Dr.

Cahit Karakuş

2013

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“ Read, Memorize and Remember ”

Balbiti

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CONTENTS
1. Sentence ......................................................................................................... 11
1.1. Noun ................................................................................................................... 11
1.1.1. Plural noun ........................................................................................................................ 16
1.1.2. Noun phrase ..................................................................................................................... 18
1.1.3. Determiners: a, an, the ................................................................................................... 19
1.1.4. Numbers and Numerals .................................................................................................. 22
1.1.5. Suffix and Prefix ............................................................................................................... 35
1.1.6. Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... 52

1.2. Structure............................................................................................................. 55
1.2.1. Subject - Özne.................................................................................................................. 57
1.2.2. Agrement between subject and verb ............................................................................ 61
1.2.3. Object - Nesne ................................................................................................................. 67
1.2.4. Complement ..................................................................................................................... 70
1.2.5. Adjective ............................................................................................................................ 71
1.2.6. Adverb ............................................................................................................................... 72
1.2.7. Preposition ........................................................................................................................ 73
1.2.8. Conjunction ....................................................................................................................... 74

1.3. Verb ..................................................................................................................... 75

1.3.1. Predicate and verb .......................................................................................................... 76
1.3.2. Verb patterns .................................................................................................................... 78
1.3.3. Verb types ......................................................................................................................... 83
Linking verbs ................................................................................................................................. 87
Phrasel verbs ................................................................................................................................. 88
1.3.4. Verb forms ........................................................................................................................ 94
To be – durum ............................................................................................................................... 98
Have - aitlik .................................................................................................................................. 104
Modals .......................................................................................................................................... 110
There ............................................................................................................................................ 111

1.4. Sentence forms .............................................................................................. 114

1.4.1. Tense ............................................................................................................................... 117
1.4.2. Clause ............................................................................................................................. 119
1.4.3. Question .......................................................................................................................... 124
1.4.4. Negative construction .................................................................................................... 137
1.4.5. Mood and Voice ............................................................................................................. 143
1.4.6. Agreement and Disagreement ..................................................................................... 147
1.4.7. Inversion structure ......................................................................................................... 150
1.4.8. Interjection ...................................................................................................................... 156

1.5. Punctuation...................................................................................................... 157

1.5.1. Capitalization .................................................................................................................. 157
1.5.2. Comma ............................................................................................................................ 162
1.5.3. Exclamation point (!) .................................................................................................... 165

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 1.5.4. Period (.) ......................................................................................................................... 166
1.5.5. Colons (:)......................................................................................................................... 167
1.5.6. Question (?) .................................................................................................................... 168
1.5.7. Semicolon (;) .................................................................................................................. 168
1.5.8. Quotation (“ ”) ................................................................................................................ 169
1.5.9. Parenthesis ..................................................................................................................... 170
1.5.10. Apostrophe (’) ................................................................................................................. 170
1.5.11. Dash (-) ........................................................................................................................... 171
1.5.12. Italic .................................................................................................................................. 171

2. Pronoun ........................................................................................................ 173

2.1. Personal pronouns ......................................................................................... 173
2.1.1. Subject pronouns ........................................................................................................... 174
2.1.2. Object pronouns ............................................................................................................. 178
2.1.3. Possessive adjectives ................................................................................................... 179
2.1.4. Possessive pronouns .................................................................................................... 180

2.2. Demonstrative pronouns ............................................................................... 181

2.3. Relative pronouns ........................................................................................... 182
2.4. Reflexive pronouns ......................................................................................... 184
2.5. Interrogative pronouns ................................................................................... 186
2.6. Indefinite pronouns......................................................................................... 192
2.6.1. Indefinite pronouns as the subject .............................................................................. 192
2.6.2. Every, Some, Any, No ................................................................................................... 196
2.6.3. Each, Else, One, All, Other .......................................................................................... 199
2.6.4. Both, Either, Neither ...................................................................................................... 202
2.6.5. But .................................................................................................................................... 204

2.7. Referral: Preventing to repeats ..................................................................... 205

3. Preposition ................................................................................................... 209

3.1. Time prepositions ........................................................................................... 210
3.2. Place prepositions .......................................................................................... 217
3.3. Common prepositions .................................................................................... 224
By .................................................................................................................................................. 224
Between: (involves just two) ...................................................................................................... 226
Beyond (Ötesinde, dışında)....................................................................................................... 227
But ................................................................................................................................................. 227
For ................................................................................................................................................. 228
From .............................................................................................................................................. 229
Like................................................................................................................................................ 230
Of ................................................................................................................................................... 230
Off.................................................................................................................................................. 231

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 Over .............................................................................................................................................. 232
Past ............................................................................................................................................... 233
Througy /Throughout: çapında, boyunca, yardımıyla ............................................................ 233
To .................................................................................................................................................. 234
Under ............................................................................................................................................ 234
With ............................................................................................................................................... 235
Others ........................................................................................................................................... 236

3.4. Adjective Preposition ..................................................................................... 240

3.5. Preposition and Verbs .................................................................................... 245

4. Verbals .......................................................................................................... 247

4.1. Gerund .............................................................................................................. 248
4.2. Infinitive ............................................................................................................ 255
4.3. Participle .......................................................................................................... 280

5. Tenses ........................................................................................................... 289

5.1. Simple Tenses ................................................................................................. 292
5.1.1. Present Simple Tense ................................................................................................... 292
5.1.2. Past Simple Tense ........................................................................................................ 294
5.1.3. Future Simple Tense ..................................................................................................... 297

5.2. Continuous Tenses ......................................................................................... 301

5.2.1. Present continuous tense ............................................................................................. 301
5.2.2. Past Continuous Tense................................................................................................. 303
5.2.3. Future Continuous Tense ............................................................................................. 304

5.3. Perfect Tenses ................................................................................................. 305

5.3.1. Present Perfect Tense .................................................................................................. 305
“Gone” yerine “been” kullanımı ................................................................................................. 306
Since, For ..................................................................................................................................... 307
Just, Yet ....................................................................................................................................... 308
Ever, Never .................................................................................................................................. 309
Already ......................................................................................................................................... 309
Recentley, Lately, Before........................................................................................................... 310
Up to now, Till now, So far, Untilnow ....................................................................................... 310
5.3.2. Past Perfect Tense ........................................................................................................ 311
5.3.3. Future Perfect Tense .................................................................................................... 312

5.4. Perfect Continuous Tenses ........................................................................... 314

5.4.1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense ............................................................................. 314
5.4.2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense ................................................................................... 315
5.4.3. Future Perfect Continuous Tense ............................................................................... 316

5.5. Passive voice ................................................................................................... 318

5.6. Causative form ................................................................................................ 330

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6. Modals ........................................................................................................... 333
6.1. Formation of modals....................................................................................... 334
Modal adverbs and adjectives ...................................................................................................... 336
Modal perfect ................................................................................................................................... 337
Modality progressive ....................................................................................................................... 339

6.2. Auxiliary verbs................................................................................................. 340

Advice ............................................................................................................................................... 351
Possibility.......................................................................................................................................... 354
Strong probability ............................................................................................................................ 359
Obligation and Necessity ............................................................................................................... 364
Ability ................................................................................................................................................. 370
Request and Permission ................................................................................................................ 374

6.3. Prohibition: Must not ...................................................................................... 379

6.4. Suggestion, Deduction, Expectation ............................................................ 382
6.5. Habitual Activities: Used to ........................................................................... 383

7. Modifiers ....................................................................................................... 385

7.1. Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 386
7.1.1. Place of the adjectives .................................................................................................. 390
To be + adj + to + V: express feelings and react ................................................................... 391
7.1.2. Adjectives and Linking verbs ....................................................................................... 393
7.1.3. Adjective phrase ............................................................................................................ 394
7.1.4. Ving or V3 as adjective ................................................................................................. 395
7.1.5. Nouns as adjectives ...................................................................................................... 396
7.1.6. Adjectives as nouns ...................................................................................................... 397

7.2. Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 398

7.2.1. Adverbs forms ................................................................................................................ 401
7.2.2. The place of the adverbial modifiers ........................................................................... 403
7.2.3. Types of adverbs ........................................................................................................... 405
7.2.4. Peculiarities in the use of adverbs .............................................................................. 410

7.3. Qualification..................................................................................................... 413

7.4. Quantifiers ....................................................................................................... 414
7.5. Comparative ..................................................................................................... 418
7.5.1. “than” are used as comparison .................................................................................... 418
7.5.2. Comparison of Equality “as” ......................................................................................... 420
7.5.3. Comparison “Like” ......................................................................................................... 423
7.5.4. Parallel constructions .................................................................................................... 426
7.5.5. Numerals in comparisons ............................................................................................. 427
7.5.6. Intensifiers and modifiers .............................................................................................. 428
7.5.7. Comparison of adverbs ................................................................................................. 429

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 7.6. Superlative ....................................................................................................... 431
7.6.1. Most ................................................................................................................................. 435
7.6.2. Of all ................................................................................................................................ 437
7.6.3. Lower degree: Less and Least ................................................................................... 438

7.7. Emphasis.......................................................................................................... 440

7.7.1. So ..................................................................................................................................... 441
7.7.2. Such ................................................................................................................................. 445
7.7.3. Quite, Too, Enough, Well ............................................................................................. 448
7.7.4. Introductory phrases that add emphasis .................................................................... 451
7.7.5. Rather .............................................................................................................................. 452

8. Conditional Sentences ................................................................................ 453

8.1. If clauses .......................................................................................................... 453
Type-0: General or scientific conditions ....................................................................................... 453
Type-1: Real condition.................................................................................................................... 454
Type-2: Unreal condition in the present or future ....................................................................... 456
Type-3: Unreal condition in the past ............................................................................................. 458
Open conditional ............................................................................................................................. 459
“Could” and “Might” in conditional sentences .............................................................................. 460
“Should” after “if” ............................................................................................................................. 460
Absence of “if” .................................................................................................................................. 461

8.2. Mixed forms ..................................................................................................... 462

8.3. Inversion of If Clauses (Omitting If) .............................................................. 465
8.4. Case conditions............................................................................................... 467

9. Noun Clauses ............................................................................................... 475

9.1. Noun clause as subject of a sentence.......................................................... 476
9.2. Noun clause as object of a sentence ............................................................ 477
9.3. Noun clause as complement ......................................................................... 479
9.4. Whether /if ........................................................................................................ 480
9.5. Questions in noun clauses ............................................................................ 483
9.6. The subjunctive form in noun clauses ......................................................... 487
9.7. Preferences ...................................................................................................... 495
9.7.1. Wish ................................................................................................................................. 495
9.7.2. Hope ................................................................................................................................ 500
9.7.3. Would rather ................................................................................................................... 501
9.7.4. Rather than ..................................................................................................................... 503

10. Reported Speech (Direct - Indirect).......................................... 505

10.1. Reported question ....................................................................................... 514

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 10.2. Requests, Advice, Promises or Instructions ........................................... 516
10.3. Special forms (parahrave) in reported speech ........................................ 517

11. Relative Clauses ....................................................................................... 521

11.1. Defining relative clauses ............................................................................ 522
11.2. Coordinators ................................................................................................ 527
11.3. Prepositions in adjective clauses.............................................................. 529

12. Conjunctions ............................................................................................ 535

12.1. Coordinating conjunctions......................................................................... 537
12.2. Correlative conjunctions ............................................................................ 541
12.3. Adverb Clauses ........................................................................................... 546
12.3.1. Time ................................................................................................................................. 551
As .................................................................................................................................................. 551
When ............................................................................................................................................ 552
Since ............................................................................................................................................. 554
While ............................................................................................................................................. 556
As soon as (When, After): Hemen, olur olmaz ....................................................................... 557
On: Hemen, olur olmaz .............................................................................................................. 557
Once: Hemen, olur olmaz .......................................................................................................... 557
Upon: ............................................................................................................................................ 558
Other time conjunctions ............................................................................................................. 559
12.3.2. Place ................................................................................................................................ 563
12.3.3. Purpose ........................................................................................................................... 564
12.3.4. Contrast – Zıtlık .............................................................................................................. 569
12.3.5. Reason ............................................................................................................................ 582
12.3.6. Result, Summation, Conclusion .................................................................................. 587
12.3.7. Exception ........................................................................................................................ 589
12.3.8. Manner ............................................................................................................................ 589

12.4. Sentence connectors .................................................................................. 591

12.4.1. Emphasis ........................................................................................................................ 592
12.4.2. Addition ........................................................................................................................... 593
12.4.3. Alternatives ..................................................................................................................... 595
12.4.4. Reformulation ................................................................................................................. 595
12.4.5. Logical / sequential order ............................................................................................. 596
12.4.6. Correction ....................................................................................................................... 596
12.4.7. Exemplification ............................................................................................................... 597
12.4.8. Explanation ..................................................................................................................... 598
12.4.9. Particularization.............................................................................................................. 598
12.4.10. Similary ....................................................................................................................... 599

12.5. Linking words and Preposition phrases................................................... 600

12.5.1. Transition + N /NP ......................................................................................................... 601

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 12.5.2. Prepositional phrase + Noun /NP ................................................................................ 602
12.5.3. Preposition + Ving ........................................................................................................... 605
12.5.4. Preposition Phrase List ................................................................................................. 608

12.6. Explanatory examples ................................................................................ 612

13. Agreement in the clauses ....................................................................... 615

13.1. Time agreement in the clauses .................................................................. 616
13.1.1. Time adverbials – Zaman zarfları ................................................................................ 616
13.1.2. Zaman uyumu ................................................................................................................ 619

13.2. Tense agreement in the clauses ................................................................ 621

13.2.1. If the main clause is present ........................................................................................ 624
13.2.2. If the main clause is future ........................................................................................... 625
13.2.3. If the main clause is past .............................................................................................. 626
13.2.4. Perfect tenses in the clauses ....................................................................................... 629
13.2.5. Perfect continuous tenses in the clauses ................................................................... 632
13.2.6. Main clause has the modals......................................................................................... 633
13.2.7. Main clause has conditional sentences ...................................................................... 634

13.3. Reduced sentences ..................................................................................... 637

13.3.1. Reduction in the noun clauses ..................................................................................... 637
13.3.2. Reduction in the relative clauses ................................................................................. 644
13.3.3. Reduction in the adverbial clauses ............................................................................. 653

13.4. Ving, V3, Been, Being.................................................................................. 663

13.4.1. Ving .................................................................................................................................. 675
13.4.2. Have been, has been .................................................................................................... 679
13.4.3. Being ................................................................................................................................ 680
13.4.4. Having ............................................................................................................................. 682
13.4.5. To be + V3, to be + V ..................................................................................................... 683

13.5. Frequently used conjunctions ................................................................... 685

13.5.1. As ..................................................................................................................................... 685
13.5.2. That .................................................................................................................................. 696
In that + clause: olması bakımından, olması nedeniyle ........................................................ 698
13.5.3. While ................................................................................................................................ 700
13.5.4. Since ................................................................................................................................ 702

14. Exam Tips.................................................................................................. 705

14.1. Dictionary ..................................................................................................... 705
14.2. Sentence analysis ....................................................................................... 711
14.2.1. Memorable phrases ....................................................................................................... 711
14.2.2. Sentences ....................................................................................................................... 711
14.2.3. Tender offers .................................................................................................................. 715

14.3. Translation ................................................................................................... 717

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 14.4. Completion ................................................................................................... 721
14.5. Irrelevant sentences .................................................................................... 722
14.6. Restatement ................................................................................................. 724
14.7. Diyalogues .................................................................................................... 726
14.8. Paragraph ..................................................................................................... 729

15. Ekler ........................................................................................................... 734

15.1. Conversation ................................................................................................ 734
Getting acquainted...................................................................................................................... 734
Opinion ......................................................................................................................................... 738
Place and Directions .................................................................................................................. 744
Hotel.............................................................................................................................................. 747
Inviting people ............................................................................................................................. 749

16. References ................................................................................................ 752

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 1. Sentence
Type of sentences: statement (declarative), question (Interrogative), exclamation (exclamatory),
and command (imperative). Sentences are used to express ourselves clearly and understand
what others have expressed.

Abbreviations:
S: Subject,
V: verb, VP: verb phrase,
O: object, C: complement
N: noun, NP: noun phrase;
Adj: adjective, AdjP: adjective phrase
Adv: adverb, AdvP: adverb phrase
Pre: preposition; PP: prepositional phrase
Det: determinative; Subord: subordinator; Coord: coordinator; Interj: interjection.

1.1. Noun

Sıfat tamlaması
Bir isim, sıfat tarafından nitelendirildiği zaman sıfat tamlaması olur. Hava, isimdir. Güzel hava,
sıfat tamlamasıdır.
A car(bir araba), an expensive car (pahalı bir araba)
A girl (bir kız), a beautiful girl (güzel bir kız)
İngilizce’de yukarıda verilen sıfat tamlamaları düzenli sıfat tamlamalarıdır. Eğer sıfat
tamlamalarında sıfat ile tanıtıcı ek yer değiştirirse bozuk sıfat tamlamaları elde edilir.
An expensive car, expensive an car
A beautiful girl, beautiful a girl
Not: Düzenli sıfat tamlamalarında “such .. that”, bozuk sıfat tamlamalarında “so…that” bağlacı
kullanılır.
He is such an intelligent student that he can study abroad. (Abroad: yurt dışında)
He is so intelligent a student that he can study abroad.

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 İsim tamlaması
Belirtisiz isim tamlaması: Kapı kolu, diş fırçası, mercimek çorbası, kutup ayısı
Belirtili isim tamlaması: Kapımın kolu, Evimin direği, kedinin ayağı, öğretmenin gözlüğü
Zincirleme isim tamlaması: Orman kralının yavrusu, kutup ayısının kürkü

İp uçları:
 İki isim “of” ya da “with” ile bağlanır.
 “Noun + … + Noun”, şeklinde bir yapı varsa, şıklarda “as well as” veya “rather than” aranır.

The food industry is vulnerable to the charge that it contributes to mortality ---- actively
seeking to increase consumption of unhealthy foods ---- which profits depend.

Everything we can see or talk about is represented by a word which names it. Nouns can be a
subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by an adjective and can take an article or
determiner. Word order and prepositions show which noun is the subject of the sentence, and
which is an object.
- The boy likes the cat. The cat likes the boy.
- The old man gave the cat to the boy.

Nouns are divided into proper nouns: (John Brown, Europe, and October) and common nouns (a
boy, a book, an idea, milk, equipment, kindness). Countable nouns (Apple), Uncountable nouns
(mass nouns) – things you cannot count (food, music)
- Time is uncountable noun. There wasn’t much time.
- Tea is uncountable noun. Was there much tea in the tea-put?

Noun types

A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun. (You, they, it, …)

A noun phrase functions within a clause or sentence in a role such as that of subject, object, or
complement of a verb or preposition.

Collective nouns – words to describe groups (team, choir). Collective nouns are usually used with
singular verbs:
- The family is on holiday.
- General Motors is mounting a big sales campaign.

Abstract nouns – things you cannot see or touch (bravery, joy). Concrete nouns – things you can
see or touch (tree, cloud)

Compound nouns – nouns made up of more than one word (court-martial, pickpocket, water
bottle)

Gender-specific nouns – words which are definitely male or female (vixen, actress)

Verbal nouns – nouns derived from verbs (a building, an attack)

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Gerunds (Ving) – nouns that represent actions (running fast, guessing a number, the swimming
is…)

Infinitives (to + V) can be used as nouns (To learn is …), adjectives (to build the canal), or
adverbs (to prepare for the storm).

Noun as adjective:
- A race horse is a horse that runs in races
V3 + Noun: The broken window … The wheezing gentleman …

Noun Gender

Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher", can refer to men or women. Once, many
English nouns would change form depending on their gender. A man was called an "author"
while a woman was called an "authoress". Author – authoress, actor – actress, waiter –
waitress.
- David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
- Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
- The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was
advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"

English nouns don't have suffixes or endings to show gender. (Only the personal pronouns "he,
she, it" and their forms show gender.) There are a few nouns with the feminine suffix "ess":
hostess, stewardess, actress, waitress, princess, baroness, goddess, lioness. But on the whole,
gender in English is connected only to the meaning of nouns.

He: Tom, man, boy, father, son, brother, husband, uncle, nephew, king, lord, mister have
masculine gender.
She: Anna, woman, girl, mother, daughter, sister, wife, aunt, niece, queen, lady, madam have
feminine gender .
A teacher, doctor, author, captain, secretary, student, friend, thief, cook can be "he" or "she".

An animal is generally "it", but if necessary, you can indicate gender by using "he" or "she": My
cat is very clever. She understands everything.

"It" is used when referring to an inanimate object or an abstract noun: table, book, window,
money, laughter, truth, health.

The most reliable way to identify a noun is by its function in the sentence (subject, object) and by
the word order and immediate surrounding. For example, the phrases "a book, a new book, his
books; this book is interesting; the books are on the table; he likes these books" show that the
words "book, books" are nouns.

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 Adding the apostrophe ('s) to show the possessive case

Possession and belonging (the possessive case) by adding the apostrophe and " ’s": Tom's book,
the doctor's house; my friend's car (arkadaşımın arabası), my friends' car (arkadaşlarımın
arabası); the dog's name (köpeğin ismi), the dogs' names (köpeklerin isimleri); the ladies' room;
the men's room; children's books; the man's bag; the boy's book; the coach's house; His son's
birthday.
- Missouri are meeting tonight to discuss the future of their city's mayor.
- Eli’s sister’s husband’s cousin lives in Alaska.
- Present Trump’s speaking style

The apostrophe is primarily used in two cases: to show possession (John's house, Mary's friend,
boys' room, children's books) and to show omitted letters or figures, for example, it's (it is), I'll (I
will), don't (do not), isn't (is not), shouldn't (should not), 'cause (because), rock 'n' roll (rock and
roll), '90 (1990), the '80s (the years 1980–1989).

If a noun is in the singular, the apostrophe and “s” are normally added in all cases, irrespective of
the letter in which the word ends.
- the doctor's house; the dog's collar;
- a lady's dress; the hero's name;
- the boss's order; the nurse's words;
- Tom's car; Mike's books, Jeff's sister;
- Annie's letters, Tony's cat; Chris's answer, Liz's coat, Max's room;
- Tom Brown's house; Mr. Crosby's arrival.

Note that the letter “s” after the apostrophe in names like Charles's, Rose's, Liz's, Douglas's,
Chris's, Lewis's, Tess's, Max's, Josh's, George's, Mitch's is pronounced according to the rules of
the pronunciation of the ending “s/es”.

The genitive marker should not be confused with the "s" form of contracted verbs, as in “John's a
good student = John is a good student.”

If a noun is in the plural or has the ending “s/es”, only the apostrophe is added to it to
show the possessive case, then the genitive marker appears only as an apostrophe after
the plural form:
the boys' pens; the doctors' house; the dogs' collars; the ladies' room;
the heroes' names; the Browns' residence; the Ivanovs' car;
the Crosbys' arrival
the Rileys' garden
one’s own and others’ feelings

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 Countable – Uncountable Nouns

Common nouns are divided into countable nouns (boy, book, idea) and uncountable nouns (milk,
equipment, kindness). Countable nouns are divided into concrete nouns (boy, book) and abstract
nouns (idea). Uncountable nouns are divided into concrete nouns (milk, equipment) and abstract
nouns (kindness). Countable nouns have the category of number: one chair – two chairs; a
house – three houses; a boy – boys.

Countable nouns generally form the plural by adding the ending s/es:
a ball – balls; a table – tables; a play – plays; a city – cities;
a cow – cows; a bridge – bridges; a class – classes; a tax – taxes; a knife – knives.

A limited number of nouns have irregular plural forms:

a man – men; a woman – women; a child – children; a tooth – teeth;
a sheep – sheep; a crisis – crises; a formula – formulae; a stimulus – stimuli.

Uncountable nouns can't be counted: air, water, sugar, gold, chemistry, education, help, love,
progress, energy, economics. They don't have the category of number and don't take the ending
s/es.

Type, kind, and sort: are countable nouns, and they must be plural after determiners with plural
meanings.
This type/kind/sort of + singular noun.
- The two main kinds of magnets are permanent magnets and electromagnets.

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 1.1.1. Plural noun

“Singular noun”, tek bir kişiyi, yeri ya da eşyayı anlatan isimlere denir.

In the case of irregular plural nouns which form the plural without the ending s/es, the apostrophe
and “s” are added to show the possessive case: the men's room; men's tailor;children's books;
children's hospital; women's doctor; women's clothes.

The general rule is to add "s" to the noun in singular: book – books, house – houses, chair –
chairs.

When the singular noun ends in: “_sh, -ch, -s, -ss, -x, -o”, we form their plural form by adding
"_es": sandwich – sandwiches, brush – brushes, bus – buses, box – boxes, potato – potatoes.

When the singular noun ends in "y", we change the "y" for "i" and then add "-es" to form the plural
form. But do not change the "y" for "ies" to form the plural when the singular noun ends in "y"
preceded by a vowel: Nappy – nappies, day – days, toy – toys.

Plurals of words that end in “-f” or “-fe” usually change the “f” sound to a “v” sound and add “s” or
“-es”: Knife – knives, leaf – leaves, hoof – hooves, life – lives, self – selves, elf – elves.

The girl in jeans, ifadesinde jean değil, jeans olarak kullanılır, çünkü kızın iki ayağı vardır, jeans
iki parçalı olduğundan çoğul eki alır.

Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time. Ten years is a long time to wait.
A pair of trousers: the subject is "a pair" which is singular. A pair of trousers is hanging in the
room.
The expression “the number” is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is
followed by a plural verb. The number of casualties is unknown.

Bacon and eggs is a dish. -> Singular verb. Bacon and eggs is his favorite breakfast.
"Early to bed and early to rise" is an action -> Singular verb
Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.

The apostrophe and “s” are added to the last word of a compound noun to show the possessive
case.
- mother-in-law – my mother-in-law's house;
- passer-by – passer-by's bag; passers-by – passers-by's bags;
- attorney general – attorney general's office;
- the mayor of New York – the mayor of New York's speech.

In cases where the structure becomes too difficult to understand, it is better to use the of-phrase
instead of the apostrophe and “s”: the friends of my sons-in-law (not my sons-in-law's friends).

16
The apostrophe and “s” are also used to show the plural forms of single letters, symbols,
abbreviations, and (some) very short words.
- There are two f's in the word “office”.
- cross the t's and dot the i's; (idiom)
- two &'s and three $'s;
- YMCA – four YMCA's;
- count yes's and no's.

There is some disagreement on whether such use of the apostrophe and “S” to show the plural is
correct, and sometimes such use may lead to misunderstanding, so it's better to avoid using them
in this function by paraphrasing the sentence, especially in formal speech and writing.
- There is double f in the word office.
- two symbols & and three symbols $;
- YMCA – four YMCA centers; count the yes answers and the no answers.

Irregular plural forms:

Some nouns form their plural not by adding the ending s/es, but by changing the letters in the root
of the word. Many Irregular nouns do not form the plural in this way: woman – women, child –
children, sheep – sheep; man – men; ox – oxen; mouse – mice; louse – lice; foot – feet; tooth –
teeth; goose – geese.

Note: The noun "brother" (a member of a family) has a regular plural form: brother – brothers. If
the noun "brother" is used in the meaning "a fellow member", it may have the archaic irregular
plural form "brethren" (fellow members).

The same singular and plural form:

Some nouns have the same singular and plural form.
one sheep – two sheep; a deer – two deer; a bison – five bison; a moose – three moose; a swine
– several swine; a fish – two fish; a salmon – several salmon; a dozen – two dozen; an aircraft –
two aircraft; a means – means; a series – two series; a species – different species; a corps –
corps; a headquarters – headquarters; a crossroads – crossroads; an alms – alms; a gallows –
gallows; a barracks – barracks.

If such nouns are used in the singular, they agree with a singular verb.
- A deer is a graceful animal. The UN headquarters is in New York.

If such nouns are used in the plural, they require a plural verb.
- Three sheep were missing.
- Modern aircraft are powerful machines.
- Tropical fish are small and brightly colored.

17
 1.1.2. Noun phrase

A Noun phrase (NP) consists of a noun and its modifiers, including determiners, adjectives,
prepositional phrses and adjective clauses. A typical NP can be formulated as follows:
Determiner + Adjective + Noun. However, if they are placed after the noun, they are called post-
modifiers.
- If the cost of health benefits for working people in a country rises, usually employers cut
wages or pass on the costs as higher to customers.

a) Determiners are usually placed before the noun.

Articles: the, a/an
Demonstratives: this, that
Numerals: two, five, etc.
Possessives: my, their, etc.
Quantifiers: some, many, etc.

Example: Love is a beautiful feeling. (“a beautiful feeling” is a noun phrase that includes a
noun, “feeling,” and the determiner “a” and the adjective (modifier) “beautiful”)
Example: My house is over there. (“My house” is a noun phrase which consists of the noun
“house” and a modifier - the possessive adjective “my”)

b) Adjectives: the delicious food

c) Complements, in the form of a prepositional phrase
Such as: the student of physics,
That-clause: the idea that the world is a small village

Noun phrases can function as subjects, objects.

- That sophisticated woman is beautiful. (“That sophisticated woman” is a noun phrase that
functions as a subject.)
- People running for their lives: People who run for their lives.
- I like the book that you bought. (“The book that you bought” is a noun phrase that functions
as an object.)

 A relative clause could replace the preposition phrase.

- The man who is wearing the hat.
 There could be a string of adjectives (and pre-modifying nouns) instead of just one.
- Both of these systems have their own structural rules.
- The world cup football competition.
 A numeral or cardinal could be inserted after the determiner.
- Do you remember the first time I bumped into you in the park?
 A noun phrase can be made more complex.
- The roving eye which he had cultivated for so many years.
 Any part of the noun phrase can simply be stripped away.
- “The very tall education consultant with the roving eye” can become “The tall education
consultant with the roving eye” (here 'very' has been deleted).

18
 1.1.3. Determiners: a, an, the

Determiners are usually placed before the noun: A/an/the + (adj) + Noun
Articles: the, a/an
Quantifiers: some, many, etc.
Demonstratives: this, these, that, those, [Pronoun]
Numerals: two, five, etc.
Possessives: my, their, etc. [Pronoun]

There are two articles in English: the definite article "the" and the indefinite article "a/an".
The article indicates whether the noun before which it stands is specific “the” (the book, the
books) or “some, any, one of (a book, an apple).

If common noun is in the form of plural noun, it will not take any “Article”
We are both doctors.

The Indefinite article: a/an

“A/an” is used to show that you are referring to a general type of person or thing and not a
specific person or thing. “a/an” is used before singular. A /an + adj + noun: Noun phrase
Before a noun that starts with a vowel (a, e, I, o, u) we use “an”. an orange, an egg
Before a noun that starts with a consonant we use “a”. a woman, a boy
- There is an ink-pot on the desk.
- They saw a horror film last night.

“A” is used in some phrases that say how much of something there is: a profit of, a few, a great
deal of...
- Mercedes announced a 20% profit for the first half of the year.

19
 Definite article: The

“The” is used to show that you are talking about a particular thing or person that has already been
mentioned, is already known about, or is the only one. “The” güneş, ay gibi tek olan varlıklar
içinde kullanılır. The sun, the moon. We don’t use depart from platform 1, 2, 3, ..
- Radiation from the sun can cause skin cancer.
- In 1969 Neil Armstrong became the first man on the moon.
- What is the capital of Spain?

“The” is used when you are about to make it clear which person or thing you mean:
- There were lots of fish in the lake and we caught several big ones.

“The” is used before an adjective to make it into a plural noun when you are referring to all the
people that the adjective describes:
- When someone becomes a doctor they make a promise to always help the sick.

“The” is used before the name of a family in the plural to refer to all the members of that family:
- Did you remember to invite the Smiths to dinner?

"The" goes with name of countries having to words or more.

Use "the": with words for institutions places and countries, and all rivers and oceans, have “the”
as part of their name, when you are talking about a particular one:
- Researches in the Amazon continue to find new species of plants and animals.
- The Saudis have created a monster in the world of Islam.
- The Berlin Crisis of 1961
- The Canary Islands.
- The Sarbone University
- The USA: The United State of American.
- The Far East
- The biggest ocean in the world is Pacific. It covers 32.6 % of the world’s surface.
Normally before villages, city, state, and country; “Article” is not used. Do not use "the" with the
name of a place, for example a street, town, country, or airport. He went to Bankok on holiday.
It was his first trip to Thailand.
- The biggest fresh water lake in the world is Lake Baikal in Russia. It is 400 miles long and 80
miles wide.

Normally, Proper Noun doesn’t take any “Article” before it:

- Sally always goes for a walk in St. John’s Park on Sunday afternoons.

Superlative comparison: the + (most) adj/adv+ est:

- The Nile is the longest river in the world. It is 6700 kilometers long.

The expression “the number” is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is
followed by a plural verb.
- The number of casualties is unknown.

20
 The adj. / adv. + noun: işte bu… (“The” eki sıfat ya da zarfın önüne gelir ve vurgu yapar.)
- The very idea: işte bu fikir.

The fact:
The fact is (that): Gerçek şu ki
- The fact is (that) we don't have enough money.
- The fact is, he lost because he didn't try very hard.

Noun Clause:
- The fact that she should see a doctor is very important.

The … is a fact: … bir gerçektir.

Something that you may not like but have to accept because it is always there or always true
- The need to ration healthcare resources is a fact of life.
- Everyone talks about sexual equality, but the fact remains that women are paid less than
men.

Order number of four: the fourth

- John F. Kennedy was the youngest of the United States and the fourth to be assassinated.

The + adjective = Noun

“The + adj” plays a plural noun which means a group of people who have common characteristics
(The French, The old, The rich...):
- The French are very polite people.
- The police have no evidence at all. The police have no evidence whatsoever. (The police:
polis teşkilatı)
Whatsoever=at all: hiç
- The intelligent (people) are not arrogant.
- The meek (humans) shall inherit the earth.
- The old (men) and the young (children) were evacuated from the building.
- The rich (people) are privileged.
- The office finally admitted that several prisoners had been injured.

If the word is in the plural form it is acting as a noun and in the singular form it could be acting
as an adjective or a noun.
- The Indian brass work is popular in the west. (Adjective)
- The Indians are going for elections. (Noun)
- The African nations are taking cogent steps to fight apartheid. (Adjective)
- The Africans are hardworking people. (Noun)
- The American tourist visited the museum. (Adjective)
- The American shopped in the market. (Noun)

21
 1.1.4. Numbers and Numerals

İp uçları:

• Sayısal bilgi içeren bir sözcükten önce gelen boşluğa, yaklaşıklık anlamına gelen, “some, by,
roughly, about, virtually, almost, approximately,” sözcüklerinden biri gelir.
- I saw about 50 students.
- According to the generally accepted platetectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth’s
surface is broken into a number of shifting plates, which average about 50 miles in
thickness.

Structrue: number + measurement unit+ in length

- A dolphin six feet in length can move as fast as most ships.
High: measuring a long distance from the bottom to the top, 100 feet/30 metres high

The groups of three digits in numerals of one thousand and higher are usually separated by a
comma, counting from the right: 4,286; 12,345; 378,925; 6,540,210.

Some manuals of style recommend writing four-digit numerals without a comma: 1570; 2358;
5625.
In numbers written as words in British English, the conjunction "and" is used before tens or before
ones if there are no tens, starting with hundreds:
- one hundred and twenty-three (123); four hundred and seven (407);
- three thousand five hundred and thirty-eight (3,538); seventy-three thousand and five
(73,005);
- five million three hundred thousand and fifty (5,300,050).

Note the use of more than one conjunction "and" in large numbers in British English:
- two million six hundred and twenty-five thousand three hundred and ten (2,625,310).

In American English, the conjunction "and" is generally not used before tens or ones:
- one hundred twenty-three (123); four hundred seven (407);
- three thousand five hundred thirty-eight (3,538); seventy-three thousand five (73,005);
- two million six hundred twenty-five thousand three hundred ten (2,625,310); five million three
hundred thousand fifty (5,300,050).

In British English, the conjunction "and" is also used before tens or ones in ordinal numerals
above one hundred: one hundred and tenth (110th); three thousand and fifth (3005th).

But "and" is not used in American ordinals: one hundred tenth (110th); three thousand fifth
(3005th).

22
 Digits, figures, numerals, numbers

The words "digit, figure, numeral, number" may present some difficulty. For example, you can say
"the digit 3; the figure 3; the numeral 3; the number 3", but the meanings of these word
combinations are not the same.

The word "digit" refers to any of Arabic figures from 0 to 9. Examples: the digit 4; the digit 7; a
three-digit number; a group of three digits; use digits to write these numbers.

The word "figure" refers to a numerical symbol for a number and can also refer to the numerical
value of a number. Examples: the figure 4; Arabic figures; a six-figure number; a figure of 3.5
million; round figures; write these numbers in figures and in words. The word "figures" can also
mean "arithmetic": He is good at figures.

A numeral is a name used for denoting a number. Numerals can be in the form of any symbols
denoting a number. In texts of general character, numerals are usually written as figures or
words. Examples: the numeral 7; the numeral seven; ordinal numerals; Arabic numerals, Roman
numerals.

The word "number" refers to quantity or amount (in various fields of application) and is one of the
main concepts in mathematics. Examples: whole numbers; natural numbers; prime numbers;
even numbers; odd numbers; large numbers; round numbers; negative numbers; the number 12;
the number twelve; the number 165.

One of the meanings of the word "number" is "numeral". Because of that, the word "number" can
be used in many cases where the word "numeral" is meant, for example, you can say "cardinal
numerals" or "cardinal numbers"; "ordinal numerals" or "ordinal numbers".

Numbers in compound adjectives before nouns:

• With a hyphen: a five-kilometer bicycle path; a 100-meter dash; a three-day visit; a two-
hour drive; a ten-minute break; a five-year-old child; a 5-year-old child; a six-story building;
a five-point star; a 50-dollar bill; a 60-watt light bulb; a two-thirds majority; a three-fourths
majority.
• Two numerals next to each other: three 2-liter bottles; three two-liter bottles; two 60-cent
stamps; 15 two-page essays; five 10-page reports.
• No hyphen: two 3L containers; a 3m rope; a $50 bill; a 10% discount; a 10 percent
discount; a ten percent discount. (pronounced "two three-liter containers; a three-meter
rope; a fifty-dollar bill; a ten percent discount)
• No hyphen: three months' vacation; two weeks' pay; four days' work; ten hours' delay.
• Examples with ordinal numerals: first-rate equipment; a first-aid kit; a second-best option; a
second-floor apartment; the second-largest city; the third-largest company; a third-rate
product; a third-degree burn.

23
 Numbers: examples of use in situations

Number, quantity:
- She has four dogs, five cats, and seven canaries. She wrote 132 stories for children.
- Three hundred (and) forty students were present at the conference.
- Belgium has a population of about eleven million people.
- In 1990 Los Angeles had a population of 3,485,398 people.
- She bought a pound of cheese, two pounds of beef, three loaves of bread, a gallon of milk,
and a five-ounce bar of chocolate.
- He bought two five-gallon cans of gasoline and two quarts of motor oil and put them in the
trunk.

Distance:
- One mile is equal to 5280 feet, or 1609 meters. There are about 3.28 feet in one meter.
- The distance from my house to the train station is about two and a half miles.
The distance from my house to the train station is about four kilometers.
- The village where his sister lives is at a distance of thirty kilometers from Moscow.
The village where she lives is thirty kilometers from Moscow.
- He watched them from a distance of about ten meters.
- The gap between the plates was no more than one-third of a centimeter.
The gap was no more than a third of a centimeter.
- This race is of three miles. It is a three-mile race.

Length, width, height, depth:

- This rope is five and a half meters long. This rope is six yards long.
- The Volga River is 3530 kilometers long. The Volga is the longest river in Europe (3530 km,
or 2,195 mi).
- Her table is fifty-six centimeters wide. Her table is twenty-two inches wide.
- That hill is 18 meters high. That hill is 59 feet high.
- She lives on the fifth floor of an old five-story house.
- Lake Baikal is the world's deepest lake (1640 m, or 5,380 ft). The depth of Lake Baikal is
1640 meters. Lake Baikal is 5,380 feet deep.

Area, volume:
- The area of this room is 20 square meters.
- The new amusement park has an area of 10 acres, which equals 4.047 hectares, or 40470
square meters.
- Monaco, the smallest state in Europe after Vatican City, has a total area of 1.8 square
kilometers, or 0.7 square miles.
- Find the volume of the cube in liters if the length of its side is 20 centimeters.
- On the average, approximately 250 cubic feet (7 cubic meters) of natural gas is needed for
heating for one day an average-sized one-family house in Canada.
- This car has engine size 1598 cm (115 hp) and a 5-speed automatic gearbox.

24
Height, weight, age:
- She is 170 centimeters tall. She is 1.7 meters tall.
- She is five feet seven inches tall. She is five feet seven. Informal: She is five foot seven.
- His height is almost two meters. His height is 198 centimeters. His height is six feet six
inches.
- He weighs almost ninety kilograms. He weighs almost two hundred pounds.
- Her weight is sixty-five kilograms. Her weight is 143 pounds.
- He is five years old. He will be six in October.
- His mother is 26 years old. His mother is twenty-six years old. His mother is 26.

Speed:
- Her car was doing about sixty-five kilometers an hour. Her car was doing about forty miles an
hour.
- He was driving at fifty miles an hour in a thirty-mile-an-hour zone. He was going fifty miles per
hour in a thirty-mile-per-hour zone. He was going 50 in a 30 mph zone.
- If not posted otherwise, the speed limit in Florida is 70 mph (113 km/h) on Interstate
highways, 55 mph on all other roads, 30 mph (48 km/h) in residential areas, and 20 mph (32
km/h) in school zones.
- When it started to fly in 1935, the Douglas DC-3 could carry 21 passengers at 193 mph (310
km/h).
- Light travels through a vacuum at about 300,000 kilometers per second. The speed of light in
a vacuum is about 186,000 miles per second.
- Cold westerly wind at 25 mph (40 km/h) gusting to 40 mph (64 km/h) is expected tomorrow.

Temperature:
- Normal body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. Normal body temperature is 36.6
degrees Celsius.
- Zero degrees Celsius is thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.
- Boston has cold winters and warm summers. Average temperature in January is about 30
degrees Fahrenheit, and average temperature in July is about 70 degrees Fahrenheit.
- The temperature dropped twenty-five degrees within two hours.
- Simmer the sauce for 10 to 15 minutes at a temperature of 185°F (85°C), stirring frequently.
- Water boils at 212°F. (at two hundred twelve degrees Fahrenheit)
- Water freezes at 0°C. (at zero degrees Celsius)
- The temperature outside is 18 degrees below zero. The temperature outside is minus 18
degrees.
- It's cold outside. It is about three degrees above zero.
- It's very hot outside. It's about thirty-five degrees.
- My temperature is normal. My temperature is 36.6 degrees. (thirty-six point six)

25
Addresses:
- She lives at 10 Riverstone Street, Apartment 54. (pronounced "ten Riverstone Street,
Apartment fifty-four")
- Her address is 32 Lakeview Road, Apt. 3B, Madison, Wisconsin.
- Here is his postal address: John Doe, 180 Green Avenue, Apt. 12, Houston, Texas 77013.

Money:
- This bag costs twenty-seven dollars and fifty cents. This bag is $27.50.
- I owe you thirty dollars. You owe me nine hundred rubles. Are we even?
- These washing machines range in price from $350 to $1,200. These washing machines
range in price from three hundred fifty to twelve hundred dollars.
- The company invested two and a half million U.S. dollars in the project. They invested 2.5
million U.S. dollars in the project. They invested $2.5 million in the project. (pronounced "two-
point-five million dollars")
- He was offered a nice job, with a salary of more than a hundred thousand dollars.

Time, date, century, year:

- It's nine o'clock. It's 9:00 a.m. It's 9:00 p.m.
- We had a 15-minute break at 11:45 after the fourth lesson.
- We left at six-thirty. We left at 6:30.
- We will be there in two hours. We arrived three hours later.
- This monument was built in the sixteenth century. This monument was built in the 16th
century.
- Springfield became the capital of Illinois in 1837.
- He wrote his best novels in the 1990s. He wrote his best novels in the nineties.
- She left on the eighteenth of April. She left on April eighteenth. She left on April 18th. She left
on April 18.
- They arrived in Chicago on July 10, 2011. (pronounced "on the tenth of July / on July tenth,
two thousand eleven")

Telephone numbers:
- His telephone number is 123-4567. (pronounced "one-two-three four-five six-seven")
- His cell phone number is (903) 234-5678.
- Call him at 555-6677 after five o'clock.
- Could you connect me with 321-0987, extension 102, please?

Floor, room, chapter, page, size of clothes:

- The meeting will take place in Room 60 on the sixth floor. (pronounced "room sixty")
- Are you going up? Floor 6, please. (pronounced "floor six")
- Chapter 3 begins on page 42. (pronounced "chapter three; page forty-two")
- The third page of her diary was torn out.
- This dictionary was published in four volumes. I wasn't able to find volume 2.
- He wears size 50 clothes. He wears clothes in size 50. (pronounced "size fifty")
- She wears size 38 shoes. She wears shoes in size 38. (pronounced "size thirty-eight")

26
 Numerals

Numerals are divided into cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals.

Cardinal numerals:
Cardinal numerals show the number or the size of objects.
- one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten (1, 2, … 10);
- eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen (11, 12,
…19);
- twenty, thirty-seven, forty-two, fifty-one, sixty-five, seventy, eighty-three, ninety-eight;
- one hundred eighty-six (186); two hundred (200); three hundred forty (340); four hundred
(400);
- five hundred three (503); eight hundred twelve (812); nine hundred one (901);
- one thousand six hundred seventy-nine (1,679); four thousand (4,000);
- fifteen thousand (15,000); sixty-three thousand four hundred ninety-five (63,495);
- seven hundred eight thousand thirty-four (708,034); five million (5,000,000);
- thirteen million nine hundred sixty-seven thousand one hundred eleven (13,967,111);
- six billion three hundred forty-nine million twenty-five thousand six hundred eighty-two
(6,349,025,682).

In a sentence, a numeral can serve as a subject, attribute, object, predicative complement, or

adverbial modifier.
- I saw four men in the car. The road is twenty miles long.
- The boy is twelve years old. He is six feet tall. He has three brothers.
- There are twelve students in my group. There are nine books on the table.
- How many feet are there in a mile? – There are 5280 feet in a mile.
- Ten students took part in the competition. Three of them received awards.
- Twenty cars were sold on the first day. Five of them were sports cars.
- There are 135 employees in this company. We talked to 45 of them.
- How many cakes did you buy? – I bought five. I ate two.
- How old is your grandfather? – He is 72. He was born in 1940.
- Thirty thousand people died of that deadly disease last summer.
- Shortly after the accident, two dozen police were sent to the spot to keep order.
- By 8:00, eleven members had arrived, after a while a twelfth got here.
- Robert served in the army in the 1990s, when he was in his twenties.
- When he moved to England with his family in the fifties, he was already in his forties.
- I have told you hundreds of times.
- When is your birthday? It is on Thursday the eleventh of May.
- They will be more than 3 hundred teams taking part in the contest.
- He died at the age of 82.
Numbers at the beginning of the sentence should be written out in words. If you need to use
figures, restructure your sentence.
- Fifty-six workers were fired yesterday. Yesterday 56 workers were fired.

27
Numerals used in the same function in a sentence are usually written either as words or as
figures.
- He wrote one hundred thirty essays, fifty-two stories, and seven novels.
- He wrote 130 essays, 52 stories, and 7 novels.

Multiples of one hundred:

In less formal speech and writing, especially in American usage, four-digit numbers that are
multiples of 100 are often named in the following way:
1100 – eleven hundred;
2300 – twenty-three hundred;
4400 – forty-four hundred;
5600 – fifty-six hundred.

In British English, such use is more common for round numbers between 1,100 and 1,900.
Note that 1000, 2000, 3000, etc., are pronounced as "one thousand, two thousand, three
thousand", etc.; that is, such numbers are generally not expressed in hundreds.

Ordinal numerals:
Ordinal numerals show the position in a series. Any ordinal numeral except "first, second, third"
has the suffix "th". Examples: fifth, sixth, eighth, ninth, twelfth, fifteenth, nineteenth, twentieth,
twenty-fourth, thirtieth, forty-fifth, hundredth.
- first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th,
7th, 8th, 9th, 10th);
- eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, nineteenth (11th,
12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th);
- twentieth, thirty-seventh, forty-second, fifty-first, sixty-fifth, seventieth, eighty-third, ninety-
eighth (20th, 37th, 42nd, 51st, 65th, 70th, 83rd, 98th);
- one hundred eighty-sixth (186th); three hundred fortieth (340th); five hundred third (503rd);
- eight hundred twelfth (812th);
- one thousand six hundred seventy-ninth (1,679th);
- nine thousand eight hundred fiftieth (9,850th);
- two hundredth (200th); three thousandth (3,000th);
- five millionth (5,000,000th).

Generally, ordinal numerals are used as adjectives and stand before nouns. An ordinal numeral
is usually preceded by the definite article "the".
- The first story was interesting. The second was dull.
- The thousandth visitor received a prize.
- John Kennedy was the 35th president of the United States.
- The third part of the book is very funny.
- He met her during his second visit.
- His office is on the twenty-sixth floor.
- North Korea carries out fifth nuclear test.

28
 An ordinal numeral may have the meaning "another, one more", in which case it is preceded by
the indefinite article "a".
- We sent them two letters, but they didn't answer. We are going to send them a third letter
today.

Note the following typical constructions with ordinal and cardinal numerals:
- the second lesson – Lesson 2 (pronounced "lesson two");
- the fifth unit – Unit 5 (pronounced "unit five");
- the tenth chapter – Chapter 10 (pronounced "chapter ten").

Note the use of Roman numerals (pronounced as ordinal numerals) with the names of kings:
- Henry V (Henry the Fifth);
- Richard III (Richard the Third).

Difficult spellings:
Pay attention to the differences in the spelling and pronunciation of the following cardinal and
ordinal numerals.
- two, twelve, twenty, twenty-two – second, twelfth, twentieth, twenty-second;
- three, thirteen, thirty, thirty-three – third, thirteenth, thirtieth, thirty-third;
- four, fourteen, forty, forty-four – fourth, fourteenth, fortieth, forty-fourth;
- five, fifteen, fifty, fifty-five – fifth, fifteenth, fiftieth, fifty-fifth;
- eight, eighteen, eighty, eighty-eight – eighth, eighteenth, eightieth, eighty-eighth;
- nine, nineteen, ninety, ninety-nine – ninth, nineteenth, ninetieth, ninety-ninth;

Note the pronunciation of "five, fifth" and "nine, ninth": five [faiv] – fifth [fifθ]; nine [nain] – ninth
[nainθ].
Numerals like "eighteen" have two stresses: sixteen ['siks'ti:n]; eighteen ['ei'ti:n]. Depending on
the position of the numeral in the sentence, primary stress may fall on the first or on the last
syllable.

29
Fractions:
The numerator of the fraction is expressed by a cardinal numeral, and the denominator is
expressed by an ordinal numeral. The suffixes "rd, th, ths" are not written in the denominator of
the fractions written in figures (1/3; 1/5; 3/7), but such fractions are pronounced in the same way
as fractions written in words (one-third; one-fifth; three-sevenths).

Fractions are generally hyphenated, except in those cases where the numerator or the
denominator is already hyphenated: "one-fifth" but "one twenty-fifth".

Some manuals of style recommend writing without a hyphen fractions in the meaning of nouns: a
half / one half; one third; two thirds; three fourths / three quarters; four fifths.
- 1/2 – one-half / a half; 1/3 – one-third; 1/4 – one-fourth / a quarter;
- 1/5 – one-fifth; 1/8 – one-eighth; 1/9 – one-ninth; 1/10 – one-tenth;
- 1/12 – one-twelfth; 1/20 – one twentieth; 1/32 – one thirty-second;
- 1/100 – one-hundredth; 1/1000 – one-thousandth;
- 2/3 – two-thirds; 4/5 – four-fifths; 3/4 – three-fourths / three-quarters;
- 5/8 – five-eighths; 9/10 – nine-tenths;7/36 – seven thirty-sixths; 33/100 – thirty-three
hundredths;
- 65/1000 – sixty-five thousandths;
- 1 1/2 – one and a half; 1 1/4 – one and a quarter;
- 3 2/5 – three and two-fifths; 6 3/7 – six and three-sevenths.

- This box weighs two-thirds of a kilogram.

- He has already written three-quarters of his new novel.
- A cent is one hundredth part of a dollar.
- A milliliter is one thousandth of a liter.

The use of "half"

- Add one-half cup of sugar to the mixture.
- The park is half a mile from here.
- I had to wait for an hour and a half.
- The fence was one and a half meters high.
- I spent three and a half weeks there.

30
Decimal fractions:
546.132 can be read as "five hundred forty-six point one-three-two".
- 0.2 ("zero-point-two"); 0.001 (zero-point-zero-zero-one);
- 1.3 ("one-point-three"); 2.5 (two-point-five); 3.6 (three-point-six);
- 6.57 ("six-point-five-seven"); 8.024 (eight-point-zero-two-four);
- 17.84 ("seventeen-point-eight-four"); 99.99 (ninety-nine-point-nine-nine);
- 2056.831 ("two-thousand-fifty-six-point-eight-three-one").

If the whole before the decimal point equals zero, the zero is sometimes omitted in writing and not
pronounced: 0.5 or .5 ("zero-point-five" or "point-five"); 0.029 or .029 ("zero-point-zero-two-nine"
or "point-zero-two-nine"). It is advisable to write the zero before the decimal point in such cases.
In British English, a zero is usually read as "nought": 1.03 (one-point-nought-three); 5.206 (five-
point-two-nought-six); 0.5 (nought-point-five); 0.001 (nought-point-nought-nought-one).

It is considered preferable to use decimal fractions with the words "million, billion" instead of the
numerals with several zeros.

1,500,000 – 1.5 million (pronounced "one-point-five million"); 16,400,000 – 16.4 million

(pronounced "sixteen-point-four million"); 3,200,000,000 – 3.2 billion (pronounced "three-point-
two billion").
Generally, plural nouns are used after decimal fractions in English. Pay attention to the
difference in the use of the decimal point (English).
- One meter equals 3.28 feet.
- The distance between these objects is 23.6 miles.
- The distance between these lines is 0.8 centimeters.
- This container weighs 0.53 tons.

Hundred, thousand, million:

The words "hundred, thousand, million" can be used with "one" or "a" (if "one" is meant). But only
"one" is used before these words if they are followed by numerals in order to express an exact
number.
- I saw about a hundred people there.
- One hundred thirty-five people were present at the meeting.
- The lake is about a hundred and fifty miles from the nearest city.
- The lake is at a distance of one hundred fifty-two miles from the nearest city.
- Their house is almost a hundred and ten years old. Their house is one hundred ten years old.
- A picture is worth a thousand words.
- She wrote exactly one thousand words.
- Can they pay a million dollars?
- The price was one million two hundred thousand dollars. (Usually written as $1.2 million.)

The words "hundred, thousand, million" do not take the plural ending "s" when they are
preceded by numerals in order to express an exact number. But the words "hundred, thousand,
million" can take the plural ending "s" when they are followed by "of" + noun, in which case they
have the meaning "a great number, a lot of".
- We need three hundred volunteers. – We saw hundreds of people there.
- They sold two thousand cars. – There are thousands of books in her collection.
- The company lost six million dollars. – The new radio program attracted millions of listeners.

31
 Certain fractions and ordinal numbers containing the words "hundred, thousand, million" may
sound alike in some cases. Note the differences in spelling:
- three-hundredths (3/100) – three hundredth (300th);
- two-thousandths (2/1000) – two thousandth (2000th).

The context usually makes the meaning clear.

- Five-hundredths can be reduced to one-twentieth.
- Yesterday the five hundredth baby was born in our new maternity hospital.

