RISE OF

NATIONALISM IN
EUROPE
Full Chapter
 Frédéric Sorrieu Painting, 1848

● In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared

a series of four prints visualising his dream of a
world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’,
as he called them.

● In one of the print, it shows the peoples of Europe

and America – men and women of all ages and
social classes – marching in a long train, and
offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they
pass by it.

● On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the

shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions. In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples
of the world are grouped as distinct nations,
identified through their flags and national costume.

● Leading the procession, way past the statue of

Liberty, are the United States and Switzerland,
which by this time were already nation-states.
 New Words:

Absolutist: Literally, a government or system

of rule that has no restraints on the power
exercised. In history, the term refers to a
form of monarchical government that was
centralised, militarised and repressive.

Utopian: A vision of a society that is so ideal

that it is unlikely to actually exist
● France identifiable by the revolutionary
tricolour, has just reached the statue.

● Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created

this image, the German peoples did not yet
exist as a united nation – the flag they carry is
an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify
the numerous German-speaking principalities
into a nation-state under a democratic
constitution.

● Following the German peoples are the peoples

of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,
Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary
and Russia.

● From the heavens above, Christ, saints and

angels gaze upon the scene. They have been
used by the artist to symbolise fraternity
among the nations of the world.
 ● During 19th century- nationalism emerged as a
force which brought about sweeping changes in
the political and mental world of Europe.

● End result- Origin of nation-state.

Modern state came first!

Then came the nation state in place of the

multinational dynastic empires.

Element of Nation State

MAJORITY OF
SENSE OF
ITS CITIZEN SHARED
COMMON
& NOT ONLY HISTORY
IDENTITY
ITS RULER
First clear expression of nationalism came up
with French Revolution in 1789.

France was a full-fledged territorial state in

1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.

Transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a

body of French citizens.

The revolution proclaimed that it was the

people who would henceforth constitute the
nation and shape its destiny.
 Steps Taken by French Revolutionaries

● The idea of la patrie (the fatherland), and le citoyen

(the citizen).

● New French flag, replacing the former Royal flag.

● Estates General was elected and renamed as National

Assembly.

● Centralised Administrative system with uniform laws

for all citizens.

● Internal customs duties and dues were abolished.

● A uniform system of weights and measures was

adopted.

● French became the common language of the nation.

● Regional dialects were discouraged.

● New hymns composed and Oaths taken.

The revolutionaries further declared that it
was the mission and the destiny of the French
nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from
despotism, in other words to help other
peoples of Europe to become nations.

Establishment of Jacobin Clubs, paved way

for French armies that carried the idea of
nationalism and moved to Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland, and Italy.

With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars,

the French armies began to carry the idea of
nationalism abroad.
NAPOLEON
BONAPARTE
● He was the military leader.

● Due to political vacuum Napoleon came into the

picture.

● With his introduction, democracy was destroyed

in France.

Reaction to Napoleon in Europe?

● In the areas conquered, the reactions of the

local populations to French rule were mixed.

● Initially, French armies were welcomed as

Harbingers of liberty, in certain cities like
Brussels, Holland, Switzerland, etc.

● But, initial enthusiasm later turned hostile due to

increased taxation, censorship, and forced
conscription.

● All seemed to outweigh the advantages of the

administrative changes.
NAPOLEONIC CODE/ CIVIL CODE OF 1804

● Established equality before law & took away all

privileges based on birth.

● Secured the Right to Property.

● Simplified administrative divisions, abolished the

feudal system.

● Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

● Guilds restrictions were removed.

● Transportation and communication systems were

improved.

● Standardised weights and measures.

● A common national currency to facilitate the

movement and exchange of goods.
THE MAKING OF
NATIONALISM IN
EUROPE
❏ Mid 18th century- No nation states in Europe
were there.

❏ There were only kingdoms, duchies and cantons

whose rulers had their autonomous territories

❏ Eastern and Central Europe were under

autocratic monarchies.

❏ In these kingdoms lived different people, with

different culture and identities. They even spoke
different languages and belonged to different
ethnic groups.

❏ Example: The Habsburg Empire that ruled over

Austria-Hungary was a patchwork of many
different regions & peoples.

- It included the Alpine regions- the Tyrol,

Austria, Sudetenland & Bohemia, and also
included Italian-speaking province of Lombardy
& Venetia.
For example: The Habsburg Empire was a patchwork
of many different regions and peoples.

It included: the Alpine regions, the Tyrol, Austria and

the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia,
Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar

while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.

In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.

