itself. The nails serve
purely to hold the wedge in place.

4.4 Load securing equipment

 4.4.1 Lashing materials
4.4.1.1 Part 1
4.4.1.2 Part 2
4.4.1.3 Part 3
4.4.2 Wood
4.4.3 Filling material
4.4.4 "Artificial tight fit"
4.4.5 Friction and friction-enhancing mats

This section of the C ontainer Handbook deals with how to determine the maximum
securing load of materials used for load securing using simple rules of thumb and explains
some basic principles for practical work.

Steel wire rope Lashing point Steel strap

Inspecting and measuring lashing equipment

Note: Sections in italics have been reproduced from seminar material by kind courtesy of
C aptain Hermann Kaps, professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Bremen.

Fundamental terms

kilonewton (kN) is a unit of force useful for describing for instance the breaking strength
or breaking load of load securing material. It has replaced the previously common metric
ton which is the unit reserved for describing mass according to the SI standard. The
conversion is easily learned: 1 kN ≡ 0.1 t or 100 kg.

Anyone who was used to calculating mass in kilograms can use the unit decanewton (daN)
as a unit of force.

The following English terms are in common use in maritime transport across the world.
Securing element is an individual item of equipment on board ship which is used for load
securing, e.g. a shackle, a deck ring, a turnbuckle, chain or wire rope.

Securing device is a suitable combination of elements which together form a means of

load securing, e.g. lashing or bracing.

Securing Arrangement is a reasonable arrangement of load securing means with the

aim of securing a cargo item or a cargo block.

Breaking Load (BL) is the nominal breaking load, generally specified by the
manufacturer. However, it can also be estimated using rules of thumb.

Maximum Securing Load (MSL) in kN, is the greatest permissible force which can be
applied to a load securing element or device.

Calculation Strength (CS) in kN, is an arithmetic force determined by reducing the MSL
by the formula: CS = MSL / 1.5. CS values are only used to assess the efficiency of
securing arrangements as per Annex 13 of the CSS code.

The relation between Breaking Load and Maximum Securing Load is shown in Annex 13 by
the following table:

Material MSL

Shackles, rings, deck eyes, turnbuckles of 50% of breaking strength

mild steel

Fiber ropes 33% of breaking strength

Web lashing 70% of breaking strength

Wire rope (single use) 80% of breaking strength

Wire rope (re-useable) 30% of breaking strength

Steel band (single use) 70% of breaking strength

C hains 50% of breaking strength

lumber 0.3 kN per cm² normal to the grain

Table: Determining the MSL from the breaking load

Lashing elements and lashing materials There are no international standards on tie
down lashings. It is to be expected, however, that manufacturers or dealers will provide
information on or certification of the nominal breaking load on purchase. It is, however,
generally unclear how this value was determined and under what conditions it is valid. No
reference is made to any other properties, such as elasticity and fatigue strength.

The table below provides a list of the most important materials and elements with the
usual characteristic values. An accepted rule of thumb is used for the breaking load.

If millimeters are chosen instead of centimeters for the dimensions, the breaking load
values will be in decanewtons [daN] instead of kilonewtons.

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

Natural fiber ropes

6 x d² d = diameter of rope in cm. Natural fiber
(manila, sisal, hemp)
ropes are sensitive to decay, acids and
alkalis. All fiber ropes are sensitive to
Polypropylene 12 x d²
Polyester 15 x d² chafing from sharp edges. Knots on
synthetic fiber ropes can slip open. Heavers
Polyamide 20 x d² of sufficient thickness should be used to
tighten them and these in turn should be
Hercules (sisal) 6 x d² secured to prevent them from unwinding.

Hercules (polypropylene) 12 x d²

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

Wire rope 6 x 9 + 1 FC
d = diameter of rope in cm. Producing
Wire rope 6 x 19 + 1 FC 50 x d²
conventional wire rope lashings with
Wire rope 6 x 37 + 1 FC
turnbuckles and rope clips is technically
demanding and can give rise to a number of
Wire rope 6 x 9 +7 FC
potential problems. More detailed notes are
Wire rope 6 x 12 +7 FC 25 x d²
provided after this table.
Wire rope 6 x 15 +7 FC

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

d = diameter of bolt in cm. The breaking

Shackles 20 x d² load formula only applies to shackles made
of standard strength steel.

d = diameter of thread in cm. The breaking

Turnbuckles 20 x d² load formula only applies to turnbuckles
made of standard strength steel.

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

Untreated steel strap 70 x w x t w = width of strap in cm

Blued steel strap 85 x w x t t = thickness of strap in cm.

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

Tie down lashing chains are always made

Long- and short-link See of higher strength steel to save weight.
chains with different manufacturer's Calculation of the breaking load is
tensioners specifications therefore dependent on the
manufacturer's specifications.

Breaking
Material/element Notes
load [kN]

d = diameter of eye material in cm. The breaking

Deck eyes and eye
20 x d² load formula only applies to material made of
plates
standard strength steel.

Breaking
Material/element Notes
load [kN]

Synthetic fiber See Lashing belts are produced in a number of

 lashing belts manufacturer's different grades. They are highly elastic but can
specifications become permanently deformed when subjected
to threshold stresses greater than 50% of the
breaking load and therefore quickly become
loose. They must not be knotted. They are
sensitive to external influences in the same way
as synthetic fiber ropes.

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

MSL = 4 kN
Single-layer weld, 4 mm thick.
per cm
Weld joints subjected to
shear loads
MSL = 10 kN
Three-layer weld, 10 mm thick.
per cm

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

Softwood used for MSL = 0.3 kN per Compressive load perpendicular to the
bracing cm² grain

Softwood used for MSL = 1 kN per

Compressive load parallel to the grain
bracing cm²

Breaking load
Material/element Notes
[kN]

Trailer horses, trailer jacks, wheel

Special equipment for
- chocks; breaking loads usually
ro/ro ships
unknown

Lashing rods, turnbuckles, twist locks,

See D rings, sockets, bridge fittings, tie
Special equipment for
manufacturer's plates, etc. Strength and material
container ships
specifications properties as per the requirements of
the relevant classification society

For economic reasons, it is advisable to try to homogenize load securing

equipment and load securing arrangements .
Homogeneous load securing equipment comprises elements which where
possible have the same MSL values.
A homogeneous load securing arrangement comprises load securing
equipment which are arranged in such a way that, when subjected to extreme
loads, they bear the part of the load appropriate to their strength.
To summarize the problems of load securing, some examples are provided below as a sort
of "recipe" how to calculate the number of securing devices required, what such a device
can withstand and what can be expected of it.

Example: Tie-down lashing:

 Use of tie down lashings

Let us assume that the wooden case on the flatrack has a weight of 12,000 daN. Without
taking into account the risk of this overheight case tipping, the package must be secured
for overseas shipment. Lateral acceleration forces of 0.8 g can be expected. This means
that lateral forces of 12,000 daN x 0.8 or 120 kN x 0.8 i.e. 9,600 daN or 96 kN can be
expected.

The single-use webbing belts used in the figure on the left have a breaking load of 3,433
daN. This equates to 2,403 daN at an MSL no greater than 70% of the breaking load. No
more than half of this, i.e. around 1,200 daN, may be used as the pretensioning force. It
should be noted that in practice this value can neither be achieved nor maintained
throughout the entire voyage.

The effective length of the belt from its attachment to the lashing point to the edge of the
case (red line) is 3.0 m. The effective height (green line) is 2.93 m, a very high vertical
component (97.6%). This component can be determined for any load by dividing the
effective height by the effective length. Multiplying this by the pretensioning force gives
the force with which the tensioned side of the load is pulled onto the flat. In the example,
this is 97.6% of 1,200 daN, or 1,171 daN. If we assume ideal conditions and this force
were completely transmitted to the other side, a total pretensioning force of 2,342 daN
per lashing can be assumed. Assuming a friction coefficient of 0.3, a single tie -down
lashing can achieve a securing force of around 703 daN. 13.65 belts are theoretically
required to secure the case (9,600 daN/703 daN). In reality, the webbing belts used
would be able to maintain a maximum pretensioning force of around 100 daN through 200
daN during the voyage. This means that a single belt is able to maintain a long -term
securing force of 30 daN through 60 daN. To have really "secured" the case, somewhere
between 160 and 320 belts would have to be provided!!!

Note: Tie down lashings only provide

securing forces of the vertical component of the pretensioning force
multiplied by the friction coefficient.

Note: The pretensioning force must never be greater than 50% of the
MSL
of the weakest securing element.

This recipe is simpler and more precise than a calculation which uses the las hing angle α,
since in practice distances are easier to measure than angles. If the vertical component of
a lashing is to be calculated using the lashing angle, the permissible lashing force must be
multiplied by the sine of the lashing angle: vertical component = MSL x sin α.
The smaller the lashing angle, the smaller the vertical component will be. At a lashing
angle of 90° it will be 100% ( sin 90 ° = 1), at 75° 97% (sin 75 ° = 0.9659), at 60° 87 %
(sin 60 ° = 0.866), at 45° 71% (sin 45 ° = 0.7071), at 30° 50% (sin 30 ° = 0.5), at 15°
26% (sin 15 ° = 0.2588) and at 0° 0% (sin 0° = 0).

Example: Direct lashing:

The main difference between direct lashings and tie-down lashings is that with direct
lashings, the pretensioning force can and should be kept as low as possible.

Note: The pretensioning force should be as low as possible on direct

lashings. However, slack must never be able to develop in lashings.

The pretensioning force must, however, be sufficiently high to prevent a lashing from
becoming slack. The reason for this is that the lashing may be loaded up to its MSL under
stress and the vertical components resulting from this pr oduce additional frictional forces.