Billion and milliard:

A billion is a thousand million in American English (i.e., 1,000,000,000), and at present the word
"billion" is used in British English in the same meaning. The word "milliard" is also used in British
English for such numbers, but such use is becoming rare. The word "milliard" is not used in
American English. In older British usage, the word "billion" was used in the meaning "million
million". A million million is a trillion in American English.

Numerals or words?
• In formal writing of nontechnical character, numbers from one to one hundred (nineteen;
seventy-five), round numbers (eight hundred; four thousand), and any numbers that can be
expressed in one or two words (ninety; three million) are usually written out in words.
• In less formal writing, numbers from one to ten should be written as words (two students; six
days), and figures can be used for numbers above ten (16 students; 21 days).
• Numbers at the beginning of the sentence should be written as words: Thirty-seven books
were lost. She bought 28 books. She bought twenty-eight books.
• Generally, style manuals recommend writing numerals within one and the same sentence
either as figures or as words.

Generally, numerals are used in the following cases: numbers that can't be expressed in one or
two words, numbers above one hundred, large numbers, decimal fractions, percentages,
dimensions, sizes, dates, exact time, exact sums of money, pages in a book, addresses,
telephone numbers, flight numbers, bus numbers.

Numerals written as digits are widely used in scientific and technical texts, reference materials,
encyclopedias, newspaper and magazine articles, as well as in various written materials of
informal style.

Numbers are often used with units of measure, such as meters, kilometers, kilograms, liters,
miles, feet, pounds, etc. (BrE: meter, kilometer, kilogram, liter.) In scientific texts abbreviated
forms of units of measure are written without full stops and without plural endings (m, km, kg, mi,
ft, lb). In English texts of general character, such abbreviations may be written with full stops (mi.,
ft., lb., oz.).

32
Abbreviations for units of measure are used only with numerals expressed in figures. They are
pronounced as full words in speech:
1 m – one meter; 3 m – three meters; 1 ft – one foot; 10 ft – ten feet;
60 km/h – sixty kilometers per hour; 55 mph – fifty-five miles per hour;
a 5 L can – a five-liter can;
a 4 lb chicken – a four-pound chicken;
a $20 bill – a twenty-dollar bill.

Style manuals recommend writing such abbreviations as full words in formal writing. For example:
one meter; fifty meters; 164 feet; two thousand miles; twenty liters; 340 grams; twelve ounces.

Ordinal numbers that can be expressed in one or two words are usually written as words in formal
writing: the second chapter; the fifteenth day; the twenty-first century; the thousandth visitor.

Large numbers that are not round numbers are rarely used as ordinals in texts of general
character. If used, they are written in figures: the 276th day; the 385th anniversary.

If the year is indicated in a date, the day of the month is not written in the form of an ordinal
number: April 3, 1985; May 14, 2012.

If the year is not indicated, the day may be written as follows: April third, April 3rd, April 3; May
fourteenth, May 14th, May 14.

Cardinal numerals (not ordinal numerals) are used in phrases like "Chapter 2; page 21;
Apartment 13; size 46; Flight 12", which are pronounced as "chapter two; page twenty-one;
apartment thirteen; size forty-six; flight twelve". Nouns before numerals in such phrases are used
without any article: in Chapter 2; on page 21; in Room 30; in size 46.

Percentages:
Percentages are usually written in figures. In texts of general character:
25 percent; 10 percent ("per cent" in British English).

In scientific and technical texts: 25%; 10%. The percentage symbol (%) is not separated from the
numeral by a space.

- 90 % of Florida Keys homes destroyed or damaged.

33
Mathematics:
ʎ/4=Lambda divided by the four
4/5=Four-fifths of: beşte dördü
8
3 x 10 = three times ten to eigth
(a + b) = in parentheses a + b
2’
x = The derivative of x over 2
3 + 4 = 7 ("three plus four is/equals seven")
10 – 6 = 4 ("ten minus six is/equals four")
5 x 4 = 20 ("five multiplied by four is/equals twenty")
30 : 6 = 5 ("thirty divided by six is/equals five")

A dolphin is six feet in length can move as fast as most ships.

How heavy: how much does it weigh? How heavy did you say she is?
Ten times: 10 katı
One tenth of amount: miktarın 10 da biri
- Two plus four is six. Three times three is nine.
- About four fifths of the employees in that big advertising company are young people. ( Four-
fifths of: beşte dördü).
When calculations are said aloud, the verb is generally used in the singular, for example,
- two plus two is four; two plus two equals four; two plus two makes four.
The verb "to equal" in this case is a little more formal than the verbs "to be, to make".

In the case of addition, the plural form of the verb is also used, for example,
two and two are four; two and two equal four; two and two make four; two plus two make four.

A singular verb is used when referring to amounts in the following way:

- Three-fifths of a mile is a little less than one kilometer.
- How much is/are 35 percent of 470? Fifteen hours of waiting is too much.

In other cases, the choice of a singular or plural verb depends on the noun that follows the
numeral. If the noun is singular or uncountable, the singular form of the verb is used. If a plural
noun stands after the numeral, the plural form of the verb is used. Compare these examples:
- Half of the house is occupied by his library. Half of his books are about children.
- A third (or One-third) of the equipment was replaced last month.
- A third (or One-third) of the cars were bought on credit.
- About 60 percent of the sum was provided by a sponsor.
- About 60 percent of the students were absent on that day.

34
 1.1.5. Suffix and Prefix

An English word can be divided into three parts: a “root / base word”, a prefix and a suffix. A
prefix is what comes before the “root / base word”. A suffix is attached to the end of the “root /
base word”.

Changes in grammatical form:

The noun can be used as an adjective by adding “suffix_ful” end of the root. (Power - powerful).
The adverbial form is made by adding “suffix_ly” end of the root to the adjective (Powerful -
powerfully).
The verb becomes a noun by adding end of the root “suffix_ment”. (Improve - improvement).
The same root word can also become a verb (improvise)
The noun changes into an adjective with end of the root. Suffix _al (nation - national), and by
adding another suffix _ize the word changes from an adjective to a verb (nationalize)
The adjective 'special' can change to a verb (specialize) or a noun (speciality).

Prefixes and suffixes can also change the meaning of a word:

The meaning of 'possible' is reversed with the addition of the prefix im~ (impossible).
To 'overeat' means to eat too much and if food is undercooked, it is not cooked enough.

Some suffixes commonly denote an occupation:

The verb 'to teach' is transformed into the occupation with the suffix ~er (teacher).

Both grammatical changes and changes in meaning can be applied to the same base
word:
The noun 'interest' can be made an adjective and given opposite meaning by adding a prefix and
a suffix ~un….~ing (uninteresting).

Changes in pronunciation:
When prefixes and suffixes are added to root words, the word stress sometimes changes.
Noun & verb: 'photograph'. Adjective: 'photographic'. Opposite: 'unphotographic'. Person:
'photographer'.

35
Zero derivation:
Zero derivation (conversion) is widely used in the formation of nouns from verbs and verbs from
nouns. Here's a short list of common words that can be used as nouns or verbs, with the same
spelling and pronunciation: Act, answer, book, break, call, change, deal, drink, face, fear, hand,
head, help, light, look, love, mark, move, need, notice, order, pack, place, question, reply, ride,
space, stay, telephone, time, walk, work. Derivative words may also be formed from existing
words without adding any prefix or suffix; that is, by using one and the same form of a word as
another part of speech: to change – a change; dry (adj) – to dry; early (adj) – early (adv).

Zero derivation may be accompanied by changes in pronunciation and spelling: use (v) – use (n);
advise (v) – advice (n);
respond (v) – response (n); believe (v) – belief (n); food (n) – feed (v).

Nouns and verbs may also be formed in this way by shifting stress: import (v) – import (n);
progress (n) – progress (v).

Compounding is the formation of compound words by combining two or more existing

words:
highway, love story, old-fashioned, twenty-three.

English borrowed a large number of words from Latin, Greek, French, and from the Scandinavian
languages. There are also some borrowings from other languages. Creating completely new
words (neologisms) is an ongoing process nowadays. New devices and new words for them
appear, for example, cell phone, mobile phone, smart phone. The Internet seems to be an
inexhaustible source of new words. Such recent neologisms as "blog, blogger, blogosphere,
download, e-mail, login, online, spam, spammer, upload, website" have become quite common in
our speech.

36
 Suffixes

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which makes a new word.
Suffixes combine with words to create new meanings. Suffixes help us to recognize the part of
speech to which some word belongs, and that helps us to understand the meaning of the word.

Nouns from nouns:

Nouns are formed from nouns by adding the suffixes “ary, ery, ory, dom, hood, ian, ist, ism, ship”:
dictionary, slavery, territory, kingdom, childhood, musician, artist, capitalism, friendship.

-ship: (abstract nouns denoting different kinds of relationships): relationship, friendship,

partnership, membership.
- His friendship with Carole slowly turned into a relationship.

-hood:
Childhood, motherhood , neighbourhood , priesthood
- Childhood and motherhood/fatherhood are two very important stages in our lives.

Noun Suffixes:
Many English nouns don't have any suffixes that mark them as nouns; for example, city – noun;
pretty – adjective; copy – noun or verb; sparrow – noun; tomorrow – adverb; narrow – adjective;
borrow – verb.
At the same time, there are many suffixes that signal that the word is a noun. For example:
-ment: argument, document;
-ness: kindness, happiness;
-ion: station, illusion;
-er, -or: worker, doctor;
-ism: capitalism, idealism;
-ist: idealist, psychologist;
-age: courage, passage;
-ty, -ity: safety, clarity;
-ship: friendship, ownership;
-ance, -ence: distance, absence;
-ency: agency, urgency;
-ure: picture, treasure.
-ing: swimming

37
Nouns from adjectives:
Nouns are formed from adjectives by adding the suffixes “ance, ence, ness, th, ty”: elegance,
intelligence, darkness, warmth, safety.
-ness: Here are some common adjectives whose noun forms are made by adding -ness: happy,
sad, weak, good, ready, tidy, forgetful. For example; exact (adj): kesin, exactness(n): kesinlik.
- Everybody deserves happiness in their life. To be happy is a basic human right.
- There was a lot of sadness in the office when people learned of his illness.
- His readiness to have a personal word with everybody at the funeral was much appreciated.
- He is such a forgetful person. Such forgetfulness cannot be excused.
- If you want to work for such an organisation, you are expected to maintain a high standard of
tidiness in your appearance.

-ity: possible, probable, responsible, complex, hilarious, scarce. Note the spelling changes that
occur in these conversions.
- I was given a great deal of responsibility in my new job.
- It was a complex operation but such complexities are common in cardiac surgery.
- The scarcity of water was serious, but all natural resources were scarce.

Nouns from verbs:

Nouns are formed from verbs by adding the suffixes “age, al, ance, ence, er, or, ion, ment, y”:
passage, arrival, appearance, existence, worker, editor, collection, agreement, inquiry.

“tion, or, less” frequently “-sion” (both pronounced with a 'sh' sound on the initial letter) are noun
suffixes that are used to make nouns from verbs. Here are some common verbs whose noun
forms are made by adding “-tion”:admit, alter, inform, decide de, cribe, multiply. Note that
adjustments that are necessary to the spelling in each case.
- He admitted he had lied and this admission landed him in court.
- The dress will have to be altered and I'm going to have the alteration done professionally.
- I informed the police that I had seen one of the robbers in Margate and this information led to
the arrest of the gang.
- I decided to give myself up. The decision was easy. My description was in all the
newspapers. And I had been on the run for three weeks.
- Multiplication is the easiest part of arithmetic - much easier than addition, subtraction or
division.

-ance and -ence are suffixes that are used to make nouns from adjectives and sometimes from
verbs: absent, silent, independent, important, admit, appear, exist.
- Her absence was not noticed during the silence of prayer.
- The importance of independence for teenagers should not be underestimated.
- His appearance did not permit him to be admitted.
- His existence as a writer was threatened when people stopped buying his books.

38
Adjectives from nouns:
Adjectives are formed from nouns by adding the suffixes “able, ible, al, an, ian, ary, ory, en, ful,
ic, ish, less, ous, y”: reasonable, sensible, cultural, American, humanitarian, legendary,
compulsory, golden, beautiful, patriotic, foolish, hopeless, famous, windy. For example; memory
(n): hafıza, bellek, zeka; meorable (adj): unutulmaz

Adjectives from verbs:

Adjectives are formed from verbs by adding the suffixes “able, ible, ant, ent, ory, ive”: reliable,
convertible, ignorant, confident, contradictory, attractive.
Adjectives from adjectives:
Adjectives are formed from adjectives by adding the suffixes “al, ish”: poetical, greenish.
Adverbs from adjectives:
Adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the suffix “ly”: exactly, logically.

Verbs from nouns and adjectives:

Verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives by adding the suffixes “ate, en, ize, fy”: activate,
deepen, apologize, classtify.

Inflection:
Inflection (inflexion) is the modification of a word with the help of inflectional affixes (usually, with
the help of inflectional suffixes, for example, the endings “s, ed, ing”) to form grammatical forms
(plural forms, tense forms) of the same word. Main types of inflection are the following:
declension of nouns and pronouns (a play – two plays; he – him); conjugation of verbs (to play –
he plays, he is playing, he played); and comparison of adjectives and adverbs (early, earlier,
earliest).

Main rules for adding “s, ed, ing” are described in adding the ending “s/es” to Nouns and
verbs and adding the endings “ed”, “ing” to Verbs. Main rules for adding “er, est” to adjectives and
adverbs are described in degrees of comparison.

In some cases, one and the same suffix (or its homonyms) is used in the formation of words
belonging to different parts of speech. Such suffixes require special attention.
• The suffixes “al, ant, ent, ary, ory, ic, y” are used in the formation of nouns and adjectives:
approval (n.), formal (adj.); lieutenant (n.), important (adj.); president (n.), confident (adj.);
secretary (n.), necessary (adj.); laboratory (n.), preparatory (adj.); music (n.), basic (adj.);
melody (n.), greedy (adj.).
• The suffix “ate” is used in the formation of adjectives, nouns and verbs: obstinate (adj.),
doctorate (n.), calculate (v.). The suffix “ly” is used in the formation of adjectives and
adverbs: lovely (adj.), nicely (adv.). The suffix “en” is used in the formation of verbs and
adjectives: widen (v.), wooden (adj.).
• A word containing a suffix is often converted into a different part of speech by zero
derivation, and then the suffix does not help us to understand to what part of speech this
word belongs.
• Suffixes that are often found in nouns and adjectives of the same form are “al” (manual),
“an” (human), “ian” (vegetarian), “ant” (instant), “ic” (magic), “ive” (detective). The suffix “ate”
is found in verbs, nouns and adjectives of the same form: graduate, moderate. The suffix “ly”
is found in adjectives and adverbs of the same form: weekly, kindly.

39
To understand what parts of speech words with these suffixes represent, analyze them in
sentences or in word combinations. For example, the word "graduate" in "he graduated from
college in 2005" is a verb; the word "graduate" in "he is a Harvard graduate" is a noun; the word
"graduate" in "a graduate student" is an adjective.

Adding suffixes: General rules

Generally, when a suffix is added to a word ending in a consonant, the spelling of the word and
the suffix are not changed:
adopt – adoption;
cold – coldness;
quick – quickly;
pass – passage;
act – active;
danger – dangerous.

Changes take place mostly in those cases where a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a
word ending in “e” or “y”, and in some cases of adding to “ge, ce, c, de, d, t”. Changes in
pronunciation may also take place.
Final “e” is retained. The final mute letter “e” is retained before a suffix beginning with a
consonant.
Peace + ful = peaceful;
care + less = careless;
love + ly = lovely;
sure + ly = surely;
achieve + ment = achievement;
pale + ness = paleness;
safe + ty = safety.

In some cases the final “e” is dropped before adding a suffix beginning with a consonant.
awe + ful = awful;
whole + ly = wholly;
wise + dom = wisdom;
due + ly = duly;
true + ly = truly;
true + th = truth;
wide + th = width;
five + th = fifth;
nine + th = ninth;
argue + ment = argument;
judge + ment = judgment, judgement;
abridge + ment = abridgment, abridgement;
acknowledge + ment = acknowledgment, acknowledgement.

40
Final “e” is dropped. The final mute letter “e” is dropped before adding a suffix beginning with a
vowel. In many cases, pronunciation of the resulting word is changed.
guide + ance = guidance;
reside + ence = residence; note + ion = notion;
starve + ation = starvation;
simple + icity = simplicity;
please + ure = pleasure;
lie + ar = liar;
type + ist = typist;
arrive + al = arrival;
like + able = likable;
sense + ible = sensible;
fame + ous = famous;
compete + ent = competent.
Variants of spelling: likable, likeable; takable, takeable; usable, useable.
The letter “e” in the final “ge” and “dge”, “e” is retained to keep the pronunciation of “g” as [j]
before suffixes beginning with “a” or “o”.
manage + able = manageable;
knowledge + able = knowledgeable;
judge + able = judgeable;
abridge + able = abridgable, abridgeable;
courage + ous = courageous.

The letter “e” in the final “ce” is retained to keep the pronunciation of “c” as [s] before suffixes
beginning with “a” or “o”: notice + able = noticeable; service + able = serviceable. Other cases of
spelling and pronunciation of final “ce” before and after the addition of certain suffixes.
announce + ment = announcement;
pronounce + ation = pronunciation;
produce + tion = production.

The letter “e” in the final “ce” is dropped before adding the suffixes “ial, ier, ious”; the combination
“ci” (in some cases “ti”) in such words is usually pronounced [sh].
space + ious = spacious;
malice + ious = malicious;
commerce + ial = commercial;
residence + ial = residential.

When the suffix “ian” is added to words like "magic, music", the combination “ci” is pronounced
[sh].
magic + ian = magician;
music + ian = musician;
politics + ian = politician.

The final “c” is changed to “ck” to keep the pronunciation of “c” as [k] before suffixes beginning
with “e”, “i” or “y”:
picnic + er = picnicker;
panic + y = panicky;
traffic + ing = trafficking.

41
The final letter “y” that doesn't form a syllable is not changed before adding a suffix:
play + ful = playful;
betray + al = betrayal;
employ + ment = employment;
pay + ment = payment;
gray + ish = grayish;
boy + ish = boyish.
But: day + ly = daily. Variants of spelling: gay, gaily, gayly, gaiety, gayety, gayness.

The final letter “y” that forms a syllable (“y” stands alone after a consonant) is usually changed to
“i” before adding any suffix except a suffix beginning with “i”:
busy + ness = business;
likely + hood = likelihood;
pity + ful = pitiful;
easy + ly = easily;
library + an = librarian;
memory + al = memorial;
family + ar = familiar;
mystery + ous = mysterious;
marry + age = marriage;
rely + able = reliable;
twenty + eth = twentieth;
purify + er = purifier.
But: babyhood, everyday, dryness, shyness, slyness, wryness; dryly, shyly, wryly.

Variants of spelling:
drier, dryer (noun); drier, driest (adj.);
flier, flyer (noun);
shyer, shier, shyest, shiest (adj.);
slyer, slier, slyest, sliest (adj.);
slyly, slily (adv.).

The final “y” that forms a syllable is not changed before adding the suffixes “ish, ist, ism”:
baby + ish = babyish;
forty + ish = fortyish;
copy + ist = copyist;
party + ism = partyism.

The final “y” is dropped before adding the suffix “ic” (or “ic+al”):
geometry + ic = geometric;
botany + ical = botanical.

There are a lot of pairs of adjectives with the suffixes “ic” and “ical” (“ic +al”). If the dictionary
indicates the same meaning for the adjectives in the pair, the first variant is usually the most
common. Some of such adjectives are different in meaning:
history – historic – historical;
economy – economic – economical.

42
Adverbs are formed from such adjectives by adding the suffix “ly” only to the suffix “ical” (even if
such adjectives with the suffix “ical” do not exist):
historic (adj.), historical (adj.) – historically (adv.);
ironic (adj.), ironical (adj.) – ironically (adv.);
basic (adj.) – basically (adv.).
But: public (adj.) – publicly (adv.).

In some cases, final “de, d and t” change to “s or ss” before adding the suffix “ion”:
decide + ion = decision;
include + ion = inclusion;
extend + ion = extension;
submit + ion = submission.
Note the spelling of some derivative adjectives: Decisive, inclusive, extensive, submissive. Rare
spelling: suspect + ion = suspicion.

In many other similar cases, the suffix “ion” (or its variants “tion, ation”) is added without
peculiarities.
Add– addition;
recommend – recommendation;
devote – devotion;
invite – invitation;
limit – limitation.

If a final single consonant ends a stressed syllable containing a single vowel, the final consonant
is doubled before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. If either of these conditions is absent,
the final consonant is not doubled (except final “l”).

Adding “er”: ban, banner; cut, cutter; dig, digger; rob, robber; rub, rubber; tip, tipper.
Other examples:
stop, stoppage;
drop, droppable;
fun, funny; red, reddish;
sad, sadden.

Adding to final “r”: refer, referral; occur, occurrence; stir, stirring. But: prefer, preferable; refer,
reference.
Adding to final “i”:
excel, excellent; cancel, cancellation;
(BrE) travel, traveller; (AmE) travel, traveler.

Adding “ly” to final “l” always gives double “l” in the adverb:
awful, awfully;
gradual, gradually;
normal, normally;
official, officially;
real, really.
Note: full + ly = fully.

43
Many adverbs end in “-ly”. If you are not sure of the part of speech a word would be, and it ends
with “-ly”, it is probably an adverb:
financially, abruptly, endlessly, firmly, delightfully, quickly, lightly, eternally, delicately, wearily,
sorrowfully, beautifully, and truthfully. Sıfat ya da ismin sonuna “ly” ekleyerek oluşan zarflar
genellikle “… bir şekilde”, ya da “bir biçimde” anlamını alır.

Diğer anlamlar ise:

Şüpheli – Şüpheyle; Nadir – Nadiren; Tamam – Tamamen; Akıllı – Akıllıca; Usta – Ustaca; Zeki –
Zekice; Fena – Fena halde; Aşırı - Aşırı derecede; En son – En sonunda; Geniş – geniş olarak;
Kusurlu – Kusurlu olarak; Bol – Bol bol

44
 Prefixes

Prefixes are letters which we add to the beginning of a word to make a new word with a different
meaning. Prefixes combine with words to create new meanings. Super + Star = Superstar (top
player). Most Common Prefixes:
auto- self autobiography, automobile
mega- very big, important megabyte, mega-deal, megaton
non- not non-payment, non-smoking
semi- half semicircle, semi-retired
tele- at a distance television, telepathic

Önüne “in” gelmesine rağmen negative olayan kelimeler:

Invaluable: “valuable” ın önüne in gelmesine ragmen negative değildir.
Valuable: değerli, kıymetli, faydalı; Invaluable: paha biçilmez
Genius: deha; ingenious: dahiyane

Prefixes and their variants:

Prefixes and
Meanings Examples
their variants
1.on, in, of, to, toward; 1. aboard, aback, afoot, again, akin, alive, anew,
A 2.beginning and end of around, ashore, aside; 2. abide, arise, arouse,
action awake
anarchy, anecdote, anemia, achromatic, agnostic,
an, a not, without
atheist

ab, abs, a away from absent, absolute, abstract, abuse, avert

ad, a, af, ag, advance, advise, addiction, aggression, announce,
al, an, ap, as, at, near, to, toward appoint, approach, approve, assemble, assert,
at attention
Ante Before antecedent, anteroom
anti, ant against, opposite antibiotic, antiseptic, antiaircraft, anticommunist
1. become, befall, befoul, befriend, behave, believe,
1.archaic verb formation;
belittle, belong, bemuse, beset, besiege, bewitch; 2.
Be 2.around, at, by, on,
below, beneath, beside, between, befogged,
over, completely
belated
By near byproduct, bystander, bystreet
circum around, round circumference, circumspection, circumstance
commerce, communicate, compass, computer,
com, con, col,
together, with, very confirm, conference, collect, collapse, corruption,
cor, co
coworker, coexist
contra, contro, contraband, contradict, controversy, counteract,
against, in opposition
counter counterattack, counterforce, counterproductive
debate, decide, default, defend, degrade, delay,
away, from, down, of,
De depend, describe, design, despair, destroy, detract,
out of, reverse action
devise, devote

45
 across, through, diabetes, diagnosis, diagonal, dialect, dialogue,
dia, di
between, diameter
1.reverse action, not; 1. disagree, discover, dislike, dismiss, disrespect; 2.
dis, di 2.apart, away, digest, dimensions, direct, distant, distribute, divert,
completely divorce
downgrade, downhill, download, downpour,
down down, downward
downright
dysentery, dysfunction, dyslexia, dyspepsia,
Dys bad, ill
dystrophy
Ecto outer, outside ectoderm, ectoplasm
enable, enact, enforce, engage, enquire,
en, em in, into enthusiasm, entrap, environment, enwrap,
embarrass, embroidery
Eso inner esophagus, esoteric
endo within endocarditis, endocrinology, endoderm, endomorph
1. exchange, exclude, exist, expand, expensive,
1.out of, from, explain, export, extension, external, extract, effect,
ex, ec, ef, e
completely; 2.former emerge, emit; 2. ex-husband, ex-wife, ex-president,
ex-mayor
Exo outside, outer exogamy, exogenous, exosphere, exoteric, exotic
extra, extro outside, beyond extraordinary, extrovert
away, wrongly, forbid, forget, forgive, forgo, forlorn, forsake,
for
extremely forswear
fore before, in front, front part forecast, foresee, foresight, forethought, foreword
forth forward forthcoming, forthright
hyperactive, hyperbole, hyperfunction,
hyper over, above
hyperinflation
hypochondriac, hypocrisy, hypothalamus,
hypo below, under
hypothesis
inbound, income, incoming, inland, inlay, inmate,
in (engl.) in, inside, into, inward
inside
in, il, im, ir incident, incision, index, influence, inquire, interior,
in, inside, into, inward
(latin) internal, illuminate, impeach, import, important,
in, il, im, ir individual, inexpensive, intolerable, illegal, illogical,
not
(latin) immature, immoral, impolite, impossible, irregular,
infra below infrared, infrastructure
between, together,
inter intercept, interest, interfere, interpreter, interview
during
intra, intro inside, within intravenous, introduction, introvert
mal bad, wrongful malfunction, malpractice, maladjusted, malicious
male evil malediction, malefaction, maleficent, malevolence

46
meso, mes middle Mesolithic, mesosphere, Mesozoic
after, beyond, with, metabolism, metagalaxy, metamorphosis,
meta
changing metaphysics
mid middle midnight, midwife, Midwest (U.S.), mid-June
misfortune, mislead, misplace, misprint, mistake,
mis bad, wrong; negation
mistreat
non not nonalcoholic, noninterference, nonsmoker
object, obligation, observe, obstruct, obtuse, omit,
ob, o, oc, of, against, on, over, to,
occupation, occur, offend, oppose, opposite,
op toward, completely
oppressive
offbeat, offline, off-season, offshore, offspring, off-
off away from, apart from
white
on in the process online, oncoming, ongoing, onlooker
out out, beyond outgoing, outlaw, outnumber, outstanding
over beyond, above overcoat, overcome, overdo, overeat, overweight
para beside, near paragraph, paralegal, paramedic, paranormal
perceive, percent, perfect, perform, perfume,
through, very, for,
per permanent, persevere, persistent, perspective,
thoroughly
persuade, peruse
peri around, beyond, near pericardial, perimeter, periscope
post after, behind, later posthumous, posterior, posterity, postgraduate

precise, predict, prefer, prepare, present, prevent,

pre before, in front of
prewar

before, forward, in place proceed, progress, prologue, prohibit, prospective,

pro
of, in favor of protect, proconsul, proverb, provide, proactive

react, recollect, recover, remind, rename, renew,

re again, back repeat, reserve, respond, retell, revert, review,
revolve, reward
retroaction, retroflex, retrograde, retrogress,
retro backward
retrospect
sub-Atlantic, submarine, submit, subordinate,
sub, sup under, below, inferior
substandard, substantial, subtropical, supply
superconductor, supernatural, supersonic,
super, supra above, beyond, over
supraorbital
syn, sym, syl together synchronize, syntax, symmetry, symphony, syllable
trans across, beyond, through transaction, transcontinental, transfer, transform
ultra beyond, extreme ultraviolet, ultrasound
unable, unhappy, unnecessary, unemployment,
un not; reverse action
unrest; undo, unlock, unpack, unplug, unwrap
under below, beneath underdeveloped, underestimate, undertake,

47
 underwear

Up up, upward upcoming, update, upgrade, uphill, uploading

with together withdraw, withhold, withstand

Using a hyphen with Prefixes

Most prefixes are written as one word with the root or stem. But some words with prefixes are
hyphenated or have two variants of spelling. For example, some people prefer "anti-aircraft, non-
smoker", while others write "antiaircraft, nonsmoker". Such multiplicity presents some difficulty for
language learners. Most prefixes are not separated by a hyphen, that is, they are written as one
word with the root or stem.

Prefix “ex”
Nouns in which the prefix “ex” means "former" are written with a hyphen. For example: ex-
husband, ex-wife, ex-champion, ex-mayor, ex-minister, ex-president, ex-President Reagan.

Do not separate the prefix “ex by a hyphen in other meanings of the prefix “ex”. For example:
exceed, exception, exceptional, exchange, exclude, expensive, explain, extension, extinction.

Prefix “pro”
Newly formed words with the prefix “pro” in the meaning "in favor of" are usually written with a
hyphen.
For example: pro-life (adj.), pro-choice (adj.), pro-family (adj.), pro-activism (noun), pro-feminism
(noun).

Older, more established words with the prefix “pro” in the meaning "in favor of" are usually written
as one word. For example: proanarchy (adj.), procommunist, promonarchy (adj.), promilitarist,
proslavery (adj.), proactive. Do not separate the prefix “pro” by a hyphen in other meanings of the
prefix “pro”. For example: proceed, proconsul, procurator, prohibit, prolongation, promotion,
prospective, provide.

In most cases and meanings, the prefix “re” is not separated from the root of the verb by a
hyphen, for example, return, respect, remove, relate, repair, replace, reply, research, resist.

Also, there is usually no hyphen between the prefix “re” in the meaning "again" and the root or
stem, e.g., renew, retell, retype, rewrite. But the hyphen is used to avoid misunderstanding if the
verb like this already exists and has another meaning: re-coun, recount; re-cover, recover; re-
serve, reserve; re-present, represent; re-lease, release; re-press, repress

Root begins with capital letter:

Use the hyphen with the prefix if the root or stem is a proper noun or adjective and begins with a
capital letter. For example: anti-American, anti-Catholic, mid-March, non-Euclidean, non-Celtic,
pre-Newtonian, pre-Saxon, pro-American, pro-Darwinism, sub-Atlantic, sub-Himalayan, un-
American

48
Do not separate these prefixes by a hyphen in other cases. For example: antibiotic,
antimonopoly, midnight, midsummer, nonsmoker, nonalcoholic, prehistoric, prewar,
subcommittee, submarine, unattractive, unemployment

Hyphen between two vowels:

If the prefix ends in a vowel, and the root or stem starts with a vowel (especially if the vowels are
the same, or if their combination could be understood as a different sound), the hyphen is often
(but not always) used between them to avoid misunderstanding. For example: anti-imperialistic;
anti-inflationary; cooperative, co-operative; coordinate, co-ordinate; co-worker, coworker;
coauthor, coeducation; pre-election, preelection; pre-emptive, preemptive; pre-establish,
preestablish; de-emphasize, deemphasize; de-energize, deenergize; de-ice, deice

Compound words:
Some prepositions, postpositions, and adverbs can be used as prefixes. Strictly speaking, they
are not prefixes; they are combining forms of prepositions, postpositions, or adverbs at the
beginning of the word. Words formed in this way are compound words, and they may have
variants of spelling, e.g., by-road, byroad; by-street, bystreet; by-product; bystander; mid-
seventies, mid-1970s, midseventies, mid seventies; off-season; offshore; off-line, offline; on-line,
online.

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 Latin and Greek Prefixes Denoting Number

Latin and Greek number prefixes (and their variants) are listed below, with meanings, examples
in words. Some of the prefixes denoting number are quite common and are found in frequently
used words. Other number prefixes are used mostly in technical literature where they denote very
large or very small numbers.

Latin Greek Meanings

Uni Mono One
prim, prima proto, prot First
bi, bin Di Two
du, duo dy, dyo Two
Tri Tri Three
ter, terti 3 times; third
quadri, quadr tetra, tetr Four
Quart Fourth
quin, quint penta, pent Five
sex, ses hexa, hex Six
sept, septi Hepta Seven
octa, octo, oct octa, octo, oct Eight
non, nona, nove Ennea Nine
dec, deci deca, dec Ten
cent, centi hecto, hect Hundred
Centi one hundredth part
mil, mill Kilo Thousand
Milli one thousandth part

50
Latin Greek Meanings
Myria ten thousand
Mega large, great; million
Micro small; one millionth part
Macro large, long
Giga giant; billion
nano, nan nano, nan dwarf; one billionth part
Tera Trillion
Pico one trillionth part
Femto one quadrillionth part

Latin Greek Meanings

Ambi Amphi both, two
Equi İso Equal
Multi Poly Many
oligo, olig few, little, not many
nihil, nil nothing, zero
Nulli not any, none
Omni All
semi, demi Hemi Half

51
 1.1.6. Abbreviations

anna domini (ad) : milattan sonra (after christ)

There are several kinds of abbreviation:
Shortenings are abbreviations in which the beginning or end of the word has been dropped. In
some cases both the beginning and the end have been omitted. In some cases, the shortening
involves a slight spelling change, as with bike and telly.
Shortening original form
Cello Violoncello
Flu Influenza
Ad Advertisement
Blog Weblog

Rhino Rhinoceros
Telly Television
Bike Bicycle

You do not need to use an apostrophe in shortenings to show that letters have been omitted. You
should only use a capital letter if the original form also starts with a capital letter, for example:
Med Mediterranean
Brit British (person)
Jag Jaguar

You do not need to use a full stop unless the shortening is one created specifically for use in
writing, for example:
Dec. December
Tue. Tuesday
etc. et cetera

Contractions are a type of abbreviation in which letters from the middle of the word are omitted.
Examples include:
Contraction full form
Dr Doctor
St Saint
Ltd Limited

A contraction can also be an abbreviated form of more than one word, for example:
Contraction full form
I’ll I will/I shall
we’ve we have
shouldn’t should not

52
You do not need to use a full stop at the end of contractions, because the last letter of the original
word is still present. In contractions that represent more than one word, the letters that have been
omitted should be replaced with an apostrophe.

Initialisms are abbreviations which consist of the initial (i.e. first) letters of words and which are
pronounced as separate letters when they are spoken.
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
MP: Member of Parliament
UN: United Nations
UK: United Kingdom
CD: compact disc

You do not need to put full stops after the letters in initialism. Certain initialisms may include full
stops. For example, the forms US and U.S. are both acceptable.

When you are forming the plural of an initialism, you do not need to use an apostrophe, for
example:
- MPs MPs voted against the bill.
- CDs I bought some new CDs today.

Note that the possessive form of initialisms is formed in the usual way, with an apostrophe + s:
- An MP’s salary: the salary of an MP
- A report on MPs’ expenses: the expenses of MPs
- The CD’s subtitle: the subtitle of the CD

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as they are
spelled, not as separate letters. Most acronyms can be written as capital letters or with only an
initial capital letter.
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
SIM (card): Subscriber Identification Module

Some acronyms are so established that they are now ‘normal’ words:
Laser: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Radar: radio detection and ranging

53
Approx. Approximately yaklaşık olarak
Abbr Abbreviation Kısaltma
Asap as soon as possible ilk fırsatta
Assoc Association Birlik
Asst Assistant asistan
Am before midday öğleden önce
Pm after midday öğleden sonra
Bc before Christ isa’dan önce / milattan önce
Co Company şirket
CV curriculum vitae özgeçmiş
Eg Example örnek
Etc etcetera; and so on vesaire
Hiv human immunodeficiency virus insan bağışıklık eksikliği virüsü
ID Identity Kimlik
Ie that is; in other words yani, şöyle ki
Mba master of business administration işletme yönetimi yüksek lisansı
Isbn international standard book number uluslararası standart kitap numarası
Md doctor of medicine tıp doktoru
Mr Mister bay
Mrs Mistress bayan
Phd doctor of philosophy doktora derecesi
Rip rest in peace huzur içinde yatsın
UFO unidentified flying object tanımlanamayan uçan nesne
VIP very important people önemli kimse
Vol Volume ses

54
 1.2. Structure

The subject is placed before the verb, and the object is placed after the verb. Adverbial modifiers
are placed after the object, and adjectives are placed before their nouns.

Basic sentence structure:

Subject + Verb / Predicate + Object + Complement + Time + Place + Purpose.
S + Auxiliary Verb + V + O + C + adverb + adverb of place + adverb of time.
- We are not going to buy a new house this summer.

Noun sentence: isim cümlesi, içerisinde fiil olmayan:

Subject + be + Object + Time + Place + Purpose.

be: yardımcı fiil, ek fiil.

 Am, is are;
 was, were;
 will be;
 have, has;
 had to;
 can be, may be; could be, would be;
 have /has been, could have been.

Verb sentence:
S + V + adj + adv + Object + Time + Place + Purpose.
S + V: The bomb exploded.

S + Verb /Predicate + Object: He broke the window.

S + V + O + adv: He drove the car fast.
S + to be + adj: We will be late and we will miss the bus.

S + to be + C :
- Life is mysterious.
- He is a student.

Explanation:
- We use sentences to express ourselves clearly. (Active)
- Sentences are used to express ourselves clearly. (Passive)
- Sentences are used to understand what others have expressed. (Passive, Noun Clause)

- Kapının önünde bekleyen adamın arabası çalındı.

The car of the man waiting in front of the door was stolen.
The car of the man who is waiting in front of the door was stolen.

55
Zaman:
 Present (am, is are; have /has been),
 Past: was, were, had been
 Future (will, am/is/are going to; will have been)

Net zaman:
Am,is are; was, were; will be, am/is/are going to. bugün, dün, Nisan’da, 1960’da.

Süren zaman:
Have /has been, will have been. dünden beri, 1960’dan beri, uzun süredir, yarın sabah itibarı ile,
seni tanıdığımdan beri.

Net Zaman Süren Zaman

Present am, is, are have /has been
Past was, were had been
Future will be, am /is /are going to will have been

Örnek:
I … happy today. Ben bu gün mutluyum. (am)
I … happy yesterday. Ben dün mutluydum. (was)
I … happy in a week. Ben bir hafta içinde mutlu olacağım. (will be)
I … happy for ten days. Ben 10 gündür mutluydum. (had been)
I … happy when I came to you. Ben size geldiğimden beri mutluydum. (had been)
I … happy since I saw you. Ben seni gördüğümden beri mutluyum. (have been)
I … happy for a 20 days by tomorrow. Ben yarın itibarı ile 20 gündür mutlu olacağım. (will have
been)

Purpose: …mek için, …mak için (“Ne için?” sorusuna yanıt aranır.
To V1
So as to
In an effort to
In an attempt to

56
 1.2.1. Subject - Özne
Noun, Noun Phrase, Ving, adjective clauses are used as the subjects of sentences. Subject is
typically a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun. Subject is placed at the beginning of the sentence and
is usually expressed by a noun, noun phrase or a pronoun. The subject group may include an
article and an attribute. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb.

Açıklama:
Öznenin yanında görülen her fiil yüklemdir. Lakin ismin yanında gördüğün her “V3 ve Ving” fiil
olmaz. Kısaltma yapma görevi vardır.

milk drunk (noun + V3: passive): milk which is drunk : içilen süt
The boy who is living in the village : The boy living in the village (noun + Ving: active): köyde
yaşayan çocuk.

Yaygın özne biçimleri:

 Noun :
- Ankara is the capital of Turkey.
- Monkeys like bananas.
- Tom and Anna live in Boston.
- The dictionary helps us find words.
- The newspapers called him as a brave man.
- Dolphins swim, frogs jump, snakes crawl, and birds fly.
- Birds sing, cows moo, cats mew, and dogs bark.
- John is a car mechanic, and Mike repairs refrigerators.
- That student is from Rome.
- Mary is sleeping now.
- I need a book, but she doesn’t.
- I don't have much money.

 Zamir :
- She should drink milk in the morning.
- He writes short stories.

 Mastar:
- To walk is healty.
- To eat six different kinds of vegetables a day is healthy.

 Gerund:
- Swimming is useful.
- Playing basketball takes up too much of her time.

 Adjective + Noun
- A heavy shower fell yesterday.
- White horse came back yesterday.(Adjective +Noun)

57
  Ad öbeği + İlgeç öbeği:
- The girl in the car is my sister.

 Noun Clause:
- That he is clever is obvious.

 Adjective clause:
- The boy who is running in the garden is my brother.
- The man who is sitting over there told me that he just bought a ticket to Tahiti.

 Possessive Adjective + Noun

- His friends put his books in the national library. (Where)
- His little son is learning to read.

 Noun, Descriptive structure:

- Yaşar Kemal, the famous novelist, went to Paris.

 Noun + noun + noun:

- Books, pens and papers were scattered on the desk.

Examples:
- The history of the German occupation of France is dirty, tragic, and sometimes darkly comic.
- If the cost of health benefits for working people in a country rises, usually employers cut
wages or pass on the costs as higher prices to customers.
Bir ülkedeki çalışan insanlar için sağlık faydalarının maliyeti artarsa, genellikle işverenler
ücretleri keser veya masrafları daha yüksek maliyetlerde müşterilere yansıtır.

Nouns can be direct objects. The direct object follows the verb and completes its meaning. It
answers the question “who” or “what”.
- Sally's family bought a new car.

Nouns can be indirect objects. An indirect object comes between the verb and the direct object
and tells to whom or from whom something was done.
- She gave Sally a big hug.

Determiner + Adv + Adj +Noun:

- This extremely interesting innovation
- These extremely sensitive issues
- A democratically elected government is now ruling the country.
- Incredibly beautiful women opened the door.

Example:
During the 1990s, the country that was viewed by American leaders and many others in the West
as the most important challenge for a transition to democracy was Russia.

Subject: the country that was viewed by American leaders and many others in the West as the
most important challenge for a transition to democracy

58
Pronoun:
We use pronouns in place of nouns and noun phrases.
• Personel pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, you, we, they
• Object pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, you, us, them
• Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, your, our, their
• Reflexive: myself, yourself, themselves
• Indefinite: somebody, anyone, everything, etc.

Agreement of personal pronouns

If a personal pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun in the subject (I, you, he, she, it, we, you,
they) or in the object (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them), the pronoun should agree with its noun
in person, number and gender.
- John is in Spain now.He will come back in a week. Maria talked to him an hour ago.
- Lena went shopping yesterday. She bought a nice coat. I called her in the morning.
- This film is interesting. It is about water and its qualities. I saw it last week.
- Alex and Vera visited us yesterday. They asked me to help them find a new apartment.
- I bought several new books. They are interesting. I can give them to you, if you want to read
them.

If you need to use a personal pronoun instead of a singular noun that may refer to male and
female persons, use the phrase "he, she, it" or, if possible, restructure your sentence in the
plural so that you can use "they".
- A student learns best if he or she studies regularly. (acceptable use)
- Students learn best if they study regularly. (preferable use)

If you need to use a personal pronoun instead of an indefinite pronoun, such as "anyone,
somebody", use the phrase "he or she" or restructure your sentence to avoid the use of
personal pronouns. In informal speech, the plural "they" may be used in such cases, which is
considered to be incorrect from the point of view of grammar.
- Someone entered the room at night and stole the letter. He or she opened the door with a
key.
- Someone entered the room at night and stole the letter. The thief opened the door with a key.
- Someone entered the room at night and stole the letter. They opened the door with a key.
(informal use)
- If anybody comes while I'm absent, ask them to wait for me. (informal use)

Traditional use of "he":

In traditional use, the masculine pronoun "he" replaced a singular noun or an indefinite pronoun
that referred to both sexes or to a person of either sex.

For example:
- A student learns best if he studies regularly.
- Someone entered the room at night, but he didn't find the letter.

At the present time, it is advisable to avoid such use of "he".

Şimdiki zamanda, "he" nin böyle kullanılmasının önlenmesi tavsiye edilir.

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Agreement of possessive pronouns:
In a sentence, a possessive pronoun should agree in person, number and gender with the noun
or pronoun to which it refers.

Standard patterns of agreement are shown in the examples below.

- I opened my bag. You opened your bag.
- He opened his bag. She opened her bag.
- It opened its eyes. (e.g., it = a bird, a cat, a monster)
- We opened our bags. You opened your bags. They opened their bags.
- You and I opened our bags. You and he opened your bags. He and she opened their bags.
- The boy opened his bag. The girl opened her bag. The boy and the girl opened their bags.
- The doctor opened his bag. (You know that the doctor is a man.)
- The doctor opened her bag. (You know that the doctor is a woman.)
- The doctors opened their bags.

The subject may be expressed by an indefinite pronoun:

If the subject is expressed by an indefinite pronoun (e.g., each, someone), the gender is not
known, but it is quite possible that male and female persons are included. The masculine
pronoun "his" was traditionally used in such cases in speech and writing: Everybody has his
own opinion. Such sentences may be misleading sometimes, and in some cases may be even
considered offensive to women. It is better to restructure such sentences in the plural so that
you can avoid using "his" when referring to men and women together.

Traditional use:
- Each student opened his bag. Everyone opened his bag. Each of us opened his bag.

Informal use:
- Each student opened their bag. Everyone opened their bag. Each of us opened our bag.

Restructured sentences:
- The students opened their bags. All of them opened their bags. All of us opened our bags.

You can also use "his or her" in such cases in the singular: Everyone opened his or her bag.
Each student opened his or her bag.

Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along “with, as well as,
besides, or not”.
Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.
- The captain as well as the passengers was frightened.

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 1.2.2. Agrement between subject and verb
The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a
plural verb. The choice of the singular or plural form of the verb depends not only on the singular
or plural form of the subject but also on the singular or plural meaning of the subject.
The subject that is plural in form but singular in meaning (physics) takes a singular verb.
The subject that is singular in form but plural in meaning (people) takes a plural verb.
The singular form? He talks. Therefore, “ talks” is singular. "They talk. Therefore, “talk” is plural.
“V+ing” ve “to+V” yapıları tekildir.

The verb agrees with the subject in person and number:

- I work.
- We /You work.
- My brother works.
- My brothers work.

In the past tense, main verbs (regular and irregular) use the same verb forms for all persons:
- I worked. I knew.
- We /You worked. We /you knew.
- My brother worked. My brother knew.
- My brothers worked.

The verb “be” has more forms for agreement with the subject in person and number:
- I am.
- He /She /It is.
- We /You /They are.
- My brother is.
- My brothers are.

- I /He /She /It was.

- We /You /They were.
- My brother was.
- My brothers were.

The subject in the singular requires the verb in the singular. The subject in the plural requires the
verb in the plural.
- My sister is a doctor. She is a doctor.
- This book is interesting. It is interesting.
- These books are interesting. They are interesting.
- I am a teacher. You are a student. We are teachers. You are students.
- His daughter likes cartoons. She likes cartoons.
- His daughters like cartoons. They like cartoons.

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First find the subject and then make the verb agree with the subject.
- Her favorite food is sandwiches. Sandwiches are her favorite food.
- The can of olives is on the kitchen table. The cans of olives are on the kitchen table.
- How long have the TV’s nature documentaries been going?
TV'nin doğa belgeselleri ne zamandan beri devam ediyor?
For at least 40 years, I should think.

Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.

- Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
- Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.

Some collective nouns are generally used with a singular verb (the bourgeoisie, the proletariat).
Some other collective nouns are generally used with a plural verb (the police, the militia, the
clergy).
- At that time the bourgeoisie was mostly excluded from active political life.
- The police are looking for the robbers.

Some collective nouns (family, team, committee, crew, public, board, jury, staff) take a singular or
plural verb depending on the meaning. If a group of people is regarded as a unit, the singular
form of the verb is used. If the members of a group are regarded separately, the plural form of the
verb is used.
- Her family is large. Her family is rich.
- Her family are discussing this problem now.
- The committee has adopted the plan.
- The committee have different opinions on this issue.
- The reading public is dissatisfied with his latest novel.
- The public are not allowed in this section of the museum.
- Her family members are discussing this problem now.
- The committee members have different opinions on this issue.

Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in
the sentence.
- The staff is in a meeting. (“Staff “is acting as a unit here.)
- The staffs are in disagreement about the findings. (“The staffs” are acting as separate
individuals in this example.)
The sentence would read even better as: The staff members are in disagreement about the
findings.

The expression “the number “is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is
followed by a plural verb.
- The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
- A number of people have written in about this subject.

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Some nouns ending in “s/es” are plural in form but singular in meaning, for example, news,
mathematics, physics, measles. Such nouns require a singular verb.
- The latest news is not very encouraging.
- Physics has always been a difficult subject for me.

Names of countries, organizations, companies ending in plural s/es are singular in meaning and
require a singular verb.
- The United States is a large country.
- The Netherlands is one of the most densely populated European countries.
- The United Nations was formed in 1945.

Nouns that may present a problem for language learners in terms of agreement between the
subject and the predicate (for example, sheep, deer, fish, money, aircraft, headquarters,
statistics, mumps) are described in Irregular Plural Nouns.

Subject with “and”

If the subjects are connected by "and", the plural form of the verb is used.
- The dictionary and the grammar book are on the writing desk.
- Tom, Anna, and Maria are my neighbors.
- You and he were friends just a year ago.
- Her doctor and her lawyer have already left.
- A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

Subject (both of them) are plural:

- Anna has got two sisters. Both of them are married.
- Both the newspaper and the magazine are in the desk drawer.

If the subjects connected by "and" are regarded as a unit or an action, the singular form of the
verb is used.
- Strawberries and cream is my favorite dessert.

Titles of books, films, shows

Titles of books, films, shows, and the like are treated as singular and agree with a singular verb.
- Romeo and Juliet is a play by Shakespeare.
(But: Romeo and Juliet are the main characters of this play.)
- The Three Musketeers is a novel by Alexandre Dumas.
(But: The Three Musketeers are comrades of D'Artagnan, the main hero of the novel.)

Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as,
besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural
verb.

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 Subject with "either...or; neither...nor" (either /or, neither /nor)

If the subjects are connected by "or; nor; either...or; neither...nor", the verb agrees in number with
the nearest subject.
- Marie or her sister is going to bring my books tomorrow morning.
- Either Tim or Mike has to stay here.
- Either the suspect or the witnesses are lying.
- Neither the refrigerator nor the stove works.
- Neither you nor he has the right to say such things.
- Neither the teacher nor the students were able to explain it.
- Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
- My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
- Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
- The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.

When “I” is one of the two subjects connected by “either/or” or “neither /nor”, put it second and
follow it with the singular verb “am”.
- Neither she nor I am going to the festival.

When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
- Neither of them is available to speak right now.
- Either of us is capable of doing the job.

The pronouns “each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and
somebody“ are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
- Each of the girls sings well.
- Every one of the cakes is gone.

Note: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Everyone is two words when the
meaning is each one.

Prepositional phrases come between a subject and its verb:

- Everyone in the fraternity has his own set of prejudices.
- Each of the rowers takes her turn at rowing.
- Every one of the fraternity members has his own set of prejudices.
- The woman in the car parked in front of the bank across the street.

Sometimes the pronoun “who, that, which” is the subject of a verb in the middle of the
sentence. The pronouns “who, that, which” become singular or plural according to the noun
directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a
plural verb.
- He is the scientist who writes the reports.
The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular
verb writes.
- He is one of the men who do the work.
The word in front of who is a man, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.

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 Subject after "there is; there are"

The subject is placed after the verb in the structure "there is, there are" which is used when you
want to say “what” is in some place.
- There is a table in the room. A table is in the room.
- There are two books on the table.Two books are on the table.
- There was a car in front of the house. A car is in front of the house.

If the compound subject stands after the predicate expressed by "there is; there are" (there was;
there were, etc.), the verb usually agrees in number with the nearest subject.
- There is a book and a newspaper on the table.
- There is a book, a newspaper, and two magazines on the table.
- There are two magazines and a book on the table.
- There are four hurdles to jump.
- There is a high hurdle to jump.

If subject is “Infinitive Phrase”:

- To become a good manager requires a good theoretical background as well as practical

experience.

Indicate portions

“Percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth” —look at the noun in
your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb.
If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is
plural, use a plural verb.

Examples:
- Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. (Pie is the object of the preposition of.)
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. (Pies is the object of the preposition.)
- One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
- All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
- Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
- None of the garbage was picked up.
- None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.
- Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.
- All is true.

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 The phrases "accompanied by; as well as; along with; together with; including"

The phrases "accompanied by; as well as; along with; together with; including" following the
subject do not change the number of the subject. They are not taken into consideration when
choosing the singular or plural form of the verb to agree with the subject.
- The actress, accompanied by friends and fans, is traveling in Asia now.
- The players, as well as the coach, are down with the flu.
- Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
- The teacher, as well as the students, is willing to participate in the contest.
- The text of this lecture, together with additional materials, is offered in Chapter 11.
- A list of foreign words, including foreign proper names, is at the end of the book.
- The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.

Subject-Verb Inversion
• In questions (routinely):
Have you eaten breakfast yet?
Are you ready?
• In expletive constructions:
There were four basic causes of the Civil War.
Here is the book.
• In attributing speech (occasionally, but optionally):
"Help me!” cried Farmer Brown.
• To give prominence or focus to a particular word or phrase by putting the predicate in the
initial position:
Even more important is the chapter dealing with ordnance.
• When a sentence begins with an adverb or an adverbial phrase or clause:
Seldom has so much been owed by so many to so few.
• In negative constructions:
I don't believe a word she says, nor does my brother.
Come to think of it, neither does her father.
• After so:
I believe her; so does my brother.
• For emphasis and literary effect:
Into the jaws of Death, / into the mouth of Hell / Rode the six hundred.

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 1.2.3. Object - Nesne
The object is placed after the main verb. An object is a noun or pronoun that is governed by a
verb or a preposition. Nesneler İngilizc’de fiilden sonra gelir ve fiilin anlamını tamamlar.

S + V + O + Place + Time + Adverb

Açıklama: Adverb’in yeri değişebilir.

Examples:
- She collects stamps.
- He likes reading.
- He likes to read.
- He is waiting for a bus.
- She gave two books to her brother.
- She asked the boy about his father.
- She made soup, salad, and roast beef for dinner.

Adjectives:
- Translation is not difficult.
- She looks unhappy.
Açıklama: Bu nesne türleri “to be” ve “linking verb” lerden sonra kullanılır. İngilizce’de Link Verb
fiillerinden sonra sıfat gelir ve özneyi nitler. Link Verb yapısındaki cümlede fiil değil, özne
nitelenir, bu yüzden fiilden sonra zarf yerine sıfat kullanıılır.
En çok kullanılan linking verb,
 “to be” (is, are, am; was, were).
 Look, smell, seem, …

Noun Phrase:
- A horse is an animal.

Preposition + noun:
- He is in Ankara.

Noun phrase + Preposition:

- There is a book on the table.

Object Pronoun:
Object Pronouns (Nesne durumundaki zamirler): me, you, us, them, him, her, and it.
- I saw him.
- I gave him a book.

Noun Phrase + Noun Phrase:

- I gave a book to him.

Noun Phrase + Adjective:

- He likes coffe strong.

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 Noun Phrase + Verb + Noun Phrase:
- We let him to go home.
Noun Phrase + to Verb + Noun Phrase:
- I want him to help us.

Clause:
- I don’t know where he lives.

Noun +Manner + Pace + Time adjectives:

- The children played games quietly in their room yesterday.

Transitive verbs:
Some transitive verbs (for example: bring, break, give, offer, sell, send, show, and tell) are often
followed by two objects without prepositions. In this case, the order after the verb is first the
indirect object (object pronoun or noun without a preposition), then the direct object
(numeral/article + noun).
- She gave him two books.
- They offered me a good job.
- He sent her a present.
- The teacher told the students a story.

Transitive verbs take a noun phrase (NP) as a direct object. Past participles of transitive verbs
can also be used as adjectives.
- The broken window is there.