Such differences did not easily promote a sense of

political unity.

The only tie binding these diverse groups together

was a common allegiance to the emperor.
 ARISTOCRATS PEASANTS

Socially & politically Comprised majority

powerful. population.
United by a common way Western Europe- majority
of life. land farmed by tenants
and small owners.
Owned estates &
townhouses in the Eastern and Central
countryside. Europe- Serfs cultivated
land.
Spoke French for
purposes of diplomacy
and in high society.

Families often connected

by way of marriages.

However, the aristocrats

comprised a small group.
 Emergence of the New Middle Class,
second half of 18th century

● Western and parts of Central Europe- Growth

of industrial production and trade lead to
growth of towns and emergence of commercial
classes whose existence was based on
production for the market.

● Industrialisation began in England in the

second half of the 18th century, but in France
and parts of the German states it occurred
only during the 19th century.

● In its wake, new social groups came into being

a WORKING CLASS population, and
middle-classes.

● Both the classes were made up of

industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
 THE New Social Class

Commercial Class/ Working Class/ Middle

Class.

Advocated idea Against

of national aristocratic
unity privilege

They later became force of a lot of

revolutions in Europe against Monarchy.
 WHAT DID LIBERAL
NATIONALISM STAND
FOR?
 LIBERALISM

Ideas of national unity in

early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely
allied to the ideology of liberalism.

Derived from Latin term- “Liber” (free), and stood for:

Equality before law.
POLITICAL LIBERALISM
● Equality before the law did not necessarily stand for
universal suffrage (right to vote).
● Government by consent.
● During revolutionary France, the right to vote and to get
● End of autocracy & of Clerical elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.
privileges. Men without property and all women were excluded from
political rights.
● Inviolability of private property.
● Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult
● Constitution & representative males enjoy suffrage.
government through parliament.
● However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor,
● No voting rights for those without subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
property.
● Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries women and
non-propertied men organised opposition movements
demanding equal political rights.
 ECONOMIC LIBERALISM

● Stood for freedom of markets.

● Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the

movement of goods and capital.

Example: During the first half of the 19th century - Napoleon

administration created created a confederation of 39
states.

- Each has its own currency, and weights and measures.

- Custom barriers in each city hindered economic growth &

exchange.

- As each region had its own system of weight and

measures, this involved time-consuming calculations.

Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic

exchange and growth by the new commercial classes,
who argued for the creation of a unified economic
territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods,
people and capital.
 Zollverein- Custom Union

● Initiative of Prussia in 1834.

● Abolished tariff barriers.

● Reduced the number of currencies from 30 to 2.

● Promoted a network of railways to promote mobility.

● A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the

wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.
A NEW CONSERVATISM
AFTER 1815
 CONSERVATIVES

Realised- modern army, an efficient

bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the People who believed in traditional institutions of State
abolition of feudalism & serfdom could & Society (e.g. Monarchy, church, family, etc.), with
strengthen the autocratic monarchies changes initiated by Napoleon.
of Europe.

The Battle of Waterloo, 1815: Napoleon’s ● Most conservatives, however, did not
defeat by Conservatives. propose a return to the society of
pre-revolutionary days.

● Resistant to any idea of change, before

French Revolution.

● Rather, they realised, from the changes

initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation
could in fact strengthen traditional
institutions like the monarchy. It could make
state power more effective and strong.
 TREATY OF VIENNA,1815

Where: Vienna

When: 1815

Member States:
BARP (Britain;
Austria; Russia;
Prussia)

Who Hosted: Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich

Why: To bring back conservatism (restore

Monarchy) in Europe after Napoleon’s defeat.
 CHANGES BROUGHT BY TREATY

● The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in

France.

● France lost the territories it had annexed under

Napoleon.

● Territories were divided: to prevent French

expansion boundaries were set-up.

● The kingdom of the Netherlands was set up in

north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the
south.

● Prussia was given territories on western frontiers,

while Austria was given control of northern Italy.

● But the German confederation of 39 states that

had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.

● In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while

Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
 Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic

● Did not tolerate criticism and dissent.

● Sought to curb activities that

questioned legitimacy of autocratic
government.

● Censorship law imposed on

newspaper, books, plays, etc.

This motivated liberal-nationalists to fight for

The Club of Thinkers, anonymous caricature Freedom of Press.
dating to c. 1820.
REVOLUTIONARIES
WHO WERE REVOLUTIONARIES?

Revolutionaries were
liberal-nationalists who belonged
to educated middle-class elite.