Direct lashing with chains

For those who enjoy mathematics, the relevant lashing forces ca n be calculated by first
measuring the lashing angle α (47.5°) and then the sine and cosine of this angle to
determine the vertical and horizontal components and using these in conjunction with the
permissible lashing force of the chain.

Using another recipe, it is unnecessary to determine this angle or its sine and cosine.
Basic arithmetic will suffice. The following lengths are determined by using a tape
measure or meter rule: the effective length of the lashing chain (red line = 3.61 m), the
effective vertical component (green line = 2.66 m) and the effective horizontal component
(blue line = 2.44 m). Using rules of thumb or the manufacturer's specifications, the
breaking load and the MSL of the 13 mm link material diameter high-tensile chain. This
corresponds to 10,000 daN. C hecking the size of the lashing point gives a steel diameter
of 28.3 mm. This gives a breaking strength of 16,000 daN and an MSL of 8,000 daN. This
value represents an upper threshold if the chain components have a higher MSL.

Vertical securing force: 2.66 m : 3.61 m x 10,000 daN = 7,368 daN. A lashing chain
secures the package against vertical movement with a force of 7,368 daN. But this is not
so important. This force becomes effective when the package is moved horizontally
causing the chain to be tightened; the package is then pulled toward the floor with this
force. Assuming a sliding friction coefficient of 30% (μ = 0.3), the package is secured by a
lashing in all directions with a force of 7,368 daN x 0.3 = 2,210 daN.
Shortfall in securing force: 2.44 m / 3.61 m x 10,000 daN = 6,759 daN. A lashing chain
directly secures the package laterally with 6,759 daN. To this are added the frictional
securing forces of 2,210 daN as previously determined. The calculated chain lashing
secures the machine component against movement laterally towards the right with a force
of 8,969 daN.

Since no longitudinal components exist, a chain only secures the machine component
longitudinally with the frictional forces produced by the vertical component of 2,210 da N.

Different
components on a
diagonal
lashing with
lashing angles

To calculate the longitudinal, transverse and vertical securing forces using the lashing
angles α and β, use the following method:

Component Calculation

Vertical component MSL x sin α

Horizontal component MSL x cos α

Additional frictional forces Vertical component x μ or MSL x sin α x μ

Pure lateral component Horizontal component x sin β or MSL x cos α x sin β

Pure longitudinal component Horizontal component x cos β or MSL x cos α x cos β

Since the additional frictional forces produced by the vertical component may be added to
the forces produced by the lateral and longitudinal components , the securing forces
produced are:

Securing forces Calculation

Vertical securing MSL x sin α

Lateral securing MSL x cos α x sin β + MSL x sin α x μ

Longitudinal securing MSL x cos α x cos β + MSL x sin α x μ

 Determining the
securing forces

Again, a recipe is quicker, simpler and more precise. Four distances must be measured
and the MSL of the weakest load securing element must be determined. The friction
coefficient must be determined or estimated.

Securing forces Calculation

Vertical securing Effective vertical component / effective length x MSL

Effective vertical component / effective length x MSL x

Additional frictional forces
μ

Effective lateral component / effective length x MSL +

Lateral securing including
effective vertical component / effective length x MSL x
additional frictional forces
μ

Effective longitudinal component / effective length x

Longitudinal securing including
MSL + effective vertical component / effective length x
additional frictional forces
MSL x μ

Calculated example:

A doubled, single-use webbing belt is used for securing as previously. For reasons of
caution, the MSL is not assumed to be 70% but only 30% of the breaking load. The sketch
below shows all the data needed.
 Calculated example:
Determining the
securing forces

Securing forces Calculation

Vertical securing 0.65 m / 1.65 m x 2,300 daN = 906 daN.

Additional 0.65 m / 1.65 m x 2,300 daN = 906 daN x 0.3 = 271.8

frictional forces daN

Lateral securing including 0.95 m / 1.65 m x 2,300 daN = 1,324 daN + 271.8 daN =
additional frictional forces 1,595.8 daN

Longitudinal securing
1.30 m / 1.65 m x 2,300 daN = 1,812 daN + 271.8 daN =
including
2,083.8 daN
additional frictional forces

As far as the overall securing is concerned, it should always be borne in mind what
lashings are subjected to loads under what circumstances:

Package secured with four

diagonal direct lashings

Upward 4 x vertical securing = 4 x 906 daN 3,624 daN

The longitudinal components of b and c 4,167.6

Longitudinally, to the left
restrain daN

Longitudinally, to the The longitudinal components of a and d 4,167.6

right restrain daN
 3,191.6
Laterally, upward The lateral components of d and d restrain
daN

3,191.6
Laterally, downward The lateral components of a and b restrain
daN

It can be concluded that the lashing arrangement would not be not homogeneous if the
load in the example were loaded on a flatrack transported using fore and aft stowage on a
container ship, where acceleration forces of 0.4 g occur longitudinally and acceleration
forces of 0.8 g occur laterally. In this instance, the lashings would need to have been
arranged so that the lateral component was twice the size of the longitudinal component:

Lateral components twice

as large as
longitudinal components

If it is assumed that the flatrack is transported using fore and aft stowage on a container
ship and transported during precarriage and/or onward carriage on a road vehicle,
longitudinal and transverse acceleration forces of 0.8 g should be assumed for the
lashings.

The decision in this instance is simple: both components must be the same size.

Transverse and
longitudinal components
same size

If the flatrack is transported during precarriage or onward transport on a freight car in

multimodal operations, longitudinal acceleration forces of 1 g are assumed. If lateral
acceleration forces of 0.8 g are assumed, the longitudinal components must be 25%
larger than the lateral components or the lateral components can be 20% smaller than the
longitudinal components:
 Longitudinal components
25% larger than lateral
components

Using tie-down lashings also produces angles which cause a reduction in the MSL. The
effects are not very dramatic because they are the cosine of half the opening angle
between the ends of the lashing. It does not really matter whether angles are measured
and forces are calculated or lengths are measured. It is easier for people familiar with
mathematics to calculate using the trigonometric functio n than to measure distances -
provided a pocket calculator with trigonometric functions or a relevant table is available.
Both methods are feasible. Anyone who is familiar with a the shape of a cosine wave or
has certain values in their head, can also make a good estimate.

Angle which is too large to

be permitted

The angle γ is 121.552°, but who can ever determine an angle as pre cisely as this? Half
this angle is 60.776°. The cosine of this angle is 0.488. This makes it obvious that this
type of securing is ineffectual. The mathematically calculated part only generates securing
forces which are less than half. It would have been better to have secured the cargo with
a single-strand direct lashing. The cosine of 60° is 0.5. It is therefore clear that lashings
are only worthwhile if their opening angle - i.e. the complete γ - is significantly less than
120° and γ/2, significantly less than 60°. The same could have been determined - possibly
more quickly - by taking measurements:

As previously: Angle which

is too large to be
permitted

The effective length of one end of the lashing is 197.5 cm, the effective lateral dimension
is 96.5 cm. This is less than half. Both ends of the lashing together are thus less than 1. It
can also be seen and proved from this that this lashing is not worthwhile.
This does not apply here:

The opening angle here is γ 27° (γ/2 is thus 13.5°). The cosine of 13.5° is 0.973 - i.e.
close to 1. This means that this securing aid achieves nearly double the MSL, or to be
precise 1 times the MSL of a single strand.

Angle used for tie-down

lashings in practice

Measuring would have produced approximately the same results:

If - using our recipe - the smaller measured value is divided by the larger measured value,
the result is 0.973. That means, the lashing secures 2 x 0.973 times, i.e. 1.946 times the
MSL of a single strand.

As previously: Angle used for

tie-down lashings in practice

To be precise, the angle between the ends must be measured in 3D space, sin ce lashings
which are attached to separate lashing points form an "oblique" angle to each other.
These problems should not occur during measuring, even if one end comes from the top
and the other end comes from the bottom.

Here are the rough guideline values for the MSL at different estimated angles:

Estimated angle MSL of the lashing

120° 2 x MSL of a single strand x 0.50 = 1.0 x MSL of a single strand

90° 2 x MSL of a single strand x 0.70 = 1.4 x MSL of a single strand

60° 2 x MSL of a single strand x 0.87 = 1.7 x MSL of a single strand

40° 2 x MSL of a single strand x 0.92 = 1.8 x MSL of a single strand

30° 2 x MSL of a single strand x 0.97 = 1.9 x MSL of a single strand

 < 30° 2 x MSL of a single strand x 1.00 = 2.0 x MSL of a single strand

4.4.1.1 Lashing materials, Part 1

The term "ropes" covers a wide range of manufactured ropes made of different materials
for different purposes. In the field packing and load securing, a distinction is made
between:

 Fiber ropes
 Wire ropes and
 C omposite or mixed ropes

Fiber ropes are divided into:

 Natural fiber ropes and

 Synthetic or man-made fiber ropes

Natural fiber rope Split fiber rope made

of polypropylene

Ropes are made in a number of different ways. Generally, a distinction is made between
laid rope and braided rope. In many cases, the way a rope is manufactured determines
how it is treated and used. The basic process used to manufac ture laid fiber ropes is as
follows: When they have been obtained from the raw materials, the fibers are combed to
separate them. These are then twisted to produce yarns. In the trade, this is known as
laying. If the direction of lay is to the right, it is known as Z-laid, or if it is to the left, it is
known as S-laid. In the next stages of the process, the directions of lay are alternated.
This is referred to as a 'cross lay' or 'conventional lay'. A cable lay is only used for very
strong fiber ropes - but this is not relevant for load securing purposes: In the normal
direction of lay, three Z-laid ropes are laid to the left to produce a cable; in the opposite
direction of lay, three S-laid ropes are laid to the right to produce the finished cable. The
normal direction of lay is also known as Z -lay or ZSZS-lay in and the opposite direction of
lay is known as S-lay or SZSZ-lay.
 Natural and synthetic fiber
ropes -
all hawser-laid
and Z-laid

Laid (twisted) ropes are generally used for load securing purposes.