Object of a preposition

If there are two objects after the verb, the word order is first the direct object, then the object with
preposition. There are 3 kinds of objects: a direct object, an indirect object, and an object of a
preposition. How can you tell if a word is an indirect object or the object of the preposition?
• If it comes just after a preposition – then it's the object of the preposition.
• If it does not come just after a preposition – then it's an indirect object.
• Also, the indirect object is usually followed by the direct object. The object of the preposition
does not.

A direct object receives the action of the verb. In other words, it is directly affected by verb.
- I saw her.
- She is making a pancake.
- The dogs noticed the bone.

An indirect object is the receiver of the direct object, and it usually comes just before the direct
object. (Kime?)
- He bought his friend a present. "His friend" is the indirect object. Genelde kime sorusunun
yanıtıdır.
- He gave his mother flowers.
- Jack is telling them the news.

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 The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun governed by a preposition.
- The cat ran under the car. (“The car” is the object of the preposition “under”.)
- This is one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong)
- Are those biscuits on the table for the dogs?
- Emma gave Ronnie the book. (Ronnie is the indirect object.)
Emma gave the book to Ronnie. (Ronnie is the object of the preposition.)
( And by the way, these two sentences basically have the same meaning.)

The words that follow a preposition are called the object of the preposition.
- The cat ran under the car. (“The car” is the object of the preposition “under”.)
- Can you give this parcel to him tomorrow? (“Him” is the object of the preposition “to”.)

At noon, at = preposition; noon = noun or the object of the preposition.

Behind them, behind = preposition; them = pronoun or the object of the preposition.
Without sneezing, without = preposition; sneezing = gerund or the object of the preposition.

The object of the preposition will often have modifiers that add description:
- In class today, we talked about what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay.
About = preposition; what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay = noun clause or
the object of the preposition.

Objects of prepositions are in the objective case

The noun or pronoun governed by a preposition is always in the objective case. In English, this
only affects pronouns.
- Go with her. (The pronoun “her” is the objective case version of “she”.)
- Sit near them. (The pronoun “them” is the objective case version of “hey”.)
- You want me to talk to whom? (The pronoun “whom” is the objective case version of “who”.)

Preposition + Object: edatın nesnesi

Preposition + Noun Phrase:

- I am very much interested in the latest technology. (Cümle “be” yapısındadır, “passive”
değildir.)

Preposition + Object Pronouns:

- They are against me.
- I am thinking you.

Preposition + Ving (Gerund):

- He is really good at swimming. Yüzmede gerçekten iyidir.

Preposition + Demonstrative Pronouns:

- I am not interested in this. Bununla ilgilenmiyorum.

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 Preposition + Quantifiers:
- I don’t know about either. İkisi hakkında bilgim yok.

Preposition + Noun Clause:

- In spite of the fact that he is poor, he is happy.
- I am not concerned about where she was yesterday. Dün nerede olduğun hakkında
ilgilenmiyorum.

Notice:
Preposition + preposition’lardan sonra “Ving (gerund); to V (infinitive)” yapısı kullanılmaz.
Preposition + the fact that; Preposition’lardan sonra “that” gelmez.
Preposition + whether/Question Words; Preposition’lardan sonra “if” gelmez.
After a preposition, it is used “whom” not “who”.
After a preposition, it is used “whether” not “if”.
- If you're going to say something like my wife and I, make sure it's the subject of your
sentence, otherwise it should be me and my wife.
- You can't say between you and I. It's between you and me.

1.2.4. Complement
A complement is a word or a structure that completes the meaning of a verb, a subject, or an
object.
- Sheila is a nurse. (adding information about Sheila)
- All of them seemed surprised. Hepsi şaşırmış görünüyordu.

Verb complements are direct and indirect objects that stand after the verb:
- She gave the book to Anna.
- Give me a pen.

Subject complement in the form of a noun is called predicative noun or predicative nominal; in
the form of an adjective – predicative adjective (or predicate adjective). Subject complement
stands after the linking verb (it is predicative complement):
- It is a book.
- The book is interesting.

Complements which add more information about an object are called object complements.
Object complement stands after the object to which it refers:
- I find it strange.
- He makes me very angry. (adding information “about me”)

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 1.2.5. Adjective

Adjectives modify or describe features and qualities of people, animals and things represented by
nouns and pronouns. Adjectives describe nouns by giving some information about an object’s
size, shape, age, color, origin or material.

When an adjective is used with a noun, the usual order is “adjective + noun”: a yellow balloon
- That’s a big house.
- Look at the grey horse.
- All dogs have tails, but some dogs have long tails.

Adjectives can go before the noun (attributive) or after linking verbs such as be, become, seem
(predicative):
- What a beautiful flower! (attributive)
- This bridge looks unsafe. (predicative)

With numbers and with words like first, last, next, the usual order is “first/next + number +
adjective + noun”:
- I don’t have to work for the next four days.
- That’s the second large study on unemployment this year.

Most commonly, the adjectives “ill” and “well” are used after a verb and not before a noun:
- I feel ill.

Most common adjectives are members of a pair of opposites:

Beautiful – ugly, dead – alive, happy – sad, rough – smooth, big – small, dry – wet,
heavy – light, tall – short, cold – hot, good – bad

The place of attribute:

Attributes expressed by adjectives (or by pronouns, participles, numerals, nouns in the
possessive case) usually stand before their nouns, before the noun in the subject, in the object,
or in the adverbial modifier.
- My old dog liked fresh apples.
- We threw out several broken chairs.
- The doctor's new house is near a large park.

If there are several adjectives before a noun, a more specific adjective is placed closer to its
noun than a more general adjective.
- She bought a nice green woolen sweater.
- Chicago is a beautiful big clean city.
- My daughter likes soft gray, green, and blue colors.

Attributes in the form of a noun with a preposition or structures with participles are placed after
the noun that they modify.
- Chicago is a big city in the Midwest.
- The waiter threw out the chairs broken in yesterday's fight.

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 Before adjectives you will normally have “Determiner”. Determiner tells us if the noun is singular
or plural, definite or indefinite: a, an, the, my, your, four, those, some etc.

As a general rule, adjectives are usually placed in this order: Opinion, size, quality, age, shape,
colour, participle forms, origin, material type, purpose.
- Claudia is going camping with three other little girls.
- I bought a beautiful long red Italian silk tie.

1.2.6. Adverb

Adverbs are used to add more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a clause or
a whole sentence and, less commonly, about a noun phrase.

Adverbs are words that modify:

• a verb (He drove slowly. How did he drive?)
• an adjective (He drove a very fast car. How fast was his car?)
• another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. How slowly did she move?)

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective can not modify an adverb. Like adjectives,
adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.
- The student who reads fastest will finish first.

As an adverb modifies the verb of a sentence, it is called an Adverb Clause:

- When this class is over, we're going to the movies.

The adverbs of frequency "often, generally, frequently, rarely, regularly, sometimes" are often
placed between the subject and the main verb in the simple tenses but may also be placed after
the main verb (or after the object, if any).

Depending on their function and meaning, adverbs may stand before adjectives, before other
adverbs, after verbs, at the end of sentences, at the beginning of sentences, between the
auxiliary and the main verb.
- This song is very popular.
- Mike learned the lyrics very quickly.
- He sings beautifully.
- He sings this song beautifully.
- Sometimes, Mike and his sister sing this song together.

Some adverbs of frequency can stand before the verb in the simple tenses and between the
auxiliary and the main verb in the perfect tenses.
- How often does he sing this song? Does he sing it often?
- He never sings this song. He often sings this song. He sings it very often.
- He has already sung it. He has sung it already.

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Adverb of place:
S + Auxiliary Verb + V + O + C + adverb + adverb of place + adverb of time.

to where: nereye?
- For the first evidence of money as currency, we need to go back 5,000 years to where
modern-day Iraq now sits, to find ‘the shekel’.

1.2.7. Preposition
A preposition is used with a noun (or pronoun) and stands before it, forming a phrase that
functions as a prepositional indirect object (about Tom; for me) or as an adverbial modifier (under
the table; before dinner). Prepositions are traditionally divided into the classes:
• Place: on the street, in the house, at the airport
• Direction: to the river, through the park
• Time: at two o'clock, in 1995, for a year, on Monday
• Manner: by train, with a key

We commonly use prepositions to show a relationship in space or time or a logical relationship

between two or more people, places or things. Prepositions are most commonly followed by a
noun phrase or pronoun:
- The last time I saw him he was walking down the road.
- I’ll meet you in the cafe opposite the cinema.
- It was difficult to sleep during the flight.
- It was the worst storm since the 1980s.
- Give that to me.

A prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or
clause, the object of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have one or more
modifiers to describe it. The patterns for a prepositional phrase: preposition + modifier(s) +
noun / pronoun / gerund / clause

Preposition as adjective modifies a noun or pronoun:

- The windows of your house were broken.

Preposition as adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb:

- The children played for two hours.
- We will be back in a few days.
- They drove to Glasgow

When a preposition plays as adverb of time/place standing at the beginning of sentence, verb
will be put before subject and we will not use auxiliary.
- In the morning is the best time to water plants. Morning time is the best time to water plants.

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 A verb agrees with its subject even when the verb comes before the subject.
- There are wild dogs in our neighborhood.
- Where are the children’s coats?

An adverb or a phrase beginning with a preposition:

- She's very tall, as is her mother. (as her mother is) “As” is a conjunction and an adverb and is
used before a clause.
- She enjoys all kinds of music, as do I. (as I do.)

You can certainly begin a sentence with a preposition.

- Off I go (I've just done it), “off” is an adverb rather than a preposition.
Similar examples are In I go, On I go, Out I go and Up I go.

1.2.8. Conjunction
Coordinating conjunctions "and, or, but" connect coordinate elements (parallel elements) of the
sentence as well as independent clauses in the compound sentence.
- He bought bread and cheese.
- I invited her, but she didn't come to the party.

Subordinating conjunctions (e.g., after, because, if, since, that, when) connect the subordinate
clause with the main clause in the complex sentence. Subordinating conjunctions: After, although,
as soon as, etc.
- They knocked down all the houses and they built a car park.
- Are there four or five people living in that house?
- My shoes look great but are not very comfortable.
- I will go to the store after I finish writing this article.
- She didn't go to the concert because she was busy.
Connecting words: Which do you prefer? Red or blue?
Connecting phrases: The meal was very expensive and not very nice.
Connecting clauses: There are seats outside but some people don’t like sitting outdoors.
Connecting sentences: My grandmother’s name was Wall. But she became Jenkins when she
got married to my grandfather.
Coordinating conjunctions: either … or …, neither … nor …, both … and …:

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 1.3. Verb

A verb refers to an action, event or state

Verb yapısında:
To be: durum belirtir.
Have /has got: aitlik belirtir.
Tense: olaylar anlatılır.
Modal: duygu ve düşünceler kullanılır.

A verb describes an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a
state of being (be, exist, stand).
- We went home straight after the show.
- It snowed a lot last winter.
- Several different types of volcano exist.
- I washed the car yesterday.
- The dog ate my homework.
- John studies English and French.
- Lucy enjoys listening to music.
- The goat ate my homework.
- I work at a small hotel.

Action verbs can be used in the simple or continuous form.

- I cleaned the room as quickly as possible.
- She’s watching television at the moment.

Event verbs can be used in the simple or continuous form.

- Four people died in the crash.
- It’s raining again.

State verbs are usually used in the simple form rather than the continuous form.
- I don’t know the name of the street.
- Who owns this house?

Some verbs can be used to talk about both states and actions, but with different meanings:
- Do you see what I mean? (understand)
I don’t see Rebecca at work anymore since I moved office. (Meet)
- Your dress looks nice. (appear)
I never look at the price on the menu. (See with your eyes)

Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
- Henry with his friends has left on a trip to France.
- A list of the names of all survivors is available.
- The United Nations is one organization. (singular)

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 1.3.1. Predicate and verb
The predicate is usually represented by a main verb or by the combination of an auxiliary or
modal verb with a main verb. The predicate stands after the subject and is usually represented by
a main verb or by the combination of an auxiliary or modal verb with a main verb.

A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb:

- Their house was built very quickly.
- She became very famous. (N + LV + adj)
- She became a famous author. (N + LV + NP)
- The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.
- He has been working for three years.
- She is studying French at a language school.
- The children are reading and writing new words.
- She does not know him.
- He hasn't bought a car yet.
- You shouldn't do it.

The simple predicate consists of only the verb and its auxiliaries.
- Virtually half of the students failed the examination.
- Especially /Particularly these three girls are keen to enter the competition.
- With the birth of the first child, the married couple is faced with the responsibilities of rearing
children.
- The fact that many children suffer from this disease is due to lack of clean drinking water.

A postposition is used with a verb and stands after it, forming an idiomatic phrase with this
verb (phrasal verb). For example: come in, get back, turn out, put on, break down, pick up, take
off, think over.

Two main types of predicate are usually described: the simple predicate and the complete
predicate.

The simple predicate consists of only the verb and its auxiliaries. The predicative is most often
expressed by a noun or an adjective:
- Tom is a doctor.
- Their house is large.
- She looks ill.
- Alex writes well. Alex is writing. Alex is writing a letter to his friend.
- She has been sleeping since five o'clock.

The complete predicate consists of the verb and its complements and modifiers that complete the
meaning of the verb:
- Her children have been playing in the yard since morning.

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The predicate consisting of coordinate verbs (coordinate elements) is called a compound
predicate:
- The boy reads and writes every day.
- She closed her book and looked at me.
- They ran after him but didn't catch him.

The predicate that consists of homogeneous verbs (homogeneous parts) are regarded as a
simple predicate:
- They sing and dance very well.
- He opened the door and went out.
- She looked at him but said nothing.

A compound predicate consists of two (or more) such predicates connected:

- The glacier began to slip down the mountainside and eventually crushed some of the village's
outlying buildings.

The compound verbal predicate consists of the modal verb and the infinitive of the main verb.
This type of predicate is also called a modal predicate.
- He can drive.
- We must see her.
- You should have told me.

Combinations of certain main verbs with the infinitive are also included in the type "compound
verbal predicate".
- I want to see him.
- She began to read.
- He promised to visit us.
But we regard the infinitive in such combinations as an object of the verb.

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 1.3.2. Verb patterns
Subject: Noun (N), Noun Phrase (NP), Object (O)
Verb: Verb (V), Linking Verb (LV), Transitive Verb (Vt), Intransitive Verb (Vi)
Modifier: Adjective (adj), Adverb (adv),
Preposition (Pre) + Noun

The structure of the clause depends on the verb:

An intransitive verb has the structure: N + V: John + smiled.
A transitive verb has the structure: N + V +O: We + had been playing + football.
A link verb has the structure: N + V + Adj: She + looked + happy.
A phrasal verb has the structure: N + V + (Pre + N): She + gave + back + the money.
Or; N + V + N + Pre: She + gave + the money + back.

Verb patterns – Link Verbs

“Link Verb” yüklemlerde doğrudan özne nitelenir.

Subject + LV + Adj:
To be, smell, feel, look, taste, turn, grow, and go
- The results are quite significant.
- Five hundred dollars is not sufficient for my expenses.
- The room smells smoky.
- The leaves turned yellow.
- She became very famous.

Subject + LV + NP:
To be, become, remain, prove, appear, seem
- He is a competent employee.
- He is an ambitious businessman.
- She became a famous actor.

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 Verb Patterns – Adverbials

Subject + Vi + (Adv):
Intransitive verbs do not take an NP as a direct object. They may take adverbs or a prepositional
object after verbs. Intransitive verbs: Arrive, collapse, leave, lie, live, go, rise, speak, and work
- He speaks slowly.
- He speaks with me.
- The train has just arrived.
- The roof of the house has collapsed.
- He left an hour ago.
- They went on holiday.
- He wroks in an office.
- The children laughed happily.
- The treatment has proved effective. [effect:noun, effective:adj, effectively:adv, effectiveness:
noun] Tedavinin etkisi kanıtlandı.

Subject + Vt + Direct Object + Adv:

Put, send, place, and lay
- I put the keys on the table.
- I have placed the book on the shelf.

Adv + Subject + V + Adv + Adv:

- Last year Mary and the family were driving to Madrid in an old bus.

Subject + Vt + Direct Object+ (Adv) + (Adv):

Transitive verbs take a noun phrase (NP) as a direct object. Transitive verbs: prove, amaze, hate,
see, help, use, surprise, kill, lay, treat, make, accomplish, achieve, acknowledge, acquire, amuse,
admit, affect, astonish, attain, deny, desire, determine, include, involve, maintain, provide, reject,
surprise, utilize.
- I saw him in our school yesterday.
- The mission was accomplished by the special task force.
- She put the flowers carefully in a vase.
- You make coffee.
- I read books.
- She takes a pen.
- You write a letter.
- He left his bag.
- He left a note.
- All the girls are learning English at school in the second year.

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 Verb patterns – gerund and infinitive

Subject + Vt + Direct Object + to Verb (Infinitive):

Permit, enable, allow, persuade, advise, compel, encourage, lead, urge
- I permitted him to use my dictionary.

Subject + Vt + to Verb (Infinitive):

- She decided to marry a rich man who proposed to her.
- One student threatened to kill the teacher.
- The man demanded to be allowed access to a telephone.
- I want to buy an electric car.

Subject + Vt + Ving (Gerund):

- I hate driving.
- Tim is considering changing his job.

Subject + Vt + Pre + Ving:

These verbs all use this pattern: specialize, think.
- He specializes in helping children.
- Michal is thinking about cooking dinner.

Subject + Vt + Direct Object + Ving/Verb:

- I heard him cough.
- I heard someone unlocking the door.
- I saw him cross the street.
- I saw him crossing the street.
- I watched the crowd gathering in the street.
- I observed her teach a lesson.
- She noticed him looking out of the window.
- I found the child sleeping.

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 Double object verbs

Some verbs have two objects; a direct object and an indirect object
These clauses have the structure: Subject + Verb + Indirect object + Direct object
- My wife sent me an email.
- He brought his mother some flowers.
- He cooked all his friends a delicious meal

We can use a prepositional phrase with “to” or “for” with an indirect object:
These clauses have the structure: Subject + Verb + Direct object + Prepositional phrase +
Direct object
- My wife sent an email to me.
- He brought some flowers for his mother.
- He cooked a delicious meal for all his friends.

Common verbs with “for” and an “indirect object” are: buy, get, cook, keep, bring, make, pour,
save, find.
- We made toys for all the children.

Common verbs with “to” and an “indirect object” are: give, lend, offer, pass, post, read, sell,
send, show, promise, and tell.
- He gave his programme to the man sitting next to him.
- They sent Christmas cards to all their customers.

If the indirect object is a long phrase we normally use “to” or “for”:

- He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door.
- We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.

If the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the pattern: S + V + N + N

- I poured him another drink.
- Their mother read them another story.

Subject + Vt + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect Object:

Note: Verbs which do not allow indirect object movement.
- He suggested a new plan to them.
- I gave a book to him.
- She told a story to them.
- I’ll buy a camera for you.
- Let me introduce you to my wife.
- He proposed a new plan to them.

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Subject + Vt + Direct Object + Indirect Object:
- She gave me a book.
- They asked me a question.

Subject + Vt + Object + Past Participle:

- I want this work finished quickly.
- I heard my name called.
- The police reported him killed.

Subject + Vt + Object + Adj:

- Do you prefer your coffee black?

There + Verb:
- There appears to have been some confusion.Bazı karışıklıklar olmuş gibi görünüyor.
- There comes a time when one must admit one’s guilt.

“That” clauses can be reduced to infinitive phrases:

- We believe that it was a mistake. We believe it to have been a mistake.
- We consider that money is important. We consider money (to be) important.

Verb + object + bare infinitive

Verbs like make, let, feel , hear, observe, see, watch, have are followed by a bare infinitive after
an object.
- I made him wait outside.
- I watched him climb through the window.
- We will have a car wait for you at the station.

But some of these verbs can also be followed by a gerund with a slightlly different meaning.
- Did you hear the dogs barking last night ?
- I heard the dog bark at him yesterday.
- The teacher had me stay after class to discuss my essay.

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 1.3.3. Verb types
English verbs can be described from different sides:
main verbs, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs; regular and irregular verbs; transitive and intransitive
verbs.

Verbs express an action (give, study, take) or a state (love, see, exist). Verbs have full lexical
meaning of their own: buy, eat, do, give, go, live, love, make, permit, push, see, study, take, try,
understand, write. Verbs can be characterized from different sides: transitive or intransitive, action
verbs and stative verbs, regular or irregular.

 Phrasal verbs are verbs that form an idiomatic phrase with a postposition: give up, turn off,
write down.
 The verb “have” helps to form the perfect tenses: He has gone home. He had left before I
called.
 Both “have” and “be” are used in the formation of the perfect continuous tenses: He has
been sleeping for two hours.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs do not have specific lexical meaning. The verb “be” helps to form the continuous
tenses in the active voice and all of the tenses in the passive voice: She is crying. The car was
sold.

Auxiliary verbs come before main verbs: be (am, is, are; was, were), do/does, will/shall and
have/has.
• The verb "be" helps to form the continuous tenses in the active voice and all of the tenses in
the passive voice and also functions as a linking verb.
• The verb "have" helps to form the perfect tenses;
• The verb "will" helps to form the future tenses;
• The verb "do" helps to form questions and answers in the simple present and Past simple.
- She is typing now.
- That letter was typed yesterday.
- She has already typed two letters.
- She will type a report tomorrow.
- Did you see her yesterday? – Yes, I did. / No, I didn't.

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 Main Verbs

Main verbs have meanings related to actions, events and states.

- We went home straight after the show.
- It snowed a lot last winter.
- Several different types of volcano exist.

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are “can, could, may, might, will, would, must, shall, should, ought to”. Modal verbs
have meanings connected with degrees of certainty and necessity.. Modal verbs describe the
speaker's attitude to the action expressed by the main verb.
- We’ll be there around 7.30. (speaker is quite certain)
- A new window could cost around £500. (speaker is less certain)
- I must ring the tax office. (speaker considers this very necessary)
- We should go there.
- He can swim.
- He might leave soon.
- May I come in?
- Will you please be quiet?
- I'd like to know where you are planning to sell the product.
- Could you repeat it, please? I'm afraid I don't understand. Could you explain it, please?
- Could you tell me how to get to the bank, please?
- Could you tell me where the Science Museum is, please?
- Could you help me, please? I'd like to know how to get to the center of the city from here.
- Could you recommend good toy stores and gift shops not far from here?
- I'd like to reserve a single room for six days starting on May sixth.
- I'm going to the art museum. Would you like to go with me?
- I would like to invite you to a concert (show, play, party, reception) tomorrow night.
- We would like to invite you to dinner (at our house; at a restaurant) tonight.

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 Causative Verbs

Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen.
- Professor had her students read four short novels in one week.
- She also made them read five plays in one week.
- However, she let them skip the final exam.

Factitive Verbs

Verbs like “make, choose, judge, elect, select, name” are called factitive verbs. These
transitive verbs can take two objects.
- The faculty elected him the new Academic Dean.

Strong and weak verbs:

Strong verbs form the Past simple tense by changing the vowel in the root: fall – fell, see – saw,
swim – swam, write – wrote. All strong verbs are irregular verbs.

Weak verbs include all regular verbs because regular verbs add the ending “ed” to form the Past
simple tense without changing the root vowel. Weak verbs also include some of the irregular
verbs that end in "t" or "d" in the past tense: bring – brought, cut – cut, feed – fed, spend – spent.

Action and stative verbs

Action verbs express an action (break, turn, run). Most main verbs are action verbs. Stative verbs
(no progressive verbs) do not express an action (i.e., they express state); they are usually not
used in the continuous tenses.
• mental perception: know, believe, suppose, understand, remember,
• sense perception: see, feel, hear, smell,
• emotional state: like, love, hate, want,
• Some other verbs: own, belong, cost, seem
Some stative verbs can also function as action verbs. Stative verb "look": She looks good. Action
verb "look": She is looking out of the window.

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 Finite and non-finite verbs

Verbs which have the past or the present form are called “Finite verbs”. A finite verb functions as
the predicate in the sentence and agrees with the subject in person and number:
- He works, he is working.
- They work, they are working.
- Paul runs to work every day. (Finite)

Verbs in any other form (infinitive, Ving, or Ved) are called “Nonfinite verbs”: the broken
window… The wheezing gentleman…

Non-finite verb forms, or verbals; infinitive, gerund, and both participles, can't show person,
number, or tense, but they can show aspect and voice with the help of auxiliary verbs.
- They have run away together. (Nonfinite)
- We found him smoking behind the shed. (Nonfinite)

Transitive and intransitive verbs: Geçişli – geçişsiz fiiller

Transitive verbs require a direct object: make coffee, read books, take a pen, write a letter.
Remember: to find a direct object of a transitive verb, first find the verb and then ask "what?" or
"whom?"
- He left his bag.
- He left a note.
- She kissed me.

Intransitive verbs do not require a direct object. They may be used without any object or may be
followed by an adverb or a prepositional object: speak slowly, speak with him.
- He left. He left quickly.
- He left for London.
- The workers protested their innocence in the car park. (Transitive)
- The workers protested in the car park. (Intransitive)

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 Linking verbs
İngilizce’de Link Verb fiillerinden sonra sıfat gelir ve özneyi nitler. Link Verb yapısındaki cümlede
fiil değil, özne nitelenir, bu yüzden fiilden sonra zarf yerine sıfat kullanıılır.

En çok kullanılan linking verb,

 “to be” (is, are, am; was, were).
 Look, smell, seem, …

A linking verb (also called a connecting verb) connects the subject and the predicative
complement and shows the relationship between them. Link Verb yapısındaki cümlede fiil değil
de özne nitelenir, bu yüzden fiilden sonra zarf yerine sıfat kullanıılır. Main linking verb is “be”.
Fiilden sonra normal olarak bir zarf gelir fiili niteler. Öte yandan İngilizce’de linking verbs’den
sonra sıfat gelir ve özneyi nitlerler.

Linking verbs are often forms of the verb “to be”, but are sometimes verbs related to the senses
(look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being
(appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, and remain).

Linking Verbs: be, become, seem, look, taste, smell, appear, sound, get, feel

- The leaves turned yellow.

- He became a writer.
- It grew dark.
- It is getting cold.
- Mary seemed sad. (Correct); Mary seemed sadly. (Not Correct)
- This room smells bad.
- I feel great.
- You look happy. “You look happily” is not used.
- She looks good.
- He felt angry.
- Dinner smells good. Yemek güzel kokuyor.
- You seem unhappy. Mutsuz görünüyorsun.
- The plant grew quickly.
- A face appeared at the window. It was Pauline. (prepositional phrase)
- He’s a cousin of mine. (noun phrase)
- This coat feels good. (adjective phrase)
- She remained outside while her sister went into the hospital. (adverb phrase)
- Those people are all professors.
- Those professors are brilliant.
- A victory today seems unlikely.

A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being is sometimes called resulting copulas.
They, too, link a subject to a predicate adjective:
- His face turned purple.She became older.
- The milk has gone sour.
- The crowd grew ugly.

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 Phrasel verbs
İp uçları:
• Deyim fiillerde Make up, bring about ve set out en çok çıkan deyim-fiillerdir.

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition.
N (subject) + V + p + N (object) or the usual pattern is: N + V + N + p.
- She takes after her mother. She looks like her mother. She behaves like her mother.
- I can count on you. I can trust you. I can believe you.

Words like “of, in, out, up, down etc.”, are not always prepositions. (Deyimsel fiiller.) In the
expressions ‘down the street’, ‘up the stairs’ and ‘in the room’, the words “down, up and in” are
prepositions.
Prepositions are always followed by nouns /Ving which act as their objects.
For example, in the sequence ‘down the street’, the noun street is the object of the preposition
down.

In the expressions ‘sit down’, ‘she is not up’ and ‘come in’, the words down, up and in have no
objects. They are adverbs and not prepositions. Small adverbs like these are often called adverb
particles or adverbial particles. Examples are: above, about, in, out, up, down, before, across, off,
on, below, behind etc.

There are four main types of these verbs with adverb particles and prepositions:
Type 1.
verb + adverb particle (often indicating direction, sometimes idiomatic). There is no need for other
words for complete meaning.
- I put a plaster on the cut, but it fell off. [ fall off: azalmak]

Type 2. verb + preposition + N /Ving, the preposition always comes before the object.
- I went off spicy food when I was pregnant. [go off something: come to dislike]

Type 3. verb + N + adverb particle, the adverb particle must follow a pronoun object; it can
precede or follow a noun.
I turned my pager off at midnight.
I turned off my pager at midnight.
I turned it off at midnight. I turned off it at midnight.
[turn something off: remove the power]

In type 4, verb + adverb particle + preposition + N, the object follows the preposition.
[walk off with something: take without asking]
- He’s walked off with my stethoscope again! He’s walked off with it again!

“Phrasal Verbs”, bir zarf (adverbial particle) ya da bir edatla (preposition) ile birlikte kullanılırlar.
Fiilin yalın haldeki anlamı, bu sözcükleri aldığında kaybolur vei asıl anlamından farklı bir anlam
kazanır.
go = gitmek; go on = devam etmek. get = almak; get off = (araçtan) inmek

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İngilizce’de yaygın olarak kullanılan phrasal verb’ler, nesne alanlar ve almayanlar olarak iki
gruba ayrılır:
Nesne alanlar:
Bu tür phrasal verb’lerde nesne, eğer açık açık yazılmışsa, sona gelebildiği gibi araya da
yazılabilir. Bu durumda anlam değişikliği olmaz:
- She took her shirt off. She took off her shirt. Gömleğini çıkardı.
- The company turned down his proposal. The company turned his proposal down. Şirket,
önerisini geri çevirdi.
Ancak nesne bir zamir (pronoun) ise araya yazılır:
- She took it off. (“She took off it.” denmez.) Onu çıkardı.
- The company turned it down. Şirket, onu geri çevirdi.
Nesne aldığı halde, yukarıdakilerin tersine, bu nesneyi araya almayan phrasal verb’ler de
vardır:
- I got on the bus. (Otobüse bindim.)
Bu cümle I got the bus on. olarak kullanılamaz. Dolayısıyla bu tür phrasal verb’ler, zamirleri
sona alırlar: I got on it. (Ona bindim.)

Nesne almayanlar
- The news of the defeat was censored, but it soon got about. Yenilgi haberi sansür edildi ama
çabucak yayıldı.
- The train got in five minutes early. Tren beş dakika erken geldi.
- The teapot just came apart in my hands. Çaydanlık elimde parçalara ayrıldı.
- Three of the runners dropped out. Koşuculardan üçü yarış dışı kaldı.

Sık kullanılan “Phrael Verbs”

add up: toplamını bulmak, toplamak, anlam vermek

add up to sonucu bulmak, sonucuna varmak, göstermek
add up to sth equal
allow for göz önüne almak, hesaba katmak.
ask after halini, hatırını sormak
ask for rica etmek, istemek
bail out (of) kefaletle serbest bıraktırmak, sandalın suyunu boşaltmak, uçaktan paraşütle
atlamak, kurtarmak,
blow out söndürmek; lastik ya da tekerlek patlatmak; hava ya da gaz ile fırlatmak
blow over bitmek, durmak, sona ermek
break down yıkmak, bozmak, baskıya dayanamamak, arızalanmak, bozulmak; ayrıştırmak,
analiz etmek; kendisini tutamamak; stop functioning (vehicle, machine); get
upset: üzülmek
break ground temel kazmak
break in interrupt
break into parçalamak, parçalara ayırmak
break up end a relationship; start laughing (informal); parçalamak, ayrılmak
bring down indirmek

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bring up büyütmek, yetiştirmek (raise a child); kusmak (vomit); ortaya (konu vb) atmak
(start talking about a subject)
bring down indirim yapmak, yenilmek, düşmesine sebep olmak (make unhappy)
call around phone many different places or people
call back tekrar telefon etmek, return a phone call
call down azarlamak
call for talep etmek, istemek (demand)
call off iptal etmek, ret etmek (cancel)
call on sbd ask for an answer or opinion, visit someone; çağrı yapmak
call out seslenmek, çağırmak
call up telefon etmek, askere almak
call upon başvumak, istemek, uğramak, önünde söylemek
calm down sakinleştimek, sakin olmak; relax after being angry
care about ilgi duymak
care for sevmek; bakmak
carry on sürdürmek, devam ettirmek, peşini bırakmamak
carry out uygulamak, gerçeklemek, başarmak, icra etmek (fulfil, conduct), yürütmek
come back geri dönmek, geri gelmek, tekrar moda olmak
cut down on masraftan kısmak, tüketimini azaltmak
cut in interrupt; pull in too closely in front of another vehicle
cut in (on) sözünü ya da iletişimini kesmek
cut off kesmek, kesip koparmak, ayırmak, son vermek, yok etmek, imha etmek, mahrum
bırakmak
deal with meşgul olmak, baş etmek (cope with, get over, handle)
depend on güvenmek, bel bağlamak (Count upon, Depend on/upon, Lean on/upon, Bank
on/upon, Rely on/upon, Trust in (Good))
do without mahrum olmak, yoksun olmak
figure up hesaplamak
get in (to) binmek
get off yola çıkmak, yola koyulmak; büyük taşıttan inmek
get on büyük taşıta binmek; geçip gitmek, sürdürmek.
get on (with) devam etmek
get out (of) terk etmek, ayrılmak; inmek
get rid of sbd/sth başından atmak, kurtulmak
give up vazgeçmek, bırakmak (abandon, abort, stop trying, quit)
hand down miras bırakmak, devretmek.
hand over devretmek
hang on wait a short time (informal)
look after bakmak, göz kulak olmak, (take care of)
look at bakmak, göz atmak, seyretmek, göz önüne almak
look back geçmişe bakmak, geriye bakmak, ilerleyememek
look down on sbd küçük görmek, değerini küçültmek
look for aramak
look forward sabırsızlıkla beklemek; be excited about the future
look into araştırmak
look on bakmak, gözüyle bakmak, olarak görmek, birlikte kitap okumak, katılmadan
seyretmek
look out dikkat etmek (watch out, [dışarıdan içeriye tehlike])
look out (for) be careful, vigilant, and take notice, sakınmak

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look out on / upon bir yere bakıyor olmak, bir yere bakmak
look over muayene etmek
look up saptayıp ziyaret etmek, iletişim kurmak, araştırmak, bakmak
look up to takdir etmek, saygı duymak; hayran olmak, örnek almak (respect, admire)
look sth over check, examine
look sth up search and find information in a reference book or database
lose through yoluyla kaybolmak
make a decision karar vermek
make off sıvışmak, kaçmak
make out anlamak, fark etmek, çıkarmak, geçinmek
make over yenilemek
make through paçayı kurtarmak
make up oluşturmak, toparlamak, makyaj yapmak, barışmak, forgive each other
make up for compensate; telafi etmek, karşılamak
make up of oluşmak, oluşturmak
make sth up invent, lie about something
move off ayrılmak, yola çıkmak, uzaklaşmak
move on Ilerlemek
move over / along yer açmak için pozisyonunu değiştirmek, biraz kımıldayıp yer açmak
move to taşımak
pass away die; göç etmek
pass down geçmek, nesiden nesile devrolmak
pass on geçirmek, devretmek, aktarmak
pass out dağıtmak, vermek; bayılmak (faint)
pass over atlamak, geçmek; geçiştirmek
pass up geri çevirmek, atlamak, yararlanmamak
pass sth up decline (usually something good)
put an end to bitirmek, son vermek, sona erdirmek
put aside biriktirmek, bir kenara bırakmak, bekletmek, ertelemek
put away yerine yerleştirmek, kaldırmak
put forth öne sürmek, ortaya atmak (put forward, bring up)
put forward öne sürmek, ileri almak, iddia etmek, sunmak
put in yerleştirmek, araya sokmak, eklemek, kurmak
put off ertelemek, geçiktirmek (postpone, delay, defer, adjourn ); elbisesini çıkartmak
put on giyinmek; açmak, çalıştırmak; artırmak; almak
put out extinguish, söndürmek, yardımcı olmak
put up yapmak, dikmek, yer ve yiyecek içecek vermek, evde ağırlamak, satışa çıkarmak
put up with tolerate
put sbd down insult, make someone feel stupid
put sth together assemble
put sth down put what you are holding on a surface or floor
rely on güvenmek, itaat etmek, bel bağlamak
result from … den kaynaklanmak
result in olarak sonuçlanmak
run across tesadüfen karşılaşmak, rast gelmek
run against uğramak, çatmak, rastlamak, çarpmak, zıt düşmek
run arround (with) arkadaşlık etmek, onunla bununla dolaşmak
run away kaçmak, firar etmek, fark atmak
run away (from) leave unexpectedly, escape

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run away (with) kaçırmak, alıp götürmek; çalmak, alıp gitmek
run by tarafından çalıştırmak, işletmek.
run down yermek, kötülemek; bozulmak, çalışmasını durdurmak; hareket halinde çarpmak,
vurmak
run for aday olmak
run into tesadüfen karşılaşmak, rast gelmek, çarpışmak; varmak, ulaşmak
run off with alıp götürmek, kaçırmak, çalıp götürmek
run on devam etmek, ilerlemek, durmadan konuşmak, ilişkin olmak, koşmaya devam
etmek, aynı satırdan başlamak
run out (of) tükenmek, sona ermek, son bulmak, bitmek
run over çarpıp üstünden geçmek, çiğnemek; dolup taşmak
run through delik açmak, çizgi çekmek
run up faturayı kabartmak, yükseltmek
run up against karşılaşmak, rastlamak
set foot on ayak basmak
set off ayrı tutmak, ayrı koymak
set on cesaretlendirmek,teşvik etmek, kışkırtmak
set out dikmek, etkilemek, sergilemek, girişmek
set up organize, düzenlemek, ayaralamak; kurmak; rekor kırmak (arrange)
settle down durulmak, uslanmak, demir atmak, yerleşmek, yuva kurmak
settle up hesaplaşmak, hesap görmek
shop around compare prices
speak out açıkça söylemek, serbestçe söylemek
spread out yaymak, yayılmak, açmak, sermek, genişlemek
spring up türemek
stand against karşı durmak
stand by beklemede olmak, harekete geçmemek, desteklemek
stand for temsil etmek, tahammül etmek, tolerans göstermek
stand up for destek vermek, desteklemek
stand up to karşı koymak
step down istifa etmek, inmek
step up artmak, çıkmak, yükselmek
stick to sth continue doing something, limit yourself to one particular thing
take advantage of yararlanmak, faydalanmak
take after sbd benzemek, çekmek (resemble a family member)
take away alıp götürmek, paket yapıp götürmek, ortadan kaldırmak
take back I take back what I've just said.Ne söylediysem geri alıyorum.
take down yazmak; çıkarmak, almak
take for başkasına benzetmek, başkasıyla karıştırmak.
take in küçültmek, daraltmak; anlamak
take off havalanmak; taklit etmek
take on üstlenmek, üzerine almak
take over sorumluluğu, kontrolü üstlenmek; devralmak
take place meydana gelmek, olmak, yerine geçmek
take root kök salmak, kökleşmek
take up ele almak, başlamak, işlemek; işgal etmek, yer tutmak, meşgul olmak, uğraşmak.
take out dışarı çıkarmak, yemeğe götürmek,
take sth apart purposely break into pieces
take sth back geri götürmek, bir sözü geri almak; return an item

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take sth off start to fly, işten uzaklaştırmak, giyeceği çıkarmak, giyeceği sökmek; remove
something (usually clothing)
throw into atmak, içine atmak
throw out dışarı atmak (çöp vb)
throw up yukarı atmak, elinden atmak, vaz geçmek; kusmak
throw sth away dispose of; elden çıkarmak, atmak
thrown back geri atılmış
tidy up düzenlemek, toparlamak, çeki düzen vermek
try on giyerek denemek
try out denemek
turn around tam bir dönüş yapmak, yaptırmak
turn back on geri dönmek, sırtını dönmek, geri çevirmek
turn down refüze etmek, ret etmek; geri çevirmek, sesini kısmak (refuse)
turn in yatmaya gitmek, vermek, teslim almak
turn into çevirmek, dönüştürmek, dönüşmek
turn off stop the energy flow, switch off, durdurmak, kapatmak
turn out durdurmak, kapatmak; sonuçlandırmak, çıkarmak, uzaklaştırmak; üretmek
turn over devretmek, transfer etmek; takla atmak, çevirmek, vermek
turn up aniden ortaya çıkmak, sesini yükseltmek (appear suddenly)
turn sth down decrease the volume or strength (heat, light etc)
turn sth on start the energy, switch on, açmak, çalıştırmak
turn sth up increase the volume or strength (heat, light etc)
warm up ısıtmak, çalışmaya hazırlamak, ısınmak (prepare body for exercise)
work on üzerinde çalışmak
work out çözmek, çalışmak; be successful, exercise
write down kaydetmek, yazmak

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 1.3.4. Verb forms

The verb forms: finite forms, inflected forms, conjugated forms, tense forms. Different linguistic
sources list from three: base form, past form, past participle and principal parts or list from five:
base form, third person singular, past form, past participle, and present participle. The verb “be”:
be – is – was/were – been – being.
 Simple form (basic form, plain form, infinitive, present infinitive, present tense, present form,
first form): be, have, take, look, play.
 Third person singular present ( 3rd person singular present tense): is, has, takes, looks,
plays.
 Past simple (past form, past tense, second form): was/were, had, took, looked, played.
 Past participle (perfect form, third form): been, had, taken, looked, played.
 Present participle (continuous form, progressive form, ing-form): being, having, taking,
looking, playing.

Verb endings

Ending “_s / _es”

The ending “_s/_es” is added to the base form to form the third person singular of the simple
present tense.
I/we/you/they buy, give, go, look, permit, push, see, study, take, try, write
He/she/it buys, gives, goes, looks, permits, pushes, sees, studies, takes, tries, writes.

Ending “ed”
The ending “ed” is added to the base form of regular verbs to form the Past simple tense and the
past participle, which are the same for regular verbs.
Look (base form) – looked (past tense) – looked (past participle)
Permit – permitted – permitted; study – studied – studied;
Try – tried – tried.

Ending “_ ing”
The ending “_ing” is added to the base form of the verb to form the present participle or gerund:
Buying, giving, going, permitting, pushing, seeing, studying, trying, and writing.

Paradigm

A set of inflected forms of a verb is called a paradigm. For example, a conjugation table
illustrating present, past and future tense forms of the verb "work" in the active voice is the
paradigm of the verb "work" in the active.

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 Regular and irregular verbs

Regular verbs form the Past simple tense and the past participle by adding the ending "ed" to the
base form of the verb: work – worked – worked; play – played – played; copy – copied – copied;
borrow – borrowed – borrowed.

Irregular verbs form the Past simple tense and the past participle by changing the root of the
word:
Irregular verbs form the Past simple tense and the past participle by changing the root of the
word: take – took – taken; go – went – gone; buy – bought – bought; sit – sat – sat; be –
was/were – been.
See – saw – seen,
Write – wrote – written,
Be – was/were – been,
Have/has – had – had,
Do – did – done.

Inflection

Inflection means changing the word form in order to express certain grammatical categories.
Applied to verbs, inflection means changing the base form of the verb by adding affixes (suffixes,
endings) or changing the root of the verb to express the categories of person, number, tense,
voice, and mood.
Inflection of pronouns and nouns for case and number is called declension:
I – me, he – him, she – her, we – us; book – books, man – men.

Inflection of adjectives and adverbs to show degree is called comparison.

Degrees of comparison of adjectives: cold, colder, coldest; difficult, more difficult, most difficult.
Degrees of comparison of adverbs: soon, sooner, soonest; loudly, more loudly, most loudly.

Inflection of verbs is called conjugation. Conjugation is the inflection of verbs for person, number,
tense, voice, mood. Conjugation is also the whole set of inflected verb forms. A typical
conjugation shows how this verb changes to show person, number, and tense.
I play, he plays, she plays, it plays, we play, you play, they play; ...;
I was playing, he was playing, she was playing, it was playing, we were playing, ...;
I will play, he will play, ..., they will have been playing.

Conjugated forms consisting of one word are simple forms: play, plays, played. Conjugated forms
consisting of two or more parts are compound forms, also called analytical forms or periphrastic
forms: was playing, have been playing. With the exception of the simple forms for the simple
present and the Past simple tenses in the active, the conjugation is periphrastic conjugation, i.e.,
with the help of auxiliary verbs.

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 Verb categories

English verbs have such verb categories as person, number, tense, voice, mood.

Person and number:

The verb “be” is the only verb that can be inflected to show person and number in its forms:
I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are (present tense);
I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were (past tense).

Main verbs have only one ending that shows person and number – the ending S/ES that is added
to the base form of the verb to form the third person singular in the simple present tense (he
works, music plays). If this ending is absent, person and number should be clear from the subject
with which the verb agrees in person and number: I play, we play, you play, musicians play.

Tense:
Tense form is used for expressing the time of the action. The term "tense form" is often shortened
to "tense". The tense expressed by the tense form and the actual time of the action do not always
correspond. For example, in the sentence "I am leaving tomorrow", the present continuous tense
(the tense form "am leaving") is used, but, with the help of "tomorrow", the future time is
expressed in this sentence.

Tense and aspect:

Tense specifies the time of the action, i.e., present, past, or future. Aspect indicates the character
of the action, e.g., repetition, duration, completion, and can be simple, continuous, perfect, perfect
continuous. In English, tense and aspect are inseparable and are used together to express the
time and character of the action, which is reflected in the names of the tenses, for example, the
present continuous, the present perfect continuous, the past perfect, the simple future. Verb
forms expressing the time and aspect of the action are called tenses, tense forms, tense-aspect
forms. Generally, the term "tense" is used in the meaning "tense form" and includes both tense
and aspect.

System of tenses:
The system of English tenses includes four tenses in the present, four tenses in the past, and four
tenses in the future. Tenses are often regarded in groups: the simple tenses / the indefinite
tenses, the continuous tenses / the progressive tenses, the perfect tenses, the perfect continuous
tenses / the perfect progressive tenses. Tenses can be in the active or passive voice.

Voice:
Voice shows whether the subject acts or is subjected to action. There are two voices in English:
the active voice and the passive voice. If the subject performs the action, the verb form is used in
the active voice:
- His parents built a new house ten years ago.
- If the subject is subjected to the action, the verb form is used in the passive voice:
- A new house was built by his parents ten years ago.

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Tense forms in the active have corresponding tense forms in the passive, but the perfect
continuous tenses and the future continuous tense are generally not used in the passive.
Generally, only transitive verbs can be used in the passive:
- John wrote a letter. – The letter was written by John.

Stems and Affixes

Verbs have few suffixes that identify them as verbs:

• ize, ise – apologize, organize, advertise;
• y – deny, imply;
• fy – intensify, simplify;
• en – liven, ripen;
• ate – concentrate, decorate.

Verbs have a number of prefixes that signal that the word is a verb:enjoy, become, a ffirm,
confirm, combine, dislike, display, forget, forgive, mistake, prefer, perceive, receive, remember,
understand.

Using context clues is one way to discover the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Another way is
word analysis, that is, looking at the meanings of parts of words. Many English words have been
formed by combining parts of older English, Geek, and Latin words. If you know the meanings of
some of these word parts, you can often guess the meaning of an unfamiliar English word.

For example, report is formed from “re”, which means back, and “port” which means carry.
Scientist is derived from “sci”, which means know, and “ist,” which means one who. “Port” and
“sci” are called stems.

A stem is the basic part on which groups of related words are built. “Re” and “ist” are called
affixes, that is, word parts which are attached to stems. Affixes like “re,” like “ist,” are called
suffixes. Generally, prefixes change the meaning of a word and suffixes change its part of
speech.

Here is an example:
Stem: pay (verb) honest (adjective)
Prefix: repay (verb) dishonest (adjective)
Suffix: repayment (noun) dishonestly (adverb)

Word analysis is not always enough to give you the precise definition of a word you encounter in
a reading passage, but often it will help you to understand the general meaning of the word you
encounter in a reading passage, but often it will help you to understand the general meaning of
the word so that you can continue reading without stopping to use a dictionary.

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 To be – durum
“To be” fiili durum belirtmek için kullanılır. Olay yok. The verb “to be” can be used as a main verb,
a linking verb, an auxiliary verb, a phrasal verb and can also express modality in the phrase "be
to".

To be yapısında cümleler tense ve modal ile oluşturulur. Her iki durumda da simple ve perfect fiil
eki kullanılır.

Simple fiil eki yapısında:

 Present: am, is, are
 Past: was, were
 Future: will be

Perfect fiil eki yapısında:

 Present: have /has been, being (passive)
 Past: had been
 Future: will have been

Not: “continuous fiil” eki yapısı yoktur.

Modal fiil eki yapısında: modal + be

Modals: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather,
must.

Tahmin yürütülür.
- He may be at home.

Modal perfect form:

- He may have been at home for two hours.

To be fiili,
 İsimle kullanılır:
to be + article + noun.
He is a student.

preposition + noun.
She is at home.
She can be at theatre tonight.

 Sıfatlar ile kullanılır.

He was fat. (Now, he is thin.)
She may be hungry.
He has ben at the school since morning.

 to be + Ving
He is sleeping.
He was sleeping.
He will be sleeping.

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 “to be” as a main verb

As a main verb, the verb “be” has the following meanings: be located somewhere, exist, and take
place.

- Turkish civilisation is a culture of heroes and warriors.

- Life is unfair.
- Walking is travel on foot.
- Money isn't everything (= it is not the only important thing).
- They are very heavy.
- He is tall. He is 1.8 meters tall.
- He is ten years old.
- She is from Italy. Are you from London?
- Susan is a doctor.
- I am a student.
- He is my brother.
- He's a very tense person.
- We are old friends.
- She is happy. You aren’t glad.
- Madrid is in Spain.
- London is not England (= do not think that all of England is like London).
- The TV is in the living room.
- Ella was in Paris a year ago.
- I am in Paris for ten days
- Isn’t your mother at home?
- Today is Monday.
- The party is on Friday evening. I'll be at the party. He'll be here soon (= will arrive soon).
- George will be here tomorrow.
- How are you? I'm very well, thanks.
- Who is that?
- Max has been to London several times.
- They were at the conference last week.
- The list of items is on the desk.
- The town is three miles away.
- The meetings are always in the main conference room.
- The meeting was at six yesterday.
- This book is in two versions.
- Is your jacket real leather? This package is for you.
- The fact is (that) we don't have enough money.
- How much is that dress?
- How much is a thousand pounds in euros?
- A thousand dollars is nothing to somebody as rich as he is.
- It would be a shame if you lost it.
- It is easy to understand why.
- It's strange how she never comes to see us anymore.
- This paper is more appropriate for a physics journal specializing in Chaos.

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 “to be” as a linking verb

The linking verb BE may be followed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun, an infinitive,
a gerund. The verb BE in this function gives you a lot of ways to build sentences.
- He is a doctor.
- They are teachers.
- It is a pencil. It is red.
- She is hungry.
- He is young.
- He is interested in history.
- I'm tired of his complaints.
- She is two years old.
- The book was forty pages long.
- It's me, dear.
- It was he who invited them.
- Your task is to write a report.Görevin bir rapor yazmaktır.
- His hobby is collecting coins.
- Many publishers are leaders in the commercial and political lives of their towns

In some phrases with adjectives, the verb “be” can be replaced by the verb GET to show the
beginning, change, or result of the action. Compare these sentences:
- It is cold. It is getting cold.
- She was angry at Richard. She got angry at Richard.
- My coat is wet. My coat got wet.

“to be” as an auxiliary verb

As an auxiliary verb, the verb “to be” helps to form the Continuous and Perfect Continuous
Tenses in the Active Voice and all of the tenses in the Passive Voice.
Active Voice:
- He is sleeping now.
- He was sleeping at three yesterday.
- He will be sleeping at three tomorrow.
- He has been sleeping for two hours.
- He had been sleeping for about two hours by the time you returned.

Passive Voice:
- This work is usually done by Tom.
- That picture was brought from Italy.
- This work will be done tomorrow.
- The report is being prepared now.
- This letter has been written by John.

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 “to be” as a phrasal verb

Phrasal verb “be” is used with various postpositions and with nouns with prepositions. For
example:
- He is out. He's not in.
- He'll be back in an hour.
- What are you up to?
- Hot water is off.
- His conduct in that situation was above reproach.

The verb “be” in some phrases with postpositions can be replaced by the verb “get” to show the
beginning, change, or result of the action.
- He is back. He got back yesterday.

Contracted forms of the verb “to be”

Contractions (contracted forms) are short words formed from two or more words. The most
common example is when we add "not" to an auxiliary verb in negative sentences. Contractions
of auxiliary verbs are widely used in speech and writing. Full forms are considered preferable in
formal style of writing.

The verb “to be” in the affirmative:

Present tense:
 Singular: I am – I'm; he is – he's; she is – she's; it is – it's.
 Plural: we are – we're; you are – you're; they are – they're.

Past tense:
 I / he / she / it was – [not contracted]
 We / you / they were – [not contracted]

The verb “be” in the negative

Present tense:
 Singular: I am not – I'm not; he is not – he's not / he isn't; she is not – she's not / she isn't;
it is not – it's not / it isn't.
 Plural: we are not – we're not / we aren't; you are not – you're not / you aren't; they are
not – they're not / they aren't.

Past tense:
 Singular: I/he/she/it was not – I/he/she/it wasn't
 Plural: you/we/they/you were not – you/we/they weren't

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 “to be” in questions

The verb “to be” as a main verb or a linking verb forms questions in the Simple Present and Past
simple on its own. (Other main verbs use the auxiliary verb “do” for this purpose.
For example:
- Does he go there?
- Did he go there?)

Look at these examples:

- She is a new teacher from Chicago.
- Is she a new teacher? – Yes, she is. – No, she isn't.
- Who is she? – She is a new teacher from Chicago.
- Where is she from? – She is from Chicago. / From Chicago.
- She is a new teacher from Chicago, isn't she? – Yes, she is. – No, she isn't.
- She isn't from Chicago, is she? – Yes, she is. She is from Chicago. – No, she isn't. She is not
from Chicago.
- He was in Rome last year.
- Was he in Rome last year? – Yes, he was. Yes, he was in Rome last year. – No, he was not.
No, he wasn't in Rome last year.
- Where was he last year? – He was in Rome. / In Rome.
- When was he in Rome? – He was in Rome last year. / Last year.
- He was in Rome last year, wasn't he? – Yes, he was. Yes, he was in Rome last year. – No,
he wasn't. No, he wasn't in Rome last year.

to be to: am to , is to , and are to

The verb “to be” expresses modality in the construction “be + to + verb”, strong expectation of
some action according to a rule, instruction, agreement, or order. The phrase "to be " is close in
meaning to the modal verb “must”, while the phrase "be not to" is close in meaning to “must not”
expressing prohibition.

The forms of "be to" in the present and future: am to, is to, and are to.
The forms in the past: was to, were to.
- You are not to feed the animals. (A sign in the zoo.)
- You are not to talk to the other students during the examination.
- The committee is to start work next week.
Komite gelecek hafta işe başlayacak.
- I was to meet them at the station, but my car broke down.
- The solution was to have four great arches spring from pillars at the four corners of the
square.

The phrases "be to, be not to" are not very common in everyday speech. The modal verbs “must,
should” and the phrases "have to, be supposed to" are often used instead of them.
- You are to be here at six o'clock. You have to be here at six o'clock.
- You are not to smoke here. You shouldn't smoke here.
- The lecture is to begin at five.The lecture is supposed to begin at five.

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 to be of … (Is of… / are of…)

To be of + noun: have + noun

- I am of the opinion that the elections were not fair. Seçimlerin adil olmadığı fikrine sahibim.
- Most scientists concerned with climate change are of the opinion that cities are hotter than
their surroundings and create updrafts of air causing cloud formation.
İklim değişikliği ile ilgili çoğu bilim adamı, kentlerin, çevrelerinden daha sıcak olduğu ve bulut
oluşumuna neden olan dikey hava akımları yarattığı görüşündedir.