These liberals became

revolutionaries with a motive to
overthrow monarchy.
 ● After 1815, fear of repression drove many
liberal-nationalists underground, and led
to the formation of Secret societies.

● Members: Liberal Nationalists (began to

operate underground)

Objectives :

● Commitment to oppose monarchical forms

● Fight for freedom & liberty.

● Oppose autocratic regime.

 GIUSEPPE MAZZINI

➢ Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807.

➢ Member of secret society of the Carbonari.

➢ Founded two societies- Young Italy in Marseilles, &

Young Europe in Berne.

➢ He believed that God had intended nations to be the

natural units of mankind.

➢ Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small

states and kingdoms.

➢ Unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

Following his model secret
➢ Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his
societies were set up in vision of democratic republics frightened the
Germany, France, conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most
Switzerland and Poland. dangerous enemy of our social order’.
 THE AGE OF
REVOLUTIONS:
1830-1848
 Revolution was led by:
● Two groups in Europe:

1) The Conservatives

2) The Liberalism and

nationalist.

● The Liberals were against the

Educated Commerci
Conservatives, and later on Middle al Middle
they became the Class Class
revolutionaries.

● In furtherance of their motive

three revolutions occured:

- The July Revolution

- The Belgian Revolution
- The Greece Revolution
 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS: 1830-1848

First Upheaval: Brussel’s THE GREECE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1832)

France- Revolution
It was an event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the
(JULY 1830) Belgium broke educated elite across Europe. Greece had been part of the
Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
away from the
Established- United Kingdom. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a
Constitutional struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in
monarchy. 1821.

Louis Philippe Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in
was its head. exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for
ancient Greek culture.

Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European

civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle
against a Muslim empire.

The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to
fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.

Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as

an independent nation.
 THE ROMANTIC
IMAGINATION &
NATIONAL FEELING
 Romanticism

The development of nationalism did not It is a cultural movement which sought to develop a
come about only through wars and particular form of nationalist sentiment through arts,
territorial expansion. poetry, stories, and music.
People who contribute to it are known as Romantic
Culture played an important role in creating artists.
the idea of the nation.

Through:
Shared common heritage
1. Art
2. Poetry
Common Culture
3. Stories
4. And Music,
Mystical Feeling
helped express and shape nationalist
feelings.

They criticized glorification of reason & science.

 JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
● He was a German philosopher. He gave two
concepts:

- Das Volk- Culture can only be seen among Common

People
- Volksgeist- True spirit of the nation

● Collecting and recording forms of folk culture was

essential to the project of nation-building.

The emphasis on vernacular (local) language and

the collection of local folklore was used to:

1. Recover an ancient national spirit

2. And, to carry the modern nationalist

message to large audiences who were
mostly illiterate.
 How language played an Important Role?

● 18th century- Poland was partitioned by Great Powers

(Prussia, Austria & Russia).

● Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent

territory, national feelings were kept alive through music
and language.

● Karol Kurpinski celebrated national struggle through

operas & music, turning folk dances like the polonaise
and mazurka into nationalist symbol.

● Poland used language as a weapon of national resistance.

● For example: Struggle for Polish language over Russian

language in Poland.

● A large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or

sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities- refusal to
preach in Russian.

The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle

against Russian dominance.
The Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix,
1824.

The French painter Delacroix was one of the

most important French Romantic painters. This
huge painting depicts an incident in which
20,000 Greeks were said to have been killed by
Turks on the island of Chios. By dramatising
the incident, focusing on the suffering of
women and children, and using vivid colours,
Delacroix sought to appeal to the emotions of
the spectators, and create sympathy for the
Greeks.
 HUNGER, HARDSHIP,
AND POPULAR REWARD
 The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in
Europe. The first half of the 19th century saw an
enormous increase in population all over Europe.

In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than

employment.

Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to

live in overcrowded slums

Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff

competition from imports of
cheap machine-made goods from England, where
industrialisation was more advanced than on the
continent.
This was especially so in textile production, which was
carried out mainly in homes or small workshops and
was only partly mechanised.

In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still

enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden
of feudal dues and obligation.

The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to

widespread pauperism in town and country.
● In 1848- widespread food shortage & unemployment
brought the population of Paris out on the roads.

● Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was

forced to flee.

● National Assembly proclaimed republic.

● France became a Republic (suffrage to all adult

males above 21).

● National workshops setup to provide employment.

 Silesian Revolt, 1845
● Issue: Between Cotton contractor and Cotton
weaver.

● Contractor supplied them raw material and gave

them orders for finished textiles but drastically
reduced their payments.

