LESSON 1: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Psychology - the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It

seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental
processes.
Fields in Psychology
Abnormal Psychology - This is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior.
Clinical Psychology - concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness, abnormal behavior, and
psychiatric disorders.
Cognitive Psychology - focuses on internal mental states. It is centered on the science of how people think,
learn, and remember.
Counseling Psychology - centered on treating clients experiencing mental distress and a wide variety of
psychological symptoms
Educational Psychology - concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues, and student
concerns.
Experimental Psychology - utilizes scientific methods to research the brain and behavior
Forensic Psychology - a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law.
Health Psychology - a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and social factors
influence health and illness.
Industrial Organizational Psychology - branch that applies psychological principles to research on workplace
issues such as productivity and behavior.
School Psychology – are employed by school systems to identify and assist students who have problems that
interfere with learning.
Social Psychology - concerned with the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior in
social situations. Tend to focus on social influences.

Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology

Biological Perspective – seek the relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution, on the
one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other.
Humanistic- Existential Perspective - self-awareness, experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to
“invent ourselves” and our ways of relating to the world as we progress through life.
Psychodynamic Perspective - explains personality in terms of unconscious psychological processes (for
example, wishes and fears of which we’re not fully aware), and contends that childhood experiences are
crucial in shaping adult personality.
Learning Perspective - Environmental influences and the learning of habits through repetition and
reinforcement. Social cognitive theorists, in contrast, suggest that people can modify and create their
environments.
Sociocultural Perspective - addresses many of the ways that people differ from one another. It studies the
influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes
Methods of Research
Case Study collects information about individuals and small groups. Many case studies are clinical; that is, they
are descriptions of a person’s psychological problems and how a psychologist treated them
Naturalistic Observation is a research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment.
This approach is often used by psychologists and other social scientists.
Survey Psychologists conduct surveys to learn about behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed
in the natural setting or studied experimentally.
Correlation is a statistical measure (expressed as a number) that describes the size and direction of a
relationship between two or more variables.
Positive Correlation between two variables is when an increase in one variable leads to a rise in the other
variable. A decrease in one variable will see a reduction in the other variable.
Negative Correlation is quite literally the opposite of a positive relationship. If there is an increase in one
variable, the second variable will show a decrease and vice versa.
No Correlation third type, there is no correlation between the two variables. A change in one variable may not
necessarily see a difference in the other variable.
Experimental Method preferred method for answering questions about cause and effect is the experiment.
The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another
variable. This method relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of study subjects to test
a hypothesis.
Dependent Variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring.
Independent Variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates.
Experimental Group is a test sample or the group that receives an experimental procedure. This group is
exposed to changes in the independent variable being tested.
Control Group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment such that the independent variable being
tested cannot influence the results.
Double-Blind Study is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a
particular treatment.
Placebo Effect is defined as a phenomenon in which some people experience a benefit after the administration
of an inactive "look-alike" substance or treatment. This substance, or placebo, has no known medical effect.
LESSON 2: BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Nervous system - command center

- Memory, thoughts, feelings, movement, sleep & breathing patterns heartbeat

- Response to threatening situations, sense and body processes

Neuron a
specialized
cell of the
nervous
system that
receives and
transmits
messages

STRUCTURE

OF NEURONS

The cell body contains genetic information, maintains the neuron's structure, and provides energy to drive
activities

Nucleus uses oxygen and nutrients to generate the energy needed to carry out the work of the cell.

Dendrites root-like structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses, or incoming
messages, from other neurons

Axon a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from bulb-shaped
structures called axon terminals or terminal
Myelin a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of neural impulses

LESSON 2: BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

 Pons - information about body
moveme nt and is involved in
functions related to at tention,
sleep and arousal, and respiration.

The medulla regulates basic

functions such as heart rate, b lood
pressure, respiration , sleeping,
sneezing, and coughing.

The cerebellum control the posture movement, motor learning, vision and balance. Injury to the cerebellum
may impair motor coordination and cause stumbling and loss of muscle tone.

The reticular formation is a system of nerves running from the hindbrain through the midbrain to the cerebral
cortex, controlling arousal and attention.