To be + of + noun: to be + adj [of noun]

- It is of vital important. =it is vitally important.
- These myths are of particular interest and value to us. = These myths are particularly interest
and value to us.
- Without the sketch of a thing or a diagram of a process, scientific facts and laws are of little
use to engineers.
Bir şeyin taslağı ya da bir sürecin diyagramı olmadan, bilimsel gerçekler ve yasalar
mühendisler için çok az kullanılır.

To be + adj + noun / noun phrase: To be guilty of …; To be afraid of …

They thought that he was guilty of racial discrimination. Onlar onun ırk ayrımcılığından suçlu
olduğunu düşünüyorlardı.

to be of + Qw

- Portland, Maine, is where the poet Henry Wadsworh Longfellow spent his early years.

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 Have - aitlik
The verb “have” is used as a main verb and as an auxiliary verb. The forms of the verb “have” in
the simple present are I/we/you/they + have, he/she/it + has; the Past simple for all persons are
had. The verb “have” is also used in a large number of set expressions and in several commonly
used phrases, such as "have got, have to, have got to, had better, have something done".

“Have” as a main verb

Main meanings of the verb “have” as a main verb are "own, possess". In these meanings, the
verb “have” is a stative verb and is not used in the Continuous Tenses.
- I have no reason to feel ashamed.
- This book has 400 pages. It is thick book.
- He has blue eyes and dark hair.
- They have two cats and a dog.
- She has a lot of friends.
- I have a lot of work today.
- He has a sense of humor.
- We have the right to do it.
- I've never been to Spain.
- Do you have any brothers and sisters?
- We don't often have time to talk.
- Do you ever have headaches?
- I have no objection to your request.
- I'm sorry, I haven't a clue. (clue :ipucu)
- They had a wonderful house.
- We didn't have much time.
- Do you have a meeting today?
- Does your brother have brown hair? No, he's got blond hair.
- Have you an appointment? (Appointment: randevu)
- He had been abroad many times.

“Have” as a main verb is used in a large number of set expressions in which it may keep or lose
the meaning "own, possess".
- To have breakfast, have dinner, have a cup of coffee, have a sandwich, have a good time,
- Have fun, have an opportunity, have a problem, have difficulty, have a question,
- Have a look, have a walk, have a talk, have a fight, have an accident, have a bath,
- Have a baby, have a cold, have a headache, have patience, have influence,
- Have something against someone, have a taste for something.

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In a number of set expressions denoting some activity or process, for example, "to have dinner,
have fun, have a walk, have a bath", the verb “have” can be used in the Continuous tenses.
- They are having breakfast now.
- She writes that she is having a good time.
- We are having a party next Saturday.
- When I came in, he was having a talk with the manager.

“Have” as a main verb forms questions and negative sentences in the simple present and Past
simple with the help of the auxiliary verb “do/does”.
- Does he have a telephone? – Yes, he does.
- Do you have a sister? – No, I don't.
- Did you have a look at my report?
- What do you have in mind?
- He has a car, doesn't he?
- He had a cold yesterday, didn't he?
- He doesn't have any friends.
- I didn't have time yesterday.

Some negative sentences with “have” can be formed with the help of “no” before the noun.
- He has no friends.
- They have no children.
- I have no questions.
- I had no time yesterday.

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 “have” as an auxiliary verb

The verb “have” is used as an auxiliary verb in the formation of the Perfect Tenses and of the
Perfect Continuous Tenses.
- He has already written the report.
- She has been waiting for two hours.
- We had finished work by the time he came back.
- He will have left before you wake up.

The verb “have” as an auxiliary verb forms questions and negative sentences on its own.
- Have you ever been to Australia?
- How long has she been sleeping?
- You have read it, haven't you?
- She hasn't called him yet.

The perfect tenses is “have + past participle” of the main verb, for example, "have written, has
written, had written, will have written". And if the main verb in the sentence happens to be “have,”
then the tense forms will be "have had, has had, had had, will have had". Look at these
sentences in which the first “have” is an auxiliary verb that helps to form the present perfect
tense, and the second “have” is a main verb.
- He has had a hard life.
- She has had a headache for three days.
- We haven't had any free time lately.
- I've had enough of your criticism!
- I've had it!

The phrase “have to”

The verb “have” expresses modality in the phrase “have to” in the meaning "necessity". The
phrase “have to,” is used as the most common substitute for the modal verb “must” in the
meaning "necessity".
- I must talk to him about it. I have to talk to him about it.
- I must write a report today. I have to write a report today.
- I had to go there yesterday, and I will have to go there again tomorrow.
- Does he have to stay here till eight?
- You don't have to sell your car.

The phrase “have got to” is used as a synonym for “have to” and “must” in the present in informal
speech.
- I've got to talk to him about it.
- I've got to write a report today.

The phrase “Had better” is used as a synonym for “should” and “ought to” for giving advice.
- Your cough is getting worse; you'd better see a doctor.

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 Causative "have/get"

“Have + object + past participle,” is widely used in describing the actions performed for you by
someone else, usually in the form of services rendered to you by service companies.
- She had the door painted and a new lock installed.
- I had my hair cut yesterday.
- He had his car washed.
- Did you have the car repaired yesterday?
- Where can I have my bicycle repaired?
- Can I have this suit cleaned and pressed for tomorrow?

In some cases, the verb “get” can replace the verb “have” in this construction in everyday speech.
- I got my car washed.
- Where can I get it done?

Note that the same construction with the verb “have” may have another meaning:
- She had all her money stolen. (Someone stole all her money. All her money was stolen.)

"Someone" may also be used (instead of "something") in such constructions with the verb “have”.
- She had him arrested. (She caused the police to arrest him.)
- You had me worried. (I was worried about you. You made me worry.)
- He had us laughing. (We were laughing because of him. He made us laugh.)

The construction "has someone do something" has the following meaning: to ensure (to cause,
to request, to ask) that someone performs some action. In everyday speech, "get someone to do
something" may be used (meaning: to ask, to persuade someone to do something). You can
replace these constructions with simpler constructions in your speech.
- Have him call me, please. Ask him to call me, please.
- Have Anita type the letters. Tell Anita to type the letters.
- I got him to repair my bicycle.
- I asked /persuaded him to repair my bicycle.

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 Have + … + Ving

"Have + object + Ving” shows that a person causes another person to do something, an action
ordered – though perhaps politely – by the subject.
- She had us doing the work. O bize işi yaptırdı.
- Father had me riding the bike.
- Mother had us playing computer games.
- "The film had us crying," which means that “The film made us cry.”

Have a good time + Ving;

Have a trouble + Ving;
Have difficulty + Ving;
Have a hard time + Ving....

Get + object + Ving (present participle):

Have + object + Ving (present participle):
Catch /find /leave + object + present participle:
- I found him sitting on a park bench reading a book. (When I arrived, he was sitting on a park
bench reading a book.)
- We left the others smoking outside the bar. (When we left, the others were smoking outside
the bar.)
- The teacher had the whole class singing Mary Had a Little Lamb. (The teacher persuaded the
whole class to sing Mary Had a Little Lamb.)
- His problems got him going to hospital for years. (As a result of his problems, he had to go to
hospital for years.)

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 Have had, had had

have had / has had:

We typically use have as a main verb with an object to talk about common actions.
have breakfast/lunch/dinner/supper/a bite to eat/a light meal
have a hot or cold drink/a glass of wine/a cup of coffee/some mineral water
have a shower/a bath/a wash and shave
have a rest/a snooze/a siesta/a good sleep/a bad dream
have a walk/a swim/a good time/a nice evening/a day off/a holiday/a good journey/a good trip
have a word with someone/a chat/a conversation/a quarrel/an argument
have a headache/a sore throat/hay fever/a bad back/a bad cold
have a (good) job/some work to do/money/an opportunity/a chance

We use the present perfect tense when we want to connect the present with the (recent) past in
some way and this will appear as has had or have had in full forms or as 's had or 've had in
contracted forms:
- Have they had their breakfast yet? They've had a glass of orange juice, but they haven't had
anything to eat yet.
- He was in a foul mood when he got back, but now that he's had a shower and a snooze, he's
calmed down a bit.
- Have you had a nice evening, Barbara? I've had a rotten evening. I had an argument with
Tom and I've had enough for one day.
- Have you always had hay fever? I've had it every summer since I was 13.
- I've had a headache since early morning.

had had:
Had had is the past perfect form of have when it is used as a main verb to describe our
experiences and actions. We use the past perfect when we are talking about the past and want to
refer back to an earlier past time.
She'd had a lot to drink and wasn't capable of walking home by herself.
- After he'd had a good night's sleep, he felt much better.
- She sacked him before he had had a chance to explain his behaviour.
- By the time he was twenty he'd already had four different jobs.
- I'd already had a word with Joan about re-locating to Manchester and now she's had time to
think about it, she quite likes the idea.

Past perfect forms are a feature of if-clauses in the third type of conditional sentence when we
are explaining past actions or regretting past inaction.
If I hadn't had a good education, I would never have got this job.
- If she had had children later in life, she would have been a better mother.
- If I'd had another ten minutes, I would've finished the examination paper.
- Had they had any savings they didn't need, they would've re-paid their son's student loan.

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 The short forms “have” and “has”

The short forms “’s” and “d” have two different long forms:
He’s = he is or he has
He’d = he would or he had
We seldom use short forms after names and nouns:
Peter has got a book. = Peter's got a book.
The children have visited London. = The children've visited London.
When have is a full verb, we do not use the short form:
They have breakfast at 6 o'clock.

Modals
Modals (can, could, must, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to)
Affirmative Negative
long form short form long form short form
Can - Can not can't
Could - could not couldn't
Must - must not mustn't
Might - might not --
Need - need not needn't
Will 'll will not won't
Would 'd would not wouldn't
Shall - shall not shan't
Should 'd should not shouldn't
ought to - ought not to oughtn't to

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 There
“There is” used when object is singular or uncountable noun (has). “There are” is used when
object is plural noun (have).
- The book is on the table. (Where is the book?)
There is a book on the table. (What is on the table?)

Interrogative form: is/are there + object?

Negative form: there isn't/ aren't+ object.
Past simple: there is -> there was; there are -> there were

Examples:
- If there's one thing everyone knows about the Dead Sea it is that you can't sink in it.
- There are six chairs and one table in my rom. Odamda 6 sandalye ve 1 masa vardır.
There is one table and six chairs in my rom. Odamda 1 masa ve 6 sandalye vardır.
- There are still some significant points of disagreement.
- There is a lot of light in this room. There are two cups on the table.
- There were a lot of people on the streets. Was there a pool at the hotel?
- There is a magazine on the desk. There are two pens on the table.
- I tried phoning, but there was no answer.
- There's a bank down the road. There is an old man in the room.
- There was a car accident on Seventh Street yesterday.
- Is there meat in the refrigerator? Is there any tea in the tea-port? There's no food in the
house.
- Are there many doctors in this city? There are no girls in our class.
- Isn’t there an eraser in your bag? Aren’t there some books on the table?
- There isn’t a lamp in the room. There aren’t two pillows on each bed.
- Throughout the world, including the United States, there are significant researches and
developments on smart antennas for wireless systems.
- Today there is greater awareness than ever before that women’s full participation is essential
for peace, democracy and sustainable development.
- There are still places in the world where one can go to dive and see very little indication of
human impact. Dünyada, dalış yapmak için gidilebilecek ve insan etkisinin çok az belirtisi
görülebilecek yerler hala mevcuttur.

With an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and the to-infinitive:

There is/are sth to do sth
- There is nothing to do in the village.
- There was plenty to read in the apartment
- There was nothing to watch on television.
- There is a lot of work to do

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 If we want to show the subject of the to-infinitive it is used for:
- There is nothing for the children to do in the village.
- There was plenty for us to read in the apartment
- There was nothing for them to watch on television.
- There is a lot of work for you to do.

With an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and an -ing verb:

- There is someone waiting to see you.
- There were a lot of people shouting and waving.

It is used as a singular verb if the noun phrase is singular:

- There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven.
- There was a lot of rain last night.
- There is someone waiting to see you.

It is used as a plural verb if the noun phrase is plural:

- There are more than twenty people waiting to see you.
- There were some biscuits in the cupboard.
- There were a lot of people shouting and waving.

There+ pronoun + verb: var gibi oluyor.

“There” is used as a dummy subject with part of the verb “be” followed by a noun phrase:
- There she goes.
- There she is.
- There I fixed it.

There+ verb + subject:

- There lived a sage.
- There comes a point of life.
- There lies the port.

There+ verb + infinitive + noun:

- There seems to be a programming error. Bir program hatası olabileceği var gibi görünüyor.
- There seems to be a noise.

"There" we can use "to be". For instance: There is, there are, there was, there were, there will
be.
Unique structure “there is/are”. “There” can be modified by other verbs
- There will be a noise.
- There has never been a better time: this is the best time
- There is a noise.

It also works with a few other verbs, like 'come', using the same structure:
- There is a point in life, when...
- There comes a point in life, when....
- There grows in a man, a spirit which....
- In 1723 there arrived in Philadelphia a penniless young man, eager for work and for
knowledge.

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Preposition “there.” It works with any verb that makes sense with that preposition.
- There is my house. Here is my house. Up that street is my house
- There lies my dinner
- There goes my train.

Interjection, “there!” It is a word you say in a sentence, it is not linked to any verb.
- There, it is fixed! Look, it is fixed! Wow, it is fixed!
- There, you have done it again!
- There, I have fixed it!

To introduce a new topic:

- There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven.
- There has been an accident. I hope no one is hurt. Bir kaza oldu. Umarım kimse yaralı
değildir.

With numbers or quantities:

- There was a lot of rain last night.
- There must have been more than five hundred in the audience.

To say where something is:

- There used to be a playground at the end of the street.
- There are fairies at the bottom of the garden.
- I wonder if there will be anyone at home.

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 1.4. Sentence forms

English sentences are divided into statements, questions, commands, and exclamatory
sentences. The sentences are also divided into simple sentences, compound sentences, and
complex sentences.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, has a subject and a predicate and other
necessary part of the sentence. A simple sentence has only one clause.
- The children were laughing. (Who was laughing?)
- John wanted a new bicycle. (What did john want?)
- We invited them. (Whom did we invite?)
- Attitudes of family members or friends influence us. (What influences us? )
- We had coffee in a cafeteria. (Where did we have coffe?)
- You look as if you hate each other. (How do you look each other?)
- This man comes here ever day. (How often does this man come here?)
- He slipped and fell while he was running. (O ne zaman kaydı ve düştü? When)
- He failed to shoot the target, for he couldn't see in the dark. (O hedefi niçin vuramadı? Why)
- We gave a bone to our dog. We gave our dog a bone.
- Life goes on.
- He wrote a letter to the manager.

Simple unextended declarative sentences is “Subject + Predicate”.

- Anna teaches. Time flies. He will understand.

Simple extended declarative sentences is “Subject + Predicate + Object + Adverbial Modifier”.

- Anna teaches mathematics.
- Tom has returned my books.
- We are reading a story now.
- He will understand it later.

Statement or Declarative sentences:

A statement uses the basic word order pattern: Subject + Predicate (+ object + adverbial
modifier).
- Tom writes stories.
- He talked to Anna yesterday.
- My son bought three history books.
- Tom writes short stories for children.

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Commands have the same word order as statements, but the subject (you) is usually omitted.
- Go to your room.
- Listen to the story.

Exclamatory sentences have the same word order as statements (the subject is before the
predicate).
- She is a great singer!
- It is an excellent opportunity!
- How well he knows history!
- What a beautiful town this is!
- How strange it is!

In some types of exclamatory sentences, the subject (it, this, that) and the linking verb are often
omitted.
- What a pity!
- What a beautiful present!
- What beautiful flowers!
- How strange!

Complex Sentences

There are five parts of a sentence: the subject, the predicate, the attribute, the object, and the
adverbial modifier. Accordingly, there are five types of subordinate clauses: the subject clause,
the predicative clause, the attributive clause, the object clause, and several types of adverbial
clauses.
A complex sentence consists of the main clause and the subordinate clause connected by
subordinating conjunctions (e.g., that, after, when, since, because, if, though). Each clause has a
subject and a predicate.
- I told him that I didn't know anything about their plans.
- Betty has worked as a secretary since she moved to California.
- If he comes back early, ask him to call me, please.

Compound Sentences:
A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses connected by coordinating
conjunctions (and, but, or). Each clause has a subject and a predicate. The clauses in a
compound sentence are joined by co-ordinating conjunctions:
- We stayed behind and finished the job, and then we went home.
- John shouted, and everybody waved.
- We looked everywhere, but we couldn’t find him.
- They are coming by car, so they should be here soon.
- Maria lives in London, and her friend Elizabeth lives in New York.
- He wrote a letter to the manager, but the manager didn't answer.

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Narrative Sentences:
Narratives most often use past-tense verbs and adverbs.
- Sanford Meisner founded and directed the neighborhood Playhouse in New York City.
- The ambulance rescued the injured men.
- A helicopter saved the injured.
- The cars crashed into each other in the middle of the intersection.
- I was watching TV when suddenly a car crashed through my wall.
- I told the police exactly what had happened.
- We were just falling asleep when a huge explosion lit up the sky.
- I woke up late and rushed to school, but on the way there something terrible happened.
- Unfortunately, I had a car accident. I was covered with blood and badly injured.
- I promised myself I would never do that again.

You should begin a narrative paragraph with a topic sentence. This sentence introduces your
story and gets the reader interested. You should then add at least three clear, descriptive ideas
as body sentences. Some ideas can be developed in one sentence, but some will need two
descriptive sentences. Writing specific details in chronological order makes the most sense.
The conclusion sentence completes the paragraph with a link back to the beginning, a line of
dialogue or a glance toward the future. For example, if you are writing a personal story about
how your trip abroad affected your life, end with a sentence that talks about future plans to
travel abroad or how you will keep that spirit of adventure intact now that you are home.

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 1.4.1. Tense

Active Voice:
• Present Continuous: I am playing; he/she/it is playing; we/you/they are playing.
[Sözün söylendiği an; for future, present simple]
• Present Simple: I/we/you/they play, he/she/it speaks. Do I/we/you/they play? Does he/she/it
speak?
[States, routins; scientific]
• Present Perfect: I/we/you/they have played; he/she/it has spoken.
• Present Perfect Continuous: I/we/you/they have been playing; he/she/it has been speaking.
[Began in the past and continuous to the present]
• Past Continuous: I/he/she/it was playing; we/you/they were speaking.
[Diğer olay olduğunda ya da olurken devam eden diğer olayı anlatmada kullanılır. Past
Simple]
• Past Simple: I/he/she/it/we/you/they spoke; did I/he/she/it/we/you/they speak? [ Bilinen
zamanda biten eylemler; Also it is used with Past Continuous or Past Perfect ]
• Past Perfect: I/he/she/it/we/you/they had spoken.
[When /before /after / by the time + Past Simple, Past perfect]
• Past Perfect Continuous: I/he/she/it/we/you/they had been playing.
• Future Simple: I/he/she/it/we/you/they will play.
[Future plan: to be going to, öneri, kestirim, söz verme, gönüllü, isyeterek: will. Present
simple and Present Continuous are used for future plans.]
• Future Continuous: I/he/she/it/we/you/they will be playing.
[Gelecekte başlayacak olan]
• Future Perfect: I/he/she/it/we/you/they will have played.
[Gelecekte tamanlanmış olacak]
• Future Perfect Continuous: I/he/she/it/we/you/they will have been playing.

Examples:

- My father gave me a present yesterday.

- I often go to school by bus.
- They collected lettuce, bell peppers, sweet potatoes and tomatoes, before enjoying a late
lunch in the White House. [Lettuce: marul, bell peppers: dolmalık biber ] , before they enjoyed
a late …
- They acted quickly to find a solution
- Peter's daughters work at a large bank.
- He will speak to the manager.
- She was wearing a light summer dress and sandals.
- It has been a great challenge and a great achievement.
- Lena couldn't find her textbook after class. Maybe somebody took it.
- Can you give me some money? Sorry. I don't have any.
- I read two stories yesterday. The first story was very interesting, but I didn't like the other one.
- All life needs energy to survive, and the biggest source of energy for life on Earth is the Sun.
- Nobody knows exactly when life began.

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Passive Voice:
Simple Present: I am informed; he/she/it is informed; we/you/they are informed
Present Continuous: I am being informed; he/she/it is being informed; we/you/they are being
informed
Present Perfect: I/we/you/they have been informed; he/she/it has been informed
Past simple: I/he/she/it was informed; we/you/they were informed
Past Continuous: I/he/she/it was being informed; we/you/they were being informed
Past Perfect: I/he/she/it/we/you/they had been informed
Simple Future: I/he/she/it/we/you/they will be informed
Future Perfect: I/he/she/it/we/you/they will have been informed

Examples:
- The English king was killed at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August, 1485.
- His remains were found under a car park in Leicester in 2012.
- President Barack Obama's credit card was declined at a restaurant in New York City last
month.
- He has always been concerned about regular people. (Past Participle)
- The system will be used by students as a research and training tool.
- Some of the people who were invited to the meeting refused to participate.
- I have several friends. They live near my house on the same street.

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 1.4.2. Clause

Subordinate clauses are also called dependent clauses because they can't be used without the
main clause. Word order in subordinate clauses is first the subject, then the verb. Compare these
pairs of simple and complex sentences:
- I bought a book on history. I bought the book that you asked for.
- I know the way to his house. I know where he lives.
- He went home after work. He went home after he had finished work.

The predicative clause

The predicative clause functions as part of the predicate and usually stands after the linking verb
“be”.
- The problem is that he is rude.
- The question is where I can find enough money for my project.
- This is what he said to her.
- This is how it happened.

The subject /Noun clause:

The subject clause functions as the subject of the sentence. Subject clauses are introduced by
the words "who, what, how, when, where, that, whether".
Question word + subject verb + is/was:
- Who brought the roses is a secret.
- What you told me was interesting.
- How it happened is not clear.
- What he said was really funny. (Noun clause "What he said" is the subject.)
- Who brought the roses is a secret.
- What you told me was interesting.
- How it happened is not clear.
- What you learn at the university is relevant to your future career.
- This is not what I meant. (Noun clause "what I meant" is in the function of predicative noun.)
- She says that he will come back tomorrow. (Noun clause "that he will come back tomorrow" is
a direct object.)
- He is not interested in what she is doing. (Noun clause "what she is doing" is a prepositional
object.)
- Is it Jim that/whom you are going to meet?
- Was it his bicycle that got stolen last night?

The subject clause is often placed after the predicate, and the formal subject "It" is used in such
sentences.
- It is not known who brought the roses.
- It is not clear how it happened.
- It is doubtful that he will come back today.

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 It is/was (not) + subject/object + that/who(m) (statements/negations)
- It was Mary that/who called you.
- It was the manager that/who(m) I wrote to.
- It was the radio that broke down. (Only “that” can be used because the subject is not a
person)
- It wasn’t me that/who called the police.
- It isn’t the TV that needs to be repaired.

That is/was + question word (statements)

- That’s what he did to save the boy.

Question word + is/was it + that …?

- Why is it that you are always late for work?

To express admiration, anger, concern etc we use question words with ever.
- Whatever are you talking about?

Do/does/did + bare infinitive is used in the Present Simple, Past Simple or Imperative to give
emphasis.
- I do promise to keep your secret.

The attributive clause

The attributive clause performs the function of an attribute and stands after the noun that it
modifies. Attributive clauses are introduced by the words "who, whom, whose, which, that, when,
where, why".
- The man who helped her was Dr. Lee.
- The bag that he bought cost forty dollars.
- Here's the book that I am talking about.
- The place where she lives is not far from here.
- The time when they were friends is gone.

The object clause:

Object clauses function as objects.
- He told us that he had already bought a car.
- I know where we can find him.
- I asked how I could help him.

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Relative clauses:
Determine + Noun + Relative Clause
The relative clause performs the function of an attribute and stands after the noun that it modifies.
Relative clauses are introduced by the words "who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where,
why". Relative clauses in the form of adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns
"who (whom, whose), which, that". "Who" refers to persons; "which" refers to things"; "that" refers
to things or persons.
- The man who helped her was Dr. Lee.
- The bag that he bought cost forty dollars.
- Here's the book that I am talking about.
- The place where she lives is not far from here.
- The time when they were friends is gone.
- The courses that you take at the university will enable you to become a good manager in the
future.
- Who will be able to do it is still a question.
- I don't know which of these bags belongs to her.
- I didn't hear what he said.

Relative clauses that have parenthetical character (i.e., nonrestrictive clauses) are separated
by commas. Such clauses are usually introduced by the relative pronouns "which" and "who"
(whom, whose), but not by "that".
- She lost his book, which made him angry.
- She doesn't study hard, which worries her parents.
- My brother, who now lives in Greece, invited us to spend next summer at his place.
- The war, which lasted nearly ten years, brought devastation and suffering to both countries.

The term "relative clauses" in English materials refers to noun clauses and adjective clauses
introduced by the relative pronouns "who (whom, whose), which, that, what".
Relative clauses in the form of noun clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns "who
(whom, whose), which, what".
- Who will be able to do it is still a question.
- I don't know which of these bags belongs to her.
- I didn't hear what he said.
Relative clauses in the form of adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns "who
(whom, whose), which, that". "Who" refers to persons; "which" refers to things"; "that" refers to
things or persons. To avoid possible mistakes, language learners should use "who" (not "that")
when referring to people.
- The boy who is standing by the door is her nephew. Or: The boy standing by the door is her
nephew.
- The man to whom she is speaking is her doctor. Or: The man she is speaking to is her
doctor.
- The house in which he lived was too far from the center of the city. Or: The house he lived in
was too far from the city center.
- The people whose house he bought moved to Boston.
- I lost the pen that you gave me. Or: I lost the pen which you gave me. Or: I lost the pen you
gave me.
- She likes the stories that he writes. Or: She likes the stories which he writes. Or: She likes
the stories he writes.

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Adverbial clauses:
There are five parts of a sentence: the subject, the predicate, the attribute, the object, and the
adverbial modifier. Accordingly, there are five types of subordinate clauses: the subject clause,
the predicative clause, the attributive clause, the object clause, and several types of adverbial
clauses. Subordinate clauses are also called dependent clauses because they can't be used
without the main clause.

Adverbial clauses function as adverbial modifiers. Adverbial clauses include several types of
clauses that indicate time, place, purpose, cause, result, condition, concession, manner,
comparison.
Adverbial clauses usually come after the main clause:
- She had a difficult childhood because her father died when she was very young.

Word order in subordinate clauses is first the subject, then the verb.
- I bought a book on history.
- I bought the book that you asked for.
- I know the way to his house.
- I know where he lives.
- He went home after work.
- He went home after he had finished work.

Some subordinate clauses can come in front of the main clause:

- Although she has always lived in France, she speaks fluent English because her mother was
American and her father was Nigerian.

After the time referring conjunction (when, till, until, after, before, as soon as, as long as, by the
time, and some others) is not used future tense. The present tense, usually the Simple Present,
is used instead of the future in clauses of time.
- I will wait until he finishes his work.

The adverbial clause of time: When she arrived, they went home.
The adverbial clause of place: He went where I told him to go.
The adverbial clause of purpose: He works hard so that he can buy a house for his family.
The adverbial clause of result: My car was repaired on Thursday so that on Friday I was able to
leave.
The adverbial clause of reason: I can't come to the party because I have a cold.
The adverbial clause of comparison: He works as quickly as he can.
The adverbial clause of concession: Though he was tired, he kept working.
The adverbial clause of condition: We will go to the lake on Saturday if the weather is good.

Note that after "as if; as though", the subjunctive mood is used in cases expressing unreality.
- He looks as if he were old and sick.

Aafter the condition referring conjunction (if, unless, in case, on condition that, and some
others) is not used future tense.
- If he calls, tell him the truth.

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Commas:
A comma is generally not used between the main clause and the adverbial subordinate clause if
the subordinate clause stands after the main clause. But a comma is used between them if the
subordinate clause stands at the beginning of the sentence before the main clause. Compare:
- She went for a walk in the park after she had finished her work on the report.
- After she had finished her work on the report, she went for a walk in the park.

A comma is used before the adverbial subordinate clause if the subordinate clause refers to the
whole main clause (not only to the verb in it). Such situations often occur in the case of the
clauses beginning with "though, although, whatever, no matter what" and "because". Compare:
- She was absent because she was ill.
- They must have been sleeping, because there was no light in their windows.

Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are
not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
- Oliver Ellsworth, the third chief justice of the United States Supreme Court, was the author of
the bill established the federal court system.

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 1.4.3. Question

Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (+ object + adverbial modifier)

- Does he speak English?
- Is he writing a report now?
- Have you seen this film?

Question word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (+ object + adverbial modifier):
- Where does he live?
- What are you writing now?
- When did they visit Mexico?

Alternative questions have the same word order as general questions:

- Does he live in Paris or Rome?
- Are you writing a report or a letter?

Tag questions consist of two parts. The first part has the same word order as statements, and
the second part is a short general question (the tag).
- He lives here, doesn't he?
- They haven't seen this film, have they?

General questions

In general questions, the auxiliary verb (do, be, have, will) is placed before the subject, and the
main verb follows the subject, the word order is: auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (+ object +
adverbial modifier).

When replying to a quesion, we can use the auxilary instead of repeating the full verb.
- Do you live here?
– Yes, I do. – No, I don't.
- Are there many students in Room 12?
–Yes there are. (Not be used: Yes, they are.)

Responses to general questions can be in the form of short "Yes" or "No" answers or in the form
of full statements. (General questions are also called “yes /no questions” or “yes-no questions”.)
General questions are pronounced with rising intonation.
- Did you like the film?
– Yes, I did. – No, I didn't like the film.
- Are you reading now?
– Yes. Yes, I am. Yes, I'm reading now. – No. No, I am not. No, I'm not reading.
- Will you see him tomorrow?
– Yes, I will. Yes, I will see him. – No, I won't. No, I will not.

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 General questions with modal verbs have the same structure and word order.
- Can you help me? – Yes, I can. Yes, I can help you. – No, I can't. No, I can't help you.
- May I come in? – Yes, you may. – No, you may not.
- Is he a hard worker?
- Is she Japanese?
- Do you like German food?
- Can you play chess?
- Is she coming to your party?
- Will you be able to help me?

In general questions with the verb “be” as a main verb or a linking verb, the verb “be” is placed
before the subject.
- Is he in Rome now? – Yes. Yes, he is in Rome now. – No. No, he isn't.
- Is Anna a teacher?
– Yes, she is. Yes, Anna is a teacher. – No, she isn't. No, Anna is not a teacher.
- Were they happy? – Yes, they were. – No, they weren't.

Negative questions
- Didn't she like the film?
– Yes, she did. Yes, she liked the film. – No, she did not. No, she didn't like it.
- Isn't he a student?
- Hasn't he left already?
- Won't you see him tomorrow?
- Can't you speak more slowly?

Note: Negative questions usually contain some emotion, for example, expecting "yes" for an
answer, surprise, annoyance, mockery.

To ask a question in English you must usually use one of the auxiliary verbs (be, do, have) or a
modal verb such as can, will, may. For sentences without auxiliaries, modal verbs, or copular be,
apply “do insertion” to form a “yes/no” question.
- Does he run every day?
- Did you remember your passport?

Positive yes/no questions do not imply any expectation regarding whether the answer will be “yes
or no.”
- Do you like winter sports?
- Will you be joining us?

Negative yes/no questions are generally asked to confirm an assumption or expectation.

- Didn’t he tell you about it? (Implication: I thought he had OR I’m sure he did.)

It can also express annoyance or disappointment because a previous expectation has not been
met.
- Haven’t you called him yet? (Implication: You were supposed to call him.)

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Reduced yes/no questions are shortened question forms sometimes used in informal
conversation. There are two types:
Elliptical yes/no questions omit auxiliary verbs and copular be.
- He been talking to you?
- They here yet?

Declarative questions have the form of a statement. They are used to:
- The food there is great. You’ve eaten there before?

Repeat something someone has said in order to question or confirm it:

- I lost my job yesterday. You lost your job?
Express surprise or amazement
- I can’t believe we lost after being up by 10 points. You lost the game?

Question words as a Question

Question words: Where, when, why, how, what, which, who, whom, whose

Questions to the subject

When the interrogative word "who" or "what" is the subject in the question (the question is put to
the subject), the question is asked without an auxiliary verb, and the word order is that of a
statement: interrogative word (the subject) + predicate (+ object + adverbial modifier). The same
word order is used when the subject of the question is in the form of “which, whose, how many +
noun”.
- Who told you about it? – Tom told me. Tom did.
- Who called her yesterday? – I called her. I did.
- Who hasn't read this book yet? – I haven't.
- Who will be the next FIFA president?
- What happened? – I lost my bag.
- What made you do it? – I don't know.
- Which coat is yours? – This coat is mine. This one.
- Whose book is this? – It's mine.
- How many people came to work? – Ten people came to work.

What: asking for information about something.

- What is your name?
- What do they like doing in their free time?
- What can I do for you?
- What time do you leave work? (What time: saat kaçta, ne zaman)
- What did you do then? I simply set off through the snow.

What + noun: hangi …

- What movie did you see last night?
- What precautions did you take? I made sure I was wearing lots of warm clothes.

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“What” to ask questions about things:
- What is that?
- What do you want?
- What else?

“Which” to ask someone to choose something:

- Which came first, the chicken or the egg?
- I’ve got two books. Which do you want?

Which: asking about choice.

- Which colour do you want?
- Which one is your coat?
- Which train did Susan catch? She caught the 7.15 from Reading.

“What” and “which” with nouns:

- What subjects did you study at school?
- What newspaper do you read?
- Which newspaper do you read – the Times or the Guardian?
- Which book do you want?
- Which one is yours?

What: asking for repetition or confirmation. What? I can't hear you. You did what?
What...for: asking for a reason, asking why. What did you do that for?

Which or what?
If there are only two or three possibilities to choose from, “which” is normally preferred.
If there are an unlimited number of choices, “what” is used.
- Which biscuits do you want me to buy – milk chocolate or plain chocolate? I’d like the milk
chocolate ones, please.
- What kind of work do you do? I work as a lawyer for a firm in the city.

When
When: asking about time.
- When did he leave?

Where
Where: asking “in” or “at”, place or position.
- Where do they live?
- Where else might we find life?

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How
How: asking about manner. How does this work?
How: asking about condition or quality. How was your exam? How did you find my house?
How + adj/adv: asking about extent or degree
- How heavy is this luggage?
- How tall are you?
How far: distance. How far is it from İstanbul to Ankara?
How long: length (time or space). How long did you work in that company? How long is it from
İstanbul to Ankara?
How many: quantity (countable). How many cars are there? How many people are coming to
the party?
How much: quantity (uncountable). How much money do you have?
How old: age. How old are you?
How come (informal): asking for reason, asking why. How come I can't see her?

Who:
Nominative case – who; objective case – whom. The interrogative word "whom" is often
replaced by "who" in everyday speech and writing, but "who" is an object in this case, not the
subject, it is not a question to the subject. Consequently, an auxiliary verb is required for the
formation of special questions in which "who" is used instead of "whom", and the word order in
them is that of a question, not of a statement. Compare:
- Who saw you? – Tom saw me.
- Who / whom did you see? – I saw Anna.
- Who asked her to do it? – Ben asked her.
- Who / whom did she ask for help? – She asked Mike to help her.

Note that not all prepositions can be placed at the end of such special questions, and the
preposition at the end should not be too far from the interrogative word. In formal speech and
writing, placing the preposition before the interrogative word in long constructions is often
considered more appropriate.
- With whom are you playing tennis on Friday?
- For whom did she make a pie?

“Who” to ask questions about people:

- Who is that? Who lives here? Who did you see?

Who: asking “what” or “which” person or people (subject).

- Who opened the door?
- Who won the race? Barry. Barry won the race.

Whom:
Asking “what” or “which” person or people (object).
- Whom did you see?

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Whose:
asking about ownership. Whose are these keys? Whose car are you driving?
“Whose” indicates possession, and like “which” and “what”, can be used with or without a noun
as a question word.
- Whose coat is this? It’s Joan’s.
- Whose is that red car across the road? It’s the electrician’s.

“Whose” to ask about possession:

- Whose coat is this? [or] Whose is this coat?
- Whose book is that? [or] Whose is that book?
- Whose bags are those? [or] Whose are those bags?

Why:
Why: asking for reason, asking what...for. Why do you say that?
Why don't: making a suggestion. Why don't I help you?

Prepositions at the end of questions

Questions ending in prepositions are very common in English. After “who, which or what” we
often have a preposition at the end of the sentence. When the interrogatives "what, whom/who"
ask a question to the object with a preposition, the preposition is often placed at the end of the
question after the predicate (or after the direct object, if any), especially in everyday speech.
- What are you talking about? – I'm talking about our plans.
- What are you interested in? – I'm interested in psychology.
- Who are you looking at? – I'm looking at Sandra.
- Who does it depend on? – It depends on my brother.
- Whom are you playing tennis with on Friday? – I'm playing tennis with Maria.
- Who did she make a pie for? – She made a pie for her co-workers.
- Who does this book belong to?
- What are you looking for?
- Which university did you go to?
- What country do you come from?

Question word as an Adverb (Interrogative Adverbs)

- Why did he do it? (Interrogative adverbs of reason)

- Where do you live? (Interrogative adverbs of Place)
- When did you last see him?
- How long will you stay here?
- How does it work?
- How many students are there in the class?
- How much did you pay? (Interrogative adverbs of degree or quantity)

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 Question word as a Clause

Some verbs can be followed by a question word + clause.

- I asked what she was doing.
- Nobody knows how he did it.
- I wonder why she is angry with me.
- I can’t decide what I should do next.
- I don’t understand why she has behaved like that.
- He couldn’t figure out what he should do.

Noun clauses which begin with a question word:

- Where does she live? I don’t know where she lives.
- What did he say? I couldn’t hear what he said.
- When do they arrive? Do you know when they arrive?

Some verbs can be followed by “a noun / pronoun + question word + clause”. The important
verbs used in this pattern are: say, ask, wonder, know, believe, imagine, decide, discuss,
understand, show, reveal, suggest and tell.
- She asked me why I was angry with her.
- Tell me what this is.
- I showed them how they should do it.
- Could you please tell me what I should do?
- Can you tell me where she lives?

Question word as a Noun

- The whys and wherefores of these procedures need to be explained to student.

- I don’t know why.
- I don’t know where.

When the question is put to any part of the sentence, except the subject, the word order after the
interrogative word (e.g., how, whom, what, when, where, why) is the same as in general
questions: interrogative + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (+ object + adverbial modifier). The
answer is usually given in full, but short responses are also possible. Special questions
(information questions) are pronounced with falling intonation.
- How did you get there? – I got there by bus.
- How much did it cost? – It cost ten dollars.
- How many people did he see? – He saw five people.
- How long have you been here? – I've been here for a week.
- Who(m) will you ask? – I'll ask Tom.
- What is he doing? – He's sleeping.
- What did she say? – Nothing.
- What book is he reading? – The Talisman.
- Which coat did she choose? – The red one.
- When is he leaving? – He's leaving at six.
- Where does she live? – She lives on Tenth Street.

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 - Where are you from? – I am from Turkey.
- Where did he go? – He went home.
- Why are you late? – I missed my bus.
- Why didn't you call me? – I'm sorry. I forgot.

Question word as an Exclamation (!)

- Why, that's absurd!

Alternative questions

Word order in alternative questions (questions with a choice) is the same as in general questions.
The answer is usually given in full because you need to make a choice, but short responses are
also possible.
- Is your house large or small? – My house is small. It's small.
- Are you a first-year or a third-year student? – I'm a third-year student.
- Would you like tea or coffee? – I'd like coffee, please.
- Would you like to go to a restaurant or would you rather eat at home? – I'd rather eat at
home.
- Would you like eggs, pancakes, or waffles?
- Are you coming or going?
- Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.
- Will we meet John or James? John.
- Did she go to London or New York? She went to London.

Alternative questions are sometimes asked in the form of special questions:

- Where does he live: in Paris or Rome? – He lives in Rome. In Rome.
- Which do you like more: hazelnuts or walnuts? – I like hazelnuts more than walnuts.
Hazelnuts.

Exception! Verb be simple present and Past simple

- Is your car white or black? It's black.

Notice that the intonation pattern of an alternative question is the same as the pattern used
when listing a series of options following a standard wh- question, as in examples:
- Which flavor would you like? Chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry?
- Which color do you like best? Yellow or orange?

Any positive yes/no question can be turned into an alternative question by adding or and a
negative tag using an auxiliary or the appropriately tensed form of do as in examples. These
alternative questions with tags can carry a petulant or annoyed tone.
- Are you coming or aren’t you?
- Do you like it or don’t you?

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 Shortened tags consisting of not, as in example are common.
- Are you coming or not?

Echo questions repeat all or part of what has been said.

- Sarah will be leaving for China in May. B: She’ll be leaving for where?
- Are you cold? Am I cold?

Exclamatory questions are exclamations asserting the belief of the speaker.

- Don’t you look great!

Rhetorical questions are not intended to be answered, but instead, serve to state the opinion of
the asker.
- Have you heard the news about Alan? Who hasn’t?
- Of course I enjoyed the dinner. Who wouldn’t?

Display questions do not begin with a wh- word and are often used by teachers to request that
students display their knowledge about something.
- So this story is about what?

Tag questions

Tags are very common in spoken English, and have many functions. One of the common
functions is to start a conversation or help keep it going. The two basic rules about tag questions
are: If the statement is negative, the tag must be positive. If the statement is positive the tag must
be negative.

With the verb ”be”:

- It's a nice day, isn't it?
- It was true, wasn't it?
- He wasn't invited, was he?

With main verbs:

- He's sleeping, isn't he?
- He didn't study French, did he?
- You don't like me, do you?
- You won't tell him my secret, will you?
- He doesn't speak German, does he?
- You're coming to my party, aren't you?
- She's really good at chess, isn't she?
- You haven't done your homework, have you?

With modal verbs:

- You can swim, can't you?
- He should go, shouldn't he?
- I shouldn't do it, should I?

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Responses to tag questions:
Responses to tag questions can be in the form of short "Yes" or "No" answers or in the form of
full statements. Despite the fact that tag questions are asked to get confirmation, the answer may
be negative.
- You live here, don't you?
Yes, I do. / Yes, I live here. (agreement)
No, I don't. / No, I don't live here. (disagreement)
- It wasn't difficult, was it?
No, it wasn't. / No, it wasn't difficult. (agreement)
Yes, it was. / Yes, it was difficult. (disagreement)

Tag questions are made up of a stem (statement) and a tag (short question form).

A special type of question is the tag that English speakers put at the end of many statements.
- It's a lovely day today, isn't it?
- You live in Frankfurt, don't you?
- His parents are very old, aren't they?
- You will remember to call me, won't you?

In opposite polarity tag questions, the verb in the tag and the verb in the stem have opposite
values.

Rising intonation on the tag indicates that the speaker is asking for information.
- Rich will pay me back, won’t he?
- You weren’t lying, were you?
Falling intonation on the tag indicates that the speaker expects the listener will agree with the
information in the stem.
- Sarah owns a car, doesn’t she?

Same polarity tag questions can also function as:

In same polarity tag questions, both the stem and the tag are positive. A low pitch that jumps up
on the tag and then falls indicates the speaker has reached a conclusion, which is stated in the
stem.
An urgent imperative: Turn down the TV, will you!
A polite request: Lend me your pen, would you?
A suggestion: Let’s stop for lunch, shall we?
A reminder/admonition: You were supposed to pick me up at 5:00, remember?
A request for feedback: You understand what I’m talking about, right?

Olumlu emir cümlelerinde will you?, won’t you?, would you?, can you?, can’t you?, could you?
kullanılabilir. Eğer cümle olumsuz emir cümlesi ise, yalnızca will you kullanılır:
- Open the door, will you? Kapıyı aç, olur mu?
- Be careful, won’t you? Dikkatli ol, e mi?
- Don’t smoke, will you? Sigara içme, olur mu?/e mi?
- Sit down, will you?
- Come with me, will you?

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Eğer bir cümlede birden çok cümlecik varsa, soru takısında kullanılacak yardımcı fiil, ana
cümleye göre konur. Kanaat ifadesi dikkete alınmaz. Cümlede birden çok yardımcı fiil varsa, ilk
yardımcı fiil soru takısı olarak kullanılır.
- You didn’t tell me that you had visited Tom, did you? Tom’u ziyaret ettiğini bana söylemedin,
değil mi?
- A man who is rich can’t live in such a place, can he?
- I think she will do it, won’t she?
- You have been studying English, haven’t you? İngilizce çalışıyorsun, değil mi?

When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning such as nothing, nobody,
never, rarely, seldom, barely, scarcely, hardly, the question tag needs to be positive:
- He hardly ever speaks, does he?
- They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?
- Nobody came, did they?
- Nothing can stop us now, can it? Şimdi bizi hiçbir şey durduramaz, değil mi?
- They seldom go to the cinema, do they?
- The old woman can hardly walk, can she? Yaşlı kadın zorlukla yürüyebiliyor, değil mi?

This, that, these, those işaret zamirleri, cümle içerisinde eğer özne durumundalarsa, soru
takısı olarak “it” ya da “they” kullanılır:
- This is your car, isn’t it? Those are your pictures, aren’t they?

There ile başlayan cümlelerin soru takısı yine there olur:

- There is something wrong, isn’t there? Bir hata var, değil mi?
- There won’t be any people, will there? Hiç kimse olmayacak, değil mi?
- According to terms of the agreement, there is quite a few options to choose from, aren’t
there?

Somebody, someone, everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone sözcükleri için, soru

takılarında zamir olarak “they” kullanılır:
- Someone saw you, didn’t they? Biri seni gördü, değil mi?
- Everybody is here, aren’t they?

Dare ve need sözcükleri, soru takılarında aynen kullanılırlar:

- This trip needn’t cost much, need it? Bu gezinin çok para tutması gerekmiyor, değil mi?
- He daren’t lie to his mother, dare he? Annesine yalan söylemeye cesaret edemez, değil mi?

Kimi zaman cümle olumlu olduğu halde soru takısı da olumlu olabilir. Bu durumda,
cümleden, kızgınlık, şaşkınlık ya da memnuniyet gibi anlamlar çıkar:
- You have passed the test, have you? Testi geçtin öyle mi? (memnuniyet)
- He thinks that he can beat me, does he? Beni dövebileceğini sanıyor ha? (şaşkınlık)
- You think you are clever, do you? Kendini akıllı sanıyorsun öyle mi? (kızgınlık)

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 Requests in the form of questions

Requests are usually asked in the form of general questions, have the same word order, and are
pronounced with rising intonation. As a rule, requests are not asked in the form of negative
questions.
- Will you please sit down? – Thank you.
- Could you help me, please? – Of course.
- Would you please wait here? – Sure.
- Would you mind waiting a little? – OK.
- Would you mind not smoking here? – Oh, I'm sorry.
- Can you do me a favor? – Sure.
- Could you help me with the report? – Sorry, I'm busy right now.
- Could you find a good book of idioms for me, please? – I'll try.
- May I speak to Alan Smith, please? – Sorry, he has just stepped out.
- Could I speak with Maria Green, please? – Just a minute, please.

Asking for permission

Asking for permission is also a request and has the same word order.
- May I come in? – Yes, sure.
- Could I borrow your pen, please? – Sure. / Certainly. / Here it is.
- Could I use your telephone, please? – I'm sorry, you can't.
- Would you mind if I closed the window? – No, I wouldn't mind. – Please don't. It's hot in here.
- Can I leave my coat here? – Sure.

Requests in the form of negative questions

Negative questions may sound impolite in some situations, so you should be very careful with
such questions in general. Negative questions usually have some emotion in them, for example,
surprise, expecting "yes" for an answer, mockery.
- Isn't she a beauty?
- Can't you read?
- Why don't you have children?
- Haven't you finished your task yet?

As described above, requests are usually asked in the form of affirmative questions. When
using negative questions in conversation, you should keep the following in mind.

If a negative question is actually not a request but an offer or a suggestion, the negative
question will sound more interested than the affirmative question. Compare:
- Won't you eat your dessert? – Will you eat your dessert?

Standard responses in such cases are "thank you" or "no, thank you". Look at these examples
of polite offers and suggestions and possible responses to them.
- Won't you sit down? – Thank you.
- Won't you have more cake? – Yes, thank you. / Yes, please. No, thank you.
- Why don't you come over for dinner? – Thank you. I'd love to.
- Why don't you take my car for the picnic on Sunday? – Thank you. You are very kind.

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 If a negative question is a real request (asking for a favor or asking for permission), the request
will sound definitely impolite (like an annoyed remark or a complaint). Language learners
should avoid making requests in the form of negative questions. Look at these examples of
impolite requests and possible responses to them.
- Can't you get me a cup of coffee? – Of course I can. I just thought that you were in a hurry.
- Won't you help me? – Of course I will. Have I ever refused to help you?
- Can't I borrow your cell phone for a minute? – Sorry. I'm waiting for an important call.
- Why don't you lend me your car for the picnic on Sunday? – Well... I'm afraid I'll need it this
weekend.

Exam questions:
- Don’t you think the solution is a combination of cleaner fuels and cleaner engines?
Yes, of course. Also you know we have already developed an innovative formula designed to
help reduce fuel consumption.

- Actually, it fuels economic growth, doesn’t it?

I certainly think so. Therefore, it is of vital importance for the economies of many of the
world’s poorest nations.

- What do you mean exactly? You seem to be implying something.

Well, together all these landfills emit more of the greenhouse gas methane than any other
human-related source.

- You mean the terrible plague that devastated Europe in the 14th century?
Right. I didn’t know that its effects were worst in confined places like hospitals, prisons, and
monasteries.

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 1.4.4. Negative construction

No, Not, None of:

• No is used with nouns
• Not is used with verbs
• None of + noun
• Nor is used after a negative statement in order to introduce another negative statement
containing a similar kind of information

Negation is most frequently expressed by using "not" with an auxiliary verb to negate the main
verb (did not ask; wasn't done; haven't gone). Also, negation is often expressed by using "no" or
its derivatives (have no time; nothing happened). Negation in English sentences can be
expressed with the help of negative adverbs, negative pronouns, or negative conjunctions, such
as "not, no, nothing, nobody, no one, none, neither, neither...nor, never, nowhere".

Brief comparison of “no” and “not”:

Structure: No + noun (/noun phrase)
When used with nouns, “no” has the meaning "not a” or “not any". In ordinary situations, negating
the verb with the help of “not” is usually preferable, as “no” may sound emphatic. (“No” stresses
complete absence.)
- He has no money. He doesn't have any money.
- She has no friends. She doesn't have any friends.
- I found no information about it. I didn't find any information about it.

The same preferences usually apply in the case of the derivatives of “no”. That is, negation of
the verb with the help of “no” is usually preferable in ordinary situations.
- He said nothing. He didn't say anything.
- She saw no one. She didn't see anyone.
- We went nowhere last week. We didn't go anywhere last week.

Both “not” and “no”, and derivatives of “no” are commonly used with the construction "there is,
there are", without noticeable difference in meaning.
- There is no milk in the refrigerator. There isn't any milk in the refrigerator.
- There is no need to shout.

Only “no” can be used with the subject of the sentence, and only the derivatives of “no” can be
used as the subject.
- No textbook can explain all the rules.
- Nobody knows the answer to this question.
- Nothing has changed.

“No” may have the following emphatic meaning: "not at all; far from being". “Not” is not used in
this way.
- He is no teacher. (Meaning: He is not a very good teacher.)
He is not a teacher. (He is not a teacher by profession.)
“No” and “not” are used together in short answers to general questions.

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 “Not” is a negative particle (adverb). Its main use is to express negative or opposite action by
negating the verb. “Not” is often contracted with the auxiliary or modal verb in speech and
writing. (Full forms are considered preferable in formal writing.)
- She will not come to the party. She won't come to the party.
- You should not do it. You shouldn't do it.
- He was not invited. He wasn't invited.
- Her school is not far from here. Her school isn't far from here.

Place of “not” in a sentence:

“Not” usually stands after the auxiliary verb before the main verb. ,
- We have not seen her lately. / We haven't seen her lately.

If there are two auxiliary verbs in a tense form, NOT is placed after the first.
- These letters have not been sent yet. / These letters haven't been sent yet.

“Not” is placed after the linking verb “be” before the predicative.
- He is not interested in history. He isn't interested in history.

“Not” and Verb + infinitive

If the main verb is followed by the infinitive (or gerund), “not” usually negates the main verb and
stands before it.
- She does not want to invite him. She doesn't want to invite him.
- He doesn't seem to understand it.
- I don't expect to see him today.
- I don't mind working on weekends.

“Not” can negate the infinitive (or gerund) if the meaning of the sentence requires it. In such
cases, “not” is placed before the infinitive (or gerund).
- She decided not to invite him.
- It is better not to discuss it with him.
- I prefer not to work on weekends.
- I regret not telling him about it.

The meaning of the sentence usually changes when “not” negates the infinitive, as compared
with similar sentences in which “not” negates the main verb.
- He did not ask me to call her. – He asked me not to call her.
- I did not promise to do it. – I promised not to do it.
- He does not like working on Saturdays. – He likes not having to work on Saturdays.

Note the preferred way of negation in the following sentences:

- I don't think I know him.
- I don't think that it will rain today. But: I hope that it won't rain today.

“Not” can be used with other parts of the sentence, if necessary. For example:
- She visits them, but not very often.
- I saw Ella, not her sister.

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“No” and its derivatives
“No” is a pronoun that is used as an adjective and as an adverb. The affirmative form of the verb
is used in sentences with “no” or its derivatives.
- He has no time. They have no children. There is no telephone in the house.
- There are no mistakes in your composition. There is no need to worry.
- No guests have arrived yet.
- No part of this text may be reproduced without permission.
- No smoking. No littering.
- He is no better than the others.

Derivatives of “no”:
The derivatives "nothing, nobody, no one, none" are used as nouns.
- She saw nobody in the yard. She told no one.
- That's none of your business. Nothing happened.
- Nobody knows how it happened. No one believed him.
- None of them can help him. There is nothing in this drawer.
- There is nothing we can do. We can do nothing. We can't do anything.
- How much money have you got? – I've got none. None. I've got no money. I haven't got any
money. I haven't got any.
Using "nowhere":
The following examples illustrate the use of "nowhere".
- We didn't go anywhere. We went nowhere. Where did you go? – Nowhere.
- I have nowhere to go. She was nowhere to be found.
- They appeared from nowhere. They appeared out of nowhere.
- This takes us nowhere. This will take us nowhere.

Neither, and nor:

The pronoun "neither" means not one or the other. The pronoun "neither" is the negative form of
the pronoun "either".
- Neither answer is correct. Neither of them was able to help him.
- Which of these cars do you like? – Neither. / I like neither of them. / I don't like either of them.

Don't use "either" or "neither" if you have more than two to choose from. Compare:
- Neither of the answers is correct. – None of the answers is correct.

The pronoun "both" is not used in negative constructions. "Neither" is used instead of "both" in
negative sentences.
- We both knew it. Both of us knew it. – Neither of us knew it.

The adverb "too" is not used in negative constructions. The adverb "either" is used instead of
"too" in negative sentences.
- I know him too. – I don't know him either.

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 The conjunctions "either...or" and "neither...nor" imply the choice out of two (people, things,
groups, actions). "Either...or" is used in negative constructions with the verb in the negative
form. "Neither...nor" is used with the verb in the affirmative form.
- He doesn't speak either Spanish or French. / He speaks neither Spanish nor French.
- Neither his family nor his friends knew about his plans.
"Neither" is also an adverb used in phrases like "Neither do I". (So do I. Neither do I.)

The adverb "never"

The adverb "never" is used in negative constructions with the verb in the affirmative form. "Never"
is used very frequently.
- I have never heard about it. She has never visited New York.
- I will never forget it. The stolen diamonds were never found.
- He was never seen again. He never married.
- He is never late. One never knows.
- You never know. It's now or never!
- Never mind. Never mind about that.
- Never leave this door open.