● Crowd of weavers marched to the mansion of their

contractor demanding higher wages.

OUTCOME

● Weavers’ demand were not considered.

● They were treated with scorn and threats

alternately.

● Eleven weavers were shot

 1848: THE
REVOLUTION OF THE
LIBERALS
 Who were liberals?

Liberals comprised educated middle class people

(Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian
Empire), who led the revolution in Europe.

Events of February 1848 in France had brought

about the abdication of the monarch and a republic
based on universal male suffrage had been
proclaimed.

● In other parts of Europe- such as Germany, Italy,

Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and
women of the liberal middle classes combined their
demands for constitutionalism with national
unification.

● They took advantage of the growing popular

unrest to push their demands.
 What was the
When did the
reason for
revolution start?
revolt?

Constitution;
Parallel to the revolts by
peasants, and workers Freedom of Press and
in Europe in 1848. Freedom of Association;

Abolition of Monarchy;

Achieve republic based

on Universal Male
Suffrage.
 GERMANY’S CASE

Middle-class people came together in city of Frankfurt

and voted for an all-German National Assembly.

On 18th May, 831 elected representatives marched to

Frankfurt Parliament (convened in the Church of St. Paul).

Drafted constitution for a German headed by a monarchy

subject to a Parliament.

Offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of

Prussia, but he rejected the proposal & joined other
monarchs to oppose the elected Assembly.

The parliament consequently lost the middle-class

support.

In the end, troops were called in and the assembly was

forced to disband.
The Frankfurt Parliament in the Church of
St Paul
 Women’s Participation

● Formed their own political STEPS TO AVOID ANOTHER

associations. REVOLT
● Founded newspaper & taken part in ● Hence, in the years after 1848, the
political meetings & demonstration. autocratic monarchies of Central
and Eastern Europe began to
● Still denied suffrage rights during the introduce the changes that had
election of the Assembly already taken place in Western
Europe before 1815.
Effect of Revolt
● Serfdom and bonded labour were
● Conservatives failed to restore the old abolished both in the Habsburg
order. dominions and in Russia.

● Monarchs began to realise the cycles ● The Habsburg rulers granted more
of revolution and repression could autonomy to the Hungarians in
only be ended by granting concessions 1867.
to the liberal-nationalist
revolutionaries.
 The Making of
Germany and Italy
After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its
association with democracy and revolution.

Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by

conservatives for promoting state power and achieving
political domination over Europe.

This can be observed in the process by which Germany

and Italy came to be unified as nation-states.

● Nationalist feelings were widespread among

middle-class Germans.

● In 1848- they tried to unite the different regions of

the German confederation into a nation-state
governed by an elected parliament.

● This liberal initiative was repressed by the the

monarchy and the military, supported by the large
landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
 Prussia took on the leadership of the
movement for national unification:

Unification was done by Conservatives!

● Prussian Chief Minister, Otto Von Bismarck

was the architect of the process of
unification of Germany.

● Prussia started a movement for national

unification under Otto Von Bismarck.

● 3 wars over 7 years with Austria, Denmark &

France ended in Prussian victory and
completed the process of unification.

● Princes & other people of German states,

Chief of Prussia, Bismarck, gathered in the
Hall of mirrors in the palace of Versailles
The proclamation of the German empire in the Hall of (January 1871) to proclaim German empire
Mirrors at Versailles, Anton von Werner. headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
The nation-building process in Germany had
demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state
power.

The new state placed a strong emphasis on:

● Modernising the currency;

● Banking;

● Legal and judicial systems in Germany.

Prussian measures and practices for the rest of

Germany.
 Italy Unified

● During mid-19th Century- Italy was divided into

7 states.

● Only Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian

Princely States.

● The north was under Austrian Habsburgs.

● The centre was ruled by the Pope.

● The southern regions were under the

domination- Bourbon kings of Spain.

● Even the Italian language had many regional

and local variations.
 GIUSEPPE MAZZINI

Mazzini sought to put together a clear

programme for a unitary Italian Republic (1831 &
1848).

Formed a secret society called Young Italy for

the dissemination of his goals.

After his failure

responsibility fell on
Victor Emmanuel II.

In the eyes of the ruling

elites of this region, a
unified Italy offered them
the possibility of
economic development
and political dominance.
➢ Chief Minister Cavour led the movement to
unify the regions of Italy.

➢ He was neither a revolutionary nor a

democratic. He was a diplomat.

➢ He entered into an alliance with France and

succeeded in defeating Austrian Forces in
1859.