They are generally type A hawser-laid, i.e. a 3-strand rope is used. There are both Z-laid
and S-laid versions of this type. The normal direction of lay, however, is to the right.

Natural fiber ropes are no longer used for load securing in most industrialized countries. In
some countries, however, natural fiber ropes may be used for securing loads in or on
specific cargo transport units. This includes in particular ropes of the following materials:

 Hemp (Ha)
 Manila (Ma)
 Sisal (Si)
 Manila mixed (Ma/Si)

Natural fiber ropes are very sensitive to acids, alkalis and solvents. Mold and other
microorganisms attack the fibers. Manila and sisal are comparatively resistant to natural
weathering, but hemp loses its strength very quickly unless it is impregnated. As
impregnated ropes usually have a strong odor, they must not be used for odor -absorbent
or odor-sensitive cargoes. Natural fibers swell when they absorb moisture and shrink on
drying. Fluctuations in moisture content result in considerable changes in the length of
ropes:

 The ropes become shorter when wet;

 The ropes become longer when dry.

For the above reasons, it is very difficult to maintain uniform tension in the ropes. Their
range of application is therefore limited to use in closed cargo transport units where no
great fluctuations in humidity are to be feared. Natural fiber ropes are also combustible
and can lead to spontaneous combustion in connection with certain chemicals. One
advantage is thst natural fiber ropes are "environmentally friendly". Since they decay
quickly, they can be disposed of without any problems.

The main raw materials for synthetic fiber ropes are:

 Polyester (PES)
 Polyamide (PA)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Hempex

Polyester exhibits exceptionally good behavior with acids, alkalis and solvents and also
only loses very little strength due to natural weathering; it is therefore very UV-stable.
Polyester ropes are not purchased for load securing purposes, however, as they are
relatively expensive.

Polyamide (generally known under its trade names nylon, perlon etc.) exhibits good
behavior with alkalis and solvents but is sensitiv e to acids. It loses around 20% of its
strength per year from natural weathering, especially UV radiation. Because of its price,
polyamide is rarely used for load securing purposes.

Polyethylene has no place in load securing on account of its poor mechan ical properties. It
is even banned for use as slinging ropes.

Hempex is a modified polypropylene material which looks so similar to the natural fiber
hemp that it is often confused with it. It is UV -resistant but in terms of its strength not
much better than natural fiber ropes. As it is particularly soft, it is sometimes used to
fasten tarpaulins etc.

Polypropylene exhibits very good resistance against acids, alkalis and solvents. If it is not
stabilized, however, it is very sensitive to natural weathe ring. For this reason,
polypropylene ropes should always be light and heat stabilized. Black dyed ropes are best
suited for this. Their strength only decreases at around 5% per year from natural
weathering.

There are two main groups of polypropylene rope s:

 monofilament ropes and

 multifilament fiber ropes.

Monofilament ropes behave exceptionally well under dynamic strain, but because of their
material properties are difficult to knot. Knots tend to come undone. Monofilament ropes
are thus almost exclusively used as slinging ropes. They are stronger than a steel-
reinforced "Hercules", but it is not to be recommended that they be purchased as load
securing material.

Multifilament ropes exhibit very negative properties when they are dynamically stressed.
Movement causes the fibers to separate further, which quickly produces a rupture. This
type of stress rarely occurs with load securing. For this reason, composite ropes are
produced for load securing purposes generally use multifilament materials.

Steel-reinforced "Hercules" lashing rope

The type of composite rope generally used for lashing purposes is known as "Hercules".
This is a rope made of steel wire and natural or synthetic yarns.

Predominantly, "Hercules" made of interwoven polypropylene a nd wires is sold as lashing

material. Ropes of interwoven wire and sisal are no longer commonly used in most
industrial countries. "Hercules" has the same strength for lashing purposes as ropes made
of sisal or polypropylene with the same diameter, because the wire in Hercules does not
have a load-bearing function. The individual wrapped wires have a very low strength and
are only intended to increase the rigidity of the material and improve its twisting
properties, e.g. when tightening it with a Spanish windlass. The main advantage of
"Hercules" over fiber ropes is not its strength but improved handling. In terms of its pure
material properties, the same applies as for sisal or polypropylene. It must be stressed
again that it exhibits good properties in terms of resistance to aggressive substances.
 Thin ropes for Car secured with
securing tarpaulins "Hercules" lashing

Fiber ropes are suitable for securing tarpaulins and relatively light loads, e.g.

 Automobiles in or on containers
 Drum cargoes, fiber drums and similar loads in small batches and light
receptacles
 Fairly light cases, small batches of boxed goods, individual pallets etc.

5 mm thick polypropylene rope for securing

tarpaulins etc.

The MSL (Maximum Securing Load) of fiber ropes is 33% of the breaking load. Since the
breaking load of polypropylene can be calculated with a rule of thumb using the formula
12 x d², the MSL for the rope shown is 1 kN or 100 daN, depending whether the diameter
was specified in centimeters or millimeters.

Calculating the diameter of a

polypropylene strap: 5 mm
 Breaking load MSL factor MSL
0.5 x 0.5 x 12 = 3 kN x 0.33 = 1 kN (diameter in cm)
5 x 5 x 12 = 300 daN x 0.33 = 100 daN (diameter in mm)

Since a factor of 33% is corresponds to virtually one third, the MSL can also be calculated
directly with an easily remembered formula:

MSL of polypropylene ropes = d x d x 4

If a strap or rope is doubled, the values can also be doubled; if it is used four -fold, the
values can be quadrupled. It is not possible to increase the values any further, since there
is no guarantee that all the runs of rope would be evenly loaded.

Determining the diameter of

polypropylene-covered
"Hercules": 12 mm

Breaking load MSL factor MSL

1.2 x 1.2 x 12 = 17.28 kN x 0.33 = 5.76 kN (diameter in cm)
12 x 12 x 12 = 1,728 daN x 0.33 = 576 daN (diameter in mm)

It would be rather quicker to calculate this using the direct rule of thumb for the MSL:

MSL PP "Hercules" 1.2 cm thick = 1.2 x 1.2 x 4 = 5.76 kN

MSL PP "Hercules" 12 mm thick = 12 x 12 x 4 = 576 daN

In this case as well, the values can be doubled or quadrupled respectively for double or
(at the most) four-fold use.

Safety note: Fiber ropes must never be tightened over sharp edges!

To fabricate a direct lashing with a "Hercules" rope of this type, the necessary rope length
is estimated and cut off. The end is threaded through one of the lashing points (A). A loop
(B) is knotted into one of the ends using a bowline. The other end is threaded through the
second lashing point at (C ). The loose end is threaded through the loop of the bowline at
(D) and pretensioned by hand. The end is knotted at (E) with at least two half hitches. If
greater pretensioning forces are required than those which can be achieved manually, this
can be achieved using a Spanish windlass - i.e. using heavers.

If a strap or rope is doubled, the values can also be doubled; if it is used four -fold, the
values can be quadrupled. It is not possible to increase the values any further, since there
is no guarantee that all the runs of rope would be evenly loaded.

Different rope structures - cross-sections and plan views

The type of steel wire ropes mainly used for lashing are cross-laid stranded ropes laid to
the right. Occasionally, left-handed cross-lay used.

6 x 19 + 1 FC 6 x 37 + 1 FC

Stranded rope is the designation for a wire rope construction where the individual wires
are laid into strands and these are in turn laid into the finished product. The number of
individual wires and strands significantly influence s the pliability of the wire and its price.
The more individual wires there are in a wire rope, the more flexible but also the more
expensive it is. A frequently used construction consists of 6 strands each with 19
individual wires per strand, with a fiber core to fill the cavity remaining in the center. The
fill factor for rope constructions of this kind is around 0.455, i.e. the cross -sectional area
occupied by metal accounts for around 45.5% of the total cross -section. Wire ropes with
the construction 6 x 37 + 1 FC are also favored. These have the same fill factor.

Determining the diameter

of a steel wire rope: 16 mm
Using a rule of thumb, the breaking load and MSL of single -use wire ropes can be
calculated as follows:

Breaking load MSL factor MSL

1.6 x 1.6 x 50 = 128 kN x 0.80 = 102.4 kN (diameter in cm)
16 x 16 x 50 = 12,800 daN x 0.80 = 10,240 daN (diameter in mm)

Since the of 80% of 50 equates to a value of 40, the MSL can also be calculated directly
with an easily remembered formula:

MSL single-use steel wire ropes of the above type = d x d x 40

It would be a little quicker to calculate the MSL using the direct rule of thumb:

MSL for steel wire rope, 1.6 cm thick = 1.6 x 1.6 x 40 = 102.4 kN

MSL for steel wire, 16 mm thick = 16 x 16 x 40 = 10,240 daN

Use of a 16 mm-thick steel wire

rope on a platform container

Using steel ropes of this kind is a waste of materials, since the high MSL value is out of
proportion to that of the lashing points on the containers. The strongest lashing rings have
an MSL value of 8,000 daN, many are around 5,000 daN and most are around 3,000 -
4,000 daN. To for homogeneous lashings, it is usually perfectly sufficient to use wire
ropes of a smaller diameter. For instance, 12 mm wires:

MSL for steel wire rope, 1.2 cm thick = 1.2 x 1.2 x 40 = 5.76 kN

MSL for steel wire, 12 mm thick = 12 x 12 x 40 = 5,760 daN

Different MSL values must be applied for reusable wire ropes. Wires of this kind must only
be calculated with 30% of the breaking load for the MSL:

Breaking load MSL factor MSL

1.6 x 1.6 x 50 = 128 kN x 0.30 = 38.4 kN (diameter in cm)
16 x 16 x 50 = 12,800 daN x 0.30 = 3,840 daN (diameter in mm)

6 x 12 +7 FC 6 x 18 +7 FC

Significantly lower fill factors are exhibited by wire ropes with constructions such as 6 x 9
+ 7 FC , 6 x 12 + 7 FC , 6 x 15 + 7 FC , 6 x 18 + 7 FC or similar, where, as the designation
already indicates, a fiber filler has been incorporated in the center of each strand. Ropes
of this kind are frequently used by Dutch and Belgian companies as lashing wires.