Answers to negative questions:

Compare the answers to the affirmative and negative questions given below.
- Did you see him? Yes, I did. (Yes, I saw him.); No, I didn't. (No, I didn't see him.)
- Didn't you see him? Yes, I did. (Yes, I saw him.); No, I didn't. (No, I didn't see him.)
- You saw him, didn't you? Yes, I did. (Yes, I saw him.); No, I didn't. (No, I didn't see him.)
- You didn't see him, did you? No, I didn't. (No, I didn't see him.); Yes, I did. (Yes, I saw him.)

In negative questions, “not” is usually contracted with the auxiliary verb:

- Didn't you know it? Hasn't he called you?

If you want to use the full form, your negative questions should be like these:
- Did you not know it?
- Has he not called you? (Such questions are less common.)

Shortened negative questions:

Sometimes a negative question is asked in a shortened form, and the answers offered are usually
just “Yes or No” In such cases, it may be difficult to understand the meaning of “Yes and No”.
Compare the meanings of the answers in these examples:
- Disallow images? – Yes. (Images won't be shown.)
Disallow images? – No. (Images will be shown.)
- Never display email? – Yes. (Email address won't be shown.)
Never display email? – No. (Email address will be shown.)

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Double negative:
Double negative is a construction in which two negative words express a single negation. English
does not allow double negative, which means that you can use only one negative word within the
same construction.
- She did not call anyone. She called no one. He never visits them.

The following examples show incorrect and correct negative constructions.

- Incorrect (double negative): I don't have nothing; I didn't ask no one; I didn't see neither of
them
- Correct: I don't have anything. I have nothing; I didn't ask anyone. I asked no one; I didn't see
either of them. I saw neither of them; there isn't anybody. there is nobody; he doesn't go
anywhere.

The adverbs "hardly, scarcely, barely" are used in the meaning of a negative. It is considered
incorrect to use them together with an additional negative.
• Incorrect (double negative): hardly none; scarcely none; hardly never; can't hardly
• Correct: hardly any; scarcely any; hardly ever; can hardly; can scarcely; can barely.
- There is hardly any cheese left. She hardly ever watches TV. I could hardly breathe.

Double negative in songs:

Double negative is frequently used in the lyrics of modern songs. Double negative in song lyrics is
usually formed by replacing "any" with "no" for emphasis and by using "ain't" (for all persons
instead of "am not, isn't, aren't, haven't, hasn't"). Such use is a stylistic device aimed at making
the song stronger, simpler, and closer to the listener. Here are some examples illustrating the use
of double negative in songs:
- I can't get no satisfaction (The Rolling Stones);
- Come back baby I never did you no wrong (Gary Moore);
- Sweet bitter words unlike nothing I have heard (Korn);
- It ain't no big thing but it's growin' (Elvis Presley);
- And you still ain't got no place to go (Deep Purple);
- You ain't goin' nowhere (Bob Dylan);
- She ain't never gonna be the same (Aerosmith).

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Other constructions with two negatives:
There are some constructions with two negatives which are not considered to be wrong. For
example, "neither...nor" is not regarded as double negative.
- Neither Mike nor Jim knows her address.
- They know neither her address nor her telephone number.

Negative answers to general questions are not double negatives either.

- Do you know her address? – No, I don't. Didn't she tell you? – No, she didn't.

There may also occur some sentence constructions which are not regarded as containing
double negative despite the presence of two negatives. Generally, it is better to rephrase such
sentences to avoid possible misunderstanding. For example:
- I don't like not being told the truth. – I don't like it when people don't tell me the truth.
- I don't mind not watching this film. – I don't really want to watch this film.

As a rule, constructions with two negatives are more expressive than ordinary affirmative
constructions with similar meaning.
- They left no stone unturned in their search for the missing child. – They did everything they
could in their search for the missing child.
- His actions were not entirely unselfish. – He had his own personal interest in it.

Proverbs:
Numerous examples of the use of “no” and “not” in various constructions can be found in English
proverbs. Some proverbs exist in negative and affirmative variants.
- All is not gold that glitters.
- He who makes no mistakes makes nothing.
- There is no smoke without fire. – Where there is smoke there is fire.
- What's done can't be undone. – What's done is done.

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 1.4.5. Mood and Voice

Mood shows how the action is viewed by the speaker. There are three moods: indicative,
subjunctive, imperative.

The indicative mood

The indicative mood expresses a real action in the present, past, or future, in the form of
statements and questions:
- She is in London now.
- He asked me to help him.
- I will buy a new car soon.
- Did he visit her yesterday?
- Why are you laughing?
- We will be home after seven.

The imperative mood

The imperative mood expresses a command or a request:

An imperative sentence typically begins with the base form of a verb.
“You” is the common subject of all imperative sentences but often be hidden: do it; look at me…
Negative: Don't + Verb: don't do it; don't look at me
- Mark, don’t take a taxi. It is too expensive!
- Soldiers, don’t open fire yet!
- Children! Stop making a noise!
- Stop laughing! (Stop Ving: not continue doing something)
- Please help me.
- Open the door.
- Give me a dictionary, please.

Imperative sentences include commands, orders, instructions, directions. Commands can be

affirmative or negative. Responses to commands depend on the situation and can be in the form
of statements or questions.

An imperative sentence typically begins with the base form of a verb: Do it; Look at me…
“You” is the common subject of all imperative sentences but often be hidden.
Nagative: Don't + Base verb: Don't do it; Don't look at me
- Call me at five o'clock. – All right. / OK.
- Don't call Tom. – All right, I won't.
- Wait here. – Yes, Mr. Carter.
- Fill out this form. – All right.
- Don't smoke in here. – Oh, I'm sorry.
- Open the door. – Yes, sure. / Certainly.

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 - Close the door. – Why? Don't open the door. – Why not?
- Walk two blocks and turn right at the post office. – Thank you.
- Make sure that the device is placed on a flat level surface.
- Do not use rechargeable batteries for this device.
- Always disconnect the unit after use.
- To relieve pain caused by severe burns, prevent infection, and treat shock, take immediate
steps.

To make commands more polite, add "please" or "will you? / won't you? / would you?" and
pronounce them with the rising tone.
- Come in, please. – Thank you.
- Please sit down. – Thank you.
- Please be quiet. – Oh, I'm sorry.
- Won't you please be quiet? – Sorry.
- Call me at two, please. – Yes, of course.
- Come here, will you? – Just a second.
- Bring me that report, would you? – Sure.

Commands are usually pronounced with falling intonation. Adding "please" or "will you? / won't
you? / would you?" with the rising tone on them softens the command, makes it sound like a
request. In the same way, pronouncing a request with falling intonation makes it sound like a
command and should be avoided in polite conversation.

Commands in the form of signs

Commands are often used in the form of signs to show directions or instructions.
- Follow this sign.
- Keep right. Keep out.
- Turn left. Walk. Stop.
- Use the staircase in case of fire.
- Push. Push to enter. Pull. Pull to enter. Do not enter.
- Fasten your seatbelt.
- Do not litter.
- Beware of dog.
- Pay bills here.
- Flammable! Keep off! Fragile! Handle with care!

For simplicity, commands in the form of signs may contain only one or two words, usually a noun
or a gerund without a verb.
- No smoking. No littering. Private property. No trespassing.
- This way out. Emergency exit!
- Fire escape
- Warning! Danger! High voltage!

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 The subjunctive mood

The subjunctive is used to express intention or proposal about the future. It requires use of the
verb in its basic form rather than its normal tense form. We don’t use the subjunctive very much in
contemporary English unless we wish to sound very formal. With verbs like suggest,
recommend, insist and adjectives like important, essential, imperative, crucial, vital, we
often use should + infinitive instead of the subjunctive or we can use the normal tense form. The
reporting verbs and adjectives above are normally followed by a that-clause in which that itself is
often omitted.
- The doctor recommended (that) he should give up smoking.
- The doctor recommended (that) he give up smoking. (More formal)
- The doctor recommended (that) he gives up smoking. (Less formal)

It + be + adjective:
desirable/important/essential/imperative/vital/etc
In all of these examples below with should, you can substitute the subjunctive if you want to make
it sound more formal or the present simple tense if you want it to be less formal:
- It is essential (that) you should be given your medication by a properly qualified nurse. (Or:
be given, or are given.)
- For the future well-being of the company, it is imperative (that) he should resign now. (Or:
resign, or resigns.)
- It is desirable (that) he should be retained in custody, rather than released on bail. (Or: be
retained, or is retained.)
- It is vital (that) he should receive some treatment (or receive, or receives) whether he be (or
is) innocent or guilty of this particular crime.

suggest/recommend/insist/demand
Similarly with these reporting verbs, we can use should, the subjunctive or the normal tense in the
that-clause, depending on whether it is appropriate to sound formal or not:
- The government tried to insist (that) all firearms should be handed in without delay. (Or: be
handed in, or are handed in.)
- The doctors have recommended (that) he should remain in hospital for a further three weeks.
(Or: remain, or remains.)
- I suggested he should leave right now. (Or: leave, or leaves.)

advise/ask/command/instruct/request/require/warn
Note that these reporting verbs do not require should or a that-clause and are normally used
instead with a simple infinitive. The issue of whether to use the subjunctive or not with these
verbs does not then arise.
- Her mother advised them to be home by ten o’ clock.
- They required me to clean the house every Saturday.
- You asked me to let you know how much it would cost.
- I warned him not to swim where there were dangerous currents.

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Were is also a kind of subjunctive when it is used with I and he/she/it instead of was with wish
and in if-clauses. If we use the more natural was, it will sound more informal.
- I wish I were (or was) home now.
- I wish it were (or was) the weekend.
- If I were (or was) you, I’d get in touch with Veronika before she leaves for Australia
- If I were (or was) still living with John, I’d be much better off, but I wouldn’t be so
independent.

fixed expressions with the subjunctive

There are a number of fixed expressions which require the subjunctive, including:
- Bless you. (Which means: May God bless you.)
- Long live our gracious Queen. (The first line of the British National Anthem)
- A toast now: long live the bride and groom.
- I have always supported you financially, but be that as it may, I can no longer support your
current lifestyle.
- If I have to pretend that you no longer exist, so be it.

Be that as it may means whether that is the case or not So be it means nothing can or will be
done to change that .

Let somebody (not) do something: used to make a suggestion

Let + Object Pronoun + Verb (Object Pronoun: me, you, us, them, him, her, and it.):
Let us (Let’s) + Verb:
- Don’t let them do it.
- Please, let us the boys come to see me.
- I think you must let your parents know about it!
- Let’s go out to play now. No, let’s not. I am doing my komework.
- Let’s play football. Yes let’s
- Look, Chris is waiting for you. Well, let her wait!
- I am thirsty. Yes, let’s drink some water.
- John let me drive his new car.

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 1.4.6. Agreement and Disagreement

İp uçu:
“so” is used to show agreement with positive statements.
“so” + auxiliary + Subject (pronoun)

Auxiliary needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement

Respone Agree: So do I.
Response Disagree: I don’t.
Responses to affirmative phrases:
- I like oranges. – So do I.
- I visited India last year. – So did I.
- I will see him tomorrow. – So will I.
- I have been waiting for a long time. – So have I.

- I can speak German. I can (speak German), too. I can speak German, as well. So can I. me,
too. [olumlu cümle]
- Green and magenta are complementary colors located opposite each other on the color
wheel, and so are blue and yellow.

- Let's go watch the game, shall we?

Responses like "I do too" may be used instead of responses like "So do I", with the same
meaning.
- I'm bored. – I am too. So am I.
- I like it. – I do too. So do I.

Response Agree: Neither do I.

Response Disagree: I do.
Olumsuz görüşüne katılıyorsak Neither do I” denir. Eğer ki katılmıyorsak olumlu yapı kullanırız.
- I can’t swim. Ben yüzemem.
Agree : Neither/nor can I. Bende Yüzemem.
Disagree : I can. Ben yüzebilirim.

- I don’t like chocolate very much.

Agree: Neither/nor do I.
Disagree: I do.

- I have never been there. Neither have I.

- I don't know him. – Neither do I.
- I didn't call them. – Neither did I.
- I wasn't laughing. – Neither was I.
- I won't go there. – Neither will I.

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 Responses like "I don't either" may be used instead of responses like "Neither do I", with the
same meaning.
- I didn't find her. – I didn't either. / Neither did I.
- I wasn't invited. – I wasn't either. / Neither was I.
- I haven’t been to Paris. I haven’t (been to Paris), either. Neither have I. Nor have I. me,
either.

Inversion is also required in compound sentences with such constructions.

- I like coffee, and so does Ella.
- I don't like coffee, and neither does Ella.
- She won't wait for them, and neither will I.

Me too. Me neither.
Informal responses "Me too" and "Me neither" are sometimes used in colloquial speech in
informal situations.
- I am hungry. Me too.
- I wasn't sure. Me neither.

The verb “have” in responses:

If the phrase to which you are responding has the auxiliary “verb have”, use “the verb have” in
your response. If “the verb have” is used as a main verb (meaning: to own, to possess), use “the
verb do (does, did)” in your response.
- I have finished my work. – So have I.
- I haven't seen this film yet. – Neither have I.
- I have been working very hard lately. – So have I.
- I have a question. – So do I.
- I have no time. – Neither do I.
- I don't have any money. – Neither do I.
- I had a lot of work yesterday. – So did I.

Expressing similarity with other people or objects:

First person phrases and responses are the most common, but various other combinations are
also possible.
- She is on vacation now. – So are we. We are too.
- John can speak Italian. – So can Tom. So can Tina.
- Maria works in this building. – So does George. So do we.
- This house is very expensive. – So is that house. So are those houses.
- She didn't ask him about it. – Neither did you. You didn't either.
- You shouldn't stay here. – Neither should Alex.
- My task wasn't very difficult. – Neither was mine.
- My pen doesn't write. – Neither does mine. Mine doesn't either.

Use of "nor":
If several people or things are mentioned in your negative response, use "neither" with the first
and "nor" with the second, third, etc.
- She didn't ask him about it. – Neither did you. Nor did his brother.
- I never saw him after that. – Neither did I, nor did Mike.
- You shouldn't stay here. – Neither should you, nor should Alex, nor should anyone.

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But I do. But I don't.
Responses like "But I do" (often "I do") and "But I don't" (often "I don't") express a different
attitude, action, or state as compared with what has just been said.
- I have been there many times. – I haven't.
- She told you the truth. – But you didn't.
- I don't have any questions. – But I do. I do.
- No one can help her. – We can.
- Victor won't come to the party tomorrow. – But Tom will. Tom will.

Yes, No
When you agree or disagree with someone's statement or tag question, use responses like "Yes,
I do; No, I don't".
- You like such films. – Yes, I do (agreement). No, I don't (disagreement).
- You don't like such films. – No, I don't (agreement). Yes, I do (disagreement).
- Tom knows them. – Yes, he does (agreement). No, he doesn't (disagreement).
- Tom doesn't know them. – No, he doesn't (agreement). Yes, he does (disagreement).

Full responses:
Shortened responses like "So do I; Neither do I" help you to avoid repetition of the phrase said by
your conversation partner. But if you want, you can use a full phrase in your response.
- She doesn't know him. – We don't know him either. (Neither do we. / We don't either.)
- We are not going to the party. – Mike isn't going to the party either. (Neither is Mike. / Mike
isn't either.)
- I have already done my homework. – But Lena hasn't done her homework yet. (But Lena
hasn't.)
- Tom wasn't busy yesterday. – But Tanya was busy yesterday. (But Tanya was. / Tanya was.)

Other cases of use:

Phrases like "So do I; I do too; Neither do I; I don't either; But I do; But I don't" are used not only
as responses in conversation but also for uniting similar separate sentences into a compound
sentence (in speech and writing). Such compound sentences allow you not to repeat the second
sentence in full.
- I went to France last summer. Larisa went to France last summer too.
I went to France last summer, and so did Larisa.
I went to France last summer, and Larisa did too.
- Kate isn't watching TV now. Mike isn't watching TV either.
- Kate isn't watching TV now, and neither is Mike.
Kate isn't watching TV now, and Mike isn't either.
- Anna speaks English. Sergey doesn't speak English.
Anna speaks English, but Sergey doesn't.

Examples:
If he had realised just how potentially dangerous his discovery was, he would surely
have suppressed it, ----?
A) didn't he B) wouldn't he C) hadn't he D) wasn't it E) wouldn't it
Type-3. If conditional cümleda ana cümlenin yardımcı fiili “would” o halde doğru şık B.

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 1.4.7. Inversion structure
Standard word order in English declarative sentences is first the subject, then the verb.
- This story is rather long.
- She has found her keys.

Changing standard word order is called "inversion" (inverted word order; inverse word order).
Inversion in English usually refers to placing the auxiliary, modal, or main verb before the
subject. Inversion is used with a certain aim, often for emphasis.
Inversion structure: Not only/ hardly....+ V + S + O, clause.
- Not only is seismology used to determine the depth of the ocean floor, but it is also used to
locate oil.
- Never before have I seen such beauty.

Inversion in questions:
The most common type of inversion in English consists in moving the auxiliary verb into the
position before the subject. This type of inversion is most often used in questions.
- Did Lena go to the park yesterday?
- Has she found her keys?
- Will he come to the party?
- Is this story long?
- How long is this story?

Construction "there is, there are"

Inversion is required in the construction "there is, there are" and in cases where a modal verb or a
main verb is used in such constructions.
- There is an interesting article about Spain in today's paper.
- There are several books on the table.
- There must be a reason for it.
- There can be no doubt about it.
- There exist several theories on this matter.
- Once upon a time, there lived an old man in a small house by the sea.
- Mother Nature is there to trip you up.
Inversion after "here" and "there"
Some phrases beginning with "here" or "there" have idiomatic character.
- Here is the book you asked for. Here comes the sun.
- Here comes my bus. Here comes your friend.
- There is my sister! There goes the bell. There goes my money!

If the subject of the sentence beginning with "here" or "there" is expressed by a personal
pronoun, the verb is placed after the subject.
- Here it is. Here you are. Here you go. There you are. There you go.
- Here he comes. There he goes. Here I am. There she is. Here we go again.

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Conditional sentences
Inversion is required in the subordinate clause of conditional sentences in which the
subordinating conjunction "if" is omitted. If the conjunction "if" is used, inversion is not used.
Compare these conditional sentences in which inverted word order and standard word order are
used.
- Should my son call, ask him to wait for me at home. – If my son should call, ask him to wait
for me at home. If my son calls, ask him to wait for me at home.
- Were I not so tired, I would go there with you. – If I weren't so tired, I would go there with you.
- Had I known it, I would have helped him. – If I had known it, I would have helped him.

Inversion in exclamatory sentences

Inversion is sometimes used for emphasis in exclamatory sentences. Compare inverted and
standard word order in the following exclamatory sentences.
- Oh boy, was she mad! – She was so mad!
- Have we got a surprise for you! – We've got a surprise for you!
- How beautiful are these roses! – How beautiful these roses are!

Inversion after direct speech

Inversion takes place in constructions with verbs like "said, asked, and replied" placed after direct
speech.
- "I'll help you," said George.
- "What's the problem?" asked the driver.
- "I lost my purse," replied the woman.

But if the subject of such constructions is expressed by a personal pronoun, the verb is placed
after the subject.
- "Thank you for your help," she said.
- "Don't mention it," he answered.

If verbs like "said, asked, replied" stand before direct speech, inversion is not used:
- Nina said, "Let's go home."

in Direct Speech when the reporting verb comes after the quote and the subject is a noun.
- “What a nice dress!” said Susan? (But: “What a nice dress!” she said.)

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 Inversion depending on the beginning of the sentence

The following cases of inversion occur when some parts of the sentence, for example, the
adverbial modifier of place or direction, come at the beginning of the sentence. Inversion in such
cases consists in moving the auxiliary verb, and in some cases the main verb (i.e., the whole
tense form), into the position before the subject. Such types of inversion are used for emphasis,
mostly in literary works.

Inversion after "so", "such", "as"

- So unhappy did the boy look that we gave him all the sweets that we had. – The boy looked
so unhappy that we gave him all the sweets that we had.
- Such was her disappointment that she started to cry. – Her disappointment was so strong
that she started to cry.

Inversion after adjectives and participles

- Gone are the days when he was young and full of energy. – The days when he was young
and full of energy are gone.
- Beautiful was her singing. – Her singing was beautiful.

Inversion after adverbial modifiers of place

- Right in front of him stood a huge two-headed dragon. - A huge two-headed dragon stood
right in front of him.
- In the middle of the road was sitting a strange old man dressed in black. - A strange old man
dressed in black was sitting in the middle of the road.
- Behind the mountain lay the most beautiful valley that he had ever seen. - The most beautiful
valley that he had ever seen lay behind the mountain.

Inversion after postpositions

- The doors opened, and outran several people. – Several people ran out when the doors
opened.
- Up went hundreds of toy balloons. – Hundreds of toy balloons went up.

But if the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the verb stands after the subject.
- Are you ready? Off we go!
- Out he ran. – He ran out.

In the following structures we invert the subject and the main verb: after adverbs of place.
- There goes the bus! (But: There it goes!) Here is your pen! (but: Here it is!)

Direct object at the beginning of the sentence

Direct object is sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis. In such cases,
the subject usually stands after the object, and the predicate follows the subject; that is, inverted
word order is generally not used if the object is moved. Compare:
- That we don't know. – We don't know that.
- Those people I can ask. – I can ask those people.
- Red dresses she doesn't like. – She doesn't like red dresses.

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Inversion in negative constructions
• Inverted negative constructions are used for emphasis, mostly in formal writing and in
literary works.
• Inversion is required in negative sentences beginning with the following negative adverbs
and adverbial phrases: never; never before; not only...but also; not until; no sooner; at no
time; on no account; under no circumstances.
• Inversion also takes place in sentences beginning with the following adverbs and adverbial
phrases used in a negative sense: rarely; seldom; hardly; scarcely; little; only when; only
after; only then.

- Never before have I felt such fear. – I have never felt such fear before.
- Never in his life had he seen a more repulsive creature. – He had never in his life seen a
more repulsive creature.
- Not only did he spill coffee everywhere, but he also broke my favorite vase. – He not only
spilled coffee everywhere but also broke my favorite vase.
- Not only was the princess strikingly beautiful, but she was also extremely intelligent. – The
princess was not only strikingly beautiful but also extremely intelligent.
- Not until much later did I understand the significance of that event. – I understood the
significance of that event much later.
- No sooner had she put down the phone than it started to ring again. – As soon as she put
down the phone, it started to ring again. The phone started to ring again as soon as she put
down the receiver.
- At no time should you let him out of your sight. – You should not let him out of your sight at
any time. Don't let him out of your sight even for a second.

Prepositions
Bu yapıda yardımcı fiil aynen kalır ve her iki tarafındaki tümleçler yer değiştirir.
- The children ran down the hill. - Down the hill ran the children.
- His office is on the second floor. - On the second floor is his office.
- A lot of people are in the demonstration. - In the demonstration are a lot of people.

So, neither /nor, as to express agreement.

Constructions with "so" and "neither /nor". Inversion is required in responses like "So do I" and
"Neither do I".
- “I enjoy romance films.” “So do I.”(”So” is used to agree with an affirmative statement.)
- “Tim didn’t come.” “Neither/Nor did Ann.” (“Neither/Nor” are used to agree with a negative
statement.)
- Her students loved her, as did her colleagues.
- I don't like coffee. – Neither do I.
- She will wait for them. – So will I. She won't wait for them. – Neither will I.

Hardly Ever, Scarcely ever, Seldom, Rarely (Hemen hemen hiç, Nadiren)
- She hardly ever calls me. - Hardly ever does she call me.
- I have rarely seen such a beautiful view. - Rarely have I seen such a beautiful view

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Hardly … when, Scarcely … when, Barely ... when, No sooner … than: (Tam X olmuştu ki Y
oldu)
- The thief had scarcely entered the building when the alarm went off. - Scarcely had the thief
entered the building when the alarm went off.
- Hardly had I stepped into the house when the light went out. - I had hardly stepped into the
house when the light went out.

Little
- They little know what awaits them. - Little do they know what awaits them.
- Little did he know what his fate had in store for him. – He did not know what his fate had in
store for him.

Only by, Only in, Only with: sadece

- You will understand the topic only by reading it carefully.- Only by reading it carefully will you
understand the topic.
- It can be guaranteed that health care costs are not wasted only in this way.- Only in this way
can it be guaranteed that health care costs are not wasted.
- Only by luck did I notice it was gone.- Only in the event of a snowstorm will we not go.

Only then: Ancak o zaman

Only once: Sadece bir defa
- You can play with my new toy only once.- Only once can you play with my new toy.

On no account, In / Under no (any) circumstances (Hiçbir şekilde, durumda)

- You should on no account put a metal utensil in the microwave. - On no account should you
put a metal utensil in the microwave.
- Iran can’t be allowed to have nuclear weapons In /Under any circumstances.- In /Under no
circumstances can Iran be allowed to have nuclear weapons.

Not: “any ve no” kullanımına dikkat ediniz. Cümlenin fiili olumsuz ise “in no circumstances”
kullanılamaz “in any circumstances” kullanılır.

Only when, Only after, Only before, Only if

- He is allowed to go only when he tells the truth. - Only when he tells the truth is he allowed to
go.
- You can start using your credit card again only after you pay your debt.- Only after you pay
your debt can you start using your credit card again.
- Only after my guest left did I remember his name. – I remembered my guest's name only
after he left.

So + Adjective + that / Such + Adjective + Noun + that

Inversion structure of "so...that" = So + adj/adv+ Verb + Subject + that
- Their dog was so fierce that no one dared to come near it. - So fierce was their dog that no
one dared to come near it.
- They are such careful students that they rarely make mistakes. - Such careful students are
they that they rarely make mistakes.

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Never
- I never smoke. Never do I smoke. She has never been here. Never has she been here.

Not till / until

- They can’t go out until they finish their homework. Not until they finish their homework can
they go out.

Not only …… but also

Inversion structure: Not only/ hardly....+ V + S + O, clause
- He not only woke up late, he also forgot his books at home.- Not only did he wake up late, he
also forgot his books at home.

Inversion structure: Not only/ hardly....+ V + S + O, clause

- Not only is seismology used to determine the depth of the ocean floor, but it is also used to
locate oil.

Not + object
- The prime minister hasn’t said a single word after the scandal.- Not a single word has the
prime minister said after the scandal.

Not (even) once, Not until, Not often, etc. : bir kez bile
- Not even once did I hear her say thank you.
- Not often had we experienced such chaos.

Nowhere
- He is accepted nowhere. Nowhere is he accepted.

Than / as
- You always walk faster than I do. You always walk faster than do I.
- Mary got divorced, as her parents had done years before. Mary got divorced, as had her
parents done years before.

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 1.4.8. Interjection

Interjections are words expressing emotions, such as surprise, anger, disappointment,

annoyance, regret, doubt, joy, etc. Most interjections are just sounds, rather than actual words,
and come at the beginning or at the end of what we say. Interjections may consist of one or
several words. Examples of interjections: oh; well; ouch; alas; hey; hurrah; my goodness, oh my,
oh dear; damn, damn it.
- Ouch, it stings. (expresses pain)
- You’re going to the Maldives. That’s a long way, wow. (expresses surprise and wonder)
- Hooray, here comes the bus at last! (expresses delight)
- Ugh, sorry, I can’t eat tomatoes. (expresses disgust)
- My goodness! I've lost the key!
- Well, it's time to go.
- Oh, what a surprise!

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 1.5. Punctuation

When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When
writing, we must use punctuation to indicate these places of emphasis.

1.5.1. Capitalization

The first word of every sentence

- Green apples are my favourite kind of apple.

A proper noun applies to the name of a specific person, place or thing. Countries, nationalities,
and languages are always capitalized as they are proper nouns. Proper nouns are always
capitalized, no matter where they are in the sentence.
- Matthew is going to Toronto to study at York University.
- The Mona Lisa is at the Louvre in Paris, France.
- My mother is British, and my father is Dutch.

Derivatives of proper nouns (adjectives, verbs, etc.) are also capitalized.

For instance, Germany is a proper noun (it’s the name of a specific country) and is therefore
capitalized; derivatives such as German and Germanic are also capitalized.
- People in Paris speak Parisian French; people from other parts of France speak slightly
different forms of French.

Days, months, and holidays are always capitalized as these are proper nouns.
- My doctor’s appointment is on Monday afternoon.
- Your birthday is in March, right?
- Thanksgiving in November, Christmas in December, and New Years in January: North
America has a lot of winter holidays.

The seasons aren’t capitalized unless they’re in a title or being used as a proper noun (such as
when personified in creative writing).
- My favorite season is autumn.
- Many animals hibernate in the winter.
- Shall we go see that new play, autumn?

As with any other noun, a season should be capitalized when used in a title, even if it’s being
used in a general sense.
- My favorite movement in Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons is spring.
- It’s that time of year again, when winter blankets all creatures with somniferous snow and
whispers to them, “Rest, children, rest.”
- Have you read “The Winter of our Discontent”?

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However, centuries – and the numbers before them – are not capitalized.
- In the fifteen and sixteenth centuries, England blossomed into an empire.
- The eighteen hundreds were a time of great technological advancement all over the globe.

When terms denoting family relationships are used as proper nouns (as names), they are
capitalized.
- Mom, Dad wants to know when dinner will be ready.
- Please give this book to Uncle Mark.
- Auntie Joan is my favourite aunt.

When the terms are used as common nouns (not as a name), they’re not capitalized. Generally,
there will be a possessive pronoun (my, her, his, our) or an article (the, a, an) in front of the
common noun.
- My mom and dad want me to be home by 10:00 at night.
- Next week, I’m going to the museum with my uncle, Mark.
- The two sisters went shopping together.

Titles – whether they be of books, songs, TV show, whatever – often present a problem with
capitalization. In informal writing, one can merely capitalize the first letter of every word in the
title. If a title is being used as part of a name, it should be capitalized. If the title is being used
as a common noun, there’s no need to capitalize.
- The father’s name is Robert Smith Senior, and the son’s name is Robert Smith Junior.
- When Angela was caught smoking in the bathroom at school, both Father Michael and
Mother Superior came down on her like a ton of bricks.
- My favorite professor is Professor McKendrick.

Ensure that the title is capitalized but the job or position is not. (Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II
is the queen of England.) The title Queen is capitalized, but the position queen is left in the
lower case.
- Sir Lancelot was a knight in King Arthur’s court.

When quoting, the first word of a complete sentence should be capitalized, regardless of its
placement within the main sentence. If only part of a quote is used, retain the original capitals.
If you use the first part of the sentence, it will begin with a capital; if the quote begins part-way
through the sentence, don’t use a capital.
- Matthew said, “I’m going out for a walk!”
- William Butler Yeats said, “Education is not filling a bucket but lighting a fire.”
William Butler Yeats said that education should not be passive and dull, but it should be seen
as “… lighting a fire.”

The capitals from the original quote are maintained in both sentences.
- “I am not a crook!” claimed Richard Nixon.
- When accused, Richard Nixon maintained that he was “not a crook.”

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 When giving directions (north, south, east, west, left, right), we don’t use capital letters.
- Go south on the highway, and then take the third exit.
- Turn right, then left, then right again.
- When he graduates, he has plans to move somewhere east because he prefers the weather
in that area.
- The clouds are moving westward.

Sometimes the directions can be used as a proper noun, so they require a capital at the
beginning. For instance, “the East” generally refers to the Oriental countries such as China and
Japan. “Eastern Europe” differentiates countries like the Ukraine and Russia from “Western
Europe” which refers to Germany, France, etc. “The Left” and “the Right” can refer to political
views.
- During the Civil War, the North battled with the South.
- Politically, Andrew has always leaned fairly far to the Left.
- The Far East has always held some mystical appeal to those who have never been there.

Trademarks and brand names should always be capitalized. (They’re proper nouns.)
- Do you prefer Burger King or McDonald’s burgers?
- Baby Gap is a popular store for new parents.
- When Henry Ford began making cars on an assembly line, he named the brand after himself:
Ford.

Some brand names have become so common that they’re used as common nouns. Be sure to
capitalize them appropriately. Formal writing will require capitals for all brand names.
- If you’re looking for a good brand of tissues, Kleenex may be what you want.

Sometimes we have abbreviations or short forms of a brand name; these should also be
capitalized.
- A common soft drink is Coca-Cola.
- Most people believe BMW is a good make of car.

The call letters for radio and television stations or channels are always written in capitals.
- We often watch the CBC news and follow it with the BBC news.
- FOX TV is an American television station.

Government agencies are probably the most frequently abbreviated. Remember to capitalize
each letter.
- The CIA makes me feel very secure.
- Can you find the Indian Ocean on this map?
- In which year did World War II end?
- The Industrial Revolution began in Europe.

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 Names of specific groups should be capitalized, as they’re proper nouns. The groups can be
political, athletic, social, religious, etc.
- The Dalai Lama is a Buddhist.
- Doctors Without Borders is a medical organization that provides health care in places where
it’s desperately needed.

As these are not English words, it’s appropriate to retain the capitalization rules of the original
language.
- Leonardo da Vinci and Vincent van Gogh are two famous painters.

In formal writing, nouns, verb, adjectives and adverbs are the only words capitalized.
Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions aren’t capitalized (unless they’re the first letter of the
first word).
- Children like to listen to Puff the Magic Dragon.
- Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet.
- East of Eden was a popular book by John Steinbeck.
- Two and a Half Men explore the lives of two brothers.
- Virginia Woolf wrote Orlando: A Biography
- The Assassin’s Cloak: An Anthology of the World’s Greatest Diarists.

Sometimes the font use on the cover of a book will be all in capitals; you should never write a
title in all capitals unless the font you are using has no lower case letters.

Proper nouns which refer to gods, the titles of religious figures, or holy books should always be
capitalized.
- Allah, God and Yahweh are different names for the same god.
- Father Michael, Father Andrew needs to see you in his office.
- The pope always gives the sermon on Easter Sunday. (As a title, “pope” is capitalized; when
“pope” denotes a job position, it doesn’t require a capital. Formal titles which precede or follow
names are capitalized. These titles can refer to a job, a position in society, etc.)

When using a proper noun to make a new word – frequently an adjective – remembers to retain
the original capital of the proper noun.
- Psychologists must study both Freudian and Jungian philosophies.
- Mary’s new car looks kind of VW-ish, even though it’s a British car.
- Do you know how to write a Sapphic verse?

Sometimes new word gets used so much it becomes a common noun and the capital is no
longer required.
- People are beginning to think that pasteurized milk isn’t as healthy as it sounds.( The word
pasteurized comes from the last name of Louis Pasteur, the inventor of the process.)
- It’s annoying when people deliberately Anglicize foreign words. (Anglicize is still capitalized in
some places; be sure to follow local conventions.)

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Specific periods, eras, historical events, etc.: these should all be capitalized as proper nouns.
As there are many periods, eras, wars, etc. the capital will differentiate the specific from the
common.
- The McCarthy Era inspired Arthur Miller to write The Crucible.
- Roman Britain is the setting for the Minimums comic books.
- Middle school students often enjoy studying the social changes which took place in the
Roaring Twenties.

In British English, the first letter after the colon is only capitalized if it’s a proper noun or an
acronym; in American English, the convention depends on the format but it’s frequently
capitalized. If your writing must follow a specific format, check the rules for that format before
capitalizing (if in doubt, it might be safer to use the lower case). This rule applies only if the
clause following the colon is independent (a complete sentence). If the colon is used for a list,
don’t capitalize the words following it.
- It’s been snowing for three days straight: The roads around here aren’t very safe for driving.
- Maggie wears a brimmed cap at all times: Strong light often gives her a headache.
- I’m looking for a copy of Wind in the Willows: One of my students wants to read it.
- The library is very quiet tonight: I’ll get a lot of work done.
- My niece is the star of the show this evening: She’s the one in the pink tutu.

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1.5.2. Comma

Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
- He is a strong, healthy man.
- The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
- The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
- We stayed at an expensive summer resort. (You would not say “expensive and summer
resort”, so no comma.)

Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives:

- Felix was a lonely, young boy.
- I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. (Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used
alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit.)

After introductory words, phrases, and clauses

- Hoping for the best, we checked our luggage.(Avoid comma splices (two independent
clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma
followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.)

Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.

- To get a good grade, I must complete all my projects.
- Because he had an accident at work, we cancelled our holidays.
- After the wedding, the couple left on their honeymoon.
- Because of the high cost, we decided not to go.
- We were planning to go, but the meeting was canceled.

Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise,
finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other
hand, in conclusion, in addition)
- For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.

When to use a comma before "and": “, and”

You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following sentences:
- Saturday morning started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage, and
French toast.
- The school has a vegetable garden in which the children grow cabbages, onions, potatoes,
and carrots.

When to use a comma after "And": “and,”

- The Dead Sea is a place of mystery: the lowest surface on earth, the purported sites of
Sodom and Gomorrah, supposed font of curative waters and, despite its name, a treasure
trove of unusual microbial life.

Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
- October 25, 1999. (25 October 1999). Monday, October 25, 1999
- Michael arrived at Ellis Island, New York, on February 14, 1924.
- They met for the first time on August 27, 1972, in Seattle, Washington.

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If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma.
- They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley.

Before conjunctions, (Conjunctions are words that link two independent clauses together). Use
a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so).
- Drew wanted to experience ballroom dancing before his wedding, so he signed up for
lessons at a local hall.
- Simone bought three new pairs of shoes, even though she had put herself on a tight budget
just last week.
- Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
- The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
- When you reach the traffic light on Berkshire Road, turn right onto Springfield Blvd.
- Many of concepts, terms, and issues related to social classes are also used in Marxsist
criticism, which stems from the works of the nineteenth-century German philosopher Karl
Marx.
- Solar energy, which can be used to heat water and buildings and generate electricity, is an
inexhaustible source and causes fewer environmental problems than do fossil fuels.
- The Romantic Movement in the arts, inspired in part by the American and French revolutions,
emerged towards the end of the eighteenth century.

Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state. Some businesses no
longer use the comma after the state.
- I lived in San Francisco, California, for twenty years. I lived in San Francisco, California for
twenty years.

Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required
around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth.
- Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.

Use a comma with quoted words. In a quote that precedes a tag and is not a question or an
exclamation. After a tag that precedes a direct quote:
- "Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
- “I remember,” Luis recollected, “the first time I was allowed to walk home from school by
myself.”
- David whined, “I am famished.”
- “I am famished,” whined David.

If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered

nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
- My brother, Isaac, is the best player on the team.
- Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. ( Freddy is named, so the description is not
essential.)
- The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. (We do not know which boy is being
referred to without further description; therefore, no commas are used.)

Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.

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- Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
- Yes, Doctor, I will.
- Sean Kelly, Financial Officer for Manufacturing, reported the quarter's earnings.
- Did you wash your hands, Michael?

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the flow of the sentence.
- I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.

Around nonessential clauses, parenthetical phrases, and appositives (A nonessential or non-

restrictive clause is a word or group of words that are not necessary for the sentence’s
completion; a parenthetical phrase interrupts the flow of a sentence; and an appositive is a
word or group of words that rename the noun preceding them)
- Matt’s mother, Janie (appositive), who has trouble with directions (nonessential clause), had
to ask for help.

When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a
comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause.
- If you are not sure about this, let me know now. Let me know now if you are not sure about
this.
- Between words in a list the university hired a woman to direct the Bursar’s, Financial Aid, and
Registrar’s offices.

To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or
more.
- My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew. (Omitting
the comma after “son” would indicate that the “son and nephew” would have to split one-third
of the estate.)

Use a comma in a number. 15,000,000

Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence.
- To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.

If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is optional.
- On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers. On February 14, many
couples give each other candy or flowers.

Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a
comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to
include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.
- Which river, the Nile or the Amazon, is longer?
- Colds, like many other viruses are highly contagious.
- On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
- In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring
about world peace, and end world hunger.

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 Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a
sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence,
enclose it in or separate it by commas.
- John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
- Maureen’s three sisters, Molly, Shannon, and Patricia, are all spending the summer at their
grandmother’s beach house.
- Turnips, a root vegetable, can be mashed, roasted, or used in casseroles.

Between equally important adjectives (be careful not to separate adjectives that describe each
other)
- The reporter spoke with several intense, talented high school athletes.

1.5.3. Exclamation point (!)

At the end of a word, phrase, or sentence filled with emotion

- Hurry up! I can be late for the meeting!

Inside a quotation mark when the quote is an exclamation

- The woman yelled, “Hurry up! I can be late for the meeting!”

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 1.5.4. Period (.)

Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.

- I know that you would never break my trust intentionally.

Use a period after an indirect question.

- He asked where his suitcase was. Jane asked if I knew where she had left her keys.

If the last word in the sentence ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
- I know that M.D. She is my sister-in-law.
- Please shop, cook, etc. I will do the laundry.

At the end of a declarative sentence (sentence that makes a statement)

- Today, I took a walk to nowhere.

At the end of a command or request

Before a decimal number

- Statisticians claim that the average family raises 2.5 children.

Between dollars and cents

- I remember when $1.50 could buy the coolest stuff.

After an initial in a person’s name

- You are Sir James W. Dewault, are you not?

After an abbreviation
- On Jan. 12, I leave for Africa.

The Three-dot Method

The three-dot method is the simplest and is appropriate for most general works and many
scholarly ones.

Use no more than three marks whether the omission occurs in the middle of a sentence or
between sentences.
- Original sentence: The regulation states, ‘‘All agencies must document overtime or risk losing
federal funds.’’ Rewritten using ellipses: The regulation states, ‘‘All agencies must document
overtime . . .’’

With the three-dot method, you may leave out punctuation such as commas that were in the
original.
- Original sentence from Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address: ‘‘Four score and seven years ago our
fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to
the proposition that all men are created equal.’’ Rewritten using ellipses: ‘‘ Four score and
seven years ago our fathers brought forth. . . a new nation, conceived in liberty. . .’’

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When you omit one or more paragraphs within a long quotation, use ellipsis marks after the last
punctuation mark that ends the preceding paragraph.

1.5.5. Colons (:)

Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or
other idea directly related to the independent clause.
- Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
- For the centerpieces, the florist recommended the following flowers: daisies, tulips, daffodils,
and hyacinths.
- I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
- I bought several items at the store: milk, eggs, bread, and fruit.
- I am enjoying my classes this semester: English, Psychology, and History.
Incorrect: I bought several items at the store such as: eggs, bread, and fruit.
Incorrect: I am enjoying my classes this semester, which are: English, Psychology, and
History.

Use a colon between two independent clauses when the second clause emphasizes or
explains the first.
- Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West
Street are closed during the construction.
- My grandfather gave me some great advice: he told me to get a good education and always
work hard.
- I always recommend the local Italian restaurant to visitors: it offers an extensive menu and
the prices are reasonable.

Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.

- To Whom It May Concern:
- Dear President Robinson:

Between titles and subtitles

- Finding Your Dream Home: A Buyer’s Guide.

Between two complete ideas when the second idea explains the first.
- Keri pushed her dinner away: She had eaten on the car ride home.

Between volumes and page numbers: Marvel Comics 21:24

Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation: 12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference: Freda 1:6

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1.5.6. Question (?)

At the end of a question sentence.

- Why do you look so sad?

Inside a quotation mark when the quote is a question

- She asked, “Why do you look so sad?”

1.5.7. Semicolon (;)

Between elements in a series that uses commas

- The possible dates for the potluck dinner are Thursday, June 5; Saturday, June 7; or
Monday, June 9.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or
when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
- Lily is an accomplished gymnast; she won three medals in her last competition.
- I spend most of my time at the gym on the treadmill; walking is my favorite form of exercise.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause begins with a
conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless,
otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words,
on the other hand, even so).
- Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for
America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
- Most residents of the building have air conditioners; why, I’ve always found that a ceiling fan
is sufficient.

Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include
commas.
- Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney,
Australia; Nagano, Japan.

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1.5.8. Quotation (“ ”)

When directly quoting dialogue, not when paraphrasing:

- Hamlet says, “To be, or not to be. That is the question.”

For titles of chapters, articles, short stories, poems, songs, or periodicals:

- My favorite poem is “The Road Not Taken.”

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed
inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The
placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
- He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30.”

Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word. History is stained
with blood spilled in the name of "justice."

Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or
newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or
radio shows.
- "Seir Ciarain Hurling Greats” by Joe Bergin
- "Clara Lady," by Stephen Kelly
- "The Big Blue Car," an episode of Fair City

Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.

- “Don’t run!” Mr. Ellington shouted.

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1.5.9. Parenthesis

Parenthesis also knows as “Bracket”.

Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed
content than commas. If you removed the bracketed material the sentence would still make
perfectly good sense.
Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or
sources, from a sentence.
- Muhammad Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would
"float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."
- Mount Everest (8,848 m) is the highest mountain in the world.
- There are several books on the subject (see page 120).
- He coined the term ‘hypnotism’ (from the Greek word hypnos meaning 'sleep') and practised
it frequently.

They can also be used to enclose a comment by the person writing:

- He’d clearly had too much to drink (not that I blamed him).

Square brackets:
Square brackets are mainly used to enclose words added by someone other than the original
writer or speaker, typically in order to clarify the situation:
- He [the police officer] can’t prove they did it.

If round or square brackets are used at the end of a sentence, the full stop should be placed
outside the closing bracket:
- They eventually decided to settle in the United States (Debbie's home).

1.5.10. Apostrophe (’)

Where letters or numbers have been deleted—as in a contraction

- I looked at my father and whispered, “It’s (It is) okay to cry every so often.”
At the end of a name where there is ownership (remember to also add an s after the
apostrophe if the word or name does not end in an s already)
- Mary Jane’s horse sprained his ankle during practice.
- Kim’s assistant, usually so reliable, has been late for work three times this week, without any
excuse.

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 1.5.11. Dash (-)

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that
follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
- Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and
yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
- In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators,
parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places
where advanced literacy is taught.
- The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during
which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of
the Constitution.
- To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
- We live on a planet with finite resources – that is no surprise to anyone – so why do we have
an economic system in which all that matters is growth – more growth means using more
resources.

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a
word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
- The cousins—Lisa, David, Rickey, Stacey, and Zoë—arrived at the party together.
- Everyone was shocked when Max Smithfield - a studious, extremely bright high school senior
- decided that college was not for him.

1.5.12. Italic

Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were
widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize
whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead
of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe,
you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of
magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of
three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes,
or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word. The word justice is often misunderstood and
therefore misused.

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172
 2. Pronoun
İp uçları:
Soruda tekil bir özne varsa seçeneklerde “He /She /It” ile başlayan cümle aranır. Çoğul bir özne
varsa “They” ile başlayana özneye bakılır.

- New Zealand consists of two main islands and a number of smaller, outlying islands, which
are so scattered that … range from the tropical to the Antarctic. (They)

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns are used to avoid repeating
information that is already clear. In general it makes the sentence less confusing because the
same information is not being repeated.

2.1. Personal pronouns

Personal Pronouns can be in one of three cases: Subject, object, or possessive.

• Subject pronouns play role as subject: I, you, he, she, it, you, we, they
• Object pronouns play roles as the direct or indirect object of a verb, or the object of a
preposition: Me, you, him, her, it, you, us, them
• Possessive adjective pronouns are used in English to avoid repeating information that is
already clear: Mine, yours, his, hers, its, yours, ours, theirs
• Adjective pronouns modify a noun by attributing possession (or other sense of belonging) to
someone or something: My book, his girl friend, her boy friend, its, our group, their school

Traditional use of "he"

In traditional use, the masculine pronoun "he" replaced a singular noun or an indefinite pronoun
that referred to both sexes or to a person of either sex.

For example:
- A student learns best if he studies regularly.
- Someone entered the room at night, but he didn't find the letter.

At the present time, it is advisable to avoid such use of "he".

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 2.1.1. Subject pronouns
Subject Pronoun (Özne durumundaki kişi zamirleri):
I, you, he, she, it, you, we, they : [Ben, siz, o(erkek), o(dişi), o(cansız, hayvan), siz, biz, onlar]
- She is the best chess player in the school. O okuldaki en iyi satranç oyuncusudur.
- There is no need to be frightened; he is a very friendly dog.
- They are very pleasant people. Onlar çok iyi insanlardır.
- You are coming tonight, aren’t you? Bu akşam geliyorsun değil mi?

Daha önce söz edilen bir şey ya da kişiden bir kez daha söz edilmek istendiğinde zamir
kullanılır:
- I took the book and opened it. Kitabı aldım ve açtım.
- I rang Tom and invited him to lunch. Tom’a telefon ettim ve onu öğle yemeğine davet ettim.
- Have you been to Paris? Yes, it was very nice.
- I’ve lost my keys. I can’t find them anywhere.
- Where is my pen? It was on the desk a minute ago.
- I sent Peter an e-mail last month, but I haven’t had a reply from him yet.
- When you go and see Sophia, could you give this package to her?

İçinde bulunulan durumda kim ya da ne olduğu belli olan varlıklar için, ikinci kez söz edilmesine
bakılmaksızın doğrudan zamir kullanılabilir:
- Send us a card so we’ll know where you are. Bize kart at, biz de senin nerede olduğunu
bilelim.

You and They

The pronoun "you" can be singular or plural in meaning but agrees only with the verb in the
plural.
- Anna, you are late today.
- Boys, you are late today.

“You” ve “they” zamirleri, insanlarla ilgili genellemelerde kullanılır:

- They say he is poor. Yoksul olduğu söyleniyor.
- You can’t get a driving licence till you’re 18 in this country. Bu ülkede 18 yaşına gelinceye
kadar ehliyet alınamaz.
- You meet a lot of people through work. İş sayesinde birçok insanla tanışılır.

We use “you” to talk about people in general including the speaker and the hearer:
- You can buy this book anywhere > This book is on sale everywhere.
- You can’t park here > Parking is not allowed here.
- They don’t let you smoke in here > No smoking here

We use “they” or “them” to talk about people in general:

- They serve good food here.
- Ask them for a cheaper ticket.

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 … especially about the government and the authorities:
- They don’t let you smoke in here.
- They are going to increase taxes.
- They are building a new motorway.
- They say it’s going to rain tomorrow.

One and Ones

We use “one” (singular) and “ones” (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition.

- Which is your car, the red one or the blue one?
- My trousers are torn. I need some new ones.

We often use them after “Which one/ones” in questions:

- You can borrow a book. Which one do you want?
- There are lots of books here. Which ones are yours?

It

“It” is used to talk about:

Times and dates: It’s nearly one o’clock.It’s my birthday.
Weather: It’s raining. It’s a lovely day. It was getting cold.

To give an opinion about a place:

- It will be nice when we get home.
- It’s very comfortable in my new apartment.

To give an opinion followed by to-infinitive:

- It’s nice to meet you.
- It will be great to go on holiday.
- It was interesting to meet your brother at last.

To give an opinion followed by an -ing verb:

- It’s great living in Spain.
- It’s awful driving in this heavy traffic.
- It can be hard work looking after young children.

Ourselves:
On the telephone: Hello. It’s George.
When people cannot see us: [Mary knocks on door] It’s me. It’s Mary.

Other people:
When we point them out for the first time:
- Look. It’s Sir Paul McCartney.
- Who’s that? I think it is John’s brother.

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 When we cannot see them and we ask them for their name:
- [Telephone rings, we pick it up] Hello. Who is it?
- [Someone knocks on door.] We say: Who is it?

Strustures:
“It” Özne durumunda: It + be + adj + to + V
- It is good to have a second chance.

It + be + adj + Noun Clause

- It is clear that he is innocent.
- It is not certain where they are now.

It + pasif + Noun Clause

- It is known that they have some financial problems.

It + be + noun + Adjective Clause

- It was his brother who designed our new office.
- It was Stuart who answered the question easily because he had studied hard enough.
- It was first time that had quarreled in five years of marriage.

It + be + Adverbial Clause + That Clause

- It was when we were in Holland that I met your brother.

It + be + Preposition + Noun + That Clause

- It was thanks to her help that we were able to finish the task in time. Işi zamanında
bitirebilmemiz onun sayesinde oldu.

It + take + Possessive Adjectives + (Time, Money, Energy, …etc.) + to V

- It took us five years to solve these problems. Bu problemleri çözmek beş yılımızı aldı.

“It” nesne durumunda:

… it + adj + to + V
- The new program made it possible to produce more. Yeni program daha fazla üretim
yapmayı mümkün hale getirdi.

… it + adj + That Clause:

- The minister made it clear that their country was in need of international aid. Bakan,
ülkelerinin uluslar arası yardıma ihtiyacı olduğunu belirtti.

“It” zamiri, zaman, tarih ve hava ile ilgili genel ifadelerde kullanılır:
- What time is it?
- It’s five o’clock.
- It is July 5th.
- It is sunny and hot today.
Note: Zamirlerden “you”, hem tekil (sen) hem de çoğul (siz, sizler) olarak kullanılır.

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 It's + time period+ that + clause
- It was not until she had arrived home that she remembered her appointment with the doctor.

After "It's time", either an infinitive or a verb in the Past Subjunctive may be used.
- It's time to go to work. It's time to say good-bye. It is time for us to leave.
- It's time the children were in bed. It's time we went home.

Constructions "It's high time someone did something" and "It's about time someone did
something" express the same meaning emphatically. Such constructions often express criticism
or complaint.
- It is high time you stopped smoking.
- It's about time he became more responsible.

It remains to be seen whether …: Olup olmayacağı zamanla görülecek.

- It remains to be seen whether the operation was successful.
- It remains to be seen whether she'll be fit enough to play in the finals.
- It remains to be seen whether or not this idea can be put into practice. Bu fikirin uygulamaya
konulabilir olup olmadığını görülecek.
- It remains to be seen whether history will repeat itself.

It is yet to be seen + whether/what/how + clause: Zamanla görülecek, henüz görülmedi.

- It is yet to be seen whether this plan will succeed or not.
- It is yet to be seen what the equivalent will be.
- It is yet to be seen how those parts will fit together.

It is because of:
To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use “it is because”:
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + ‘that’+ effect (clause).
- It is because of your smile that I feel happy.
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + ‘that’ + effect (clause).
- It is because you smiled that I feel happy.

It is long been known + that + Clause: Uzun zamandır .... olduğu bilinir.
- It’s long been known that bats use ultrasonic beams to follow insects through the dark.
- It's long been known that human fat cells are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms.
- It's long been known that giving a gift of ultimate taste is about the best way to reward
anyone.
- It is long been known that water is important to biological materials.
- It's long been known that one form of pure carbon (graphite) can be turned into another
(diamond) by heat and pressure.
- It's long been known that eating too much salt will raise your blood pressure, but a
comprehensive global study now says that too little salt in your diet also can harm your heart
health.
- It’s long been known that children can suffer when their parents divorce.
- It's long been known that running increases bone mass, and even helps stem age-related
bone loss.
- It's long been known that married people are happier than those who stay single.

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 - It’s long been known that patients who stimulate their brains through formal training or
structured cognitive activities tend to be better off cognitively during the aging process than
those who don’t have mental stimulation.

2.1.2. Object pronouns

Object Pronouns (Nesne durumundaki zamirler): me, you, us, them, him, her, and it.
“Him” is used as the object of a verb or preposition to refer to a male person or animal previously
mentioned or easily identified.

Object pronouns after verbs: See me, find them, and call him
- I will give them this book.
- I must find her before tomorrow.
- Please, will you pass me that book? Şu kitabı bana uzatır mısın lütfen?
- I’ll help you if you like. İstersen sana yardım ederim.
- If someone is causing us problems, we should get rid of him. Birisi bize sorun çıkarıyorsa onu
başımızdan atmalıyız.
- If your flatmate is around, why don’t you bring her to the party? Ev arkadaşın buralardaysa
neden onu partiye getirmiyorsun?
- The nurse washed her with cold water. Hemşire onu soğuk suyla yıkadı.
- The ball hit me in the face. Top yüzüme çarptı.

Object pronouns after prepositions: (Nasıl, Niçin, Nerede sorularının yanıtıdır.)