➢ Cavour wa helped
by a local leader
known as
(Giuseppe)
Garibaldi and his
army of peasants
(Red Shirt).
 GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI

In 1833, he met Mazzini and

joined the Young Italy Movement.

He participated in a republican
uprising in Piedmont in 1834. In
1854, he supported Victor
Emmanuel II for his effort to unify
the Italian states.

In 1860, he led the famous

expedition to South Italy and
the Kingdom of two Sicilies with
his ‘Red Shirt’ army. In 1867, he
led the army to Rome to fight
for Papal states where French
garrison was stationed. In 1870, He was a prominent
France withdrew its troops and personality in the
Papal states were finally joined unification of Italy.
to Italy.
● In 1860, the army (regular troops and armed
volunteers) under Garibaldi marched into South
Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilles.

● They succeeded in winning the support of the

local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish
rulers.

● 1861: Victor Emmanuel II was finally proclaimed as

King of United Italy.

● However, much of the Italian population, among

whom rates of illiteracy were very high, remained
blissfully unaware of liberal- nationalist ideology.

● The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi

in southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and
believed that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s wife!
The Strange Case of
Britain
 ● Nation state formation was not
sudden but a long drawn out
process.

● Prior to 18th century there were

ethnic groups like:

★ English;

★ Welsh;

★ Scot;

★ Irish.

English parliament seized power from

the monarchy in 1688.
 THE ACT OF UNION (1707)

The Act between England and Scotland resulted in the

formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.

The British Parliament was dominated by English

members.

Growth of a British identity systematically suppressed

Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions.

The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish

Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they
attempted to assert their independence.

They were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or

wear National Dress of Scotland.
Incorporation of Ireland New Britain

Ireland was a country deeply divided A new ‘British nation’ was forged through
between Catholics and Protestants. the propagation of a dominant English
culture.
The English helped the Protestants of
Ireland to establish their dominance over a
largely Catholic country. Symbols of new Britain- British flag
(Union Jack), the national anthem (God
Catholic revolts against British dominance
Save Our Noble King), the English
were suppressed.
language were promoted actively.
Revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United
Irishmen for Catholics of Ireland failed These symbols were actively promoted
(1978). and the older nations survived only as
subordinate partners in this union.
Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the
United Kingdom in 1801.
Visualising the Nation
 ALLEGORY

● 18th & 19th century Artists

personified nation. They
represented a country as if it were
a person.

● Nations were portrayed as female

figure. The female figure became an
allegory of the nation.

● For e.g.: the French Revolution

artists used the female allegory to
portray ideas such as Liberty,
Justice and the Republic.
 ALLEGORY
When an abstract idea (for instance,
greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is
expressed through a person or a
thing. An allegorical story has two
meanings, one literal and one
symbolic.
 France: MARIANNE

- Popular Christian name

- Underlying idea of a People’s Nation

- Characteristics drawn from Liberty and the

Republic (the red cap, the tricolour, the
cockade).

Statues of Marianne were

erected in public squares to
remind the public of the
national symbol of unity and to
persuade them to identify with
it.
 Germany: GERMANIA
became the Allegory
of Germany.

She wears a crown of

oak leaves & stand for
heroism.

First time used by

Liberals in Frankfurt
Parliament
The fallen Germania,
Julius Hübner, 1850
NATIONALISM AND
IMPERIALISM
 LAST QUARTER OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY

Nationalism no longer retained its idealistic

liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the
century, but became a narrow creed with limited
ends.

Nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant

of each other and ever ready to go to war.

The major European powers, manipulated the

nationalist aspirations of the subject peoples in
Europe to further their own imperialist aims.
 Conflict over Balkan- 1871

● Region of geographical & ethnic variation.

● It comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria,

Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and
Montenegro.

● Inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.

● Large part under the control of the Ottoman

Empire.

● The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in

the Balkans together with the disintegration of the
Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.

● One by one, its European subject nationalities

broke away from its control and declared
independence.
 INTENSE RIVALRY

Fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain

more territory at the expense of the others.

Rivalries among Russia, Germany, England,

Austro-Hungary, was over trade & colonies as well as
naval and military might.

Result- a series of wars in the region and finally the First

World War.
 Nationalism aligned
with imperialism, led
to Europe to disaster
in 1914.

European ideas of
nationalism were
nowhere replicated, Colonies of the
for people European nations
Imperialism began to oppose
everywhere
developed their own imperial domination.
specific variety of
nationalism.

Anti-imperial
movements
developed
everywhere were
nationalists & wanted
to form ‘nation-state’.
NCERT QUESTIONS