LESSON 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

SENSATION - the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous
system (the spinal cord or brain).
PERCEPTION is an active process in which sensations are organized and interpreted to form an inner representation of
the world.
ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD - weakest level of a stimulus that is necessary to produce a sensation. Example smallest level of a
tone that can be detected by normal hearing when there is no other interfering sounds present.
SUBLIMINAL STIMULATION - Sensory stimulation that is below a person’s absolute threshold for conscious perception is
termed subliminal stimulation
JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE (JND) or DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD – the minimal difference in intensity required between
two sources of energy so that they will be perceived as being different
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY (SDT) - the view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the interaction of physical,
biological, and psychological factors
SENSORY ADAPTATION - refers to the processes by we become more sensitive to stimuli of low magnitude and less
sensitive to stimuli that remain the same
THE EYE AND ITS CONNECTION TO THE BRAIN
Cornea- light enters the eye through, the clear, curved layer in front of the iris and pupil.
Iris- the circular, colored area of the eye that surrounds the pupil—controls the amount of
light that enters the eye.
Lens- Behind the iris sits the lens. By changing its shape, the lens focuses light onto the retina
Retina - contains the cells that sense light (photoreceptors) and the blood vessels that
nourish them.
Blind spot- sensitive to visual stimulation

Fovea- a small depression within the neurosensory retina where visual acuity is the
highest.
Bipolar cells connect to the innermost layer of neurons, which are the ganglion cells.
Hence, ganglion cells receive information from bipolar cells and send them to the
brain. Bipolar cells transmit signals in the form of gradient potential, while ganglion
cells transmit signals in the form of an action potential.
Amacrine cells- intrinsic interneurons of the inner retina representing the most
diverse class of neurons in the retina.
Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels or scotopic vision. Cones are
responsible for vision at higher light levels or photopic vision.
Visual Acuity- (sharpness of vision) is connected with the shape of the eye.

COLOR VISION
The wavelength of light determines its color, or hue. The value of a color is its degree of
brightness or darkness. The saturation refers to how intense a color appears to us.
Colors also have psychological associations within various cultural settings.
THE COLOR WHEEL
WARM COLORS include red, orange, and yellow, and variations of those three colors. Red
and yellow are both primary colors, with orange falling in the middle.
COOL COLORS include green, blue, and purple, and variations of those three colors. Blue
is the only primary color within the cool spectrum. Greens take on some of the attributes
of yellow and purple takes on some of the attributes of red.
COLOR BLINDEDNESS
Trichromats- normal color and vision. Sensitive to red-green, blue-yellow, and
light-dark.
Monochromats- totally color blind. Sensitive to light-dark.
Dichromats- partially color blind. discriminate only between two colors—red and
green or blue and yellow— and the colors that are derived from mixing these
colors.

VISUAL PERCEPTION - the process by which we organize or make sense of the sensory impressions caused by the light
that strikes our eyes. Visual perception involves our knowledge, expectations, and motivations.
Closure- the tendency to perceive a complete or whole figure even when there are gaps in the
sensory input.
Figure-ground perception refers to the tendency of the visual system to simplify a scene into the
main object that we are looking at (the figure) and everything else that forms the background (or
ground).
GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Law of Similarity-similar things tends to appear grouped together.
Law of Pragnanz- sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the law of
simplicity.
Law of Proximity- things that are close together seem more related than things that
are spaced farther apart.
Law of Continuity-
Law of Common
points that are
Region when
connected by straight
elements are located
or curving lines are
in the same closed
seen in a way that
region, we perceive
follows the
them as belonging to
smoothest path.
the same
The bottom-up process involves information traveling 'up' from the stimuli, via the
senses, to the brain which then interprets it, relatively passively.
Top-down processing involves the brain 'sending down' stored information to the
sensory system as it receives information from the stimulus, enabling a plausible
hypothesis to be made without the need to analyze every feature of the stimulus.
MOTION PERCEPTION is the ability of the nervous system to discern the distance and
speed of a moving object in relation to the eye that is seeing the object.
The stroboscopic effect occurs when a flashing light source illuminates a moving
object. This effect, created by the flickering, is harmful to the vision and causes
discomfort, visual fatigue and headaches. Choose lighting fixtures that respect your health and
well-being.
DEPTH PERCEPTION
Artists use monocular cues called pictorial cues to create an illusion of depth. They include the (1) relative size, (2)
elevation, (3) texture gradient, (4) motion parallax, (5) aerial perspective, (6) linear perspective, (7) overlap or
interposition, and (8) shading and lighting.

Binocular cues are defined as the ability of both of our eyes to perceive an object in
three-dimensional space.
▪ Retinal disparity- also called binocular parallax, that refers to the fact that each of our
eyes sees the world from a slightly different angle
▪ Binocular convergence- refers to the amount of rotation our eyes have to do in order
to focus on an object.
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES enable us to recognize the characteristics of objects even
when their apparent size, color, brightness, and shape differ from the norm.