With me, to me, for me, near me
- They come with me.
- He bought a ticket for me.

Infinitives: to see me, to call him, to find them.

- They wanted to see her.

Present articles: seeing me, calling him, finding them,

- Seeing me, they all run away.

Note: In “I showed them the way”, the verb has two objects.

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 2.1.3. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, your, our, their

Adjective pronoun modifies a noun by attributing possession (or other sense of belonging) to
someone or something.
- Where is my book?

Of course when we want to talk about possession without using adjectives and pronouns, we
need to use a possessive 's – with an apostrophe
Berke’s car, Niko’s book, my girlfriend's brother, John's house

We use the possessive “ s’ “ for more than one person.

To make the possive form of “children, people and men”, we add “ ‘s ”.

Sonu “_s” ile biten isimlerin sonuna iyelik getirmek için sadece “ ‘ “ getirilir: The Browns' house,
The boys' pens.
- The Pepins’ house is the big blue one on the corner.
- The witches’ brooms were hidden in the corner. (Cadıların süpürgeleri)
- The babies’ beds were all in a row.

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2.1.4. Possessive pronouns
One form is used as an attribute before a noun (her book), and the other form (absolute form,
independent form) is used without a noun (this book is hers).
- This is my place. This place is mine.
- Is this your book? Is this book yours?
- This is their house. This house is theirs.
- My pen doesn't write. Can I borrow yours?
- This is not my pen. Mine is green.
- Is that ruler your or mine? It’s mine, not yours.

Possessive Adjective + Noun Possessive Pronouns

My+ noun Mine
Your + noun Yours
His + noun His
Her + noun Hers
Its + noun Its
Our + noun Ours
Your + noun Yours
Their + noun Theirs

Possessive adjective pronouns are used to avoid repeating information that is already clear. In
general it makes the sentence less confusing because the same information is not being
repeated.
Mine=my + noun, my car=mine
The responsibility is mine=my responsibility

Bu zamirler ad yerine kullanıldıklarından başka bir ad ile birlikte kullanılmamalarına dikkat

edilmelidir.
- Tom is not my teacher but he is a friend on mine. His wife is also my friend.
- These books are not theirs. Theirs are on the desk.
- Our house is big but theirs is small.
- This is John. He is a friend of mine.
- This book is mine, not yours.
- Ours is the best football team in our school.

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 2.2. Demonstrative pronouns

“This, that” (singular) and “these/those” (plural) as pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns " This, that, these, those" are used in the singular, and "these, those" in
the plural.
- I like this city. I didn't like that book. This is a famous book.
- Those people who would like to go on the trip should put their names on the list. Geziye
katılmak isteyenlerin adlarını listeye yazmaları gerekmektedir.
- I brought you these. Bunları sana getirdim.
- This book is a present from my boss. Bu kitap, patronumdan bir armağan.

“This, these, that and those” are also used with nouns to show proximity.
Genellikle elimizin erişebileceği şeyleri gösterirken “this ve these” (To talk about people or
things near us), erişemeyeceği şeyleri gösterirken “that ve those” kullanılır. This and these re
used for people or things near us:
- We have lived in this house for twenty years.
- Have you read all of these books?
- These are our things. These are ours. Those aren’t theirs
- This is a nice cup of tea.
- Whose shoes are these?

That and those are used for people or things that are not near us:
- That is your pen. That is yours
- Who lives in that house? Who are those people?
- This is our house, and that’s Rebecca’s house over there.
- Those are very expensive shoes.

To introduce people:
- This is Janet. These are my friends, John and Michael.
Warning: We don’t say “These are John and Michael.” We say “This is John and this is
Michael.”

To introduce ourselves to begin a conversation on the phone:

- Hello, this is David, Can I speak to Sally?

“This”, bir fikri ya da bir durumu anlatmak için de kullanılabilir:

- She hadn’t done her homework. This made the teacher angry. Ev ödevini yapmamış. Bu
öğretmeni kızdırdı.

That, karşılaştırma cümlelerinde sık sık gösterme zamiri olarak kullanılır:

- Their house was much more comfortable than that of ours. Onların evi bizimkinden çok daha
konforluydu.

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Tekrarlamamak için referans kullanılan zamirlerdir:
It is also used use to refer back to something someone said or did:
- The price of tea is about the same as that of coffee.
- Shall we go to the cinema? Yes, that’s a good idea.
- I’ve got a new job. That’s great.
- I’m very tired. Why is that?

Those of: _nin ki, _ya olanlar

In formal contexts, especially in academic style, we use “that of/those of” instead of “the one
of/the ones of” or “the … one/the … ones.” This is preferred to the possessive X’s one/X’s ones:
- While Japan’s development was rapid, that of Singapore was even faster.
- The title of his first book was “Blue Waves”, that of the second was “Deep Oceans”.

2.3. Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns "who, whom, whose, what, which, that" connect certain types of subordinate
clauses, which are called relative clauses in English, with the main clause.
- The man who is standing by the window is her brother.
- I know the people who live in this house.
- She returned the books that I gave her last week.
- The film that we saw was very dull.
- The book which you gave me is very good.
- She didn't answer, which surprised me.
- He did what he promised.
- I don't know what she wants.

Which, who, whom, whose, what, that

- I know the book which you want.
- He told me whose this pen is
- The woman who came yesterday is my sister.
- Tell me the thing what you want.
- I know the girl whom you are talking about.
- The house that they bought is quite comfortable.

After a noun, to make it clear which person or thing we are talking about:
- The house that Jack built
- The woman who discovered radium
- An eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop

To tell us more about a person or thing:

- My mother, who was born overseas, has always been a great traveler.
- Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
- We had fish and chips, which is my favorite meal.
Note: But we do not use that as a subject in this kind of relative clause.

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 We use “whose” as the possessive form of “who”:
- This is George, whose brother went to school with me.

We sometimes use whom as the object of a verb or preposition:

- This is George, whom you met at our house last year.
- This is George’s brother, with whom I went to school.

But nowadays we normally use “who”:

- This is George, who you met at our house last year.
- This is George’s brother, who I went to school with.

“When “whom” or “which” have a preposition the preposition can come at the beginning of the
clause...
- I had an uncle in Germany, from who[m] I inherited a bit of money.
- We bought a chainsaw, with which we cut up all the wood.

… or at the end of the clause:

- I had an uncle in Germany who[m] I inherited a bit of money from.
- We bought a chainsaw, which we cut all the wood up with.

We can use that at the beginning of the clause:

- I had an uncle in Germany that I inherited a bit of money from.
- We bought a chainsaw that we cut all the wood up with.

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 2.4. Reflexive pronouns

Tekil olanlar: Myself, Yourself, Himself, Herself, Itself

Çoğul olanlar: Ourselves, Yourselves, Themselves
Fiili etkilerler: I didn’t do it myself.
Reflexive statement (Öznenin yaptığı işten öznenin kendisinin etkilendiği durum)
“Reflexive Pronouns” yapısını kullanmak için o cümleninin nesnesi ile öznesi aynı kişi ya da
durum olmalıdır.
- The man shot himself.
- You hurt yourself.
- I burned myself badly.
- The cat washed itself.
- We all enjoyed ourselves at the party.
- My mother bought herself a dress. Annem kendine bir giysi aldı.
- She was talking to herself. Kendi kendine konuşuyordu.
- He should give himself more time. Kendine daha çok zaman ayırmalı.
- Brian’s started sending letters to himself because nobody else writes to him. Hiç kimse
kendisine yazmadığı için Brian kendisine mektup göndermeye başladı.

Emphatic statement (Bir işi öznenin tek başına yaptığı durum)

- I myself will do it.
- You yourselves will cooked the meals.
- We ourselves painted the house. Evi kendimiz boyadık.
- Did you make yourself these? Bunları sen mi yaptın?
- I’ll take it down to the police station myself. Bunu karakola ben kendim götüreceğim.

Dönüşlü zamirlerin, vurgulama ve pekiştirme özelliği de vardır:

- You yourself told me this. Bunu bana bizzat siz söylediniz.
- I saw John wash the car myself. John’un arabayı yıkadığını ben kendim gördüm.
I saw myself John wash the car.
- The town itself was so small that it didn’t have a bank. Kasabanın kendisi o kadar küçüktü ki
bir bankası bile yoktu.

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Dönüşlü zamirler “by” ile kullanıldığında iki anlama sahiptir:
Başkalarından yardım alınmadığını anlatır:
- Susan is only three but she wrote her name by herself. Susan daha üç yaşında ama adını
kendi kendine yazdı.
- Jamie made that snowman by himself. Jamie, o kardan adamı kendi başına yaptı.
- It is a big garden, but we do all the gardening by ourselves. Bahçe büyük ama bütün
bahçıvanlığı kendi başımıza yapıyoruz.
- They collected the evidence by themselves. Kanıtı kendi başlarına topladılar.

Kişinin yalnız olduğunu anlatır:

- Her father lives by himself in a very large house. Babası, çok büyük bir evde tek başına
yaşıyor.
- I was there for about a year by myself. Yaklaşık bir yıl boyunca orada yalnız/kendi
başımaydım.
Note: Yukarıdaki anlamları, on my own, on your own … yapısı ile de verebilir:
- I like living on my own. Kendi başıma (yalnız) yaşamayı seviyorum.
- I did my buttons up on my own. Düğmelerimi kendim ilikledim.

Vurgulama yapmak için “all” sözcüğü de ilave edilebilir:

- We cannot solve this problem all on our own. Bu problemi biz kendi başımıza çözemeyiz.

Own: kendi
- He wrote the letter on his own, he didn't need anybody's help.

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 2.5. Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative words are the pronouns "who, whom, whose, what, which" and the adverbs "where,
when, why, how".
- Who is this man?
- What is it?
- Who / whom do you see?
- What did you say?
- Whose book is this?
- Which book is yours?
- Where do you live?
- When were you born?
- Why did you go there?
- How did it happen?

We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing
that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative
possessive pronoun).

Note: Soru kelimeleri (Question Words) isim cümleciklerinde bağlaç olarak kullanılır. İsim
cümleciklerinde soru kelimlerinin kullanımını, normal soru cümleleri ile karıştırılmamaldır.
Question Words: what, when, why, where, which, who, how, how long, how much, how often.
- What can I do for you? (Sizin için ne yapabilirim?)
- Where are you going? (Nereye gidiyorsun?)
- When will you come back? (Ne zaman döneceksiniz?)
- How long will you be staying here? (Burada ne kadar süre kalacaksınız?)

Wh_ questions normally begin with an interrogative word (e.g., who, whom, which, what,
whose, where, how).
- How can they do that?
- When did Roger leave?

Embedded wh_ questions are embedded inside a larger sentence and do not undergo subject–
auxiliary inversion or do insertion.
- He wants to know how far it is to Boston.
- I’m not sure what the professor’s name is.

Question words are used to request information that has not been previously mentioned.
- What time is it?
- Excuse me, where is the Golden Gate Bridge?

It is possible to begin questions with the preposition. Even in written English such questions
sound too formal:
- With whom did you go to the party?

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Repeat please questions are usually uttered when the speaker wants someone to repeat part
of something he or she said. They may have the normal wh- question words, or they may have
the structure of a declarative sentence.
- She got in at fi ve o’clock. When did she get in? OR She got in when?

Elaborate please questions are asked to get someone to elaborate on an answer that has been
given.
- He’ll come by tomorrow and look at it. When?
- Hey! That guy just picked my pocket! Which guy?

If you want more information than a simple yes/no answer, you must ask a question starting
with one of the following question words: what, where, when, why, which, who(m), whose, how.
In this kind of question you also normally use an auxiliary or modal:
- What did you say?
- Where does she live?
- When can you play chess?
- Why must I go to school tomorrow?
- Which book have you borrowed?
- Who has taken my calculator?
- Whose bag is this?
- How did you know the answer?

Questions starting with the question words do not need an auxiliary verb in the simple present
or past.
- What happened?
- Who knows the answer?
- Whose parents came to Open Day?

The questions words are often followed by a noun (before the auxiliary/modal). The question
how is often followed by an adjective.
- What time must we be there?
- What kind of music do you listen to?
- Which painting do you like the best?
- Whose parents are coming to the meeting tomorrow?
- How long have you lived in Germany?
- How much money do you have?
- How far is your house from the school?
- Do a quiz on question words.

We quite often want to ask a question containing a preposition. In spoken English the
preposition is usually put at the end of the question, as in the following examples?
- Who did you go to the party with?
- Who are you talking to?
- What are you talking about?
- What did you say that for?
- What kind of place do you live in?

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 Who: Kim

“Who” is used to ask or talk about which person is involved, or what the name of a person is.
When “who” is used to find the subject, no form of “do” is used for question sentences.
“Who,” özneyi bulmak için kullanıldığında soru cümlesinde “do/does” gibi yardımcı fiiller soru eki
olarak kullanılmaz, fiil hangi zamandaysa ona göre çekilmiş olarak kullanılır.

Who” is used to find the subject while asking question: Who + Verb.
- Who came? Kim geldi?
- Who broke my pen?
- Who called you this morning?
- Who did it?

Whome: Kimi, kime

We use “whom” to ask which person receives an action without preposition, the sentence is full
meaning.
- Whom have you seen today?
- Whom did you give the Money?
- Whom did you talk to?
- Who saw you? – Tom saw me.
Whom did you see? – I saw Anna.
- Who asked her to do it? – Ben asked her.
Whom did she ask for help? – She asked Mike to help her.

Whose: Kimin

We use “whose”, “with or without” a noun to ask about possession. İyelik (sahip olma) hakkında
isimlerle birlikte ya da isimler olmaksızın soru sorarken kullanılır.
- Whose is this camera? This camera is mine.
- Whose bicycle did you borrow? Kimin bisikletini ödünç aldın?
- I found a wallet. Whose is it?
- Whose is this book?
- Whose was that beautiful car you were driving yesterday?
- Whose house is this? Who owns it?
- Whose car broke down?

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 What

Adjective: What a beautiful flower! (attributive)

Interjection: Oh, what a surprise!

Relative pronoun: He did what he promised.

Interrogative pronoun:
- What time is it?
- What kind of music do you listen to?
- What is inside the Queen’s handbag?

“What” is used to ask for information or for someone’s opinion: what + V3

- What happened today? It rained.

Which is preferred when the speaker is thinking of a limited number of choices?

- Which color do you like? Blue, pink or green. (More natural than ‘What color do you like –
blue, pink or green?’)

“What” ne anlamından başka genel olarak hangisi anlamındadır. What newspaper do you
read?

“What” can be used to find the subject or the object while asking questions?
- I watched a movie last weekend. What did you do last weekend?
- What do you want to buy?
- What did you break it with?
- What is the weather going to be like tomorrow?

“What kind of” asks for information about characteristics of an item:

- What kind of car was he driving?

“What” is used to ask for information or for someone’s opinion: what + V3

- What happened today? It rained.
- Can you tell me what caused the accident?
- What caused the fire?

What is used at the beginning of a statement to emphasize what you are going to say.
- What is most touching in his stories is the gallantry with which ordinary people struggle to
maintain their dignity.

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 Which

Which is used to ask or talk about one or more members of a group of people or things, when you
are uncertain about it or about them.
Explanation: “Which” seceneklerden hangisi ya da aşağıdakilerden hangisi anlamındadır.
“Which” can be used to find the subject or the object. “Which” özneyi ya da nesneyi bulmak için
kullanılabilir.
- Which is your house? The house on the left is my house.
- Which hand did you use?
- Which pencil is yours?
- Which of these two ways is the best?
- Do you see that man? Which one?
Note: Which one: use to stress the right thing. I can see them, but which one is your brother?
Note: Which countries do you visit? USA, Germany, Italy, ..

Difference between which and what

What: used to introduce a clause about something that is or was not known or not certain.
(Seçenekler belirsiz)
What is preferred when the speaker is not thinking of a limited number of choices?
Which: have the same function with "what" but implies a choice. (Seçenekler belirlidir.)
- Most of what archaeologists know about prehistoric cultures is based on studies of material
remains.

• Which and what are often both possible with little difference of meaning.
- Which is the coldest region in the world?
- What train did you come on?

• Which is preferred when the speaker is thinking of a limited number of choices?

- Which color do you like? Blue, pink or green. (More natural than ‘What color do you like –
blue, pink or green?’)

• Both which and what can be used before nouns to ask questions about people and things.
- What writer do you like best? Which writer do you like best?

• Before a pronoun or a noun with a determiner we use “which of”. “What of” is not possible in
this case.
- Which of these books are yours? (Not to be used as “What of these books are yours?”)
- Which of us is going to do the shopping? (Not to be used as “What of us is going to do the
shopping?”)

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 How

“How” (nasıl) bir şeyin nasıl gerçekleştiği ya da nasıl yapıldığı ile ilgili soru sormak için kullanılır.
“How” ın bir kullanımı, taşıtların kullanımı ile ilgilidir.
- How did you get there? I took a taxi.

“How” sıklıkla sıfatlar ve zarflarla birlikte kullanılır.

- How old are you? I am twenty-four years old.
- How well does he speak English? Very well.

“Much”, “many”, “often” and “long” are frequently used with “how”.
- How much money do you have?
- How many cars do you have?
- How often do you see him?
- How long have you known him?

When

We use “when” to ask questions about times - periods of time, days and dates, and times of the
day.
- When were you born?

Where

We use “where” to ask questions about place and direction.

- Where does she live? I don’t know where she lives.

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 2.6. Indefinite pronouns

Belirsiz zamirler, adların yerini tuttukları açıkça belli olmayan zamirlerdir.

Indefinite pronouns:
• some, any, no, every (and their derivatives, e.g., someone, somebody, something);
• Bu zamirlerden “_body” ve “_one” ile bitenler insanlar için, “_thing” ile bitenler ise cansızlar
için kullanılır.
• each, else, one, all, both, other, either, neither
• most, many, few, much, little, several

Indefinite pronouns are used as nouns: Everybody is here. Something happened.

Indefinite pronouns are used as adjectives: every word; no books.

2.6.1. Indefinite pronouns as the subject

If the subject is expressed by an indefinite pronoun in the function of a noun, use the following
general principles of agreement between the subject and the verb.

Subject + singular verb:

The pronouns " every, some, any, no, each, one, either, neither, another" take a singular verb.
- Everyone is here.
- Someone has to pay for it.
- Is there anyone there?
- Nothing has changed.
- No one knows about it.
- Nobody wants to go there.
- One never knows what may happen.
- One of his friends is in the hospital.
- Each student will have a dictionary.
- Each of them is ready to do it.
- Neither of the answers is correct. Neither of the proposed plans is likely to work.

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Subject + singular or plural verb
The pronouns "all, most, none, some, any" take a singular or plural verb depending on the
meaning. If they denote part, portion, or amount of something, the singular form of the verb is
used. If they refer to some number of persons or things, the plural form of the verb is used. The
pronoun "none" can refer to one or several (persons, things) and can be used with the singular or
plural form of the verb.
- All is well.
- All of it was lost.
- All the applications have to take a qualifying examination.
- All of them have left. All were sick.
- Most of it is pure magic. Most of them are writers.
- Most critically ill patients need intensive care.
- Some people like it; others don't.
- Some of this information is wrong. Some of these facts are interesting.
- Some think that it is easy.
- Underline mistakes, if there are any.
- None of it is true. None of them has /have returned yet.

Subject + plural verb

The pronouns "both, many, few, several, others" take a plural verb.
- Both of them are here. Both are sleeping.
- Few of us were able to do it.
- A few of his books have been translated into French.
- Many of them have offered their help.
- Several of George's friends are still here; the others have left.

The preposition "of" after indefinite pronouns

The preposition "of" is used after an indefinite pronoun in the function of a noun (some, any, all,
many, most, few, several, both, one, none, each, either, neither) before a specific noun (i.e., a
noun preceded by "the, this, that, these, those; my, his, your, their, Tom's" and the like).
Quantifiers of + Object Pronoun /Belirli çoğul isim+ Tekil fiil
Quantifiers of + uncountable noun + Tekil fiil

One of, each of, every one of, either of, neither of, a couple of, none of, hundreds of,
thousands of, etc. Much of, a little of, little of, a bit of, a good deal of, a great deal of.
- One of the students has an excuse for being late.
- Several of the questions still remain unanswered despite a discussion ten hours.
- I checked both engines. Either of them is working properly.
- Neither of my parents speaks German.
- Most of these stories are funny. (Incorrect: Most of stories...)
- Some of my students prefer evening classes. (Incorrect: Some of students...)

If the noun is not specific, "of" is not used:

- Some students prefer evening classes. (Here the noun "students" is not specific; "some" is in
the function of an adjective.)

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 Also, "of" is used in expressions like "all of them; some of them; most of us; both of us; any of it;
some of that; one of these; a few of those", etc.

“None of + a determiner + an uncountable” noun is also possible:

- None of this farming land belongs to them.

Both, Neither of, Either of, All, None of, Any of:
“Both”, always accompanies plural nouns, and it always takes plural verbs.
As regards “all” and “not...any”, we use a singular verb if they come before uncountable nouns;
and a plural verb, before plural nouns. For instance, “all (of) the money” is singular; but “all (of)
the geraniums” is plural.

If we have two people or things in mind, we use “neither”, “not...either” or “both”; but if we have
more than two, “none”, “not...any” or “all”.

“Neither, not...either and none” are usually treated as singular words in a formal style; but as
plurals, in an informal one.

Both + noun,
neither + noun,
either + noun, nouns with either and neither have a singular verb.
More than: All, none of, any of
- Both (of) the bathing-caps are too big for him.
- Both the supermarkets were closed.
- Neither of the supermarkets was open.
- I don’t think either of the supermarkets was open.
- All the supermarkets were closed.
- None of the supermarkets were open.
- I don't think any of the supermarkets were open.

The phrases "a number of; the majority of" are treated as plural in meaning. They stand before
a plural countable noun and are used with a plural verb.
- A number of English teachers were present at the meeting.
- A large number of rare books were sold by auction.
- There are a number of reasons why it happened.
- The majority of the students want to take part in the competition.
- The majority of the votes were against the adoption of the new rules.

A singular verb is also found with "the majority of" in some cases, for example, with
"population".
- The majority of the population is (are) engaged in agriculture.
- The majority of the population live (lives) in villages.

If "number" and "majority" refer to the actual number as number, they are used with a singular
verb.
- The number of participants is limited to ten.
- The number of visitors has increased.
- A majority of fifty votes is required for winning.

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Phrases like "ten students; six books; five of them" as the subject take a plural verb. The numeral
at the beginning of the sentence is always spelled out. If necessary, restructure your sentence to
avoid using the numeral at the beginning.
- Twenty-five students are going to participate in this project.
- Ten people were injured in the fire.
- One dog is eating, and two dogs are sleeping.
- Fifteen thousand three hundred cars were sold last year. (Or: The company sold 15,300 cars
last year.)
- There are seven books in my bag.
- Three of them are very interesting.
- Four of my students have visited Greece twice.

Sums of money, periods of time, distance, weight expressed by phrases like "ten dollars; five
miles" in the subject are treated as singular (as a unit) and take a singular verb.
- Ten dollars for a cup of coffee is too much.
- Twenty years is a long time.
- Five miles on foot is out of the question.
- Two pounds of cheese is enough.

If part or portion of something is expressed in percent or fraction, the choice of a singular or plural
verb depends on the noun after "of". If the noun is singular (countable or uncountable), the
singular form of the verb is used. If the noun is plural (countable), the plural form of the verb is
used.
- Thirty percent of the money was spent on the first day.
- Fifty percent of my students have a full-time job.
- One third of my students live very far from the center of the city.
- Half of the cake was eaten by the dog.
- Half of the apples were spoiled.
- Part of the house belongs to her brother.

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 2.6.2. Every, Some, Any, No

Every, everyone, everybody, everything

Belirsiz şahıs zamirler cümlede özne durumundaysalar, birden fazla kişiyi ya da nesneyi
anlatsalar da, her zaman tekil eylemlerle kullanılırlar. “Every one” ayrık iki sözcük ise, miktar
belirteci olarak kullanılır. “everyone” birleşik sözcük ise, belirsiz şahız zamiridir.
- Everyone involved in the accident has been questioned by the police. Kazaya karışan herkes
polis tarafından sorgulandı.
- Is everything all right? Her şey yolunda mı?
- Has everyone eaten as much as they want? Herkes istediği kadar yedi mi?
- Every student must take a final exam.
- I checked the tubes, but neither one contained gas.

Every can not be used for 2 things. For 2 things, each can be used:
- He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.

Every can be used to say how often something happens:

- There is a plane to Bangkok every day.
- The bus leaves every hour.

Cümle içinde tekrar söz edilen belgisiz zamirler çoğul olur:

- Everyone knows who stole it, but they are all afraid to tell anyone. Herkes onu kimin çaldığını
biliyor ama birilerine söylemeye korkuyorlar.

We have to use “every” to refer to repeated regular events, as in once every, twice every, etc.
- She was suffering from cramp and in order to finish the tennis match needed to stretch her
legs after every other game. (Every other: the first, third, fifth etc. or the second, fourth, sixth
act)

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 Some, someone, somebody, something

The words “some” and “any” are used for countable and uncountable nouns. “Some” is used in
positive sentence with meaning “a few, a little, and “any”; with meaning “none” in negative
clauses or “a few / a little” in questions. “Some” olumlu cümlelerde ve cevabı olumlu sonuç
beklenen soru cümlelerinde kullanılır. Bazen rica ya da ortaya fikir atarken de kullanılmaktadır.
- There are some eggs on the table.
- Would you like some more tea?
- Could I have some sugar, please?
- You need some stamps.
- I'm thirsty. I want something to drink.
- You must go. You have some work to do.
- Is there some fruit juice in the fridge? I think there is.
- Some don’t like cinema.There is someone in the room.
- I wrote some letters yesterday.
- Some of the letters were long.Somebody stole my wallet.

Olumlu cümlelerde:
- Surely someone knows where the documents are. Belgelerin nerede olduğunu elbette biri
biliyor.
- There is somebody outside the house. Evin dışında biri var.

Karşılığında “evet” cevabı beklenen sorularda:

- Is there something you’d like to say? Söylemek istediğin bir şey var mı?
- Would you like something to eat? Yiyecek bir şey ister misin?
- Can you get someone to repair the door? Kapıyı onaracak birini bulabilir misin?

We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an
information" or "a music". But we can say “a something of”:
a piece of news. (Bir parça haber.)
a bottle of water. (Bir şişe su.)
a grain of rice. (Bir tane pirinç)
something of their spirit: onun ruhundan biraz
something of news: biraz haber

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 Any, anyone, anybody, anything

Any is used in negative and question. Hem sayılan hem sayılamayan isimler ile kullanılır.
“Any more” is used in question or negative form.
- He doesn't need any stamps. Does he need any stamps?
- Do you have any homework to do?
- I didn’t see anyone yesterday.I don’t want to see any.

“Any” is used in a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.

- I refused to give them any money. (I did not give them any money)
- She finished the test without any difficulty. (She did not have any difficulty)
- I’ve never met anyone so totally lacking in a sense of humor. Espri anlayışı bu kadar kıt
biriyle hiç karşılaşmamıştım.
- Is there nobody here who can answer my question? Burada soruma cevap verecek kimse
yok mu?
- Something in the cupboard smells odd. Dolapta bir şey tuhaf kokuyor.

Genel ifadelerde cümlenin öznesi ve nesnesi olarak:

- Anyone could dress well with as much money as he’s got. Ondaki parayla herkes iyi giyinir.
- If anyone could persuade him to come to the party you could. Onu partiye gelmesi için ikna
edecek birisi varsa o da sensin.
Note: Olumsuz cümlelerin öznesi olarak kullanılmazlar. “Anybody can’t come in.” denmez.

Olumlu soru ve olumsuz soru cümlelerinde kullanılırlar:

- I was so pleased when you rang; I hadn’t spoken to anyone all day. Aradığına çok sevindim;
bütün gün kimseyle konuşmamıştım.
- Was there anyone you knew at the meeting? Toplantıda tanıdığın biri var mıydı?
- Is there anything I can do to help? Yardım edebileceğim bir şey var mı?
- Won’t anybody help me? Bana yardım edecek yok mu?

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 No, no one, nobody, nothing

“No” ise olumlu cümlelerde yokluktan bahsetmek için kullanılır. Kendileri olumsuz olduğu için
cümleyi ayrıca olumsuz yapmaya gerek yoktur. Örneğin, “There isn’t nobody in the room.”
denmez.
No more= nothing, no change
- No citizen of the European Union lives more than 700 km away from the coast.
- There is nobody in the room. Odada kimse yok.
- Tom said nothing for a moment. Tom bir süre hiçbir şey söylemedi.
- No one believes him. Kimse ona inanmıyor.
- Nobody could find their luggage. Kimse bagajını bulamadı.
- Nobody else offered to help. Başka hiç kimse yardım teklif etmedi.
- There is nothing interesting in the newspaper. Gazetede ilginç bir şey yok.
- Nobody can do it.
Note: “No one” belgisiz zamiri ya ayrı ya da tire ile (no-one) şeklinde yazılır.

2.6.3. Each, Else, One, All, Other

Each

“Each” and “every” are both determiners used with singular nouns to indicate quantity. “Each”
indicates two or more objects or people and “every” indicates three or more. “Each” can also be
used as a pronoun, but “every” cannot be.

The determiners each and every have similar but not always identical meanings.
Each = every one separately
Every = each, all
Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus
confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.

Each can be used in front of the verb:

- The soldiers each received a medal.

Each can be followed by "of":

- The president spoke to each of the soldiers.
- He gave a medal to each of them.
- Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.

Each can be used as pronoun:

- Each exam was quite difficult.
- Each artist sees things differently.
- Each can be used in front of the verb: The soldiers each received a medal.
- Each can be followed by 'of': The President spoke to each of the soldiers. He gave a medal
to each of them.

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 Else

“Else” is used after words beginning with 'some-', 'every-', 'any-', and 'no-', and after question
words: besides or in addition to someone or something.
- If you don’t like this one, try something else.

One

- One student is waiting for Dr. Donald in the teacher’s room.

- One can’t live without air.

Another

Another: Bir diğer, bir diğeri

Ya sıfat olarak kendinden sonra tekil bir isim alır ya da zamir olarak tekil bir ismin yerine kullanılır.
- My computer got broken, so I had to buy another one.

“Another” yapısı gruplandırma ifade eden sayılarla beraber kullanıldığında kendisinden sonra
çoğul isim alması mümkündür.
- It has been reported that another 300 people were killed in the earthquake.

Other

Other: başka, diğer (Other + Pural Noun)

“Other” sıfat olup kendisinden sonra çoğul isim alır. “Other” is used to refer to all the people or
things in a group apart from the one you have already mentioned or the one that is already known
about.
- These are not effective. We should find other ways of teaching essay writing.

Others: diğerleri (“Others” is a pronoun.)

“Others” yapısı zamir olarak kullanılır, kendisinden sonra isim almaz. Anlamca çoğul isimlerin
yerine kullanılır. Rakamca net bir sayıya gönderme yapmaz.
- Some people like to have the windows open all time; others don’t.
- Some writers use allegory, but others refuse to use it.
- These are not effective ways of teaching essay writing. We should fid others.

“Other” ve “others” yapıları “some, any, many” gibi yapıları ile nitelenebilir.
- Some other applicants will be interviewed today. Some others will be interviewed today.
- Some people like coffee, while other people like tea. Some people like coffee, while others
like tea.
- Some plants are annual; others are biennials; the rest are perennials.

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The other + Plural Noun: Öteki, diğeri, geriye kalan
“The other” yapısı zamir olarak kullanılır, sayısı belli olan öteki çoğul bir isim grubuna gönderme
yapar.
- I have read seven of these 10 books. The others still remain untouched.
- The other books that I bought are on the table. The others that I bought are on the table.
- I met two strangers on the way to work. One of them greeted me and the other didn't.
- Bill and the other boys are playing in the yard. Bill and the others are playing in the yard.
- Jane and the other girls are in the front room.

The odd + occasion /day /moment /drink etc especially British English a few occasions, days
etc that happen at various times but not often and not regularly
- I came to see you the odd day. It was last Friday, I think. Ben bir gün seni görmek için geldim.
Geçen Cumaydı, sanırım.

The next day/week etc (=on or during the following day, week etc)
- We spent the night in a small village and continued our journey the next day.

One another, Each other: birbiri, birbirleri

We use the reciprocal pronouns “each other” and “one another” when two or more people do the
same thing. Traditionally, “each other “refers to two people and “one another” refers to more
than two people, but this distinction is disappearing in modern English.
Daha önce bahsi geçen bir duruma gönderme yaparlar. “One another” ikiden fazla duruma
gönderme yaparken “each other” iki duruma gönderme yapar.
- Everybody in the class should help one another. Sınıfdaki herkes birbirine yardım eder.
- They love each other. Onlar birbirlerini seviyorlar.
- Peter and Mary helped one another. Peter helped Mary and Mary helped Peter.
- We sent each other Christmas cards. We sent them a Christmas card and they sent us a
Christmas card.
- They didn’t look at one another. He didn't look at her and she didn't look at him.

We also use the possessive forms each other’s and one another’s:
- They helped to look after each other’s children.
- We often stayed in one another’s houses.
- Note: We do not use reciprocal pronouns as the subject of a clause.

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2.6.4. Both, Either, Neither
Both mean two of two things. Remember to use a plural verb after “both”.
You don’t have to use “of” with “both”:
- Both children like chocolate cake.

Neither means not one or the other of two things. Remember to use a singular verb after
neither.
- Neither of my cats is grey.
- Neither of the dogs is dangerous.

“Either” means one or the other.

- There are two cakes. Please have one. You can have either one.

“Both”, “neither” and “either” directly before a noun.

- Both supermarkets are good.
- Neither supermarket sells electrical goods.
- We can go to either supermarket, I don’t mind.

Both of + object pronoun,

Either of + object pronoun,
Neither of + object pronoun,
Object pronoun: you, them, my, these, those, his, us, its, …
- Both of them wore white dresses.
- Neither of us was late.
- Have either of you got a pen?

Compare either/neither/both (two things) and any/none/all (more than two):

- There are two good hotels in the town. You can stay at either of them.
- There are many good hotels in the town. You can stay at any of them.
- We tried two hotels. Neither of them had any rooms. / Both of them were full.
- We tried a lot of hotels. None of them had any rooms. / All of them were full.

Both ... and,

neither ... nor,
either ... or:
- Both James and Diana work here.
- Neither James nor Diana works here.
- You can ask either James or Diana.

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Either

İki sıfattan bahsedip, devamında tekil bir isim nitelendirildiğinde “ikisi de, her iki” anlamı verir.
- On either side of him sat a cat. Her iki yanınada bir kedi oturdu.
- I don’t like either one. İkisini de sevmedim.

As Pronoun; Either: önceden bahsi geçen iki şeyin yerine “her ikisi, ikisi de; ikisinden biri”
anlamında kullanılır.
- You can have either. Her ikisine de ship olabilirsin. Her ikisini de alabilirsin.

As Correlative Conjunctions; “either … or …”: ya … ya da …

- Either you do this or you clear out of here for good. Ya bunu yaparsın ya da buradan temelli
defolursun.
- Either he forgot about the meeting or he deliberately stayed a way. O ya toplantıyı unuttu ya
da bilerek gelmedi.

As Tag; negative cümlenin sonunda ekleme olarak “ de/da” anlamında kullanılır.

- I don’t know how to play this game. I don’t either.
- He was not invited, and any of his friends weren’t, either.

Neither

As adjective; neither: ikisinde hiç biri; İki şeyden bahsederken tekil bir ismi niteler.
- Neither student can answer this.
- Neither offer appeals to me because of low wages.

As Pronoun; neither: her ikisi, ikisi de, ikisinden biri; Daha önce bahsi geçen iki şey yerine
kullanılır.
- I liked neither. İkisini de sevmedim.
- Neither appeals to me because of low wages.

As Correlative Conjunctions; “neither … nor …”: ne … ne de …

- I liked neither white nor red one.
- The coffee is neither too cold nor too hot.
- The baby can neither speak nor walk.

As Tag; devrik cümlede zarf olarak negative bir cümleninin ardından gelen yapıda “de/da”
anlamı verir.
- I didn’t like the movie. Neither did I.
- I have never been abroad. Neither have I.
- Britain does not comply with the protocol. Neither do Denmark and Portugal.

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Both

As adjective, both: ikisini de; iki şeyden bahsederken devamında çoğul bir isim niteler.
- Both teams are realy good.
- I already know both boys well.
- There were a lot of people on both sidesof the road waiting to welcome the Prime Minister.

As prounoun, both: her ikisi de; iki şeyden bahsederken devamında ikisinin yerine kullanılır.
- Did the packages come? Yes both come.

As correlative conjunctions, both … and … : hem … hem de …

- This time, I will try a method that is both simple and effective.
- Yesterday, I both cleaned the house and tidied my room.

As emphasis: yardımcı fiilden sonra ana fiilden önce gelir özneyi vurgular.
- We have both passed the test.
- They are both regarded as the leader of their community.

As emphasis: nesneden sonra gelir, nesneyi vurgular.

- I know you both well. Her ikinizide iyi tanırım.
- The police arrested those two girls both. Polis iki kızı da tutukladı.

2.6.5. But
As Preposition; but: … hariç
- The new maid does almost anything but wash windows. Yeni hizmetci, pencereleri silmek
hariç, her işi yapar.

As Coordinating Conjunctions; but: fakat, ama, lakin, ancak, halbuki

- She had not studied hard enough, but she was able to pass the exam.

But for: olmasan, (without yapısı)

- But for you, life would be difficult. Sen olmasan hayat zor olurdu.

Not only… but also ….: sadece … değil, ayrıca …

- Not only she speaks English, but she also speaks Spanish.

Not … but … : … değil …

- She went abroad not to have a vacation but to improve her English.

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 2.7. Referral: Preventing to repeats

Preventing to Repeats

Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete.

- The forests of North America are much more extensive than Europe.

Put limiting modifiers in front of words they modify. (Reduce clauses)

- Lasers only destroy the target, leaving the surrounding healthy tissue intact.
- The turtle only makes progress when it sticks its neck out.

Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions.

- I wonder whether the sister knew of the theft and, if so, did she report it to the police.

You should always balance parallel ideas that utilize a series or a linked comparison.
- Hooked on romance novels, I learned that there is nothing more important than being rich,
looking good, and to have a good time.

Repeat prepositions and conjunctions to clarify parallels.

- Many smokers try switching to a brand they find distasteful or a low tar and nicotine
cigarette.

Place phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify. When phrases
or clauses are oddly placed, absurd misreadings can result. Consider the difference between the
two following sentences:
- The king returned to the clinic where he had undergone heart surgery in 2000 in a limousine
sent by the White House.
- Traveling in a limousine sent by the White House, the king returned to the clinic where he had
undergone heart surgery in 2000.

Avoid split infinitives when they are awkward. How would you revise this sentence: “The patient
should try to if possible avoid going up and down stairs.”

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Misplaced modifier
Repair dangling modifiers. A dangling modifier fails to refer logically to any word in the sentence.
Examples:
(a) “Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter enthusiastically pumped Joe’s Hand.”
(b) “To please the children, some fireworks were set off a day early.”
(c) “Though only sixteen, UCLA accepted Martha’s application.”

Make the point of view consistent in person and number. What’s wrong here?
(a) “One needs a password and a credit card number to access this database. You will be billed
at an hourly rate.”
(b) A police officer is often criticized for always being there when they aren’t needed and never
being there when they are.”
(c) “Everyone took out their pencil.”

Maintain consistent verb tenses.

- There was no way I could fight the current and win. Just as I was losing hope, a stranger
jumps off a passing boat and swims toward me.

Avoid too many consecutive long sentences. When you want to make a point forcefully, use a
short sentence. Short sentences demand attention. However, you should short sentences
primarily for emphasis. Too many short sentences, one after the other, make for a choppy style.
- We keep our use of insecticides to a minimum. We are concerned about their effect on the
environment.

Use “however” and “but” properly. Here are some examples of proper uses:
- I went to the store, but I forgot to buy bread.
I went to the store; however, I forgot to buy bread.
- If you think Ken Burns knows anything about jazz, however, you’ve got another thing coming.
- However, I do think that this example could be improved.

Improper uses:
- We offered to help the elderly woman cross the busy street but she wouldn’t allow anyone to
help her.
- Her hearing sharpened, however she gradually lost her sight.

Do not subordinate excessively. The following sentence collapses from its own weight and
should be divided:
- Our job is to stay between the stacker and the tie machine watching to see if the newspapers
jam, in which case we pull the bundles off and stack them on a skid, because otherwise they
would back up the stacker.

Avoid unnecessary repetition of words.

- Our fifth patient, in room six, is a mentally ill patient.
- The best teachers help each student to become a better student both academically and
emotionally.

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Simplify the structure of wordy sentences. How might these sentences be improved?
- There is another module that tells the story of Charles Darwin and introduces the theory of
evolution.
- It is imperative that all police officers follow strict procedures when apprehending a subject.

Make subjects and verbs agree in number. Prepositional phrases do not affect the singularity or
plurality of the relevant noun. Treat indefinite pronouns as singular.
- High levels of air pollution cause damage to the respiratory tract.
- The samples on the tray in the lab need testing.
- Everyone on the team supports the coach.
- Each of the rooms has been cleaned.
- Everybody who signed up for the ski trip was taking lessons.

Referral Pronoun: They, it, them, its

Possessive pronouns are used in English to avoid repeating information that is already clear. In
general it makes the sentence less confusing because the same information is not being
repeated.
Question: his pen
Answer: Yes: ours. No: his/hers/theirs...
- Are these your coats? Yes they are ours.

You can use a pronoun to refer to a noun. Bir önceki cümlede belirli isim tamlamasının yerine
kullanılan zamirler: such, all, this,that, it, they, he, …
- Despite its wide range of styles and instrumentation, country music has certain features that
give it its own special character. (it=country music)

The pronouns “this, that, these and those” can be used to refer to entire sentences.

We can use a possessive instead of a noun phrase to avoid repeating words.

Omit the second "the"

Is it grammatically correct to omit the second "the" in the sentence?

- The viscosity and the density of water characterize its speed. and write instead
The viscosity and density of water characterize its speed?
It means the same as "the viscosity of water and the density of water", but a "the" has not
been omitted, nor has "of water" been omitted. Instead, a conjoined noun, "viscosity and
density", has been used as the head noun of the noun phrase. There is only one noun phrase
there, consequently, there is only one "the". But "[[the viscosity of water] and [the density of
water]]" has two noun phrases, and consequently there are two "the"s -- one for each noun
phrase.

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 Interrogative is used to prevent to repeats

Both of which:
- After the First World War, the author Anais Nin became interested in the art movement as
Surrealism and psychoanalysis, both of which influenced her novels and short stories.
(both of which= both of the art movement as surrealism and psychoanalysis)
Which: used, after a comma in writing, to add more information about the thing, situation, or
event you have just mentioned.

All of which:
- Noise in a room may be reduced by carpeting, draperies, and upholstered furniture, all of
which absorb sound.
(All of which= carpeting, draperies, and upholstered furniture)

Some of which:
- The young man sold his books, some of which were hand written. Genç adam, bazıları el
yazması olan kitaplarını sattı.

Two of which:
- The coals can be divided into three groups, two of which are etinct.

Most of whom:
- The players, most of whom played badly, were booed by the fans. Çoğu kötü oynayan
oyuncular, taraftarlar tarafından yuhalandı.

Neither of whom:
- Both students, neither of whom studied hard, passed the test. Pek fazla çalışmayan iki
öğrenci de imtihanda başarılı oldu.

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 3. Preposition
Structure: Preposition + N /Gerund.
“Preposition” lardan sonra “isim” ya da “Gerund(Ving)” gelir. Adverbial Clause’larda kullanılan
“Question Word” bağlaçlarından önce, “preposition” kullanıldığı yapılar da mevcuttur.

İp Uçları

• Süreçlerden önce “over, during” kullanılır.

Example:
Traditionally, intelligence was considered stable ---- our adult years, but new research
shows that it can rise and fall ---- time.
A) into / by. B) along / of. C) within / towards. D) for / upon. E) during / over

• Eğer bir cümle “from” var ise to aranır. “To” yok ise, başlangıç noktasını biliyor, bitiş
noktasını bilmiyorsak, from on, from onwards aranır. Başlar bitmez ucu açık anlamına gelir.
• “Responsible” her zaman “for” eki alır. Öte yandan bağlaçlı cümle yapısında for bağlacın
önüne de gelebilir. (for + which …)
• Preposition + Ving /Noun /Noun phrase. Noun phrase: (a/an) adj + Noun
• Else: [used after words beginning with 'some-', 'every-', 'any-', and 'no-', and after question
words]: besides or in addition to someone or something.
• Let + object pronoun (her/him/me/us) do sth
• “The+Noun + …” şeklinde bir yapı varsa boşluğa "of" gelir.
• “V3” ten sonra genellikle “by” gelir.
• Preposition sorusundaki fiil (“compare” fiili gibi) co- ön eki ile başlıyorsa seçeneklerde "with"
arayın.
• By + Ving: yaparak, ederek
• On which, on whom, on whose; adjective clause’larda preposition bağlacın önüne çekilebilir.
Depend on -> on which profits depend.
• As of: ___ itibarı ile, ___ den itibarı ile (Geleceğe yöneliktir.) As 2105, …
From … on= … dan itibaren [ geçmişe yönelik, … den itibaren]

Preposition + Ving /noun /noun phrase

- The doctor told his friend all about meeting the woman and asked him for his advice.

number + measurement unit+ in length

- He is 1.4m tall. His brother is 1.2m tall. His brother is short.

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 3.1. Time prepositions

Clock system: a.m. (from the Latin “Ante Meridiem”, meaning "before midday") and p.m. (Post
Meridiem, "after midday".

- When is your birthday? It is on May 20th.

- They are having dinner at the moment.= They are eating dinner at the moment
- If you travel 40 minutes east of Los Angeles, above a canyon town and up a winding
mountain road, on a river that leads to nowhere, you can go back in time to the 1849 Gold
Rush.

Time - in

In:
 "In" with months, seasons, years, centuries, and long periods:
 in the early 1930’s, in May, in summertime, in 2004, in the 21st century, in the Late Bronze
Age
 "In" with parts of the day: in the morning, in the evening
 “In” a split seconds, an instant, a tiny period of time: “In” followed by a time period is more
often used to talk about future events: In the next few days, in the last few seconds, In the
beginning of/ in the early, In the third quarter, in his old age
 In time = with enough time to spare; before the last moment

In time = with enough time to spare; before the last moment

"In" with months, seasons, years, centuries, and long periods:

in the early 1930’s,
in May,
in summertime,
in 2004,
in the 21st century,
in the Late Bronze Age
- In England, it often snows in December.
- It gets very cold in winter.
- The finest example of Byzantine architecture is the church of Saint Sophia in Istanbul,
constructed by the emperor Justinian in the sixth century, constructed by the emperor
Justinian in the sixth century.
- Nebraska has floods in some years, in others drought.
- Mary Garden, a popular soprano in the early 1990’s, was considered one of the best singing
actresses of her time.
- Did you know that the first recorded Olympic Games took place in the Valley of Olympia in
Greece in 776 B.C.?
- Gladiator fights were first organized in Rome in the year 264 B.C. by the sons of Junius
Brutus in memory of their father.

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 Gladyatör dövüşleri ilk kez Roma’da, M.Ö. 264 yılında, Junius Brutus’un oğulları tarafından
babalarının anısına düzenlenmiştir.
- In modern times, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, African and Indian
princes and scholars visited Britain.
- The most fundamental reason was that Italy in the later Middle Ages was the most advanced
urban society in all of Europe.

"In" with parts of the day:

in the morning, in the evening
- Martin left home last evening. ( not in the evening )

“In” a split seconds, an instant, a tiny period of time:

- Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?

“In” followed by a time period is more often used to talk about future events:
In the next few days, in the last few seconds, In the beginning of/ in the early, In the third quarter,
in his old age
- He'll be here in a few minutes.
- I will return in an hour.
- The film will be ready in two hours
- I never watch TV in the daytime.
- I'll be seeing them in a month's time

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 On: for days and dates

 Be on/off duty: to be working or not working at a particular time, especially when you are
doing a job which people take turns to do, so that someone is always doing it.
 On time = at the planned time; neither late nor early. You must be on time.
 on a weekly, on a monthly, on a yearly...basic

Days and dates:

Dates: on Sunday, on the 6th of June, on Tuesday afternoons, on the weekend (USA), on the last
day of term. On 1 September 1914, on 20 November.
on Sunday, on Tuesday afternoon,
on the 6th of June,
on the weekend (USA),
on the last day of term.
- We met on July 5, 1991, and hit it off immediately. Bill was a little reluctant at first, but he got
there.
5 Temmuz 1991'de görüştük ve hemen başladık. Bill ilk başta biraz isteksizdi, ama oraya
geldi.
- It was shown on September 30th that we own some airlines.
30 Eylül'de bazı havayollarının sahibi olduğumuz gösterildi.
- On 1 September 1914, at the age of 29 years, Martha died.
- The garbage truck comes on Wednesdays.
- Her birthday is on 20 November. He was born on the 20th day of November in 1988.
- Her birthday is on Monday.
- I am starting my new job on 7 June.
- We sometimes go there on weekends (US).
- I'll see you next Monday afternoon. ( not, on Monday afternoon )
- Three young students in the college town of Chapel Hill in North Carolina were shot dead on
Tuesday.
- Her birthday is on August the third. She always gets a lot of presents on her birthday.

Specific days:
Specific days: on New Year's Eve, on Christmas Day, on my birthday, on a sunny day
on New Year's Eve, on Christmas Day,
on my birthday,
on a sunny day
- I’ll see you on Christmas Day.
- On the 47th anniversary of Winston Churchill’s death,
- Where will you be on New Year's Day?

Be on/off duty:
to be working or not working at a particular time, especially when you are doing a job which
people take turns to do, so that someone is always doing it.
- I am on duty from 8 in the morning to 6 in the afternoon today.

On time = at the planned time; neither late nor early. You must be on time.
Note: on a weekly, monthly, yearly...basic

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 At: For a precise time

At:
 Clock times: at one o'clock, at 6.30, at 5 o'clock;
 Points of time in the day: at midnight, at noon, at sunrise, at lunch, at dawn, at sunset
 A point in time: at the moment, at the age of eleven,
 At the beginning of Holiday periods, meaning the few days around the holiday: at Easter, at
Diwali, at New Year, at Christmas
 “Weekend”, in British English: see you at the weekend! At weekends we go out.

Clock times:
at one o'clock, at 6.30, at 5 o'clock;
- I will meet you at 12 p.m. I have a meeting at 9 a.m. The bus will stop here at 5:45 p.m.

Points of time in the day:

at midnight, at noon, at sunrise, at lunch, at dawn, at sunset
- The stars shine at night.
- The shop closes at midnight.
- He's not at home at present.
- I never seem to have any money at the end of the month.

A point in time:
at the moment, at the age of eleven,
- We finished the test at the same time.
- Jane went home at lunchtime.
- Logisticians applied their own ingenuity to create companies that aimed to deliver the right
item in the
right quantity at the right time in the right place for the right price.
- I never seem to have any money at the end of the month.
- Former Israeli leader Shimon Peres dead at 93.

At the beginning of holiday periods, meaning the few days around the holiday:
at Easter, at Diwali, at New Year, at Christmas,
- She's going on holiday at Xmas
- I stay with my family at Christmas.
- I go to Switzerland each Christmas ( not at each Christmas )

“Weekend”, in British English:

At weekends we go out.
- I don't usually work at the weekend.

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 During: esnasında

During and over are used when you state the period of time in which something happens or
changes.
Formulation: during + a noun or phrase: during my schooldays.
Sometime within a period. Throughout a period:
- She works during the day. I'll be working on the summer holidays
- An accident occurred during the night.
- Marcel received many telephone messages during the last week.
- I am seeing John during the morning. Bill will return to England during the Christmas Holiday.
- During the storm, a lot of people hid in the shelter. Fırtına esnasında bir çok insan sığınağa
gizlendi.
- During this period the world changed from typewriter to computer, from telegraph to e-mail,
from Western industrialization to a global market, fromtravel within countries to travel
between countries and into outer space, and from local foods and handmade clothes to those
on international design and manufacture. (“and” ve virgül kullanımı)
- During the first half of the twentieth century, explosive intra-European conflict ended Europe’s
global political hegemony.
- To protect whales and dolphins off the coast of Hawaii, a court in California has temporarily
banned the US navy from using powerful sonar equipment during a military exercise in the
area.
- During the Late Bronze Age, trade became an increasingly important aspect of international
relations.

After

“After” is usually used as a preposition (followed by a noun): after ten o’clock; after lunch
- I'll do it after lunch.
- Please call after 9.30.
Later in a series: Q comes after P in the alphabet.

In pursuit of:
- The dog ran after the cat.
- Patricia was very happy after she won the tennis match.
- Why did the Queen smile after the President shook her hand?
- After she finishes her studies, Ann will work in South Africa.

“After” followed by a time period is more often used to talk about past events:
- After a few minutes he stopped.

“After” can be used as an adverb, but only following another time adverb such as “soon, not
long, or shortly”. Tim came in at midnight, and Lucy not long after.

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 Before

Earlier in time: before two o'clock; before Christmas

Earlier in a series: S comes before T in the alphabet.
- He spoke to his teacher before the examinations began.
- Before you say anything, I must explain why I am here.

By: …e kadar

By: …e kadar
"By" belirli bir zamanda ya da o zamandan önce oluşan bir olay için kullanılır.
- The book will be finished by the end of next year.
- The battle ended in defeat for the Russians, but the war did not; by 1721 Russia had
conquered the Baltic territories as far southwest as Riga, the capital of present-day Latvia,
and had built a new capital, Saint Petersburg, on the Gulf of Finland.

Not later than (Zaman anlatan kalimeler ile):

- Try to finish the work by next week.
- They will have gone by ten o’clock.

From ___ on

From ___ on: Start of a period of time: … dan itibaren [ geçmişe yönelik, … den itibaren]
- We worked from Monday to Wednesday. From the 1870s on, …

Note: As of <year>: ___ itibarı ile, ___ den itibarı ile (Geleceğe yöneliktir.)
- As of 2105, …

In a matter of + seconds: bir kaç saniye içinde

In a matter of + minutes: bir kaç dakika içinde
In a matter of days: birkaç gün içerisinde
- In a matter of days, the Berlin Wall, which had been the embodiment of the Cold War, the
Iron Curtain, and the division of East from West, was demolished by groups of ordinary
citizens.

215
 Over: esnasında, üstünde

- He had visited the venue over the past three years.

Past: After (in time)

- It was past 2 o'clock, half past two. Don’t work past your bed-time.
- It’s nearly ten minutes past five. 5.09 to be precise.

Since:

From a specific time in the past:

- I had been waiting since two o'clock.

From a past time until now:

- I have been waiting here since noon.
- I haven’t seen Josef since Monday.
- Mr Brown has worked in a bank since 1985.

Till

- I work from 9am till 5pm. Please wait till I come.

Until / From - - - - to

Up to a certain time: until Friday, until 5 p.m.

- She will stay until Friday. From 1987 until 1991, Mary was at university in Brussels.
- Each day, Derek works in the bank from nine till five thirty.
- My shop will be closed from 1st July to 31st August.
- He didn't do the work until his boss got angry.

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 3.2. Place prepositions

- Mary shows me the way to Ho Tay lake.

- They are at the desk.
- They listen to the teacher.,,
- The woman has hurt her back by bending for too long.
- A lot of passengers who were in the ship crash are still suffering from shock.
The person who is in charge of a car is the conductor.

On: place, position

On for the surface of something:

on the table, on the wall, on the noticeboard,
on the floor, on the second floor, on her balcony,
on the way, on the road,
on the grass, on the earth,
on page 26, on the bottom of the box,
on my plate,
on different servers.
- There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
- I put an egg on the kitchen table.
- The paper is on my desk.
- Please don’t put your shoes on the table.