The breaking loads and MSLs of wires of this kind are only half as high, because a fac tor
of 25 rather than a factor of 50 has to be used for calculation.

Breaking load MSL factor MSL

d x d x 25 x 0.80 = kN (diameter in cm)
d x d x 25 x 0.80 = daN (diameter in mm)

The same applies for re-usable wire ropes of this type:

Breaking load MSL factor MSL

d x d x 25 x 0.30 = kN (diameter in cm)
d x d x 25 x 0.30 = daN (diameter in mm)

Steel wire rope coil

When ordering wire ropes, the following details should be stipulated to ensure that the
correct rope type will be received:
 - Diameter in mm or inches e.g. 16 mm or 5/8"
- Quantity and length e.g. 20 x 200 m
- Rope construction e.g. 6 x 19 + 1 FE
- Type and direction of lay e.g. cross lay, to the right
- Special features (plain, galvanized etc.) e.g. plain
- Nominal strength e.g. 1570 N/mm²
- Greasing e.g. normal
- Termination: swaged / sharpened e.g. swaged
- Packaging e.g. coils

Cutting wire ropes with shears

Incorrect - Correct -
small lever arm large lever arm

Wire ropes can be cut to length with hydraulic shears or other special tools if larger
quantities need to be processed. Handshears are sufficient on site and with small
quantities.

Wires can be
damaged by sharp
edges.

Running wires around sharp edges will lower their MSL. There are precise values, but a
number of additional factors should be taken into account. Rough but nonetheless usable
values are provided in this easily remembered table :
 MSL of a single run at various bending angles

You will find an example showing exact values in Volume II.

Wire ropes with spliced or pressed eyes are rarely used for lashing. Generally, wire cable
clamps (clips) are used to connect to other lashing elements, such as turnbuckles,
shackles, lashing rings etc. There are suitable clips available for every thickness of rope, in
both metric and Imperial sizes. For a 12 mm wire, 12 mm or ½" clips are required. For 16
mm wires, 16 mm or 5/8" clips must be provided.

When the nuts are correctly tightened as described further below, the following figures
can be seen as guideline values for the strength of wire cable clips with common rope
diameters.

At a sufficient
tightening torque:
1 clip = 25% MSL

Up to 25% of the MSL can be achieved with one clip. If - as in this case - there is no
tightening torque, the value approaches 0.
 At a sufficient tightening torque: 2 clips = 50% MSL

50% of the MSL of the wire rope is achieved using two wire cable clips. The indentations
in the wire indicate a good tightening torque. The following rule of thumb applies: if the
free end on which the U-bolts of the wire cable clips should be placed is crushed to half
the thickness of the wire, the clips have been tightened to a sufficient torque.

Only with a sufficient

tightening torque and
correctly attached clips:
3 clips = 75% MSL

The wire cable clips have been attached incorrectly and the tightening torques are too low.
The MSL of lashings of this kind is usually overestimated. An maximum MSL of
approximately 75% can be achieved with three wire cable clips.

Incorrectly attached wire cable

clips in insufficient quantity

All too often in practice, too few wire cable clips are used or they are attached incorrectly.
Often, the nuts are not tightened sufficiently. The wires slip through the wi re cable clips
under load.

Wires which have

slipped through
where only two wire
cable clips were
attached

If a wire rope lashing is to be homogeneous, four wire cable clips must be placed with the
U-bolt on the free end.:
 Single cable with eye

This type of attachment is advisable if relatively long lashings have to be made. They are
usually not necessary for container loads.

Sling or double run - unsuitable construction

This construction is often used for shorter lashings. But it should not be made like this.

Sling or double run - ideal construction

This format should always be used for relatively short lashings because it is the most
resilient. Inadequacies such as the presence of sharp edges can also be counteracted with
this method.

Where possible, work should be carried out as demonstrated here.

Positive example - wire rope arranged correctly, wire cable clips

attached correctly and sufficiently high tightening torque on th e nuts

Lashing is a technically
demanding task which has to be
learnt. Otherwise, errors creep
in even with the best will in the
world.
 Lashing which is not
homogeneous

Anchor shackle Chain shackle

Anchor shackles should be preferred for use as lashing shackles. They can adapt better to
the directions in which forces arise.

Using a rule of thumb, the breaking load and MSL of lashing shackles can be calculated as
follows:

Breaking load MSL factor MSL

d x d x 20 x 0.50 = kN (diameter in cm)
d x d x 20 x 0.50 = daN (diameter in mm)

Since the factor 50% of 20 is equivalent to 10, the MSL can also be calculated directly
with an easy-to-remember formula:

MSL for lashing shackle = d x d x 10

Determining the diameter of a bolt on a

lashing shackle: 26 mm

The diameter of the bolt is first measured in centimeters or millimeters. The breaking load
formula only applies to shackles made of standard strength steel. The value for this
shackle is quickly calculated using the direct rule of thumb for the MSL.

MSL for lashing shackle bolt of diameter 2.6 cm = 2.6 x 2.6 x 10 = 67.6 kN

MSL for lashing shackle bolt of diameter 26 mm = 26 x 26 x 10 = 6,760 daN

 Lashing turnbuckle with very well worked weld seams

The same values apply to turnbuckles as to lashing shackles. The diameter of the thread is
first measured in centimeters or millimeters. The breaking load formula only applies to
turnbuckles made of standard strength steel. The value for this turnbuckle is quickly
calculated using the direct rule of thumb for the MSL, if the thread was measured at 1 1/8
inch = 28.575 mm.

MSL for lashing turnbuckle of thread diameter 2.86 cm

= 2.86 x 2.86 x 10 = 81.796 kN

MSL for lashing turnbuckle of thread diameter 28.6 mm

= 2.86 x 2.86 x 10 = 8,179.6 daN

When purchasing turnbuckles, it is important that only turnbuckles with sufficiently wide
nuts and weld seams are purchased. Spot welded tur nbuckles are available on the market.
These should not be used.

The turnbuckle shown above is generally available in three sizes: 1 1/8 " , 1¼" and 1½"
thread diameter. 1 inch is equivalent to 25.4 mm.

Turnbuckle made of higher

strength steel for round
steel chains with short
links

The manufacturer's specifications must be observed for turnbuckles made of higher

strength steel. 50% of the specified breaking load is assumed as the MSL. Unless, as with
this turnbuckle, a WLL (Working Load Limit) has already bee n specified. This then
corresponds to the MSL.
 Tag on a lashing turnbuckle

4.4.1.2 Lashing materials, Part 2

Lashing point
on a 40' flat

The same rules of thumb apply for lashing points made of normal strength steel as for
lashing shackles and lashing turnbuckles. The dia meter of the ring material or the bars is
critical.

Breaking
MSL factor MSL
load
d x d x 20 x 0.50 = kN (diameter in cm)
d x d x 20 x 0.50 = daN (diameter in mm)

Determining the diameter

of a lashing point: 20 mm

MSL lashing point material diameter 2.0 cm = 2.0 x 2.0 x 10 = 40.0 kN

MSL lashing point material diameter 20 mm = 20 x 20 x 10 = 4,000 daN

 Notice indicating the
strength of a lashing
point

Even if it is not entirely clear what is meant by a strength specification, the MSL should
still be calculated using the rule of thumb.

Load on lashing points

Loads may only be applied to lashing points in a permissible m anner. If a number of

lashings are attached to a single lashing point, the total load must be taken into account.
If lashings attached to the same lashing point are alternately subjected to load and
relieved of load, every lashing can have the full MSL. If the lashings subject the lashing
point to load simultaneously, the MSLs of the lashings must be distributed accordingly.

Steel strapping, untreated Steel strapping, blued

Steel strapping can be applied quickly and easily and is therefore suitable for securing
purposes on many loads.

The following values can be used for calculations for untreated steel strapping:

MSL
Breaking load MSL
factor
Strap width w x strap
w x t x 70 x 0.70 = kN (measurements in cm)
thickness t
Strap width w x strap t x w x 70 x 0.70 = daN (measurements in mm)
thickness t

Blued straps have a higher strength. It can be calculated using these values:

MSL
Breaking load MSL
factor
Strap width w x strap
w x t x 85 x 0.70 = kN (measurements in cm)
thickness t
Strap width w x strap
t x w x 85 x 0.70 = daN (measurements in mm)
thickness t

A blued steel strap 32 mm wide and 1.6 mm thick would produce the following value for
the MSL:

MSL for blued steel strap 36 mm wide, 1.6 mm thick

= 3.2 x 0.16 x 85 x 0.7 = 30.464 kN

MSL for blued steel strap 36 mm wide, 1.6 mm thick = 32 x 1.6 x 85 x 0.7 = 3,046.4 kN

The dimensions of steel straps are often coded without specifying the dimension units. It
is usual practice to encode the width in mm and the thickness in 0.1 mm. The strap
referred to above would have the designation 32/16 steel strap.

Lashing point for

steel strap as it is
rounded

Strength values calculated by rule of thumb must not be used if the steel strap is used
incorrectly.
 Another important requirement is that
the strapping seals are applied
correctly.

Steel straps have a very high breaking strength and this is a common selling point. The
disadvantage of steel straps, however, is their low elasticity. This ranges from around
0.25% to a maximum of 0.5%. Steel straps are there fore not really suitable for use as tie-
down lashings.