MODULE 4
Consciousness

 Consciousness is sensory awareness of the environment.

 Selective attention process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant
stimuli in the environment.
- there is a limit to how much information can be processed at a given time
- allows us to tune out insignificant details and focus on what is important.
 Direct inner awareness knowledge of one’s own thoughts, feelings, and memories without the use of
sensory organs. (e.g. thinking, love)

Levels of Mental Life (Conscious, Preconscious and Unconscious)

1. Ideas, memories, feelings, or motives of which we are actively aware are said to be conscious.
- defined as those mental elements in awareness at any given point in time.
2. Aspects of our experience that are not conscious, but can easily be brought to awareness, are stored at
a preconscious level.
- preconscious level of the mind contains all those elements that are not conscious but can
become conscious either quite readily or with some difficulty.
3. Cognitions, feelings, or motives of which we are not aware are said to be in the unconscious.
- The unconscious contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness
but that nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions.
- unconscious mind can be found in dreams, slips of the tongue, or humor.

Repression occurs when a thought, memory, or feeling is too painful for an individual, so the person
unconsciously pushes the information out of consciousness and becomes unaware of its existence.
When people choose to stop thinking about unacceptable ideas or distractions, they are using suppression.

Sleep and Dreams

Sleep
Sleep is a fascinating topic. After all, we spend about one-third of our adult lives asleep. Sleep experts
recommend that adults get seven to nine hours of sleep

Effects of Sleep Deprived

- irritable, mood swing
- migraine
- trigger anxiety
- can’t focus
Stages of Sleep
STAGE 1:
- “doozing off” stage
- it normally lasts just one to five minutes.
- It’s easy to wake someone up during this sleep stage.
STAGE 2:
- Drop in temperature relaxed muscles, and slowed breathing and heartrate. At the same time, brain
waves show a new pattern and eye movement stops.
- 10-60 mins (nasa gitna ng sleep pero hindi deep sleep)
STAGE 3:
- also known as deep sleep, and it is harder to wake someone up if they are in this phase.
- Decrease pulse rate, muscles, breathing.
- stage 3 may also be called delta sleep or slow-wave sleep (SWS).

REM Sleep Patterns.

- brain activity picks up, nearing levels seen when you’re awake.
- During REM there is atonia—a total relaxation of the muscles.
- REM sleep is believed to be essential to cognitive functions like memory, learning, and creativity.
- REM sleep is known for the most vivid dreams, which is explained by the significant uptick in brain
activity.

DREAMS
- Residue of the day
 - Expression of unconsciousness
Dreams as residue of the way. You may recall dreams involving fantastic adventures, but most dreams involve
memories of the activities and problems of the day.
Dreams as an expression of unconscious desires. Freud, as noted, theorized that dreams reflect unconscious
wishes and urges.

Sleep Disorders
Insomnia Disorder
- dissatisfaction with sleep quantity or quality with complaints of difficulty initiating or maintaining
sleep.
- It is more common in the elderly than in younger adults.
- Sleep onset insomnia (or initial insomnia) involves difficulty initiating sleep at bedtime.
- Sleep maintenance insomnia (or middle insomnia) involves frequent or prolonged awakenings
throughout the night.
- Late insomnia involves early-morning awakening with an inability to return to sleep.
Narcolepsy
- recurrent daytime naps or lapses into sleep.
- involves going to sleep without any intention to do so.
- Narcolepsy generally produces cataplexy, which most commonly presents as brief episodes (seconds to
minutes) of sudden, bilateral loss of muscle tone precipitated by emotions, typically laughing and
joking.
Central Sleep Apnea
- are characterized by repeated episodes of apneas and hypopneas during sleep caused by variability in
respiratory effort.
- Sleep apnea is a partial cause of hypertension, heart disease, impotence, and memory loss
- Idiopathic central sleep apnea is characterized by sleepiness, insomnia, and awakenings due to
dyspnea in association with five or more central apneas per hour of sleep.
- Cheyne-Stokes breathing, which is characterized by a pattern of periodic crescendo-decrescendo
variation in tidal volume that results in central apneas and hypopneas occurring at a frequency of at
least five events per hour that are accompanied by frequent arousals.
Hypnosis
- more than a nightclub act.
- used as an anesthetic in dentistry, childbirth, and medical procedures.
- Some psychologists use hypnosis to help clients reduce anxiety, overcome fears, or lessen the
perception of chronic pain.
- helps people cope with stress and enhance the functioning of their immune systems.

Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

 - Stimulants activate an organism, producing a heightened sense of arousal and elevation of mood.
- Depressants are chemicals that reduce one’s awareness of external stimuli, slow bodily functioning,
and decrease levels of overt behavior.
Substance Use and Substance Use Disorder
- is a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual
continues using the substance despite significant substance-related problems.
- Substance use is the continued use of alcohol, illegal drugs, or the misuse of prescription or over-the-
counter drugs with negative consequences.
- Tolerance is the body’s habituation to a substance so that, with regular usage, higher doses are needed
to achieve similar effects.
- abstinence syndrome—that is, a characteristic group of withdrawal symptoms—when the level of
usage of a substance suddenly drops off.
Casual Factors in Substance Abuse Disorders
- Substance use usually begins with experimental use in adolescence.
- Use of a substance may be reinforced by peers or by the drug’s positive effects on mood and its
reduction of anxiety, fear, and stress.
Depressants
- Depressant substances reduce arousal and stimulation.
- affect the central nervous system, slowing down the messages between the brain and body.
Alcohol
- Alcohol prevents you from getting good sleep. It dehydrates your body and can sleep-related disorders
worse, including sleep apnea and insomnia.
- It is the relief from anxiety, depression, or loneliness that you can swallow in public without criticism or
stigma.
Opiates and Opioids
- Stop neurotransmitter
- Opioids trigger the release of endorphins, your brain's feel-good neurotransmitters.
Heroin
- is an opiate derived from morphine.
- can provide a strong euphoric “rush.”
- increased amounts can cause breathing to stop and lead to death.
Barbiturates
- Relief from anxiety, tension and pain, and treatment of epilepsy, high blood pressure, and insomnia.
- Barbiturates are popular as street drugs because they are relaxing and produce mild euphoria.
- All produce dependency if used regularly, and some are addictive.

Stimulants
 - provides temporary improvements in physical or mental functioning
- psychoactive drugs
- stimulant treatment for ADHD (impose, inatentive, hyperactive)
Amphetamines
- stay awake and high for days on end.
- group of stimulants that were first used by soldiers during World War II to help them stay alert at
night.
- Stimulants such as Ritalin and Adderall are widely used to treat attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) in children.
Cocaine
- stimulant that produces euphoria, reduces hunger, deadens pain, and boosts self-confidence.
Nicotine
- stimulant in tobacco smoke.
- release of neurotransmitters
Hallucinogens
- a type of drug that changes a person’s perception of reality.
- e chemicals that lead to the formation of hallucinations, usually visual.
- hallucinogens make a person see, feel and hear things that aren’t real, or distort their interpretation of
what’s going on around them.
Marijuana
- Marijuana is a substance that is produced from the Cannabis sativa plant, which grows wild in many
parts of the world.
- Marijuana helps some people relax and can elevate their mood. It also sometimes produces mild
hallucinations, which is why we discuss it as a hallucinogen.
- The active ingredient in marijuana is THC.
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
- Last 30 mins. To 8 hrs.
- Users of “acid” claim that it “expands consciousness” and opens up new worlds to them.
- sometimes a person can experience a ‘bad trip’, involving a disturbing hallucination.
- Euphoria

MODULE 5:
LEARNING AND THEORIES
Learning
- Relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience.
Conditioning
 - Process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses - Through
different kinds of experiences, people and animals acquire enduring changes in their behaviors
Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning
- is a type of unconscious or automatic learning.
- This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned
stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
- Unconditioned stimulus was the food
- Unconditioned response was the salivating
- neutral stimulus (sound)
The tone was at first a meaningless or neutral stimulus. It might have caused the dog to look in the direction of
the sound—an orienting reflex.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning is when an originally neutral stimulus (such as a tone)
when paired with a UCS (food powder), evokes a new response (salivation).
The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response (such as salivation in response to a tone) evoked by
the CS after conditioning.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Extinction
- occurs when the conditioned stimulus is applied repeatedly without being paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.

Generalization
- is the process in which responses conditioned in the presence of a specific stimulus appear in the
presence of other, similar, stimuli.
Discrimination
- training occurs when responses made to appropriate stimuli are reinforced, and responses to
inappropriate stimuli are ignored or extinguished.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Taste Aversion
- Conditioned taste aversion is a learned association between the taste of a particular food and illness
such that the food is considered to be the cause of the illness.
- Conditioned taste aversions can develop even when there is a long delay between the neutral stimulus
(eating the food) and the unconditioned stimulus (feeling sick).