- The picture is on page 7.

- The author's name is on the cover of the book.
- There are no prices on this menu.

A position or place, when one thing is attached to or touching another:

a spot on the end of her nose, a jacket on the back of a chair
- There is no water on that island.
- As Antarctic glaciers collapse on the sea, scientists struggle to find out what that means for
the rise of sea levels.
- All life needs energy to survive, and the biggest source of energy for life on Earth is the Sun.
- Is there water on the Moon?

Taking part in an activity or travelling somewhere.

Yürüyerek gitmek, gelmek fiillerinde “on” kullanılır.
on a donkey, on the train.
- People who travel on airlines all have stories about how bad the experience is when things
go wrong.

Street names:
On South Street, on the High Street, on 42nd Street, on Broadway
- I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.

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 On: condition

On almost everything: Neredeyse her şeyde

About:
a book on engineering, on North Korea
- I need a book on bio-chemistry.
- By the way, have you seen this article on North Korea?
- I didn’t enjoy this book on how to succeed in business. It wasn’t very well written.
- The philanthropy focuses on education, poverty, and global health.
Hayırseverlik eğitim, yoksulluk ve küresel sağlık üzerine odaklanmaktadır.

On your side: I agree with you.

- Don’t get angry with me! I am on your side!

To indicate a device or machine, such as a phone or computer:

on TV, on the phone. Using a machine or piece of equipment.
- He is on the phone right now.
- She has been on the computer since this morning.
- My favorite movie will be on TV tonight.
- This new model not only saves time but only saves energy by operating on two batteries
instead of four.

To indicate a part of the body.

To use to say what part of someone's body is touching the ground or another surface and
supporting their weight.
- The stick hit me on my shoulder.
- He kissed me on my cheek.
- I wear a ring on my finger.
- Harry comes to work by car but I prefer to come on foot.
- You are standing on my foot.

To indicate the state or condition of something:

on strike, on fire, on holiday
- Everything in this store is on sale.
- The building is on fire.

By means of; live on a pension

- We live on a busy road. It’s very noisy.
- She is sunbathing on the beach.

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 In: Places

- In for an enclosed space: in the garden, in London, in a box, in my wallet, in a industry...

- Into: to the inside or inner part of a container, place, area etc.
- Freed Americans arrive in Switzerland from Iran.

In for an enclosed space:

in the garden, in London, in a box, in my wallet, in an industry...

Use “in” with a position or place, when something or someone is inside a larger thing
such as a room, country, city, company:
In Italy, in the world, in the city center, in the north of, in northern,
in the telecommunications industry, in an office, in Harward, in the stock market, in the concert,
in the appendix, in newspaper,
in that field,
in a laptop,
in the bin,
In the bath, in the kitchen, in the garden, in the doorway
- He is studying law in Harward.
- Paul works in a school.
- Do you work in an office?
- The horses are running in the field.
- How many people work in that advertising acency.
- South Korea is in top place in the global education league table.
- Jupiter is in the Solar System.
- It is very cold in the desert at night.
- Moira lives in Toronto. Milan is in the North of Italy. My parents live in New Zealand now.
- I stayed in a nice hotel in London. When will you arrive in Tokyo? She's working in California.
- I have a meeting in New York. Mr Fisher is in Boston this week.
- My hometown is Los Angeles, which is in California.
- It was built in 1861, in Canada as a cargo carrying and sailing ship.
- Three young students in the college town of Chapel Hill in North Carolina were shot dead on
Tuesday.
- There's some sugar in the cupboard.
- My mother was in the kitchen.
- Manson spent fifteen years in prison.
- There is a hole in the ground

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 In: condition

Doing or affecting a particular kind of job:

in study, in education, in industry. in the study, in a recent study,
- Several participants in the study were unable to continue.

To indicate a belief, opinion, interest, or feeling:

- I believe in the next life.
- We are not interested in gambling.
- Milk is very rich in calcium.
- She looked me directly in the eyes.
- There is a hole in your defence.
- There are a lot of holes in the state budget and ailing banks.

Use “in” after verbs which describe a state rather than an action:
- The books were covered in dust.
- She looked at me in horror. (horror: korkunç, nefert edilen şey)

To indicate a shape, color, or size:

- This painting is mostly in blue.
- The students stood in a circle. This jacket comes in four different sizes.

In (full) colour: a television programme, film, or photograph that is in colour contains colours
such as red, green, and blue rather than just black and white.

Wearing: the boy in the blue shirt

Where someone or something appears:

- Susanne is in a meeting.
- Fourteen people were killed and 21 wounded in Wednesday's attack.

To express while doing something:

- In preparing for the final report, we revised the tone three times.
- A catch phrase needs to be impressive in marketing a product.
- Thomas Mair charged in Jo Cox’s murder.
- In fact, the early years of the Tudor period were marked by significant changes in trade and in
the arts of war.

The names of squares, plazas etc: in Times Square

By means of: vasıyasıyla, (to write in pencil, to speak in English)
Condition: in doubt, in a hurry, in secret: We waited in silence. (in silence: sesizce)
A member of: He is in the orchestra, in the navy
With reference to: lacking in ideas, rich in oil

Into: to the inside or inner part of a container, place, area etc.

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 At: places

At for a point: at the corner, at the bus stop, at the door, at the top of page, at the front desk.
In for an enclosed space: In the garden, In London, In a box, In my wallet, In a industry.

- At for a point: at the corner, at the bus stop, at the door, at the top of the page, at the front
desk...

Used to indicate an activity:

At home, at hospital, at work, at school, at the university,
at play, at the party, at the art gallery, at the Lyceum theatre,
at the airport,
at the restaurant, at the park; at the coffee;
at a prestigious New York law firm,
at Starbucks before work,
at the bank, at flea markets,
at top of the page
- Trump meets with Ukrainian president at White House.
Trump, Beyaz Saray'da Ukrayna cumhurbaşkanıyla görüşüyor.
- A study at Brigham Young University shows that computer games actually enhance social
connections.
- He is a partner at a prestigious New York law firm.
- Does this train stop at Watford?
- A new exhibition at the British Museum
- When will you arrive at the office?
- There is a party at the club.
- There were hundreds of people at the park.
- We saw a baseball game at the stadium.
- At the South Pole lies Antarctica, the coldest and most desolate region on Earth.

“at” for a point:

at the end of the corridor, at the corner of the street, at the bus stop,
at the back of the room, at the door, at the front desk, at the top of the page,
at the traffic lights, at the police checkpoint.
- They are at the desk.
- The Earth, must be at the centre of the universe.
- We had dinner at an Italian restaurant last night.
- He buys things at flea markets.
- He failed to stop at the traffic lights and went through the light on red.
- I was waiting for at least half an hour at the station, but no train came.
- Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
- The shop is at the end of the street.
- I was waiting for at least half an hour at the station, but no train came.

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A condition:
at peace; at war; at rest
- He laughed at my acting.
- I am good at drawing a portrait.

To mean 'next to' or 'beside':

- She sat at her desk.
- He stopped me at the door.
- Write your name at the top of the page.

at + gerund:
After the adjective, we use the preposition “at + gerund”. I am good at swimming.
Towards:
Look at someone; wave at someone.

an email address:
Please email me at cahit@ckk.com.tr

Other place condition

Above:
Higher than, over: The plane flew above the clouds.
Earlier on a page: There is a heading above each diagram.

Across:
From one side to the other: We walked across the field.
On the other side of: There is a store across the street.

Along: boyunca (bir yol boyunca ya da bir şerit şerit boyuca devam eder)
Following the length of:
- We walked along the road.
- The palm trees along the shore swayed in the wind. (Sahil boyunca palmiye ağaçları
rüzgarda sallanıyordu.)
- Rome’s strategic location along the Tiber River brought it many different advantages. Tiber
Nehri boyunca Roma'nın stratejik konumunu birçok farklı avantajı getirdi.

Beneath (altında):
Lower than; below: beneath the earth
- He was standing on the bridge looking at the river beneath.
- Jo enjoyed feeling the warm sand beneath her feet.
- From beneath the boat, a sighing, almost mournful sound rises into the air.

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Beside (Next to; at the side of):
- I sit beside her in class.
- They are building a house beside the river.
- He sits beside me in the class.

In front of:
- We will meet them in front of the station in the afternoon.
- I shall grow some trees in front of my house.

Inside (Within):
- They are inside the house
- It was dark inside the tunnel.
- The modem is inside my computer. It’s an internal modem.
- Rescues find no signs of life inside cruse ship.

Next to (proposition): very close to someone or something, with nothing in between:

- John is the person standing beside the window, next to the woman with the long blonde hair.

Opposite:
Facing: The library is opposite the fire station.
- There's a car park opposite the hotel.
- There is a post office opposite my house.
- She sat opposite him and looked into his eyes.

Outside + n /np /Ving:

On the outer side of: outside the house
Beyond the limits of: outside my experience
- I don’t live in London. I live outside London.
- It was very cold outside the car.
- This is outside my scope.
- Outside the bright primary rainbow, a much fainter secondary rainbow may be visible.

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 3.3. Common prepositions

By

İp uçları:
İnglizcede %50 artırıldı ya da %25 düştü gibi ifadelerde “by” preposition gelir. Türkçeye çevrilince
yok olur.
- Benzin ve dizel %5 artırıldı. Gasoline and petrol has increased by %5.

“By” Anlamları:
 ile, vasıtasıyla,
 …ırak, …irek
 tarafından
 itibarıyla
 yakınında

by + Ving: yaparak
By + Ving /noun: used to say what means or method someone uses to do something
By + Ving : tek yollu olarak “only if” dir; by going: giderek. by swimming: yüzerek. by channeling:
kanalize ederek
- The British government responded by closing the port.

Cümle pasif yapıda ise “V3” ten sonra genellikle “by” gelir. “Tarafından” anlamını verir.
- The device was made by me.

itibarıyla: by + time (as of)

Past perfect tense, time expressions: by the time; before; after; by 1998; by yesterday; by last
Sunday.
- By 2007, he had gone to USA.

Future perfect tense, time expressions: by the time, before, by the end of the year, at 3 o’clock,
by 3 O’clock, before 3 O’clock, by next June, by this time next week, by tomorrow, by next
Monday, by 2035.
- By the time I get there, she will have left.
- By 2050, scientists will have found the cure for cancer.

Present perfect tense, time expressions: by now: şu ana dek; so far: şimdiye kadar; never: asla;
ever: her zaman; several times; since: den beri; lately: son zamanlarda, geçenlerde.

Present perfect continuous tense, time expressions: for an hour; for a week; for five years; all
day; since, for, all morning, all day, all week, etc.”

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Past perfect continuous tense,Time expressions: by the time; before; after; by yesterday; by
2005; for two hours; for a long time.
- By the time he returned, I had been working for six hours.
- By 2006, he had been living there for twenty years.

Future perfect continuous tence, Time expressions: by the time; by 2030; before; for two hours,
for five minutes, for two weeks, since Friday.

yakınında: near, beside, nearby

- We have a summer house by the river /sea.

ile, vasıtası ile, den yolu ile (through):

Araçla gitmek, gelmek fiilerinde “by” kullanılır.
- I caught the child by the hair.
- We like travelling by air
- We will go by bicycle.

Note: tough:kaba, throughout: boyunca, through: ile vasıtasıyla, though: rağmen

önünde, önünden (past):

- He waved as he drove by the house.
- He passed by me without noticing me.
- I go by her house everday.

Not later than (Zaman anlatan kalimeler ile):

They will have tried to finish the work by next week.
- They will have gone by ten o’clock.

In units of (Ölçü amlatmak için): cheaper by the dozen; sold by weight

- They come by hundreds.
- He knows this part of the country step by step

Bir karar hüküm anlatmak için:

- I judge by this talk that he is a clever man.
- I knew by her appearance that she was not English.

“by” is used especially in passives, to say who or what does or causes something
- She was hit by a truck.
- A book was written by Peter Carey
- He was killed by the enemy

By + noun: … ya göre
- By all accounts, the operation was a success.

225
By far /Far and away: farkla, açık arayla
It is used to say that something is much better, worse etc than anything else:
- Asia is by far the largest continent in the world. Asya farkla dünyanın en büyük kıtasıdır.
By far the best: açık arayla en iyisi
By far the largest: açık arayla en genişi

İnglizcede %50 artırıldı ya da %25 düştü gibi ifadelerde “by” preposition gelir. Türkçeye çevrilince
yok olur. Benzin ve dizel %5 artırıldı. Gasoline and petrol has increased by %5.

Between: (involves just two)

Location:
- Toronto lies between Montreal and Vancouver.
- Between the California Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the great Central Valley.
- That train runs between London and Paris.
- A strong correlation exists between a country’s wealth and the freedom afforded its citizens.

Time:
- between Christmas and New Year's Day

A series:
- B comes between A and C in the alphabet.

Amount:
- between five and ten people

Within a group of two:

- The money was shared between two people.
- Have you ever seen a fight between two animals?
- I think we can solve the problem between you and me.

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Beyond (Ötesinde, dışında)

Farther than:
The mountains lie beyond the horizon.

Further than, exceeding:

- That was beyond my expectations.
- Our village is beyond those hills.
- Nobody can make me do anything beyond my desire.

Beyond + noun: … ötesine

Beyond + noun = ön ek (ir, im, un, dis) + noun + adj. / adv.
- The damage was beyond repair. The damage was irreparable.

Beyond repair: tamir edilemeyecek şekilde. Irreparable: tamir edilemeyecek şekilde.

But

Preposition (except):
But (+ noun/verb) = Except (Except something from something)
- You could come any day but Thursday.
- I have read all but the last chapter.
- The purpose of the scheme is not to help the employers but to provide work for young
people. (scheme:tasarı)

But for: used when you are saying that something would have happened if something or
someone else had not prevented.
- I might never have got to university but for you.

Adverb (only):
- This is but one example of what can happen when things go badly wrong.

Noun (plural-buts):
- He is the best player -no ifs, ands, or buts about that.

Conjunction:
- We've invited the boss, but she may decide not to come.
- But for these interruptions, the meeting would have finished earlier.
- John might be ready to help us, but then again, he might not.

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 For

“for” and “to” are never used together. “for” is never used before a verb.
For + noun /NP /Ving: den dolayı
- He was punished for stealing.
- I passed my exams for my hard study.
- The Renaissance originated in Italy for several reasons

Purpose (… için):
- I bought this jacket for you. She bought a present for me on my birth day.
- The objective of a proper diet is to achieve and maintain a desirable body composition and a
large capacity for physical and mental work.

Duration of time: We walked for two hours.

Distance: I walked for five kilometers.

In the direction of: She left for New York.

In favor of: We are for the proposal.

Considering (… rağmen): The boy is clever for his age.

Karşılığında:
- I sold the horse for 50 dollars.
- He gave me the book for a pen.

Lehinde:
- Are you for war or peace?
- He worked for the enemy during the war.

Olarak: It was built for a pleasure boat.

Examples:
- Fluctuations in the curve for each plant category may then be studied for signs of climatic
fluctuation, or forest clearance and crop planting by humans.
Her bitki kategorisi için eğrideki dalgalanmalar, iklimsel dalgalanma belirtileri veya orman
temizlenmesi ve insanlar tarafından bitki ekilmesi için incelenebilir.

228
 From

Place of origin:
- He comes from Mexico.
- Where do you come from?

Start of a range:
- Count from one to one hundred, please.
- It can cost anything from $5 to $15.

Cause:
- He suffers from nervousness.
- He died from overwork.
- Paper is made from wood.

Source:
- I first heard the story from you.
- This letter is from my wife.
- I bought this car from Henry.

Compare:
- My car is different from yours.

From … to …:
From... to: used to mention the two ends of a range
Start of a period of time: from now on, from yesterday until today.
- We worked from Monday to Wednesday.
- Parisian estate records from French Revolution to present.
- Mexico changed from a country with a wheat sortage to one that was a wheat exporter.
- Severity of autism ranges from those who are mute and have no functional behaviour to
individuals with high IQ scores.
- The Industrial Revolution represented the first breakthrough from an agricultural and
overwhelmingly rural economy to one characterized by large-scale manufacturing, more
capital-intensive enterprises, and urbanization.
Endüstriyel devrim, tarımsal ve aşırı ağırlıklı bir kırsal ekonomiden, büyük ölçekli imalat, daha
fazla sermaye yoğun işletmeler ve kentleşme ile karakterize edilen ilk atılımı temsil etti.
- The war lasted from 1775 until 1783.

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Like

Resembling:
- That looks like him.

Appearing possible:
- It looks like rain.

Be in a suitable mood for:

- I feel like going swimming.
- She is like her sister.
- She sings like a bird.
- It’s not like John to complain.
- I feel like swimming.
- I want something cold, like iced-coffee.

Of

Location: east of here, the middle of the road

- I live in the house at the end of the road.
- He lives in the City of Westminster.

Possession: a friend of mine, the sound of music

- Do you like the work of Shakespeare?
- What was the cost of this book?
- This is the cause of the problem.
- Can I have a cup of coffee?
- It was kind of you to help me.

Part of a group: one of my students; a member of the team

Measurement: a cup of milk, two meters of snow
The Phrasal Verbs: He died of cancer. Most tables are made of wood.

Of all ….. the most: ___ olanlardan en ___ olanı

- Of all the political ideologies of the early nine-teenth century, nationalism is the most difficult
to grasp. 19. yüzyıl başlarında ortaya çıkan siyasi akımlardan milliyetçilik olanı anlaşılması en
zor olandır. [grasp: kavramak, sımsıkı sarılmak]

Of all + noun: içerisinde, arasında ( Among + noun: arasında)

- Of all our students, Mary is the only one who has achieved national recognition.
- Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.
- Of all the buildings in Paris: Paris’deki binaların arasında

The preposition "of" after indefinite pronouns:

- I know some of these people.
- I don’t know any of these people.

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Off

Close:
- His jacket is off. Onun ceketi kapalı.
- It is only three weeks off. O üç hafta kapalı.
- The children are off school today. Çocuklara bugün okul kapalıdır.

Not on, away from: Off “-den uzakta, -den uzağa, -den, -dan” anlamındadır.
- Please keep the dog off the grass.

Off: …nin dışında, …nin uzağında (edat/zarf/fiille bağlantılı kullanımları)

- I can’t get this ring off my finger.Bu yüzüğü parmağımdan çıkaramıyorum.
- Turn off the main road here and you will come to city of Muğla.Ana yoldan burada ayrılın,
Muğla şehrine varacaksınız.
- He took his hat and his coat off. Şapkasını ve paltosunu çıkardı.
- Is electricity on or off? Elektrik açık mı yoksa kapalı mı?
- I hope this snow will clear off before Tuesday.Umarım bu kar salıdan önce tamamen biter.
- That ship is two or three miles off. Bu gemi iki ya da üç mil uzakta.
- Turn that tap off and switch the light off. Şu musluğu ve ışığı kapat.

At some distance from:

- There are islands off the coast.
- Please take your shoes off the table.
- It fell off the table and broke.
- They live in a street off Fifth Avenue.

We speak of “getting on a bus” and “getting off a bus”, taking things “off the table and putting
them on the floor”.
Explanation: “off the coast” describes something that is situated near or next to land, but which
is not exactly on the coast.
- To protect whales and dolphins off the coast of Hawaii, a court in California has temporarily
banned the US navy from using powerful sonar equipment during a military exercise in the
area.
- The Inner and Outer Hebrides are situated off the Western coast of Scotland.
- We live just off The Avenue.
- I'm off alcohol just now.
- Have you heard? There's 20 % off all computers at the music shop in Elm Street next Friday.
- You don't have to keep off the grass in this park. You can walk anywhere on the grass.
- We're getting two extra days off school at the beginning of June for the Queen's Jubilee.

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Expressions with “off”
We also speak about people being “off-balance, off-colour, off-duty,” doing things on the off-
chance and having “off days”:
- I caught him completely off-balance and he didn't know what to say.
- She'd been off-colour for days, but there was no sign of any real illness developing.
- Could you just do this for me? ~ Sorry, love, I'm off duty at the moment. ~ When are you on
again?
- I decided to take a detour into Paris on the off-chance that Amelie might be there.
- Brobbins, the club's leading striker, had an off day and missed three open goals.

Phrasal verbs with “off”

There are many common phrasal verbs with off, such as put off (= postpone), knock off (finish
work), lay off (dismiss from work, usually temporarily), bring something off (complete something
successfully), polish
off (eat something quickly):
- I've been putting it off for weeks, but it's no good, I shall have to go to the dentists soon.
- Aren't you going to knock off soon? You've been staring into that computer screen all day.
- 700 workers will be laid off in the Belfast shipyards following a decline in orders.
- They had a wonderful time. I didn't think you'd be able to bring it off.
- I thought the Christmas cake would hang around for weeks, but they soon polished it off.

Over

By means of: vasıtasıyla, yardımıyla

- We made plans over the telephone.
- The king ruled over the country for many years.

Above; higher than:

- There are cupboards over the sink.
- We are flying over the mountains.
- The cat jumped over the wall.
- The town is just over the border.
- There is rain over the whole country.
- Put the blanket over the bed.

During: boyunca
- I saw him several times over the past week.
- It took over an hour to do my homework.
- The population has increased over the past twenty years.
- Can you stay with us over Christmas?
- Let’s discuss it over dinner.

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 Past

Up to and beyond: I walked past the house.

After (in time): It was past 2 o'clock, half past two
Beyond: past belief
- I saw you yesterday when we drove past your school.
- The post office is just past the police station.
- Don’t work past your bed-time.
- This is difficult. It’s past me.
- It’s nearly ten minutes past five. 5.09 tobe precise.

Througy /Throughout: çapında, boyunca, yardımıyla

In every part of: çapında

throughout the world
- History is one of the few school subjects commonly mandated in education systems
throughout the world.
- It is raining throughout the whole country.
- I had made a hole through the wall.

For the whole of a period:

throughout the winter
- He worked throughout the day, and most of the night.
- He was involved in politics throughout his life.

By means of: vasıtasıyla, yardımıyla

- Skill improves through practice.
- We don’t get into the house through the window.
- The debate continued, but Meredith remained silent throughout.

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To

In the direction of:

- Turn to right.

Destination:
- I am going to New York.

Until:
- from Monday to Friday; five minutes to ten

Compared with:
- They prefer hockey to soccer.

With indirect object:

- Please give it to me.

As part of infinitive:
- I like to eat, He wants to see me.

In order to:
- We went to the store to buy soap.
- Could you give this to Kob?
- My car does 10 miles to the litre.
- To his surprise, the door was open.
- The museum is open from Monday to Friday.
- The time is ten to five. [4.50]

Under

Beneath: under the desk, under the trees

Less than: Under 100 people were present.
- It's unlucky to walk under a ladder in my culture. I always walk around them.
- The mouse ran under the chair.
- The bucket is under the sink.
- Submarines can travel under water.
- We drove under a bridge.
- I have a T-shirt under my pullover.
- Who do you work under? Who is your boss?
- I am under orders from the President.
- What is the subject under discussion?
- Under the company rules, we can’t do that.
- Please buy it if it’s under $50.
- The maritime areas under the jurisdiction of the member states of the European Union are
larger than the land masses.

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 In circumstances of: under repair, under way, under discussion
- Saturn and its 47 diverse moons have been under the close watch of the Cassini probe since
2004.

With

With: With + noun/noun phrase/Pronoun, ( Noun phrase= adj + Noun )

Accompanying: He came with her.
Having, containing: Here is a book with a map of the island.
By means of, using: I repaired the shoes with glue.
Manner: with pleasure, with ease, with difficulty
Because of: We were paralyzed with fear.
Use “with” after verbs which describe a state rather than an action
- The room was lit with candles.
- Her house is always filled with music.
- It collided with another ship which has sunk.

Within: içinde, dahilinde, kapsamında

Inside of: within twenty minutes, within one kilometer
- His house is within a stone’s throw from the school.

Without: Not having: Without + noun/Ving

- Do not leave without your coat.
- After the storm we were without electricity for five days.
- I accepted his offer without a moment's hesitation.
- He told his story without anger or bitterness.
- I don't know what I'd do without you.
- Won't you be lonely without her?
- Without wanting to sound too boastful, I think we have the best television programmes in the
world.

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 Others

About:
On the subject of: This is a story about elephants.
Approximately: He is about ten years old.

Afterwards: daha sonra, sonradan

“Afterwards” can be used instead, and can also be used as an adverb on its own
- His parents came shortly afterwards.
- You can meet the actors afterwards (Not “after”).

Against:
- Did you vote for or against the suggestion?
- He put his bicycle against the wall.

Among (involves three or more):

With in a group: The money was shared among three people.
Note: In formal English, among is usually used only when referring to more than two persons or
things. In contrast, between is used when referring to two persons or things.

Around:
Circling something: We sat around the table playing cards.
Surrounding: There is a fence around the garden.
In different parts of: I looked around the house for the keys.
In the other direction: We turned around and went back home.
Approximately: He is around six feet tall.

Behind:
At the back of: The little girl hid behind her mother.
Late: I am behind in my work.
Cause; origin: Who was behind that idea?
- He hid himself behind a tree. (Hide – Hid - Hidden)
- We have a small vegetable garden behind the house.

Below:
Lower than; under: below freezing; below sea level
Later on a page: Footnotes are provided below the text.
- They camped a few hundred feet below the summit. (summit: zirve)
- No one below the level of senior manager was present at the meeting.
- Test scores below 50 were classed as 'unsatisfactory'. (unsatisfactory:yetersiz)
- In winter, temperatures dip to 40 degrees below freezing. (Kışın sıcaklıklar sıfırın altında 40
dereceye iner.)
- free travel for children five years old and below
- Details of courses are listed below.
- For more information, see below.

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Besides + noun /Ving:
In addition to + noun /Ving = as well as + noun / Ving:
- We study other languages besides English.
- I have to prapare my home work besides my lessons.
- How many brothers have you besides you?

Concerning: Hakkında, ..e dair

- He wrote a book concerning children.
- There is nothing concerning you.
- I can’t tell you anything concerning this.

Despite: In spite of (Preposition phrase)

- We walked downtown despite the rain.
- She went to Spain despite the fact that her doctor had told her to rest.

Down:
To a lower position: The ball rolled down the hill.
Further along: He lives down the street.
- They ran down the hill.
- The post office is down the road.
- They have had many wars down the years.

Except:
Not including: I have visited everyone except him. I answered all the questions excepting the
last one.

Into:
To the inside of: We stepped into the room.
Change of condition: The boy changed into a man.
- He jumped over the wall and into the garden.
- He was driving at 180 miles per hour when he crashed into the central barrier.

In spite of:
- They went out in spite of the rain.
- I want to go to school in spite of my illness.

Less:
- 10 less 3 = 7.

Minus:
- 17 minus 5 is 12 (17 - 5 = 12).
- The payment will be refunded to you minus a small service charge.
- He came back minus a couple of front teeth.

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Near:
- The school is near the post office.
- It’s 20 December. We are very near Christmas Day.

Near to; next to= close to

Close to: near the school, near the ocean

Onto / On to:
To a position on: onto a beach
- The child climbed onto the table.
- The cat jumped onto the chair.
- The police are onto us. (slang)

Out of:
To the outside of: She went out of the room.
From among: We won two games out of three.
Motive: We spoke to them out of politeness.
Material: The Bridge is made out of steel.
Beyond: out of control, out of danger
- I took the old card out of the computer and put in the new one.
- I went up to him and asked him the best way to get out of town.

Per:
For each: 60 kilometers per hour, price per liter
- The speed limit is 70 miles per hour.
- The carpet costs $10 per square metre.

Pro:
- Are you pro capital punishment?
- He is generally pro new ideas.

Round, around:
- The earth goes round the sun.
- He has traveled all arround the world.

Towards: birşeye doğru yönelmek, bir şeye karşı yönelmek; yönünde

In the direction of: We walked toward the center of town.
Near, just before (time): It rained towards evening.
- He drove pass me without stopping and drove off towards the centre of town.
- When the bull ran towards me, I jumped over the fence.
Underneath:
Below, under: underneath the carpet

Up:
To a higher place: We went up the stairs.
In a higher place: She lives up the hill.
- She ran along the corridor and up the stairs to the second floor.

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Up to: kadar, doğru, uygun; en fazla
As far as, Up to now: I have read up to page 100.
Depending on: The decision is up to you.
As good as, ready for: His work is up to standard.
- Most people can remember a phone number for up to thirty seconds.

Versus: Against (sport, legal):

- The next game is Germany versus Turkey.

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 3.4. Adjective Preposition

İngilizce’de kişisel özellikleri anlatmak için kullanılan ifadelerdir.

Structure: Adj + Preposition + Noun /Noun Phrase /Ving
Adj + Preposition + someone /somebody

An adjective prepositional phrase will come right after the noun or pronoun that it modifies. Only
adjective prepositional phrases modify the object of the preposition in another prepositional
phrase.
- The book on the table in the English classroom is Barbara's book.
- The girl in the neighboring house plays the flute every night.
- Large blocks of the hardest granite formed the walls of the new building.
- The roads of ancient Rome connected the cities of the empire.
- Sign your name at the top /bottom.
- I parked the car in front of the building.
- Your bag is behind the door.

Adjectival prepositional phrases, like adjectives, modify nouns: for example, they tell you which
boy:
- The boy at the station told me.
- The boy from London lives here.
- The boy in a hurry is waiting over there.

The same phrase can be adjectival or adverbial, depending on its function in the sentence.
- Please read the message from Lee.
- The man on the radio has a boring voice.

Preposition after adjectives:

At: I’m quite good at English but I’m bad at maths and I’m terrible at physics.

For: The town is famous for its cheese.

As well as ‘good for’, ‘bad for’ and ‘famous for’ we also say ‘qualified for’ ‘ready for’, ‘responsible
for’, ‘suitable for’ and several others.

Of: I’m perfectly capable of doing it myself, thank you. I’m very fond of this old sweatshirt.
As well as ‘capable of’ and ‘fond of’ we also say ‘aware of’, ‘full of’, ‘tired of’ and several others.

With: We’re very pleased with your progress. You’re not still angry with me are you?
As well as ‘pleased with’ and ‘angry with’ we also say ‘bored with’, ‘delighted with’, ‘satisfied with’
and several others.

To: You’ll be responsible to the head of the Finance department.

Notice that you can be responsible for something but responsible to someone.

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Other common adjective + preposition combinations include ‘interested in’ and ‘keen on’. It’s a
good idea to make a note of new combinations in your vocabulary notebook as you meet them.
Remember too that a preposition is followed by a noun or a gerund (‘ing’ form).

Adj + to + somone /somebody: “kime” sorusuna yanıt aranır.

Adj + to + noun: bağlantılı olmak.
Nice /kind /good /(im)polite /rude / (un)pleasant /(un)friendly /cruel TO someone
To be harmful to: causing or likely to cause harm
married to: birisiyle evli olmak.
nice to: birisine karşı iyi olmak / iyi davranmak.
opposed to: bir şeye karşı olmak.
polite to: birisine karşı kibar olmak.
responsible to sbd for sth: having a duty to be in charge of or to look after someone or
something.
similar to: bir şeye benzer olmak.
used to: birisine / bir şeye alışkın olmak.
- This chemical is harmful to us.
- Why are you so unfriendly to Ann?
- We are used to tourists here. Burada turistlere alışkınız.
- She has always been very nice to me.
- She is married to the manager. Müdürle evli.
- You should be nice to the old people. Yaşlı insanlara karşı iyi olman gerekir.
- She is opposed to religious education in schools. Okullarda dini eğitime karşıdır.
- Was she polite to you? Sana karşı kibar mıydı?
- This tower is similar to Eiffel tower.
- The material available to archaeologists is very limited, due to the ravages of time, weather,
fire, and theft.

adj + at: ne de?

adj + at: birisinde ya da birşeyde … olmak

angry at: birisine kızgın olmak.
surprised /shocked /amazed /astonished AT /BY something.
excellent /brilliant /hopeless AT (doing) something.
bad at something: bir şeyde kötü olmak.
good at: bir şeyde iyi olmak.
shocked by /at: bir şeyden şaşkına dönmek, sarsılmak.
upset at /by:
- I am good at singing. Şarkı söylemede iyiyim.
- The public is angry at the politicians. Halk politikacılara kızgın.
- Everyone was surprised by /at the news.
- I'm not very good at repairing things.
- I'm bad at football. Futbol'da kötüyüm.
- His parents were disappointed at me. Ailesi beim yüzünden hayal kırıklığına uğradı.

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adj + about: Ne hakkında?
adj + about: Bir konu hakkında tepki vermek. Hakkında üzgün olmak, kızgın olmak, endişeli
olmak, dikkatli olmak, meraklı olmak, çılgın olmak.
angry about: bir şeye kızgın olmak.
furious about:
sorry about: birisiyle /bir şeyle ilgili üzgün olmak.
upset about: bir şey hakkında üzgün olmak.
worried about: birisiyle / bir şeyle ilgili endişeli olmak.
careful about: bir şeye dikkat etmek.
crazy about: bir şeyi deli gibi sevmek.
curious about: meraklı olmak.
excited about:
- We are angry about the injustice. Haksızlığa kızgınız.
- I'm sorry about my rude behaviour. Kaba davranışımdan dolayı üzgünüm.
- I was worried about you, why didn't you call? Senin için endişelendim, neden armadın?
- Be careful about the wet roads. Islak yollara dikkat et.
- She is crazy about the baby dolls.
- I am curious about the result of election. Seçimin sonucunu merak ediyorum.
- Are you excited about going on holiday next week?

adj + of : neyin
adj + of: noun phrase.
Birisine ya da birşeye kızmak, birisine ya da bir şeye üzgün olmak, kızgın olmak, endişeli olmak,
dikkatli olmak, meraklı olmak, çılgın olmak.
As well as ‘capable of’ and ‘fond of’ we also say ‘aware of’, ‘full of’, ‘tired of’ and several others.
Nice /kind /good /stupid /silly /intelligent /clever /sensible /(im)polite /rude /unreasonable OF
someone (to do something).
scared /frightened /terrified OF someone /something.
proud /ashamed OF someone /something.
suspicious of/about: thinking that someone might be guilty of doing something wrong or
dishonest
afraid of: korkmak;
proud of: birisiyle /bir şeyle gurur duymak.
fond of: düşkün olmak.
jealous of: feeling angry and unhappy because someone has something that you wish you had.
short of: if something is short, there is not enough of it
To be aware of: if you are aware that a situation exists, you realize or know that it exists.
- I am proud of my wife. Eşimle gurur duyuyorum.
- All parents are fond of their children. Bütün anne-babalar çocuklarına düşkün olurlar.
- Thank you it was very nice /kind of you to help me. It's stupid of her to go out without a coat.
- I'm not ashamed of what I did.
- She is afraid of failure. Başarısızlıktan korkuyor.
- Are you aware of the danger? Tehlikenin farkında mısın?
- This city is full of good people. Bu şehir iyi insanlarla dolu.
- It wasn’t polite of him to leave without saying a word.

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Adj + preposition + preposition:
Occasionally, an adjective is followed by more than one specified preposition within a clause.
Either prepositional phrase could be the sole (only) complement.
Justin is responsible to his boss for the project.
Justin was apologetic to his boss for not being on time.
Justin is thankful to co-workers for being supportive.
One co-worker was argumentative with his boss about how to do a job.
The co-work was upset with his boss for not exploring other ideas.
He was frank with Justin about what he thought. (honest, direct)
Justin is good at helping co-workers with math projects.

adj + with: ne ile

adj + with: birisi ile ya da birşeyle hissi olmak.
pleased / satisfied WITH something
disappointed with: hayal kırıklığına uğramak.
bored /fed up WITH something: bir şeyden sıkılmak.
Angry with sbd/sth: feeling strong emotions which make you want to shout at someone or hurt
them because they have behaved in an unfair, cruel, offensive etc way, or because you think
that a
busy with: bir şeyle meşgul olmak.
careful with: bir şeyle dikkatli olmak.
happy with: bir şeyle /birisiyle mutlu olmak.
familiar with: bir şeye tanıdık, aşina olmak.
ill with: hasta olmak.
To be furious with sbd: very angry
- I was angry with myself for making such a stupid mistake.
- Were you disappointed with your examination results?
- She is happy with her children. Çocuklarıyla mutlu.
- Michael Jackson was ill with skin. - Michael Jackson'ın deri hastalığı vardı.
- I started to get angry with him.
- They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party.
- I was pleased with the present you gave me.
- The students were dissappointed with the results. Öğrenciler sonuçlardan hayal kırıklığına
uğradı.
- I am bored with stupid TV programs. Aptal televizyon programlarından sıkıldım.
- She is busy with the reports. Raporlarla meşgul.
- She was careful with the knife. Bıçakla dikkatliydi.
- I am not familiar with Anatolia's traditions. Anadolu'nun geleneklerine aşina değilim.
- You get bored /fed up with doing the same thing every day.

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adj + for : bundan dolayı, …dan beri
As well as ‘good for’, ‘bad for’ and ‘famous for’ we also say ‘qualified for’ ‘ready for’, ‘responsible
for’, ‘suitable for’ and several others.
known for: bir şeyle tanınmış, ünlü.
late for: bir şeye / yere geç kalmak.
prepared for: bir şeye hazır olmak.
ready for: bir şey için hazır olmak.
useful for: bir şeye yararlı olmak.
- Smoking is bad for health. - Sigara sağlığa zararlıdır.
- What is Turkey famous for? Türkiye ne ile ünlü?
- She got married, I am very happy for her. Evlenmesinden dolay onun için çok mutluyum.
- This restaurant is known for its friendly atmosphere. Bu restoran samimi ortamından dolayı
ünlüdür.
- I must hurry up. I'm late for work. Acele etmeliyim, işe geç kaldım.
- We are prepared for the worst. En kötüsüne hazırız.
- Are you ready for the earthquake? Depreme hazır mısın?
- He is responsible for the sales department. Satış departmanından sorumlu.
- The film isn't suitable for the children. Film çocuklar için uygun değil.
- Some fruits and vegetables are very useful for cancer. Bazı meyve ve sebzeler kansere çok
yararlı.

Adj + from + somenone /something:

different from: farklı olmak

- This girl is different form the others. Bu kız diğerlerinden farklı.

Adj + in + somenone /something:

interested in: bir şeyle ilgilenmek, ilgili olmak.
- My sister is interested in photography. Kardeşim fotoğrafla ilgileniyor.

Adj + on + somenone /something:

keen on: bir şeye istekli olmak.
- The children are always keen on playing games. Çocuklar her zaman oyun oynamaya
isteklidir.

Adj + by + somenone /something:

- I was deeply shocked by my father's death. Babamın ölümüyle derinden sarsıldım.

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 3.5. Preposition and Verbs

Some verbs are usually followed by prepositions before the object of the verb. These are called
dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund (‘ing’ form).
- He’s waiting for a bus. “For” is the dependent preposition for ‘wait’

For: den beri, den dolayı

- The Renaissance originated in Italy for several reasons.
Rönesans, çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı İtalya'da doğdu.
- He apologised for being late. You can also ‘apologise to someone’
- I applied for the job but I didn’t get it.
- How do you ask for a coffee in Polish?
- She spent many years caring for her aged parents.
- I can’t go out tonight because I have to prepare for my interview tomorrow.

From:
- This spray should protect you from mosquitoes.
- Has he recovered from his illness yet?
- He won an award because he saved someone from drowning.
- I suffer from hay fever.

In:
- She believes in ghosts.
- Our company specialises in computer software.
- You have to work hard if you want to succeed in life.

Of: … den dolayı. … yüzünden

- I don’t approve of your language, young man.
- Our dog died of old age.
- This shampoo smells of bananas.
- She died of cancer aged just 47.

On:
- The film is based on the novel by Boris Pasternak. ( “base on” is phrasal verb.)
- If you make so much noise I can’t concentrate on my work.
- Come on! We’re relying on you!
- We don’t agree on anything but we’re good friends.
- Despite the official ban on demonstrations, 2008 has seen Egyptians take to the streets in
massive numbers on several occasions.
- Police will not comment on identity of attacker.
Polis saldırganın kimliği hakkında yorum yapmayacak.

To:
- Can I introduce you to my wife?
- Please refer to the notes at the end for more information.
- Nobody responded to my complaint.

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With:
- I agree with everything you’ve said.
- My secretary will provide you with more information if you need it.
Note: There are many more verb + dependent preposition combinations – make a note of them
as you meet them.

The prepositions after Phrasal Verbs

- We will never give in to terror.

The list of preposition after verbs

Hear sbd/sth
Watch sbd/sth (often say "watch TV")
Go to somewhere with somebody
To be good at sth/doing sth
Tobe nervous about sth
Reason why + clause

Listen to sbd/ sth (we say listen to radio)

Be married to sbd
Use to do sth
deny sbd to something
take sbd to somewhere
bring sbd to
Reason for sth
Thanks (sbd) for doing something

Looking at
Look at somebody= see
Look for= search/find

To be aware of: if you are aware that a situation exists, you realize or know that it exists
Give up something/doing something
Possibility of doing sth
Look forward to + Ving

Rely on doing something/something: trust or depend on someone or something to do what you

need or expect them to do
Substitute something for something: to use something new or different instead of something else
To be proud of sbd/sth: feeling pleased about something that you have done or something that
you own, or about someone or something you are involved with or related to

Charge for:
be responsible for
abide by
spirit of

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 4. Verbals
All verbs, except modal verbs, have four verbal forms which are called verbal or non-finite
verb forms: the infinitive, the present participle, the past participle, the gerund. Verbals have
some properties of the verb; for example, they have perfect and passive forms and can take
an object. Verbals also have some properties of the other parts of speech; for example,
gerunds and infinitives can be used in the function of nouns, and participles can function as
adjectives.
• Ing- form: do the action actively
• ed- form: receive action from other
• Infinitive = To + Verb: function as adverb
• Participles = “Verb+ ed” and “Ving”: function as adjective
• Gerund = Ving: functions as a noun
• Nonfinite clauses = a dependent clause whose main verb is nonfinite: functions as a
noun, adjective, or adverb

Explanation:
To Verb (to + V): express purpose of doing something.
To Verb: imply the purpose of an action.

find /see /watch /hear...+ to Verb :you find /see or watch the whole action
find /see /watch /hear...+ Verb_ing : you find /see or watch part of the action

- Need + To be Past Particple /V_ing: if before "need" is not person

- Need + To Verb: If before "need" is person

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 4.1. Gerund

The gerund is formed by adding the ending “ing” to the base form of the verb. We make a
gerund form “the verb + ing”. The gerund form of the verb "read" is "reading." Gerund is used
as a noun or an adjective.

• We can use gerunds after prepositions and some verbs.

• Verbs following a preposition must be in the _ing form.
He has fed up with eating pizza every day. “The preposition + gerund is “with eating”
• After the adjective “good”, we use the preposition “at” + gerund.
I am good at swimming.
• The adjective “interested”, we use the preposition “in + gerund”
Gilbert looked up from his play and saw that his mother was very deeply interested in her
book.

You can use a gerund as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence:
- Walking is good for your health.
- I'm tired of waiting.
- He likes reading.
- Swimming is good for health.
- I see a running man

Gerunds can be in active, perfect, and passive forms, of which the simple active form is the
most common:
- He remembers giving the keys to that man.
- He remembers having given the keys to that man.
- That man doesn't remember being given the keys.
- That man doesn't remember having been given the keys.

Gerund as a subject (or part of the subject) of a verb:

- Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience.
- Reading helps you learn English.
- Getting up early is a good habit. Erken kalkmak iyi bir alışkanlıktır.
- Being married will not make me happy. Evlenmek beni mutlu etmeyecek.
- Listening to CNN helps my pronunciation a lot. CNN’i dinlemek telaffuzuma çok yardımcı
oluyor.
- Speaking English well requires a lot of practice. İngilizce’yi iyi konuşmak çok pratik
gerektiriyor.
- Looking after many children keeps Susan busy. Birçok çocuğa bakmak Susan’ı oyalıyor.
- Hunting tigers is dangerous.
- Flying makes me nervous.
- Horse-racing is his favorite activity.
- Swimming in the winter can boost your immune system.
- Learning a foreign language is easier at a young age.

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Gerund as an object (Verb + Ving):
- He enjoys teaching English.
- I enjoy reading book.
- She suggested going to a movie.
- Mary keeps talking about her problems.
- I am sorry, I can’t remember meeting her last week.
- Wild food adventures require getting your hair cut to a short, safe length.
- Getting your hair cut to a short, safe length = direct object of the verb require.

Like, want, gibi fiilerden sonra object olarak “Ving (Gerund)” geldiği gibi “to verb (to
infinitive)” de gelmektedir.
- I don’t feel like to go /going for a walknow.

Gerund as a complement:
- A more disastrous activity for long-haired people is blowing giant bubble gum bubbles
with the car windows down.
Blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down = subject complement of
the verb is.
- His job is teaching English.
- Her favorite hobby is reading.

Gerunds are used like an adjective:

- John is in the living room.
- We need more drinking.
- We have an adequate supply of writing paper.
- Pat is angry about walking in the rain.
- John is good at working in the garden.
- The children are not happy about seeing a doctor.
- Are you interested in writing poems?

Gerunds, kendisinden sonra bir isim alarak Türkçe’deki isim tamlaması gibi kullanılır:
Living room: oturma odası
Drinking water: içme suyu
Sleeping pill: uyku hapı
Ironing board: ütü tahtası
Swimming pool: yüzme havuzu

Gerunds can often be modified with possessive forms such as his, her, its, your, their,
our, John's, Mary's, the machine's, and so on. This makes it clearer who or what is
performing the action.
- I can’t understand his insisting on such an unimportant detail.
- I can’t understand her arguing with me. Benimle tartışmasını anlayamıyorum.
- I enjoyed their singing. They were singing.
- She understood his saying no to the offer. He said no.
- We discussed the machine's being broken. The machine is broken.

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Gerund and present participle phrases:
Gerund and present participle phrases are easy to confuse because they both begin with an
“ing” word. The difference is that a gerund phrase will always function as a noun while a
present participle phrase describes another word in the sentence. Check out these
examples:
- Jamming too much clothing into a washing machine will result in disaster.
- Bernard hates buttering toast with a fork.
Buttering toast with a fork = gerund phrase, the direct object of the verb hates.
- Buttering toast with a fork, Bernard vowed that he would finally wash the week's worth of
dirty dishes piled in the sink.Buttering toast with a fork = present participle phrase
describing Bernard.
- Last night I had to sleep on the couch because I found my dog Floyd hogging the middle
of the bed.
Hogging the middle of the bed = present participle phrase describing Floyd.

Gerunds are used between “the” and “of” just like nouns:
- The burning of fossil fuels causes a number of environmental problems.

Go + gerund:
There are many "go + gerund" expressions used for adventure sports and individual
recreational activities.
- I go swimming every weekend.
- Would you ever go skydiving?

Gerunds can be made negative by adding "not."

- He enjoys not working.
- The best thing for your health is not smoking.

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 Gerunds after prepositions

Gerunds as prepositional objects are used after many adjectives and participles. Gerunds in
the function of prepositional indirect objects are used after various phrasal verbs, adjectives
and participles that require certain prepositions. Gerunds as prepositional objects are used
after many phrasal verbs.
feel like, feel up to, forget about, forgive for, insist on, keep from, lead to, long for, look
forward to, mean by, object to, pay for, persist in, prevent from, remind of, result in, return to,
save from, succeed in, suspect of, take to, talk into, talk out of, thank for, think about, think
of, work on, worry about.

afraid of, ashamed of, aware of, capable of, confident of, frightened of, fond of, proud of,
scared of, sure of, tired of, accuse of, approve of, believe in, complain of, consist of,
disapprove of, dream of,
(suçlandım, korktum, mahçubum, farkındayım, yetenekliyim, kendime güvenirim, korktum,
düşkünüm, gururluyum, korktum, eminim, yorgunum)
- I'm tired of arguing.
- She is fond of listening to fairy tales.
- He was accused of stealing.
- He is proud of being a member of the team.
- There's a chance of catching a cold these days.
- Peggy is in danger of making a mistake.
- This is a simple method of finding solutions.
- There's some opportunity of bringing her parents together again.
- He has the problem of swimming too slow.

apologize for, responsible for, sorry for, grateful for, thankful for, blame for,
(sorumluluk sahibi, üzgünüm, minnettar, müteşekkir)
- These exercises are good for memorizing vowel combinations.
- He was sorry for giving them so much trouble.
- Lena was responsible for ordering food.

angry at, annoyed at, disappointed at, furious at, good at, surprised at
(kızgın, sinirlenmiş, hayal kırıklığına uğramış, öfkeli, iyi, şaşırmış)
- She is good at keeping secrets.
- She was angry at being left alone at home.

engaged in, experienced in, successful in, interested in, consist in,
- She is interested in buying an apartment in this neighborhood.

agree on, count on, depend on,

careful about, concerned about, excited about, worried about, care about, complain about,

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confess to, consent to, accustomed to, be used to (alışkınım, kullanılabilirim)
- He is used to living alone.
- She is accustomed to getting up early.
-
Examples:
- They accused him of stealing their money.
- She blames him for losing her suitcase. Excuse me for interrupting you.
- Thank you for coming. He insists on buying a new car.
- He objected to selling the house.
- Compulsory vaccination prevented the disease from spreading.
- He talked them into investing in his project.
- We are looking forward to seeing you.
- They admitted to committing the crime.
- Leslie made up for forgetting my birthday.
- He thinks about studying abroad.
- He is quite used to working hard. Çok çalışmaya oldukça alışıktır.
- My brother is interested in playing football. Erkek kardeşimin futbol oynamaya karşı bir
ilgisi var.
- After taking a bath, I felt fine. Banyo yaptıktan sonra kendimi iyi hissettim.
- The teacher is tired of teaching the same subject all the time.
- I was afraid of hurting her feelings. Duygularını incitmekten korkuyordum.
- I will call you after arriving at the office.
- I am looking forward to meeting you.
- We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
- The tablet must not be taken before getting up in the morning.
- I manage it by working much longer than 40-hour weeks.
- In spite of studying a lot he didn't pass the exams.
- She insisted on calling her sister.

There are many "adjective + preposition" combinations and "noun + preposition"

combinations in English as well. These are also followed by gerunds.
- Sandy is scared of flying. [adjective + preposition]
- Nick is anxious about taking the examination. [adjective + preposition]
- His interest in becoming a professional snowboarder was well known.[noun +
preposition]
- Thomas' story about seeing a grizzly bear was really exciting. [noun + preposition]

Set phrases with gerund:

- It is no use waiting for him.
- Waiting for him is (of) no use.
In the second example, "waiting" is the subject, answers the question "what?", and is used
as a noun. Consequently, "waiting" is a gerund in both sentences.
Note: The infinitive may be used instead of the gerund in such sentences. For example: It
is no use to wait for him.

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There is no point + in + gerund:
- There is no point in asking a question if you don't want to listen to the answer.
- There was no point in asking him about it.
- There was no point in repairing our old refrigerator. We decided to buy a new one.
- There's no sense in going there now.

We had trouble + gerund:

- He had trouble finding a place to live.
- We had trouble communicating with them.
- We had difficulty understanding his speech.
- She had difficulty getting a visa.
- I had a problem choosing a present for her.

be worth + gerund:
- This coat is worth buying.
- This film is worth seeing.
- This book is dull. It's not worth reading.
- It's a trifle. It's not worth mentioning.

Verbs followed by gerunds

Admit He admitted cheating on the test.

Advise The doctor generally advised drinking low-fat milk.
Allow Ireland doesn't allow smoking in bars.
Anticipate I anticipated arriving late.
Appreciate I appreciated her helping me.
Avoid He avoided talking to her.
Begin I began learning Chinese.
Can't bear He can't bear having so much responsibility.
Can't help He can't help talking so loudly.
Can't see I can't see paying so much money for a car.
Can't stand He can't stand her smoking in the office.
Cease Government ceased providing free healthcare.
Complete He completed renovating the house.
Consider She considered moving to New York.
Continue He continued talking.
Defend The lawyer defended her making such statements.
Delay He delayed doing his taxes.
Deny He denied committing the crime.
Despise She despises waking up early.
Discuss We discussed working at the company.
Dislike She dislikes working after 5 PM.
Don't mind I don't mind helping you.
Dread She dreads getting up at 5 AM.
Encourage He encourages eating healthy foods.

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Enjoy We enjoy hiking.
Finish He finished doing his homework.
Forget I forgot giving you my book.
Hate I hate cleaning the bathroom.
Imagine He imagines working there one day.
Involve The job involves traveling to Japan once a month.
Keep She kept interrupting me.
Like She likes listening to music.
Love I love swimming.
Mention He mentioned going to that college.
Mind Do you mind waiting here for a few minutes.
Miss She misses living near the beach.
Need The aquarium needs cleaning.
Neglect Sometimes she neglects doing her homework.
Permit California does not permit smoking in restaurants.
Postpone He postponed returning to Paris.
Practice She practiced singing the song.
Prefer He prefers sitting at the back of the movie theater.
Propose I proposed having lunch at the beach.
Quit She quit worrying about the problem.
Recall Tom recalled using his credit card at the store.
Recollect She recollected living in Kenya.
Recommend Tony recommended taking the train.
Regret She regretted saying that.
Remember I remember telling her the address yesterday.
Report He reported her stealing the money.
Require The certificate requires completing two courses.
Resent Nick resented Debbie's being there.
Resist He resisted asking for help.
Risk He risked being caught.
Start He started studying harder.
Stop She stopped working at 5 o'clock.
Suggest They suggested staying at the hotel.
Tolerate I tolerated her talking.
Try Sam tried opening the lock with a paperclip.
Understand I understand his quitting.
Urge They urge recycling bottles and paper.

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 4.2. Infinitive

The infinitive is the base form of the verb plus the particle "to": to read, to go, to jump. We use the
infinitive of purpose to say “why” we do something. If we use the Ving form, there is a suggestion
that we are witnessing the event in progress, whereas if we use the bare infinitive, this suggests
that we can hear or see the complete action or event. An infinitive describes why someone does
something. Bir eylemin yapılma nedenini anlatmak için kullanılır (infinitive of purpose):
- I sat down to rest. Dinlenmek için oturdum.
- He went to London to improve his English. İngilizce’sini geliştirmek için Londra’ya gitti.
- I’m going to Italy to learn Italian. İtalyanca öğrenmek için İtalya’ya gidiyorum.
- To switch on, press red button. Açmak için kırmızı düğmeye basın.

Infinitive Structure: to + V

A verb + infinitive:
- She likes to read.
- He wants to go.
- An eagle attempted to lift a little boy into the air during a bird show at Alice Springs in
Australia
Witnesses said the bird attempted to pick him up "like a small animal".
The bird then flew over the crowd and tried to grab on to a young boy's head. He screamed,
the mother was distraught and the presenters wrapped up the show very quickly.

“for” or “to + infinitive”: individual purpose

If we want to express individual purpose with a verb pattern, we are obliged to use “to + infinitive”:
- I decided to buy a new computer.
- I stopped by at the supermarket to buy some apples on the way home.

Note that when the subject of the sentence is a person rather than the thing described, the “to +
infinitive” pattern is also possible:
- I use this small knife to slice vegetables with.
- I use this gadget to open shellfish with.

“For” is commonly used with nouns to express individual purpose:

- I decided I would save up for a new computer.

A verb + infinitive without “to”:

The infinitive without the particle "to" is called bare infinitive.) The infinitive loses the particle "to"
after modal verbs. Bare infinitive (i.e., infinitive without the particle “to”) is used after modal verbs
and after the verbs "make, let" (and after "help" in AmE):
- He can swim.
- She made me do it.
- She can read.
- He must go.

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An adjective + infinitive:
- It is not necessary to be rich and famous to be happy.
- It is only necessary to be rich.

Simple active and passive infinitive forms are the most common.

An infinitive can function as the subject, part of the predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier.
- To ask such a thing is ridiculous.
- I can do it.
- I hope to see you soon.
- I asked him to help me.
- It's time to go.
- I went there to see my brother.