Steel straps are utterly unsuitable as tie -down lashings.

For instance, if a lashing is 7 m long, an ordinary commercial steel strap would have an
elasticity of 7 m x 0.0025 = 0.0175 m or 17.5 mm. About half of this is exhausted for
pretensioning, which means that just 8-9 mm remains. If the circumference of the lashing
is reduced by this amount due to the strap cutting into the wood of cases, shifting of
goods etc., the steel strapping will become loose and no longer able to fulfill its function as
a securing aid. Further jolts during transportation then produce greater forces on accou nt
of the resulting acceleration forces which can cause the steel strapping to tear.
 Compensating for the
low elasticity of steel
straps

The low elasticity of steel straps can be compensated for by padding with materials with a
high degree of elasticity and recovery. It is generally more convenient to use steel straps
for direct lashings. They are extremely suitable for this:

Loads ideally suited for securing with steel straps

Lashing chain with long links

Lashing chain with short links

Lashing chains are generally only used to secure container cargoes if the chains will be
returned. On very valuable cargoes, however, it may also be worthwhile to use them as a
"lost load securing aid", because of the benefits offered by their high strength and speed
with which they can be deployed.

Since lashing chains are made of high strength steel, there are no rules of thumb for
calculating the breaking loads. The manufacturer's specifications should be observed. The
MSL may be assumed to be 50% of the breaking load. A range of different tensioning
mechanisms are used with chains. Errors are frequently made when using these aids.
 Error made using a
lashing chain with
tensioning lever (a)
and hook (b)

Tightening the chain using the hooks:

Inserting the hook Shortening the chain

Tightening the chain with the tension lever:

Inserting the tensioning lever Tightening and securing the lever

 Incorrect Correct

The tension levers must not remain at an angle of 90°. They must be adjusted to an angle
of at least 45°. Otherwise, the tongues could buckle or shear off.

Lashed with hook Hook incorrectly inserted

Permissible shortening of chains

Correct shortening of a chain - no chain link is trapped

 Incorrect shortening of a chain - a chain link is trapped

Shortening a chain with special

claw hooks and securing lever

Chain tensioner Shortening hook on tensioner

(load binder)

No rules of thumb are provided in the C SS code for high strength chains, because the
diversity of the products is very high. There are chains made to all kinds of different
standards on the market. If the stamp on the chain and its accessories clear ly identify it
as quality class 8, the rule of thumb d² x 120 can be used to calculate the breaking load.
The MSL is to be assumed to be 50% of the breaking load. This produces the following
figures for the following diameters of chain steel:

Diameter of steel Breaking load MSL factor MSL

 0.6 cm 43.2 kN 0.5 21.6 kN
6 mm 4,320 daN 0.5 2,160 daN
0.8cm 76.8 kN 0.5 38.4 kN
8 mm 7,680 daN 0.5 3,840 daN
1 cm 120 kN 0.5 60 kN
10 mm 12,000 daN 0.5 6,000 daN
1.3 cm 202.8 kN 0.5 101.4 kN
13 mm 20,280 daN 0.5 10,140 daN

4.4.1.3 Lashing materials, Part 3

Textile
lashing
belts

Pre-fabricated lashing belts have already been described in detail in the GDV C argo
Securing Manual. It is assumed that staff will be familiar with how to use systems of this
kind and that no more than an occasional note is needed. There is no need to calculate
with rules of thumb, since pre-fabricated lashing belts usually carry a label indicating the
Lashing C apacity (LC ). This is the permissible lashing force (Fmax ) which can be used to
secure cargoes.

Polyester
lashing belt

The values given on the label can therefore be accepted as the MSL. The breaking load of
a belt of this kind is double this value and the standard therefore sets the LC at 50% of
the breaking strength (The C SS also names "50% of breaking str ength" as the permitted
value).

In relation to all lashings used, the proportion of pre-fabricated lashing belts is small,
since the belt systems can only be returned with specific shipping companies and cargo
types. Flexibility suffers in day-to-day lashing operations as a result of fixed lengths and
sewn-in end fittings. Due to the speed with which they can be applied, however, the
proportion of these lashings being used is constantly growing. If lashing of this kind is
used, however, it should be applied out correctly and professionally.

Use of unsuitable end fittings

Chafing points due to incorrect usage of the belt

Belt systems permanently installed in containers must also be included among the pre -
fabricated systems.

Lashing winch with

incorrectly wound
belt

The lashings below used to secure automobiles must also be classed as pre -fabricated
goods.
 Various automobile lashings

The C SS do not provide any rules of thumb for the breaking load of single -use webbing
belts, but refer to the manufacturer's specifications. 70% is given as a factor for the MSL.

MSL for synthetic fiber lashing belts = breaking load as per manufacturer's specification x
0.7

Marking on a single-use
textile belt

The breaking strength is specified as 3,500 kg on the label, i.e. 3,433.5 daN. The MSL
would then be 70% of this, or 2,403 daN.

In the opinion of the author, this is far too high. It is well-known that in defining this
factor the national interests of some IMO members played a greater role than the known
problems associated with single-use lashing belts, where the quality of production differs.
They are often very elastic. Some materials exhibit permanent deformation at threshold
loads above 50% of the breaking load. This means that the lashings made from them will
then become slack. Since they are also identical in many other ways to synthetic fiber
ropes, the author recommends that at least the 50% factor of the European and German
standards is assumed for pre-fabricated lashing belts. For the material discussed above,
this would be a value of 1,717 daN. If the author were personally responsible for lashing
work, he would only assume the value for synthetic fiber ropes, i.e. 33% of the breaking
load. For a belt with a breaking load of 3,433 daN (3,600 kg), this would be 1,133 daN.
Since belts are nearly always used doubled, the value would double accordingly.

Various locking devices for use with single -use textile lashing belts

It is useful and practical to have operating instructions stamped onto the locking devices.

Packaging
straps
Packaging straps of this kind are only suitable for securing individual, relatively light
packages on pallets and similar supports as well as for unitization.

Two different types of end fittings

There are a huge variety of end fittings and other connecting elements availa ble. It is
important to select the one which best suits the lashing points on the particular cargo
transport unit.

Incorrectly inserted hook

Hooks must where possible be hooked in from the bottom to the top or from the inside to
the outside, so that they cannot loosen if jolted during transport, should the lashing
become slack.
 Belt protectors

It is essential that belts are protected against sharp edges whether this be by means of
belt protectors or special sleeves. If this is not possible or items like this are not available,
edge protectors are to be used:

Various edge protectors

There are a number of different devices available for tensioning textile lashing belts.
 Belt tensioner

Knotted textile belts

Belts and straps must not be knotted and twisted. They must rest on a wide surface and
must not be tightened over sharp edges. Damaged belt material must be removed from
stock.

Knotted textile belts -

locking devices or
buckles too weak
 Single-use
textile belts
are unsuitable
for use as
tie-down lashing

Tight-fit friction securing

with a WisaFix lashing cover

Using tarpaulins of this kind results in a combination of tight-fit and friction securing.

4.4.2 Wood
A great deal of information is provided on the use of wood and its application in load
securing in the relevant sections of the examples. This section, therefore, will only provide
information on basic properties of wood, the various formats, technical terms,
designations and methods of cutting. Rules of thumb for calculating the strength of are
also provided.
 Logs

Long edge/with the grain End grain/

across the grain

Wood is indispensable as a load securing material. A distinction is always made between

the long and the short side of the wood (across the grain and with the grain). Wood is less
able to withstand loads on its long edge, i.e. when the load is perpe ndicular to the grain.
The extraction resistance of nails and screws, however, is higher when they are nailed or
screwed perpendicular to the grain. In contrast, wood is far better able to withstand loads
applied on the end grain, i.e. parallel to the dire ction of the grain.

Untrimmed edge boards or waney edge lumber are often cut from the outer sections of a
log for use as wooden dunnage.

Wooden dunnage board

Depending on the thickness of the trunk, balks, squared lumber, battens, laths, planks
and boards are cut from the trunks.

Balks cross-stacking of balks

(with errors, in this case:
no overhang, dogs attached
incorrectly)

Balks have very large cross-sections, with edges usually over 15 cm long, squared lumber
starts as of about 8 cm x 8 cm.

Solid Halved Quartered 1:2

wood lumber balk format

On solid wood, the heart, medulla or pith is located in the center, on halved lumber on the
side and on quartered lumber on one corner. 1:2 can be a size such as 16 cm x 8 cm.
Dimension stock could, for instance be 6.3 cm x 7.5 cm (2 1/2" x 3"). Thicker battens
might be 3.2 cm x 5 cm (1 1/4" x 2") or 3.8 cm x 6.3 cm (1 1/2 x 2 1/2").

Sticked squared lumber packages Mold on lumber which

has not been sticked

Thin laths are used as an intermediate layer between lumber so ensure that it does not
develop mold or rot.

Very knotty waney edge lumber

Wood with a very high frequency of knots should not be used for bracing. It must be
rejected beforehand.

Squared lumber, battens and wedges - Wood which has been stained
indicates that it has been treated to protect it against the sirex wasp .

The following rules of thumb can be applied to sound lumber to calculate the maximum
securing load:

Softwood used for bracing, compression strength perpendicular to the grain, MSL = 0.3
kN per cm²

Softwood used for bracing, compression strength perpendicular to the grain, MSL = 30
kN per cm²

Applying the rule of thumb to

compressive strength parallel to the
grain of the wood

Assuming that the contact surface between a and b is 10 cm x 10 cm = 100 cm², a

securing force of 3,000 daN (30 kN) can be introduced via a and transmitted to b.

The following rule of thumb applies for the maximum securing load parallel to the grain:

Softwood used for bracing, compression strength parallel to the grain, MSL = 1 kN per
cm²
Softwood used for bracing, compression strength parallel to the grain, MSL = 100 daN
per cm²

Note: For road and rail transportation only, 200 daN/cm² can be assumed for the load
parallel to the grain, since it is assumed that only isolated or few load events occur during
each transport operation. For maritime transport, the IMO halve these values to 100
daN/cm² due to the constantly changing stresses in rough seas.

Applying the rule of thumb to

compressive strength parallel
to the grain

Assuming that the contact surface between the steel component a and the wood b is 10
cm x 10 cm = 100 cm², a securing force of 10,000 daN (100 kN) can be transmitted
between a and b.

High outlay - low

strength

Little material - high

strength

Since the grain side is crucial for the bracing shown in the left-hand illustration, four
horizontal bracing elements measuring 10 cm x 10 cm will achieve an MSL of 12,000 daN.
The values for the load on the end grain can be used for the bracing shown in the right -
hand illustration. An MSL of 40,000 daN is achieved with significantly less outlay in terms
of work and materials.
 Even less material -
high strength with
four horizontal
bracing elements
used in pairs

It may be that one

pair of bracing
elements may be
sufficient.

The traffic light really ought to be "double -green" for the figure at the top, since 40,000
daN is achieved with even less material. Probably, even the varian t with only two bracing
elements would suffice as shown in the bottom figure (the second bracing element is
hidden by the first). Even this achieves 20,000 daN. The wood should be placed at the top
for goods that are likely to topple. It can be placed at the bottom for flat goods which are
not likely to topple. The bracing elements must be cross -braced against shifting so that
they do not become detached.

Unprofessional
bracing which has
become detached due
to lack of cross-
bracing

Heavy drive shaft on trestles

If the circular segment on which the wooden-clad drive shaft is placed is 50 cm wide and
the wood on the trestle is 20 cm wide, there will be a projected area of 1,000 cm², which
means a total bearing surface on the trestle of 2,000 cm². Since the compression load is
perpendicular to the grain, the trestle can absorb 2,000 cm² x 30 daN/cm² at this point,
i.e. 60,000 daN. Since the shaft has been placed on several trestles, they have obviously
been over dimensioned here. The workmanship also leaves something to be desired.
There is still some potential for rationalization here.

Securing with diagonal stays

Lumber measuring 10 cm x 12 cm has been used here. This would produce an area of 120
cm² at the contact points. Since two pieces of wood were used as bracing on each s ide,
the total area is 240 cm² per side. The stays would therefore theoretically absorb 240 cm²
x 100 daN/cm², i.e. thus 24,000 daN. There is however a slight problem here: The
stanchions are not as wide as the lumber.

Always take note of

to the smallest
contact surfaces!

Since the stanchions are only 8 cm wide, only an area of 8 cm x 12 cm = 96 cm² per
wooden element can be used for calculation, i.e. 192 cm² per pair of stays. In reality,
therefore, the stays can only be loaded with 19,200 daN per pair.

Only the lateral component is effective

against tilting.

Since the total length of the stay is 1.47 m and the transverse component i s calculated as
1.05 m, a pair of stays secures the beam against tilting with
1.05 m / 1,47 m x 19,200 daN = 13,714 daN.
Generally, the following rules apply:

 If it is feasible, always brace horizontally;

 If it is feasible, brace so that the end grain loading capacity is used;

 Always brace against the parts with the greatest load-bearing capacity, e.g. on
cases, use the plate effect provided by the base and lid or guide the forces into
the vertical sides.

Transferring forces
onto the ends of the
side walls of the box

Chamfered wood (a) - wood cut to a bevel (b)

Securing measures of this kind can only be created using wooden aids and driving
wedges, which are removed again after securing has been completed.

Driving wedges - tapered blocks - slim wedges

Driving wedges can be used individually or in pairs. They should be made of hardwood.
The very shallow angle here produces large leverage effects which can be used to achieve
extremely high forces. C aution is therefore demanded. Only drive wedges in gently and
then fix them into place.
 Simple stays for filling gaps
which can be prepared outside
the container

Sometimes only very simple structures are required to fill in a gap in the container. But
one last note: The less material has to be used for load securing the better. The best and
most cost-effective load securing measure is a compact stow using well-protected and
sufficiently strong packages.

4.4.3 Filling material

Expanded synthetic plastics have very poor recovery properties and nearly no elasticity.
They deform very quickly under load, i.e. they become thinner under compression leads.
They can therefore only be used for filling gaps with relatively light loads . In all other
cases, they should not be used as a filling material. The same applies for cardboard and
corrugated board.
Used tires may to a certain extent be suitable for filling in gaps, but not as has been done
here: Ring-shaped point loads may occur. To enable them to fill in a large area, they could
be arranged so that they are pressed between two walking boards which each cover a
large surface area of the cargo.

Again, we quote the C TU guidelines:

3.2.12 When deciding on packaging and cargo-securing material, it should be
borne in mind that some countries enforce a garbage - and litter-avoidance policy.
This may lead to limitations on the use of certain materials and imply fees for the
recovery of packaging at the reception point as well as similar problems for the
shipper of the cargo. In such cases, reusable packaging and securing material
should be used. Increasingly, countries are requiring timber dunnage and
packaging materials to be debarked.

Airbags

3.2.4 If airbags are used, the manufacturer's instructions on filling pre ssure
should be scrupulously observed. Allowance should be made for the possibility of
a considerable rise in the internal temperature of the CTU above the temperature
at the time of packing. This may cause the bags to expand and burst, thereby
making them ineffectual as a means of securing the cargo. Airbags should not be
used as a means of filling space at the doorway unless precautions ar e taken to
ensure that they cannot cause the door to open violently when the locking bars
are released.
The most commonly used form of airbag comprises a multilayer paper bag available in a
wide variety of different sizes. This type should only be used if the areas to the left and
right of the gap are as smooth as possible and have a high load -bearing capacity. If
necessary, walking boards are to be provided to ensure correct distribution of pressure.
Special measures are required for working with airbags, in particular with white and brown
goods, since the parts of the cartons which are not padded would be pushed in. The
minimum inflation pressure should be 200 hPa. For many airbags, this is around 300 hPa.
This can still achieve a securing force of 3,000 daN per m². Airbags are inflated using
compressors. Special inflation fittings with pressure reducers are required. Special fittings
enable the air to be evacuated. This is an advantage if a bag is not seated correctly, as it
can quickly be deflated and then inflated again. This fitting facilitates deflation of reusable
bags. Since it is time-consuming to have to unscrew valves to let out the air, the recipient
will generally deflate single-use bags by puncturing them. When closing gaps, airbags
which have already been partially inflated should be placed in the stowage gap and then
completely inflated. Suitably large and smooth surfaces are required on the cargo
transport units when using them. Only airbags which are capable to a certain extent of
withstanding point loadings should be used. One important factor with regard to usability
is that their side faces should be as near as possible to parallel. Air bags with a
pronounced bulge must not be used.

4.4.4 "Artificial tight fit"

 Gangnails - without and with nail holes

Gangnails of this kind, sometimes known as dowels, can be used to provide a tight fit.
They are available in a wide variety of different shapes and sizes. The specialist literature
also refers to these as "shear transfer plates". They are punched pieces of steel sheet with
triangular teeth bent upward and downward.

Different shapes and sizes of shear transfer plates

To facilitate handling, these devices are also

available in "display packaging". Then they are
shrink-wrapped ready-to-use and can be
inserted simply.

Aids like this make sense when unitizing packages with robust softwood surfaces, e.g.
single-use pallets, softwood pipe clamps, cases with suitable skids or belt battens etc. If
gangnails are laid between loads of this kind and then the loads are strapped or bound
together in some other way, they will increase cohesion. If it is possible to lay them on
platform containers with softwood floors, they can contribute to improving load securing
or to reducing the remaining securing work. On their own, they are not sufficie nt as a
means of securing. Under stress, the teeth bend and flatten and consequently become
virtually ineffective. This has been confirmed by testing carried out on unsecured loads.

In box containers it is conceivable to use them between individual package layers, but not
practical, since accessibility is difficult in most cases. Unless special aids are used to lay
them. Because of the risk they pose, they should not be used on container floors made of
plywood or textured coated board.

Spike-based chock on
a roll of liner boards

It makes sense to use spike-based chocks on cargo transport units with soft floors which
allow this. A further requirement is that cylindrical goods can be placed against the
chocks. When securing cylindrical goods with for instance four spike -based chocks, the
load would have to be set down, the chocks put in place, the load raised, the chocks
secured and the load then set down again. If the positions of the chocks are measured
accurately and they are placed beforehand, the first steps can be omitted, but the product
must be put in place from above. The applications for spike -based chocks of this kind are
generally very limited. In the field of container traffic, they could only be used on platform
containers.

4.4.5 Friction and friction-enhancing mats

A fundamental distinction is made between two types of friction, internal and external.

External friction is used to refer to the resistance that is created as a result of the
relative movement as the contact surfaces of two objects rub against each other. External
friction is caused, in particular, by forces of adhesion and unevenness on the surfaces of
the objects. Friction is virtually independent of the size of the contact surfaces. Friction is
often also explained as the meshing of two materials in contact with each other at a
microscopic level.

The structure of softwood on

the
grain edge

This can be seen clearly, if for example, the structure of softwood is examined on the
grain edge. It is not difficult to imaging that two surfaces of this nature will become
'meshed' if they are in contact with each other.

The frictional force F F is always counter to the current movement of an object. The
magnitude of the frictional force is dependent on the magnitude of the normal force F N
with which the contact surfaces press against each other and on the friction coefficient μ.
Thus, the basic formula for C oulomb's law of friction is:
In this formula μ stands for the friction coefficient or friction factor. It is dependent on the
material, the state of the surfaces (roughness and whether it is lubricated) as well as the
sliding speed of the bodies rubbing against each other. The symbol used in the formula is
μ, the lowercase Greek letter "m" = "mu". Different types of friction are distinguished,
depending on whether or not there is relative movement between the bodies, whether the
bodies are already moving and if so whether they are sliding or rolling:

 Static friction

 Sliding friction

 Rolling friction

If the conditions are otherwise identical, the static friction coefficient is always larger than
the sliding friction coefficient and the rolling friction coefficient is usually much lower than
the sliding friction coefficient. During frictional processes , mechanical energy is converted
into heat, frictional heat.

Internal friction is due to molecular forces. It occurs when individual components of a

liquid or a gas, or the various layers that make up a substance, rub against each other.
The technical term is viscosity. There are two types of viscosity, dynamic and kinematic.

C ontact surfaces between liquids and gases, on the one hand, and the walls of a pipe both
exhibit resistance which is referred to as pipe friction.

Friction in the service of mankind. Without friction - our lives would be impossible. All
forms of locomotion are ultimately reliant on friction. When transferr ing forces, for
example, when starting or braking a vehicle or securing a load, high levels of frictional
resistance are desired. All movement in gearboxes, when moving loads etc. the objective
is to keep frictional resistance as low possible in order to r educe the loss of energy to a
minimum.

Friction testing.In order to determine the level of frictional resistance, very simple tests
can be used. The resistance to movement can be determined using measurements of
force or comparisons of mass, or, measurements can be carried out to show the gradient
at which an object on a slope remains in position, starts to move or remains in motion.

Test configuration used to determine frictional resistance by measuring forces:

Static friction is measured when a measuring instrument, for example, a spring balance, is
pulled until the frictional force FF is almost sufficient to move the object being pressed
onto the surface by the normal force FN. The force that is required to keep the object in
motion and pull it across the surface corresponds to the sliding friction. When applied to a
vehicle, this principle can be used to determine the rolling friction. A more detailed test
can distinguish between static rolling friction and sliding rolling friction. In the field of load
securing, the values for sliding friction are of most interest.

The simple method described here is not admissible for dete rmining friction in genuine
scientific studies. There are special standards which detail how friction coefficients should
be determined.

Example: A block of wood with a normal force or weight-FN of 90 N is dragged over a

cardboard floor. The friction coefficient FF is measured at 27 N. After transformation of the
basic formula FF = μ x FN this results in:

For this example, the friction coefficient of wood on cardboard is calculated as 0.3. This
value can also be expressed as 30% or three tenths. If the test block is doubled by the
addition of an additional block, and increased to 180 N, then the frictional force is
increased to 54 N. The frictional coefficient of 0.3 does not actually change, because 180
N divided by 54 N = 0.3. The friction coefficient remains constant for any given pair of
materials.

If the normal force of an object and the friction coefficient are known, then the frictional
force can be calculated mathematically. Thus, the calculation for the above example is as
follows:

If the friction coefficient remains the same, the frictional force is always proportional to
the normal force or weight. Thus if the normal force is doubled, the frictional force is
doubled. Likewise, if the normal force is halved then the frictional force is also halved. If
the friction coefficient and the frictional force are known, the basic formula F F = μ x FN can
be transformed and used to calculate the normal force or weight:

A test configuration used to calculate the frictional resistance by comparing mass may be
as follows:

Sufficient weight m F is added until the mass m N only just remains motionless. When the
masses start to move, weights can be removed. The formula that is used to calculate the
friction coefficient and the transformed formulas based on it are:
Strictly speaking, friction is still being determined using forces, since all masses are forced
onto surfaces by the gravitational pull of the earth.

Example: A block of concrete with a mass m N of 200 kg is pulled over a wooden surface.
The mass m F required to overcome the friction is determined to be 80 kg. In accordance
with the formula μ = m F / m N this gives a friction coefficient of μ = 80 kg / 200 kg = 0.4.

If the friction coefficient and the mass of an object are known, then the required frictional
force can be calculated mathematically. Thus, for the example:
m F = μ x m N = 0.4 x 200 kg = 80 kg
If the friction resistance and the friction coefficient are known, then the mass can be
calculated:
m N = m F / μ = 80 kg / 0.4 = 200 kg
Possible test configuration used to determine the friction resistance on an inclined surface:

If no dynamometers or calibrated weights are available to determine the friction

coefficient, the values can also be determined using an inclined surface. The surface is
raised until the mass just starts to slide or roll. Once it has started to move, a lower angle
of slope is sufficient to keep the object in motion.

There are two methods of determining the friction coefficient μ using a gradient or a
sloped surface. One option is to divide the height of the sloped surface by the length of its
base.

Example: An aluminum block is placed on a rusty steel plate which is raised at one edge.
The height at a is measured at 96 cm. The length b is measured at 3.84 m. Using the
formula μ = a / b, this gives a friction coefficient of μ = 0.96 m / 3.84 m = 0.25.

The friction coefficients determined using the sloped surface always correspond to the
gradient of the slope expressed as a percentage. A μ value of 0.25 determined by a test
such as this means that the slope has a gradient of 25%. Thus, if the friction coefficient of
car tires on an icy surface is calculated at 0.1 this means that the car is able to drive on a
maximum gradient of 10% on black ice.

If a pocket calculator with trigonometrical functions is available, or a table showing the

values of the trigonometrical functions, then μ can be calculated using the angle of the
incline. In this case the formula is:

Example: Going back to the aluminum block on the rusty steel surface, the angle
necessary for the block to begin to slide is 14°. The tangent of this angle is 0.25 and
corresponds to the friction coefficient μ.

By transforming the formula, two known values can always be used to calculate a third
unknown value:

Calculating the friction coefficient μ for bulk cargo. When using a conveyor or grab
to move bulk cargo, when shoveling, tipping or pouring bulk cargo, the natural slope angle
or angle of repose is formed naturally.

Formation of a cargo mound with a slope angle or angle of repose of α

Using the formulas for inclined surfaces, the friction coefficients (μ values) can be
calculated. The value of the friction coefficient results when the height of the heap (a) is
divided by the base length of one of the flanks (b) or the tangent of the angle of repose or
slope angle (α) between the slope of the heap and the horizontal plane is calculated.
During testing, values are determined by leveling the surface of the contents of a
receptacle and then either tipping the receptacle or placing it on a surface which is then
raised at one edge until the contents start to slide/flow.
Examples: A glass of salt with a level surface is tipped until the first grains of salt break
from the surface. A tipping angle α of 31° is determined. The tangent of 31° can be used
to determine the friction coefficient of this type of salt as μ = 0.6. A receptacle containing
leveled peas is standing on a surface which is subsequently raised until the individual peas
start to roll/slide. The height a = 1.36 m and the base length of the inclined surface b =
4.00 m are used to calculate a friction coefficient for peas of μ = 0.34. C hecking using the
measured tipping angle of 18.8° confirms the friction coefficient: tan 18.8° = 0.34.

To completely empty bulk containers on vehicles at tipping points, the loading platforms
must be raised so that the "tipping angle" α is reached or exceeded:

With respect to the safe transportation of bulk cargoes, particular attention should be paid
to the fact that loads are leveled off before the vehicle is driven off:

If this rule is not followed, the load may begin to slide a nd overflow at very low
acceleration. The picture on the far left shows a bulk load heap left in its natural state.
The next picture shows that lateral acceleration of just 0.2 g would cause the shaded
portion of load to slide from the vehicle. The next picture shows a vehicle where the heap
has just been leveled. With the cargo loaded in this manner, it requires a lateral
acceleration force of 0.6 g to make the cargo slide. The gradient which corresponds to 0.6
g is shown in the picture on the far right. The angle α is identical to the slope angle α of
31°.

The angle of repose, slope angle or discharge angle as well as the friction
coefficients of bulk cargo are all affected to a great degree by the moisture content of
the cargo, the size of the grains and other similar factors.

Test observations. Running tests and noting the measured data for different materials
and masses or objects with varying weights will allow the following conclusions:

Bearing area. Insofar as the objects do not press into the surface, the dimensions of the
bearing area have no influence on the magnitude of the friction resistance.

Weight/mass. Under otherwise identical circumstances, the friction resistance of objects

is proportional to their mass/weight. Thus, doubling the ma ss will double the friction
resistance, and halving the mass will halve the friction resistance, etc.
Material. The materials which are in contact are what determine the values observed.
The magnitude of the friction coefficient depends solely on which m aterials are making
contact.

Units of measurement when using the basic formulas. For all calculations using the
basic formulas μ = FF / FN, μ = m F / m N and μ = a / b it is not relevant which unit of
measurement is used to measure force, mass or distance. The important thing is that they
are used consistently. Since the calculation dimensions in the formula cancel each other
out, μ is a dimensionless numerical value.

Units of measurement when using the transformed formulas. With these

calculations, care must be taken to ensure that the same mathematical dimensions are
used, otherwise the results will not be suitable for comparison or will need to be
converted. Writing down the mathematical dimensions guarantees the correct results,
because errors can be spotted immediately.

Sliding friction coefficients.For load securing, the sliding friction coefficients are of
particular importance. The following table contains sliding friction coefficients for selected
general and bulk cargoes as well as a number of materials that are used on a regular
basis. The values are taken from our own tests. The abbreviation FE mat stands for
friction-enhancing mat.

Table 1a - Sliding friction coefficients for selected materials

Material pairs Friction coefficient μ as

Discharge
Surfaces in contact or bulk cargo Decimal Fraction Gradient angle
Stones/loose soil, certain varieties of ore and coal 1 1/1 100% 45°
Friction-enhancing mats or car tires/very rough
0.9 9/10 90% 42°
concrete, FE mat on FE mat (gum)
FE mat/rough concrete, rough wood or rough
chipboard; tire rubber/macadam; certain types of 0.8 4/5 80% 38.7°
paper/FE mats
FE mat/rusty steel or matt varnished wood, tire
0.75 3/4 75% 36.9°
rubber on rough materials

Material with a μ value of Material with a μ value of

approximately 0.8 approximately 0.7

Materials of this type are ideal for use as interlayer dunnage when layering goods that are
unitized with suitable strapping.

They are less suitable for use as underlay or interlayer dunnage for unsecured loads or
partial loads. As vibrations occur, the friction coefficient drops dramatically and the items
will start to move. These relatively thin materials tend to wear easily. At times,
particularly if they are heated, these materials can even have an adhesive effect which
can depreciate the value of sensitive goods.
 Table 1b - Sliding friction coefficients for selected materials

Material pairs Friction coefficient μ as Discharge

Surfaces in contact or bulk cargo Decimal Fraction Gradient angle
Rough galvanized sheets, rough ekki (Azobé) or
softwood/FE mat; very rough concrete or
0.7 7/10 70% 35°
stone/very rough concrete, FE mat (gum)/wood or
PE
FE mats or rough stones or concrete/rough wood,
planed oak or smooth plywood/FE mat; very rusty
0.6 3/5 60% 31°
steel/very rough wood; car tires/wet road; various
cereals as bulk cargo
FE mat/PA; rough concrete or rough stones/rough
wood, very rough concrete/rough concrete, 0.5 1/2 50% 26.6°
various materials/FE mats

Materials with a μ value of approximately 0.6

These materials can be used to maintain friction coefficients of approximately 60%. The
material on the left is available in a number of different thicknesses, but usually 6 mm and
10 mm thick. The thicker version is preferable for use with heavier goods because it
doesn't wear quite so quickly. Materials of this sort are usually composite materials from
rubber scrap and recycled rubber etc. The material on the right is just 2 mm thick and has
a ridged surface. This is more suitable for forming unit loads.

In some cases, friction-enhancing materials cannot be brought into the containers,

because they would hinder the normal work. This method can only really be implemented
if the goods can be placed cleanly on prepared pads or strips. This method can also be
used when loading open top containers or platform containers where the intended
positions are easily accessible to staff and equipment. The use of non -slip materials is
impossible if the length or any other characteristic of the load requires it to be pushed into
the container.

Table 1c - Sliding friction coefficients for selected materials

Material pairs Friction coefficient μ as

Discharge
Surfaces in contact or bulk cargo Decimal Fraction Gradient angle
Aluminum profiles/FE mats; 0.45 9/20 45% 24.2°
Rough wood/matt varnished wood; aluminum/FE
mat; rusty steel/very rough softwood or oak;
certain types of paper/PE; very rusty steel/very 0.4 2/5 40% 21.8°
rusty steel; concrete/wood; concrete/concrete;
minimum value for FE mats
Rough wood/wood; rough wood/PE;
aluminum/softwood or PE; rusty steel/rough
0.3 3/10 30% 16.7°
wood; rough galvanized steel plate/softwood;
certain types of paper/cardboard or wood;
concrete/wood; wood/wood; wood/special plastic
films; car tires on snow
Matt varnished wood/PE; rough
chipboard/softwood; rough chipboard/PE; planed
0.25 1/4 25% 14°
ekki (Azobé)/softwood; plywood/softwood;
paper/wood; steel/aluminum

Softwood

In practice, dry softwood should not be calculated with a friction coefficient greater than
30%.

Table 1d - Sliding friction coefficients for selected materials

Material pairs Friction coefficient μ as

Discharge
Surfaces in contact or bulk cargo Decimal Fraction Gradient angle
Planed oak, PA/softwood, PE; Bongossi,
plywood/PE; FE mat/sanded wooden loading
platform; rusty steel/PE, PA; rough galvanized
steel/PA; contaminated steel/aluminum; dusted 0.2 1/5 20% 11.3°
steel/ rough wood; wood, cardboard on textured
coated board, PVC , plastic coated wooden floors
etc.
PA/PE, rough galvanized steel/PE; rough
0.15 3/20 15% 8.5°
wood/sanded wooden loading platform
Aluminum, PA, PE, steel, wood and various other
materials on heavily sanded or contaminated FE 0.1 1/10 10% 5.7°
mats; smooth steel on smooth steel; tires on ice
Water, oil and other liquids 0.0 0/∞ 0% 0°

Normal container floor

With normal container floors made of plywood or textured coated board, a maximum
friction coefficient of 20% can be reckoned with. Even if the floor has been steam cleaned
and dried thoroughly, when packers walk/drive across the floor, dust and other
contamination is usually deposited thus lowering the friction.

Factors which alter the friction coefficients. The values given are just guidelines.
Strictly speaking, each shipper should themselves determine the values that should be
used in their situation. But beware: The values obtained under labor atory conditions are
rarely the same as those that occur in practice. External influences, such as humidity,
dust and grease can affect the figures considerably. Dirty loading areas with the remains
of granular materials, such as sand, etc. reduce the fric tion coefficient considerably. Some
of these values are given in table 1. The friction coefficient can, in particular, be reduced
considerably by vibration, and in a worst case scenario it may even be reduced to values
approaching zero.
 Ultra-smooth container floors

When using containers with very smooth floors, it is recommended not to rely on friction,
but instead to pack and secure the load in such a way that it cannot move, even without
friction.

VDI 2702. Guideline VDI 2702, published by the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, and
entitled "Ladungssicherung auf Straßenfahrzeugen - Zurrkräfte" (Load securing on road
vehicles - Lashing forces) gives the following sliding friction coefficients:

Table 2a - Sliding friction coefficients in accordance with the VDI

Guidelines
Material Dry Wet Greasy
Wood on wood 0.20 - 0.50 0.20 - 0.25 0.15 - 0.05
Metal on wood 0.20 - 0.50 0.20 - 0.25 0.10 - 0.02
Metal on metal 0.10 - 0.25 0.10 - 0.20 0.10 - 0.01

The VDI Guidelines recommend using the lowest value for the sliding friction coefficient μ
if in any doubt. In addition, attention is drawn to the fact that additional material pairs
and environmental influences, such as dirt and ice, require that the friction coefficients
should be estimated or should be determined specifically by testing.

The following table gives sliding friction coefficients from the VDI guideline expressed as
fractions, as gradients in% and as angles:

Table 2b - Sliding friction coefficients in accordance with the VDI Guidelines

Material Dry Wet Greasy

1/5 20% 11.3° 1/5 20% 11.3° 3/10 15% 8.5°
Wood on
through through through through through through through through through
wood
1/2 50% 26.6° 1/4 25% 14° 1/20 5% 2.86°
1/5 20% 11.3° 1/5 20% 11.3° 1/10 10% 5.7°
Metal on
through through through through through through through through through
wood
1/2 50% 26.6° 1/4 25% 14° 1/50 2% 1.15°
1/10 10% 5.7° 1/10 10% 5.7° 1/10 10% 5.7°
Metal on
through through through through through through through through through
metal
1/4 25% 14° 1/5 20% 11.3° 1/100 1% 0.57°

Here it should be noted that the issue of friction is under review by the Verein Deutscher
Ingenieure and the figures given above are now obsolete (information as at the beginning
of 2002).

Rolling friction coefficients are much lower than static or sliding friction coefficients. Values
for common materials are shown in the following table:

Table 3 - Rolling friction coefficients of selected materials

Material pairs Friction coefficient μ as

Overflow
Surfaces in contact or bulk cargo Decimal Fraction Gradient angle
Roundwood, rollers and wheels on an unmade
0.5 1/2 50% 26.6°
surface
Roundwood on rough surface 0.2 1/5 20% 11.3°
Roundwood on asphalt, steel or other firm
0.1 1/10 10% 5.7°
surface
Wheels with air-filled tires on a firm surface 0.02 1/50 2% 1.15°
Steel wheels traveling on rails with flanged
wheel grooves, starting and pushing on free 0.01 1/100 1% 0.57°
tracks
Railroad wheels on free tracks, or clean flanged 0.25%
0.0025 1/400 0.14°
wheel grooves 2.5‰

Squared lumber with a square cross-section can act like rollers. This risk is
particularly high when using waney edge squared lumber since this often behaves in a
similar way to roundwood.

Never stand rectangular beams on edge. Rectangular formats or, better, planks should be
used flat. The thickness should be calculated in order to ensure that lifting gear or ground
conveyors are able to handle the goods. A better format is the so -called "sandwich" which
combines wood with top-quality friction-enhancing mats glued or screwed to each side.
The gluing or screwing can be made more durable if the lumber is shaped to
accommodate the mats. The depth should be measured in such a way that even when a
heavy load is placed on the mat, the FE material is not crushed to such an extent that the
goods are resting on the wood.

Incorrect, and incorrectly

used lumber dunnage

If transport jolts are to be expected transversely to the orientation in which they are laid,
rectangular formats such as planks are to be used. It would be better to set out the
beams parallel to the expected direction of the jolts, but for handling reasons, this is only
rarely possible.

Risk of rolling with incorrect and correct use of

 wooden dunnage

As has already been mentioned, frictional forces can be reduced to zero as a result of
vibration. A certain minimum amount of load securing should always be implemented to
counteract the effects of vibrations. Goods should never be transported unsecured just
because the calculated or assumed friction coefficients are greater than the horizontal
acceleration that is to be expected. With very few exceptions, for example, when materials
are not compatible or the selected handling methods do not permit the use of friction
enhancing mats, friction should always be enhanced as much as possible by sele cting the
appropriate materials. Since the use of tensioning or lashing aids or vertical bracing
creates additional frictional forces, the load securing outlay may be reduced considerably
if high friction coefficients can be achieved.