The infinitive can have a direct object:

- He plans to visit a museum.
- Press Enter to start the installation.
- She came here to study.
- I went out to buy bread and milk.
- He did it to help her.

The infinitive can have a prepositional object:

- He wants to know about it.

The infinitive can be modified by an adverb:

- He tried to walk slowly.

The infinitive can function as an adverbial modifier of purpose:

- He came here to study.

The infinitive can function as an adverbial modifier of consequence:

- He was too tired to go to the cinema.

If there are two infinitives next to each other connected by "and, or, but, except, than", the second
infinitive is often used without "to":
- I told him to sit down and rest.
- She didn't know whether to go or stay.
- There was nothing to do but wait.
- There is nothing for him to do but watch TV.
- It's easier to type than write.

But it is often necessary to repeat "to" before the second infinitive for clarity, especially in longer
infinitive phrases:
- I told him to sit down on the sofa and to rest a little.
- It is easier to type this text than to write it.
- To buy or not to buy is a hard choice for her.

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The particle "to" is often used without the infinitive at the end of the sentence if the infinitive is
clearly mentioned earlier in the sentence:
- He asks me to do this work, but I don't want to.
- I didn't want to go there, but I had to.
- He would prefer to sleep till noon if he were allowed to.
(The place of the particle "to" is also described in the part "Split infinitive" at the end of this
article.)

The finite verb forms express the time of the action in the present, past, or future.
- He works in a bank.
- He worked yesterday.
- He will work tomorrow.

The action indicated by the infinitive can be simultaneous with the action expressed by the verb
in the predicate:
- He seemed to be sleeping.
- He is trying to work.

The action indicated by the infinitive can precede the action expressed by the verb in the
predicate:
- The rain seems to have stopped.
- It is nice to have talked to you.

The action of the infinitive later than the action of the verb in the predicate is understood from
the context and meaning:
- He intends to do it tomorrow.
- The goods are to be delivered next week.

In some situations, the noun is required. In other situations, the noun is optional.
- The police ordered the man to stop. (noun is required)
- She asked to leave. She asked him to leave. (noun is optional)
- She wants me to go with her. Kendisiyle gitmemi istiyor.
- They expect me to work on Saturdays. Cumartesi günleri çalışmamı bekliyorlar.
- The boss forced me to work hard. Patron beni çok çalışmaya zorladı.
- The doctor ordered the patient to stay in bed. Doktor, hastasına yataktan çıkmama talimatı
verdi.
- I told him to wait. Ona beklemesini söyledim.
- We warned them not to go skating on such thin ice. Böyle ince buzda paten yapmamaları için
onları uyardım.
- I forbid you to use that word. O sözü kullanmanı yasaklıyorum.
- We persuaded him to try again. Tekrar denemesi için onu ikna ettik.
- He caused the prisoners to be put to death. Mahkumların öldürülmelerine neden oldu.
- His conscience compelled him to confess. Vicdanı onu itiraf etmeye zorladı.

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 With modal verbs, the infinitive is part of the compound verbal predicate.
- He can write reports.
- He must be writing a report now.
- He should have written a report yesterday.
- This report might have been written by one of our freelance workers.

Simple and compound infinitive forms, together with the verbs "would, could, might", are used
in the forms expressing unreal condition.
- If I had known it, I would have stayed home.

İngilizce’de kimi fiiller (watch, see, hear, observe, feel, let, notice …), etken cümle
durumunda, nesnelerinden sonra “to” almazlar:
- I saw him cross the street.
- I watched him plant the roses.
- I heard her cry.
- I watch my teacher do the exercise first before I attempt it myself. Kendim denemeden önce
alıştırmayı öğretmenimin yapmasını izlerim.

Note: Bu tür fiiller edilgen çatıya çevrilirken to alırlar: He was heard to go out. Dışarı çıktığı
duyuldu.
Note: Help ve be fiilleri, hem “to” ile hem de “to” olmaksızın kullanılabilirler:
- The boy helped her (to) carry the table upstairs. Çocuk, onun masayı üst kata taşımasına
yardım etti.

The present participle is used instead of the infinitive in such constructions to stress that
the action is in progress.
- I saw him crossing the street.
- I heard her singing.

Bazı isimlerden ve something, anything gibi kelimelerden sonra kullanılırlar:

- I have no wish to change. Değişmeye niyetim yok.
- Madrid have no plan to sell Roaldo.
- Have you got a key to open this door? Bu kapıyı açacak anahtarın var mı?
- It’s a pleasure to see you again. Seni yeniden görmek çok hoş.
- I am happy to see you again.
- I told her about my decision to leave. Ona ayrılma kararımı söyledim.
- I’d like something to stop my toothache. Diş ağrımı geçirecek bir şey istiyorum.
- I need some more books to read. Bana okuyacak daha fazla kitap lazım.
- Did you tell him which bus to take? Ona hangi otobüse bineceğini söyledin mi?
- Is there anything to drink? İçecek bir şey var mı?
- Is there any need to ask Tom? Tom’a sormaya gerek var mı?
- Is there any milk to put on the cornflakes? Mısır gevreğine koyacak süt var mı?

Bir isimden sonra mastar + edat da gelebilir:

- Jack needs a friend to play with. Jack’e oynayacak bir arkadaş lazım.
- She is looking for a flat to live in. Oturacak bir daire arıyor.

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Soru sözcükleriyle kurulan isim cümleciğinin (noun clauses) kısaltılmış biçimi olabilir:
- Can you tell me how I should go there?
Can you tell me how to go there? Oraya nasıl gidileceğini bana söyleyebilir misiniz?
- I don’t know what to do. Ne yapacağımı bilmiyorum.
- They don’t know when to leave the town. Kasabadan ne zaman ayrılacaklarını bilmiyorlar.

İsim + mastar yapısı, yapılması gereken şeyler için kullanılır. Cümle ister aktif ister pasif olabilir:
- There is a lot of work to do/to be done. Yapılacak çok iş var.
- There are four letters to post/to be posted. Postalanacak dört mektup var.
- Give me the names of the people to contact/to be contacted. Bana iletişim kurulacak kişilerin
isimlerini verin.
- The people to interview/to be interviewed are in the next room. Mülakata alınacak kişiler yan
odadalar.

Bir yolculuğun ya da görevin sonunda ortaya çıkarılan ya da öğrenilen bir şeyi anlatmak için
mastar kullanılabilir:
- I arrived home to find that the house had been burgled. Eve varınca evin soyulduğunu
anladım.

Şaşırma ya da hayal kırıklığını vurgulamak için only kullanılır:

- At last we got to Susan’s place, only to discover that she was away. Sonunda Susan’a geldik;
bir de baktık ki evde yok.

The infinitive serves as an object and stands immediately after the verb, usually after the
following verbs: afford, agree, appear, ask, beg, begin, continue, decide, deserve, expect, fail,
forget, hate, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, like, love, manage, mean, need, offer, plan, prefer,
prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, regret, remember, seem, start, threaten, try, want, would like.
- They came to help me. Bana yardım etmeye/etmek için geldiler.
- We didn’t want to go, but we had to. Gitmek istemedik ama mecbur kaldık.
- He hopes to see them soon.
- I need to talk to him. She forgot to lock the door.
- He refused to help them.
- She seemed to like her job.
- I want to go home.

The continuous infinitive (emphasizing duration of the action) and the perfect infinitive
(indicating the preceding action) are rather often used after the verbs "seem, appear, pretend".
- He pretended to be reading.
- The weather seems to be improving.
- He seems to have lost weight.
- He appears to have forgotten about it.
- Tom seems to be smoking a lot nowadays. Tom bugünlerde çok sigara içiyor sanki.
- It is difficult not to be sleeping during his lectures. Derslerinde uyumamak zor.

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 Note the use of the passive infinitive in those cases where the person indicated in the subject
undergoes the action of the infinitive (i.e., that person does not perform the action himself /
herself).
- She doesn't like to be disturbed during her work.
- I would like to be invited to the party.

Depending on the meaning of the sentence, “NOT” can be used with the verb in the predicate
or with the infinitive.
- He did not promise to do it. He promised not to do it.
- Don't even try to lie to me.
Try not to be late.
- They decided not to go to the party.

The verbs "begin, continue, forget, hate, like, love, prefer, regret, remember, start, try" are also
used with a gerund, with or without a change of meaning. Compare:
- He began to eat. – He began eating.
- I remembered to lock the door. – I remember locking the door.

The infinitive is used after the verbs "advise, allow, ask, beg, convince, encourage, forbid, force,
help, hire, instruct, invite, let, make, order, permit, persuade, remind, teach, tell, urge, warn". Note
that the infinitive is used without the particle "to" after the verbs "make, let" (and "help" in AmE).
- The doctor advised him to rest for a few days.
- He asked her to speak slowly.
- She helped me to wash the windows.
- She reminded him to buy cheese.
- He taught me to drive.
- She told me not to invite them.
The verbs "advise, allow, forbid, and permit" can be followed by a gerund directly.

Compare:
- She doesn't permit me to use her computer. – She doesn't permit using her computer.
Note: The gerund is also used after some of these nouns (chance, intention, necessity,
reason), with or without a change in meaning.

The present participle is used instead of the infinitive in such constructions to stress that the
action is in progress.
- I saw him crossing the street.
- I heard her singing.

The infinitive without "to" is used after the verbs of sense perception "hear, see, watch,
observe, notice, feel".
- I saw him cross the street.
- I watched him plant the roses.
- I heard her cry.

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The infinitive is used after the verbs "want, would like, require, rely on, count on, expect, consider,
find".
- I want you to do something for me.
- I count on you to do it quickly.
- We expected Mike to be present at the meeting.
- She found him to be a very nice person.

Note the use of the passive infinitive in those cases where the person indicated in the object
undergoes the action of the infinitive (i.e., that person does not perform the action himself /
herself).
- She wants him to be elected.
- I would like him to be invited to the party.

The verbs "have" and "get" has causative meaning, i.e., "have" and "get" here generally mean
"induce someone to do something; ensure that someone does something", with "have" close in
meaning to "ask" and "get" close in meaning to "persuade". The infinitive is used without the
particle "to" after "have", but with "to" after "get".
- Have him send the letters.
- I had my sister watch the baby while I was out.
- Get your son to clean the carpet.
- I got my brother to help me (to) repair my car.

The past participle is used after the verbs "have" and "get" in constructions like "I had my car
washed" which indicate that the action is performed for you by someone.

The infinitive has the following active and passive forms

• simple / active: to read
• continuous: to be reading
• perfect: to have written
• perfect passive: to have been read
• perfect continuous: to have been reading
• simple passive: to be written,
• perfect passive: to have been written.

- I asked him to write a report.

- He is supposed to be writing a report now.
- He appears to have written a report already.
- He seems to have been writing a report for two hours already.
- I expect his report to be written tomorrow.
- I expect his report to have been written by now.

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Infinitives after passive verb forms:
Eylemi yapacak kişiyi vurguluyorsak aktif mastar yapısını, eylemi vurguluyorsak pasif mastar
yapısı kullanılır:
- I’ve got work to do. Yapacak işim var. (I’ve got work to be done denmez)
- They’ve sent Lucy a form to fill in. Doldurması için Lucy’ye bir form gönderdiler.
- The carpets to be cleaned are in the garage. Temizlenecek halılar garajda. (The carpets to
clean … denmez)
- His desk is covered with forms to be filled in. Masası, doldurulacak formlarla kaplı.

The infinitive is used after the passive forms of the verbs "say, report, expect, suppose, allege,
believe, know, make, help, see, hear". Many verbs can be used in the passive voice with the
infinitive in the function of an object after them.
- Prices are expected to rise even higher.
- He was expected to visit them.
- She was supposed to arrive at 10 a.m.
- You are not supposed to be here.
- He is said to be 125 years old.
- He is believed to be the oldest person in the country.
- She was helped to do it.
- He was seen to enter that building.
- He was heard to laugh.

The infinitive is used after the passive forms of the verbs "allow, permit, ask, tell, order, force,
advise, warn, encourage". Compare active and passive constructions:
- She allowed us to go there. – We were allowed to go there.
- They warned me not to do it. – I was warned not to do it.
- He advised her to find a good lawyer. – She was advised to find a good lawyer.

Such constructions containing simple, continuous, perfect, or passive forms of the infinitive are
often used in news reports.
- The committee is expected to approve this initiative.
- The commission is reported to be conducting an investigation of the incident.
- He is alleged to have stolen more than ten million dollars.
- Several people are reported to have been injured in the fire.

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 Infinitive after linking verb be "be to, be not to"

The infinitive after the linking verb “be” is part of the compound nominal predicate.
- His aim was to help them.
- Your duty is to study.
- Your task is to do these exercises.
- His assistant's main task is to gather information for research.
- His sole desire is to be accepted in their circle.

The phrases "be to, be not to" are not very common in everyday speech. The modal verbs
“must, should” and the phrases "have to, be supposed to" are often used instead of them.
- You are to be here at six o'clock. You have to be here at six o'clock.
- You are not to smoke here. You shouldn't smoke here.
- The lecture is to begin at five.The lecture is supposed to begin at five.
- We aren’t supposed to be here. That sign says “No Trespassing.” “not at all.”

“Be” fiilinden sonra normal olarak pasif mastar kullanılır:

- The sheets are to be washed. Çarşafların yıkanması gerekir. (The sheets are to wash
denmez)
- This form is to be filled in in ink. Bu form, mürekkeple doldurulmalıdır. (This form is to fill in …
denmez)

Infinitives after "how, what, where"

The infinitive as an object is often used after "how, what, who, whom, which, when, where,
whether", usually after the verbs "know, ask, tell, advise, explain, show, decide, wonder,
understand".
- I don't know what to say.
- I don't know who to ask.
- Show me how to do it.
- I haven't decided yet whether to go there or not.
- The tour guide told us where to find interesting souvenirs.

Çok resmi kullanımda isimden sonra “preposition + whom/which + mastar yapısı” da

kullanılabilir:
- Jack needs a friend with whom to play. Jack’e oynayacak bir arkadaş lazım.
- She is looking for a flat in which to live. Oturacak bir daire arıyor.

Edat yoksa bu yapı kullanılmaz.

- I need a book which to read.
Dolaylı anlatımda (indirect speech) who, what, where gibi (why pek kullanılmaz) soru
kelimelerinden sonra mastar kullanılabilir:
- I wonder who to invite. Kimi davet etsem acaba?
- Tell us what to do. Bize ne yapmamız gerektiğini söyle.
- Can you show me how to get to the post office? Postaneye nasıl gidileceğini bana gösterebilir
misiniz?

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 - I don’t know where to put the car. Arabayı nereye koyacağımı bilmiyorum.
- I can’t decide whether to answer her letter. Onun mektubuna cevap verip vermemem
gerektiğine karar veremiyorum.
- Tell me when to pay. Ne zaman ödeme yapmam gerektiğini bana söyle.

Infinitives as attributes

The infinitive as an attribute always stands after the noun (or indefinite pronoun) that it modifies.
- Can you give me a book to read?
- I have a lot of work to do today.
- Give him something to eat.
- He has nowhere to go.

Infinitives as attributes are used after many nouns, for example, after "ability, advice, attempt,
capacity, chance, command, decision, desire, eagerness, effort, excuse, failure, intention,
invitation, necessity, need, offer, opportunity, order, permission, power, promise, reason,
recommendation, refusal, reluctance, right, time, way, willingness, wish".
- Her ability to memorize words is amazing.
- I have no intention to work there.
- She has no desire to get married.
- There's no need to hurry.
- They had every reason to believe that he had left the country.

Note: The gerund is also used after some of these nouns (for example, after "chance, intention,
necessity, reason"), with or without a change in meaning.

Infinitives after adjectives

This construction is often used to describe people's feelings in relation to the action expressed by
the infinitive. The infinitive as an object is used after many adjectives and participles, for example,
after "able, afraid, amused, anxious, ashamed, astonished, careful, delighted, determined,
disappointed, eager, free, frightened, glad, grateful, happy, interested, lucky, pleased, prepared,
proud, ready, relieved, reluctant, sad, shocked, sorry, surprised, terrified, and willing".
- She is afraid to go there alone.
- We are ready to start.
- You were lucky to find that book.
- She was reluctant to go.
- He is eager to be invited to the show.

The infinitives "to hear, to see, to learn, to discover, to find" are often used after the adjectives
"glad, happy, delighted, disappointed, surprised, sorry".
- She was glad to hear that.
- He was happy to see her.
- I was sorry to hear about their divorce.
- I was surprised to learn that she had quit her job.

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 - They are glad to receive a letter from their son. Oğullarından mektup aldıklarına memnun
oldular.
- I am happy to meet you. Sizinle tanıştığıma memnun oldum.
- He is always ready to help his friends. Her zaman arkadaşlarına yardım etmeye hazırdır.
Note: To fill out this form is difficult.

Sıfat cümleciklerinin (adjective clauses) kısaltılmış biçimi olabilirler:

- Tom has a question which will puzzle you.
Tom has a question to puzzle you. Tom’un, seni şaşırtacak bir sorusu var.
- The teacher suggested some topics to interest the students. Öğretmen, öğrencileri
ilgilendirecek birkaç konu önerdi.
- I will give you some money to spend. Sana harcayacak/harcaman için biraz para vereceğim.

The infinitive may be used as the subject of the sentence

For emphasis, the infinitive of purpose is sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence.
- To understand his stories, you need to know where he grew up.
- To find him was difficult.
- To know the rules is necessary.
- To ask him for help was a mistake.
- To walk to work is good for my health. İşe yürüyerek gitmek sağlığım için yararlı.
- To fill out this form is difficult. Bu formu doldurmak zor.
- To eat in that restaurant is cheap. O lokantada yemek yemek ucuz.

In this function the infinitive may be preceded by "in order" or "so as". Aynı anlam, “in order to”
ve “so as to” ile de verilir:
- He got up early in order to pack. Toplanmak için erken kalktı.
- I moved to a new flat so as to be near my work. İşime çok yakın olmak için yeni bir daireye
taşındım.

Bu ifadelerin olumsuz olması durumunda not to yerine in order not to ya da so as not to

kullanılır:
- I’m going to leave now so as not to be late. (… not to be late denmez) Geç kalmamak için
şimdi çıkıyorum.

Infinitives in constructions after formal subject “it”

Note: Yukarıdaki cümleler, günümüz İngilizce’sinde “it” ile de kurulabilir:
- To walk to work is good for my health. It is good for my health to walk to work.
- To fill out this form is difficult. It is difficult to fill out this form.
- To eat in that restaurant is cheap. It is cheap to eat in that restaurant.

See ve hear fiilleri, yanlış bir izlenimin nedenini açıklamak için kullanılır. Ardından you’d think ya
da benzeri bir ifade gelir:
- To see them, you’d think they were married. But they only met yesterday. Onları görsen evli
sanırsın. Ama daha dün tanıştılar.
- To see him walk down the street, you’d never know he was blind. Caddede yürümesine
baksan onun kör olduğunu anlamazsın.

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- To hear him talk, you’d think he was made of money. Konuşmasına baksan kendisini para
babası sanırsın.

However, it is more common to use the construction in which the pronoun “it” is the formal
subject, and the infinitive is placed after the predicative adjective or noun.
- It was difficult to find him.
- It is necessary to know the rules.
- It was a mistake to ask him for help.

The infinitive in this construction is often used after the following adjectives and participles:
advisable, amazing, awful, bad, convenient, careless, correct, cruel, dangerous, desirable,
difficult, easy, foolish, funny, good, great, hard, helpful, important, impossible, interesting,
intolerable, natural, necessary, nice, pleasant, possible, reasonable, ridiculous, silly, strange,
surprising, terrible, unbearable, undesirable, unnecessary, unpleasant, unreasonable, useful,
useless, wise, wonderful, wrong.
- It is nice to meet you.
- It is useless to talk to him.
- It is hard to be a doctor.
- It was dangerous to stay there.

The infinitive in this construction is used after various nouns, for example, after "duty, fun, idea,
mistake, pleasure, surprise, thing, time".
- It's a good idea to invite John.
- It is time to leave.
- It was a surprise to hear such words.
- It was a terrible thing to say.

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 “for + noun /pronoun + infinitive”

The action indicated by the infinitive usually refers to the subject or to the object.
Compare: I'm planning to visit her. – I asked him to visit her.

In some sentences, the action indicated by the infinitive does not refer either to the subject or to
the object:
- It is pleasant to walk in the park.
- The tea was too hot to drink.

If it is necessary in such sentences to indicate the person to whom the action of the infinitive
refers, add "for + noun / pronoun" before the infinitive. For example: It is pleasant for me to walk
in the park. The tea was too hot for the children to drink.
- It was important for Victor to be present at the meeting.
- It is difficult for him to live alone.
- It is easy for her to learn English.
- The first thing for you to do is to find Tom.
- This is not for us to decide.

In some cases, "of + noun / pronoun" is used before the infinitive to indicate the person to whom
the action of the infinitive refers. For example: It was very nice of you to bring her flowers. It was
inconsiderate of him to ask her such questions.

Infinitive of consequence: too; enough

The infinitive is also used as an adverbial modifier of consequence, with the adverbs "too" and
"enough".
- I was too tired to notice it.
- It is too late to call him now.
- He is too young to be a manager.
- She is old enough to understand it.
- I don't know this subject well enough to discuss it with you.
- It is too hot to work. Hava çalışılamayacak kadar sıcak.
- The box is too small to hold all these things. Kutu, tüm bu şeyleri alamayacak kadar küçük.

Adj/adv + enough (for sbd) to do sth:

- If I had a long enough holiday, I would visit Florida.
- He wasn’t early enough to see her.
- She is old enough to understand it.
- I don't know this subject well enough to discuss it with you.

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 Other infinitive constructions

In speech and writing of general character, the infinitive is not used as the predicate. But there
are some constructions in which the infinitive may serve as the predicate.
The infinitive without the particle "to" may be used as the predicate in interrogative sentences
beginning with "Why" and expressing suggestion, usually in everyday speech.
- Why waste time on such trifles?
- Why pay more than necessary?
- Why not wait a little?

The infinitive with the particle "to" may be used as the predicate in the meaning close to the
meaning of the phrase “be to” expressing strong expectation that some action is going to happen
according to rules, agreements, plans, and the like. Such use of the infinitive is mostly found in
legal, commercial, or technical texts, in newspaper articles and advertising materials.
- Buyers to pay for ordered goods upon delivery. (= Buyers are to pay for ordered goods upon
delivery.)
- Three new schools to open next year. (= Three new schools are to open next year.)
- The same construction may be used as an infinitive phrase at the end of the sentence.
- Goods are ordered by catalogue, buyers to pay for ordered goods upon delivery.
- Registration lasts till September, applications to be submitted in person.

Set expressions containing infinitives, such as "needless to say; so to speak; to be quite frank; to
make matters worse; to put it mildly; to say the least; to tell the truth", are used as parenthetical
words. For example:
- To be quite frank, I didn't want to lend him my books.
- Needless to say, he lost my books.

A split infinitive is a construction in which the adverb that modifies the infinitive is placed between
the particle "to" and the infinitive. Split infinitives are quite common in informal English speech.
Generally, style manuals say that the particle "to" should not be separated from the infinitive
without necessity, especially in writing.

For example, splitting the infinitive in the following sentences is considered unnecessary:
- They want to quickly sell the house.
- He seems to often complain about it.

In such cases, it is better to use more typical constructions:

- They want to sell the house quickly.
- He seems to complain about it often.

However, in some cases placing the adverb between the particle "to" and the infinitive is
preferable to placing that adverb in any other part of the sentence because such use may help to
express the meaning more clearly and may even help to avoid possible misunderstanding of the
whole sentence. The adverbs "really, fully, even, never, ever" are rather often placed between the
particle "to" and the infinitive. For example, look at this sentence:
- She always tried to really understand young children and their hopes and fears.

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If we move "really" to some other places, the meaning will change, the construction will become
awkward or incorrect: always really tried to understand; always tried really to understand; to
understand really young children; to understand young children and their hopes and fears really.

A hundred years ago, the split infinitive was considered to be bad writing style. Nowadays split
infinitives are becoming more acceptable in speech and writing. It is advisable for language
learners to use split infinitives sparingly and only when such use is necessary for clear and
correct expression of the meaning.

Object + bare infinitive

“Object + bare infinitive (i.e. without to)”

Verbs like “make, let, feel , hear, observe, see, watch, have” are followed by a bare infinitive after
an object.

Make +object + V (bare infinitive):

Make is followed by “object + bare infinitive”. It cannot be followed by “object + Ving”
- I made him wait. I had no intention of speaking to him while he was in such a foul mood.
- She didn't want to do it, but he made her do it.

We can also use “make” with “a reflexive object”, myself, yourself, himself, herself, etc and a
past participle, particularly with the verbs understood and heard:
- She doesn't speak English very well but she can make herself understood in most situations.
- There was so much noise at the party that I had to shout all the time to make myself heard.

We can also use “make” in the passive voice, but in this case to before the infinitive is needed:
- He had done so badly that he was made to repeat the school year.
- He had borrowed over five hundred pounds and was made to pay it back in monthly
installments.

Let + object + V (bare infinitive):

Like “make”, “see and hear, let” is followed by “object + bare infinitive”. It cannot be followed by
Ving:
- Let me carry that box of papers for you. It's very heavy.
- Why don't you let him walk home by himself from school now? He's eleven years old after all.

“Let” is also frequently used in the expression let's (let us) to introduce a suggestion. Note that
negative sentences with let's can be formed in two possible ways:
- Let's finish the video tomorrow, shall we? I'm tired and I want to go to bed.
- Let's not be late home tonight. It's Monday tomorrow after all.
- Don't let's get too stressed about this. I know the car is damaged, but it's only a piece of
metal.
Note: We do not normally use let in the passive voice.

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 Allow /permit + object +bare infinitive:
“Allow” and “permit” are the more formal equivalents of let. But they both require to before the
infinitive. Permit sounds a bit more formal than allow.
- Let me bake the cakes for the party.
Allow me /permit me to bake the cakes for the party.
- I would never let him smoke in the bedroom.
I would never allow him /permit him to smoke in the bedroom.

Allow and permit are often used in the passive voice. Remember, we cannot use let in these
examples:
- I wasn't allowed to pay for my meal. Tony insisted on inviting me.
- Young children should not be allowed /permitted to watch television after nine o' clock.

have + object + bare infinitive / Ving form

This special usage of the verb have means 'to cause to happen' or 'to experience'.
- He had us wash the dishes after supper.
- He had us washing the dishes after supper.
When we choose the bare infinitive, we are pointing to things that happen, or (have) happened or
might happen. When we choose the Ving form, we are thinking of things that are happening, were
happening or might be happening. Depending on how we are thinking about it causes us to
choose one or the other. Compare the following.
- I opened the bonnet of the car and saw that I had water dripping out of the radiator.
- You really ought to have the chemist take a look at that wasp sting. It looks really nasty.
- I'm ready to see him now, Geraldine. Have him come in, please.

I won't have...
When we use the expression I won't have..., it means I won't allow... and here the -ing form works
best, but be careful: after allow, you need to + infinitive:
- I won't have you smoking in the bedroom. = I won't allow you to smoke in the bedroom.
- I won't have you staying out late. = I won't allow you to stay out late.
- She wouldn't have him telling her when she could go out and who she could go out with.

have + object + past participle

This structure is also used when we talk about causing things to be done or about things
happening to you, but with the past participle, note that it always has a passive meaning and can
sometimes be used instead of the passive:
- I'm going to have my car repaired next week. (It's going to be repaired next week.)
- Have you ever had your credit cards stolen? (Have they ever been stolen?)
- Kevin had his air pistol confiscated by the headmaster. (It was confiscated last week.)
- I think you should have the curtains dry-cleaned. Don't try to wash them yourself.

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 Gerund or Infinitive

Infinitives are the "to" form of the verb. The infinitive form of "learn" is "to learn." You can also
use an infinitive as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
- To learn is important. (subject of sentence)
- The most important thing is to learn. (complement of sentence)
- He wants to learn. (object of sentence)

Infinitives can be made negative by adding "not."

- I decided not to go.
- The most important thing is not to give up.

Gerunds and infinitives can be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence.
However, as subjects or complements, gerunds usually sound more like normal, spoken English,
whereas infinitives sound more abstract. In the following sentences, gerunds sound more natural
and would be more common in everyday English. Infinitives emphasize the possibility or potential
for something and sound more philosophical. If this sounds confusing, just remember that 90% of
the time, you will use a gerund as the subject or complement of a sentence.
- Learning is important. (normal subject)
- To learn is important. (abstract subject - less common)
- The most important thing is learning. (normal complement)
- The most important thing is to learn. (abstract complement - less common)

As the object of a sentence, it is more difficult to choose between a gerund or an infinitive.

In such situations, gerunds and infinitives are not normally interchangeable. Usually, the main
verb in the sentence determines whether you use a gerund or an infinitive.
- He enjoys swimming. "Enjoy" requires a gerund.
- He wants to swim. "Want" requires an infinitive.
Some verbs are usually followed by a gerund, but they can also be followed by a noun
plus infinitive. Using a noun plus infinitive will usually change who is performing the action.
- I advised taking the train. (in general)
- I advised him to take the train. He will take the train.

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 List of Verbs followed by a Gerund or a Noun + Infinitive

Advise: I advised seeing a doctor. I advised them to see a doctor.

Allow: Ireland doesn't allow smoking in bars. Ireland doesn't allow people to smoke in bars.
Encourage:
He encourages eating healthy foods.
He encourages his patients to eat healthy foods.

Permit:
California doesn't permit fishing without a fishing license.
California doesn't permit people to fish without a fishing license.

Require:
The certificate requires completing two courses.
The certificate requires students to complete two courses.

Urge:
They urge recycling bottles and paper.
They urge citizens to recycle bottles and paper.

Verb followed by "after, before, while, when..." is Ving

After + Ving, before + Ving, While + Ving, When + Ving
- Please check that you have your belongings with you before leaving the train.

Some verbs can be followed by a question word:

Verbs: ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, understand, can be followed by a question
word such as where/ how/ what/ who/ when or whether + to Verb.
- I wondered how to tell Lucy that I’d lost her favourite CD.

Some special expression followed by “Ving”:

Have a good time + Ving;
Have a trouble + Ving;
Have difficulty + Ving;
Have a hard time + Ving....
- We had some good times sharing a house.

We use “-ing clause” to explain something or to say why somebody does something:
- We sat on the beach for hours looking at the sea.

It's + objective of somebody+ to do sth:

- I think it is silly of David to buy a car because he doesn’t need one to get to work.

It's + adj (of sbd) to do something:

The next/ the first/ the second/ the last/ the only/ the best....+ to Verb:
- The best hotel to stay in is the one near the main square.

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Would rather somebody do something?
A: What is your telephone number?
B: 664178. I would rather you didn’t give it to anyone else.

Verb + infinitive or Verb + gerund

There is little or no difference in meaning between infinitives and gerunds after "begin, start,
continue, like, love, hate, prefer, can't bear, can't stand".
- She started to cry. She started crying.
- He likes to swim. He likes swimming.
- He hates to wash the dishes. He hates washing the dishes.
- He prefers to watch TV rather than go to the movies. He prefers to live alone. She preferred
not to do it. I'd prefer to go there with you.
- I prefer eating at home to eating at a restaurant. He prefers living alone. I'd prefer going there
with you.

There is noticeable difference in meaning between infinitives and gerunds after "forget,
remember, regret, stop, try".
- I will not forget to call him. – I will never forget talking with him on that day.
- I remembered to switch off the heater before leaving. – I can remember visiting them when I
was a child.
- I regret to tell you that you have failed your examination. – I regret telling them about my
plans.
- Try to find my book; I need it urgently. – Try looking in the desk drawers; maybe you'll find my
book there.
- She stopped in order to say hello to them. / She stopped to say hello to them. – She stopped
saying hello to them.

Note the use of the verbs "cease" and "quit", synonyms of the verb "stop": "cease" usually takes
an infinitive but sometimes may take a gerund with little change in meaning; "quit" takes a
gerund.

Sometimes a gerund is used after "attempt, neglect, plan" with the same meaning as that of the
infinitive:
- Have you ever attempted climbing this mountain?
- Don't neglect writing to her once in a while. I planned visiting Rome.

Sometimes an infinitive is used after "dread", with the same meaning as that of the gerund:
- She dreads to think that they may come back.

The verb "intend" is usually followed by an infinitive but sometimes may be followed by a gerund
with no change in meaning:
- We intend to visit them tomorrow. We intend visiting them tomorrow.

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The verbs "mean, propose" in the meaning "intend" are followed by an infinitive; the verb "mean"
in the meaning "denote, imply" is followed by a gerund; the verb "propose" in the meaning
"suggest" is followed by a gerund.
- I didn't mean to hurt you. She means to go there. – If I asked him for help, it would mean
telling him everything.
- I propose to stay there for about a week. – I propose staying here.

The verb "need" is usually followed by an infinitive:

- We need to talk. He needs to buy a new car.

The verb "need" is followed by a gerund in the phrase "to need doing", usually about cleaning,
repairing, improving something:
- Your jacket needs cleaning. These doors need painting.

Passive infinitives can also be used in such situations:

- Your jacket needs to be cleaned. These doors need to be painted.

Gerunds or Infinitives?
Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive. Sometimes, there is no difference
in meaning. Sometimes there is.
Verb + infinitive = verb + gerund
These verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, with no difference in meaning.
- He continued to shout. He continued shouting.
- I like to read. I like reading.
- I love to read. I love reading.
- I prefer to read. I prefer reading.
- I hate to wait. I hate waiting.
- I can't stand to wait. I can't stand waiting.
- I can't bear to wait. I can't bear waiting.

Verb + Infinitive - Verb + Gerund

Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, but “their meanings are not the
same:”
- I will remember to call her. (I will be sure to call her in the future.)
≠ I remember calling her. (I have the memory of calling her in the past.)
- I will not forget to meet him. (I will be sure to meet him in the future.)
≠ I will never forget meeting them. (I will not lose the memory of meeting them.)
- I regret to say he is not here. (I am sorry I must tell you he is not here.)
≠ I regret saying it. (I am sorry I said it.)
- I will try to ring the bell. (I will see if it is possible to ring the bell.)
≠ I will try ringing the bell. (I will ring the bell to see if it will help the situation.)

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 Part of action: Ving, Whole of action: to Verb

Verbs: Feel, find, Notice, see, watch

Feel...+ Verb_ing: you feel part of the action.
- At the beach I noticed a lot of people wearing the same sandals as mine.
Feel...+ Verb (without to): you feel the whole action.
A: I can’t remember if I have taken my tablets today.
B: I saw you take two after breakfast.

Allow / advice /permit /forbid

Allow / advice /permit /forbid + Ving:

Bu fiiller eğer nesne almamışsa “-ing” ile,
- We are not allowed listening to music at work.
- We don’t allow/permit smoking in the classroom. Sınıfta sigara içilmesine izin vermiyoruz.
- I wouldn’t advise taking a taxi. Taksi tutmayı tavsiye etmem.
- The teacher has forbidden running in the corridors. Öğretmen, koridorlarda koşmayı
yasakladı.

Allow / advice /permit /forbid + Objective + to Verb infinitive:

Bu fiiller nesne almışsa “to” ile kullanılırlar:
- We don’t allow/permit people to smoke in the classroom. İnsanların sınıfta sigara içmesine
izin vermiyoruz.
- I wouldn’t advise you to take a taxi. Taksi tutmanı tavsiye etmem.
- The teacher has forbidden students to run in the corridors. Öğretmen, öğrencilerin
koridorlarda koşmalarını yasakladı.

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 “to Verb” ve “Ving” yapılarında fiiller

Apologize somebody for doing sth

- Kate apologized to me for spelling my name wrongly in her letter.

Begin /start + to V /Ving:

Her ikisi de anlam farkı olmaksızın hem -ing ile hem de to ile kullanılabilir.
- I began playing/(to play) the piano when I was ten. On yaşındayken piyano çalmaya
başladım.
- She started talking/(to talk) about football. Futboldan konuşmaya başladı.
- Thomas Edison began conducting experiments during his childhood.

Dare + to V:
- I didn’t agree with Brain butI didn’t dare to argue with him in front of everyone.

Enjoy /like + to V /Ving:

Like + Ving: enjoy in doing something
Like + to V: want to do something
- If someone is angry with me, I like to know the reason.
- I like staying at hotels. I enjoy not cooking.

Forget:
Forget + Ving: geçmişte yapılmış işleri anlatır.
- I’ll never forget meeting Sharon Stone. Sharon Stone ile karşılaşmamı asla unutmayacağım.

Forget + to, yapılması gereken işleri anlatır:

- I forgot to buy the soap. Sabun almayı unuttum.

Help somebody (to) do something:

- Hundreds of people have helped us to raise money for children’s hospital.

Interested + to Verb: How somebody react to what they hear/ watch/ know/find/learn...
Interested + Ving: think of doing something and would like to do it.
- Do you think Philp would be interested to play volleyball on Saurday? I am trying to organize
a game.

Make somebody do something:

- This picture of you always makes me smile.

Need + to be Past Particple/ V_ing: if before "need" is not person

Need + to Verb: If before "need" is person
- This cupboard is full of very old clothes. Most of them need throwing away.

Prefer Ving/sth to Ving / sth:

She is always very quiet in meetings. She prefers listening to speaking.

Prevent somebody/something from doing something

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The verb "promise"
The verb "promise" is usually followed by the infinitive directly: She promised to wait for them.
Other common constructions: She promised that she would wait for them. She promised him that
she would not tell anyone.
The verb "promise" is sometimes used in the construction Verb + noun / pronoun + infinitive,
usually in negative constructions: I promised him not to tell you.

Put off + Ving: delay, postpone doing something

Regret:
Regret + Ving geçmişte yapılmış bir şeyden duyulan üzüntüyü anlatır.
- I regret leaving school at 12. It It was a big mistake. 12 yaşında okulu bıraktığıma pişmanım.
Büyük bir hataydı.
Regret + to: kötü bir haber verileceği zaman kullanılır.
- We regret to say that we are unable to help your company. Şirketinize yardımcı
olamayacağımızı üzülerek bildiririz.

Remember:
Remember + Ving geçmişte yapılmış işleri anlatır.
- I still remember buying my first car. İlk arabamı almamı hâlâ hatırlarım.
Remember + to, yapılması gereken işleri anlatır.
- You must remember to fetch Mr Taylor from the airport tomorrow. Bay Taylor’ı yarın
havalimanından getirmeyi unutmamalısın.

Seem:
Verb followed by seem is "to infinitive" however this sentence implys a continuous action
(waiting), therefore we should add a "to be" after "seem" and let it in infinitive form.
- Is that a bus stop over there? Those people seem to be waiting for something.

Sorry:
Sorry to do: is not occurring or imminent
Sorry for doing: what had happened
- I am sory for getting annoyed with you last night. I was tired.

Spend time:
Spend time doing something: use time to do something
- When she goes on holiday, He spends ages writing postcards to her friends at home.
Spend time to do something: mention the reason of action "spend"

Stop:
Stop + Ving: not doing something.
Stop + Ving yapılan bir işten vazgeçmeyi anlatır.
- I stopped smoking. Sigarayı bıraktım.
Stop + to Verb: stop (doing) something to do something
Stop + to, ‘mola vermek, ara vermek’ anlamındadır:
- We stopped to rest. Dinlenmek için mola verdik.

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Try:
Try + Ving daha çok ‘denemek’ anlamı vardır.
- Have you tried sleeping on your back as a cure for snoring? Horlamaya çare olarak sırt üstü
uyumayı denedin mi?
Try + to, daha çok ‘çaba göstermek, çalışmak’ anlamı verir.
- Try to get here early. Buraya erken gelmeye çalış.

List of Verbs Followed by Infinitives

Agree Tom agreed to help me.

Appear His health appeared to be better.
Arrange Naomi arranged to stay with her cousin in Miami.
Ask She asked to leave.
Begin He began to talk.
Can't bear He can't bear to be alone.
Can't stand Nancy can't stand to work the late shift.
Care He doesn't care to participate in the activity.
Cease The government ceased to provide free healthcare.
Choose I chose to help.
Claim She claimed to be a princess.
Continue She continued to talk.
Decide We decided to go to Hawaii.
Demand He demanded to speak to Mr. Harris.
Deserve He deserves to go to jail.
Dread I dread to think what might happen.
Expect They expect to arrive early.
Fail He failed to get enough money to pay for the new project.
Forget I forgot to lock the door when I left.
Get (be allowed to) Debbie gets to go to the concert next week! Why can't I?
Happen She happened to be at the bank when it was robbed.
Hate He hates to clean dishes.
Hesitate She hesitated to tell me the problem.
Hope I hope to begin college this year.
Intend We intend to visit you next spring.
Learn I learned to speak Japanese when I was a kid.
Like Samantha likes to read.
Love We love to scuba dive.
Manage He managed to open the door without the key.
Need I need to study.
Neglect She neglected to tell me the date of the meeting.
Offer Frank offered to drive us to the supermarket.
Plan We plan to go to Europe this summer.
Prefer He prefers to eat at 7 PM.
Prepare They prepared to take the test.
Pretend The child pretended to be a monster.
Promise She promised to stop smoking.

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Propose Drew proposed to pay for the trip.
Refuse The guard refused to let them enter the building.
Regret I regret to inform you that your application was rejected.
Remember Did you remember to lock the door when you left?
Seem Nancy seemed to be disappointed.
Start Marge started to talk really fast.
Swear She swore to tell the truth.
Tend He tends to be a little shy.
Threaten He threatened to leave forever.
Try Mary tried to lift the table, but it was too heavy.
Vow He vowed to get revenge.
Wait She waited to buy a movie ticket.
Want I want to study Spanish.
Wish I wish to stay.
Would like (meaning "wish" or "want") We would like to start now.
Yearn Melanie yearns to travel somewhere exotic.

List of Verbs:
be said to do something
Would like/love to do something

Agree to do something
Consider to be/do sth
Find/ see/ watch...+ Verb (with to) :you find /see or watch the whole action
Find/ see/ watch...+ Verb_ing : you find /see or watch part of the action
Make to do sth
Pretend to do something
Tell + Infinitive
Warn + infinitive

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 4.3. Participle

The present participle is formed by adding the ending "ing" to the base form of the verb. The
present participle is used in the formation of the continuous tenses and can also function as an
attribute.
- The girl is crying.

The past participle is used in the formation of the perfect tenses and the tenses in the passive
voice and can also function as an attribute.
- He has visited London several times.
- The letter was sent yesterday.
- I saw two broken chairs.

Present participle:
The present participle is formed by adding the ending “ing” to the base form of the verb and is
used in the formation of the continuous tenses and the perfect continuous tenses:
- We are reading a new book.
- She has been typing for two hours.

The present participle can also function as an adjective: a sleeping child, a barking dog, a
dancing girl.

Past participle:
Regular verbs form the past participle by adding the ending “ed” to the base form of the verb:
saved, played, answered; irregular verbs form the past participle mostly by changing the root:
sold, written, done. The past participle is used in the formation of the perfect tenses and of the
tenses in the passive:
- He has written two letters.
- The house was built in 1985.

The past participle can also function as an adjective: a broken window, a written exam.

Participle constructions:
Participles in active, perfect, and passive forms are often used in participial constructions
(participial phrases, participial clauses), mostly in writing.
- Walking in the park, I saw a very interesting bird.
- Having walked for an hour, I felt pretty refreshed.
- Being asked where he had been, the boy answered that he didn't remember.
- Having been asked the same question several times, the boy began to cry.

Compound forms are usually replaced by simpler forms:

- Asked where he had been, the boy began to cry.

Participle is used to make compound verb forms. English verbs have two participles: the present
participle (typing, writing) and the past participle (typed, written). Participle is used in the
formation of the continuous, perfect and perfect continuous tenses.

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Present participle:
The present participle of the main verb is used in the formation of the continuous and perfect
continuous tenses. The present participle is formed by adding "ing" to the base form of the verb:
flying, playing, running, sleeping, and working.
• Continuous tenses:
- We are reading a new book.
- He is working now.
- We were sleeping when he called.

• Future continuous tenses:

- She will be writing letters at four o'clock.
- We will have been waiting for them for 30 minutes by the time we arrive at the airport.

• Perfect continuous tenses:

- She has been typing for two hours.
- He has been working since early morning.
- She had been sleeping before you called.
- By six o'clock, she will have been writing letters for two hours.

• The present participle can also function as an adjective:

- A sleeping child,
- A barking dog,
- The dancing girl.

Past participle:
The past participle (of the main verb) is used in the formation of the perfect tenses in the active
voice and of all of the tenses in the passive voice. Regular verbs form the past participle by
adding "ed" to the base form of the verb: moved, played, stopped, and typed. Irregular verbs form
the past participle mostly by changing the root of the word: broken, flown, read, slept, sold, and
written. The past participle expresses passive meaning.
• Perfect tenses in the active:
- He has written two letters.
- We have already written three stories.
- She had typed two reports by ten o'clock yesterday.
- She will have typed the next report by six o'clock.

• Tenses in the passive:

- The house was built in 1985.
- Three stories have already been written.
- Five reports were typed last week.
- Two reports had been typed by ten o'clock yesterday.
- This report will be typed tomorrow.

• The past participle can also function as an adjective: a broken window, a written exam.

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 Participle constructions (participial phrases, participial clauses)

Participles in active, perfect, and passive forms are often used in participial constructions
(participial phrases, participial clauses), mostly in writing.
- Walking in the park, I saw a very interesting bird.
- Having walked for an hour, I felt pretty refreshed.
- Being asked where he had been, the boy answered that he didn't remember.
- Having been asked the same question several times, the boy began to cry.

Compound forms are usually replaced by simpler forms:

- Asked where he had been, the boy began to cry.

Participle is a word formed from a verb

and used as an modifier or a noun

A word formed from a verb (e.g., going, gone, being, been) and used as an adjective (e.g.,
working woman, burned toast) or a noun (e.g., good breeding).

Participles are used as adjectives.

Usually, the difference between these functions of participles is clear and does not lead to any
mistakes in understanding. Where a participle stands after the verb to be, it may be a little difficult
to understand the difference. Compare these sentences:
- This situation is humiliating. (the participle "humiliating" as an adjective)
Stop it! You are humiliating him. ("are humiliating" – the present continuous tense)
- Two chairs are broken. (the participle "broken" as an adjective)
Two chairs were broken by some customers yesterday. ("were broken" – the Past simple in
the passive)
- It was a very exhilarating experience.
- The nominee is so reassuring that the committee is planning to choose him.

Past participles used as adjectives:

- I was exhilarated by the experience.
- The committee was disappointed with the results.

Present participles as reductions of adjective clauses (Active):

- The man who made a speech at the party last night has been working with us for ages.
The man making a speech at the party last night has been working with us for ages.
- The woman who takes care of the money issues will be retired next week.
The woman taking care of the money issues will be retired next week.

Past participles used as reduction of adjective clauses (Passive):

- The two survivors who were worn out by hunger and fatigue were rescued at last.
The two survivors worn out by hunger and fatigue were rescued at last.
- The car which was repaired last week has broken down again.
The car repaired last week has broken down again.

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Present participle as adverbial modifier
Participles are also used in the function of adverbial modifiers:
- He opened the door, smiling; surprised, he didn't know what to say.

Participles have simple and compound forms.

Simple forms consist of only one word, i.e., the participle itself: doing, done. The form "doing" is
simple active; the form "done" is simple passive.

Compound (analytical) forms are formed with the help of the auxiliary verbs "be" and "have":
"having done" is perfect active;
"being done" is passive;
"having been done" is perfect passive.

Present participle in constructions with complex object:

The present participle is used in constructions with complex object after the verbs of sense
perception "hear, see, watch, observe, notice, feel" to indicate the action in progress.
- I saw him locking the door. I saw him watching me. I see her smiling.
- I heard them laughing. I hear the telephone ringing.
- She felt him looking at her.
- She noticed him smiling at something.

The infinitive in such construction usually expresses a completed action, but with verbs of
continuing nature the infinitive can express the action in progress.
Compare:
- I saw him crossing the street. I saw him cross the street.
- I saw her coming out of the house. I saw her come out of the house.
- I heard the telephone ringing. I heard the telephone ring.
- I heard him singing. I heard him sing.
- I heard her crying. I heard her cry.
- He watched them walking slowly toward the house. He watched them walk slowly toward the
house.

The use of participles after the verbs "smell" and "find":

- I smell something burning.
- I found him sleeping.
- She finds him interesting.
- I found the door locked.

283
Past participle in constructions with complex object:
The past participle is used in constructions with complex object to show that the person or thing
indicated by the object undergoes the action indicated by the participle. Constructions after "see,
hear, want, consider":
- He saw his bags put into the trunk of a large car.
- She saw several participants arrested during the demonstration.
- We heard her name mentioned during the discussion.
- He wants it done as soon as possible.
- We want him elected.
- I consider this matter closed.
Note: In the last three examples above, the participles "done, elected, closed" may be regarded
as shortened variants of the passive infinitive forms "to be done; to be elected; to be closed".

In constructions like "I had it done", the past participle is used after the verb "have" (or after "get"
in informal speech) to show that the action is performed for you by someone, usually at your
request. Construction "have something done":
- I had my car washed.
- He had his hair cut yesterday.
- She got her TV repaired.

However, in some cases the action expressed by the participle after the verb "have" in such
constructions is performed not at your request, and the action may be unpleasant. Examples:
- She had her purse stolen yesterday.
- He had his nose broken in a fight.
- She got her finger jammed in the door.

Participles as attributes

In a sentence, simple forms of participles are used in the function of attributes and adverbial
modifiers, alone or in participial constructions. Compound forms of participles are used more
rarely and are found mostly in participial constructions.
- The boy is reading a book.
The reading boy didn't pay any attention to the teacher's words.
The boy reading a book didn't pay any attention to the teacher's words.
He was sitting by the window, reading a book.
- Having been translated into several languages, this story is well known in many countries.
Translated into several languages, this story is well known in many countries.

Compare these examples:

- I saw a running boy.
- He was running very fast.
- He ran shouting something.
- Running past the bakery, the boy stopped abruptly.
- He stood there, looking at the shopwindow intently.
- Having found the door locked, the boy left.

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Participle before noun
Participles have the qualities of adjectives and are used as attributes in a sentence: a smiling girl;
surprised faces, a flying bird; a moving train; a promising actor; running water; boiling water;
working people; a broken heart; a tired voice; a written confirmation; boiled water; developed
countries; experienced users.
Examples:
- Barking dogs seldom bite.
- I'm always glad to see her smiling face.
- She spoke in a trembling voice.
- He stood before the locked door.
- He is a retired colonel.

Participle after noun

Participial constructions (Participial Phrases) can function as attributes (the girl sitting at the table)
or as adverbial modifiers (standing by the window, she watched the birds). Participles that are
closer to verbs than to adjectives are often placed after the noun that they modify: the problems
remaining; the people attending; the people involved; the questions discussed; the names
mentioned; the documents required; those invited; those concerned.
- The boy playing with the kitten is my nephew. (The boy who is playing with the kitten is my
nephew.)
- I talked to several people participating in the project.
- The car parked by the entrance belongs to the director.
- I need a list of the goods sold yesterday.

Compare these sentences containing a single-word participle, a participial construction, or a

relative clause:
- The questions discussed were quite important.
The questions discussed at the meeting were quite important.
The questions that were discussed at the meeting were quite important.
- Some of those invited refused to participate.
Some of those invited to the meeting refused to participate.
Some of the people who were invited to the meeting refused to participate.

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 Intensifiers with past participles

The adverbs "very, much, very much" are used to intensify the meaning.
"Very" is used with adjectives (and with adverbs, e.g., very quickly);
"much" and "very much" are used with verbs.
For example, you can say "This book is very good" and "I liked it very much", but you can't say
"I very liked it".

Past participles, usually in the position after the verb “to be”, may also be used with intensifiers.
Past participles that have acquired strong adjectival qualities (usually, they are participles
expressing feelings) may be used with "very", for example, "very bored, very interested, very
surprised, very tired". Past participles that have strong verbal qualities are used with "much" or
"very much", for example, "much obliged, very much appreciated, very much criticized, much
reduced".
Examples:
- I was very tired yesterday.
- Your help was very much appreciated.
- Her first novel was much criticized.
- Her latest novel is much talked about.

Which past participles can be used with "very" and which only with "much" or "very much" is a
difficult question. There are no recommended lists of past participles that can be used with
"very", and there is no agreement among linguists on this issue.
The issue described above concerns only the past participle because the present participle is
not used with "much" or "very much". Whether you can use "very" with this or that present
participle depends on the meaning of the participle and on how close to the adjective it has
become. For example, you can say "very interesting, very boring, very encouraging, very
surprising", but you can't say "very flying, very working".

Absolute Participle

The absolute participle construction has its own subject and can stand at the beginning or at the
end of the sentence. Sometimes the preposition "with" introduces an absolute participle clause.
Absolute constructions are widely used in literary works and scientific writing, but are rare in
ordinary speech.
- The weather being nice and warm, we went for a walk.
- Nobody knowing what to do, we decided to do nothing.
- Two of them headed toward the director's office, the other three staying in the hall.
- Sydney is the largest city in Australia, with Melbourne being the second largest.
- Their recent fight forgotten, the children began to play with their new toys.
- Our work finished, we said good-bye and left.
- She listened to his story quietly, with her eyes closed and her face impassive.

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 Dangling Participle

Dangling participles are considered to be bad style of writing. Besides, they can cause serious
misunderstanding. Sentences with dangling participles should be restructured. It can be done by
clearly indicating the subject in the main sentence so that the participle is clearly attached to the
subject, or by changing the participial construction into a subordinate clause. For example, the
sentences with dangling participles above can be restructured in the following ways:
- Coming out of the house, I saw that the rain started.
When I came out of the house, the rain started.
- Not knowing his telephone, we sent a letter to him.
As we didn't know his telephone, we sent a letter to him.

Some prepositions and conjunctions are in the form of participles. For example: concerning,
considering, including, notwithstanding, owing to, judging from, provided that, regarding,
supposing. They do not require strict connection with the subject and should not be regarded
as dangling participles when they do not refer to the subject. The same can be said about
participles in such set expressions as "generally speaking, strictly speaking, taking into
consideration" and some others.
- Owing to the rain, the game was postponed.
- Considering the price, this table is a good buy.
- Strictly speaking, they are not her relatives.

Participles used idiomatically

1- Weather permitting (=if wheather permits), we’ll go hunting.

2- That beings the case, I think we had better adjourn the meeting.
3- All things being equal, we should win on Sunday. [bütün şartlar eşit olursa, eşit şartlar
altında]
4- Generally speaking, the more you pay for stereo equipment, the better the system. [genel
olarak]
5- Strictly speaking, he is not qualified for the job. [dar anlamıyla; in a wider sense / in a
boader sense: daha geniş anlamıyla]
6- Time permitting, we’ll visit the museum. [zamanımız kalırsa]
7- Judging from (=considering) the findings of the research, this animal is immune to many
diseases.
8- Judging by what everyone says about him, he has a fair chance of winning. [göz önüne
alındığında]]
9- Given (=Taking into account: Considering) his enormous popularity as an author, it is not
surprising that he was elected Present.]
10- Granted that (=given that) he is in hospital, he can’t do us much harm.
11- Granted that (=even supposing that) he should send money to help with the bills, it doesn’t
mean will.
12- There are 48 members all told (=counting everyone; altogether).
13- All things considered (=When one considers every aspect of a problem, situation, etc.),
we’re doing quite well. [Sonuç paragrafında, “bütün bunlar göz önüne alındığında”]
14- Education is a good thing, other things being equal (= provided that circumstances
elsewhere remain the same). [diğer şatlar eşit olduğunda]

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288
 5. Tenses
Bir hareket, bir iş bir oluş bildiren kelimelere fiil (Verb) denir. İngilizce’de fiiller cümle içerisinde
beş ayrı şekilde kullanılır.
• Infinitive form: to go, to do, to wait
• Present (simple) form: go, do, and wait
• Present participle form: going, doing, waiting
• Past form: went, did, waited
• Past participle form: gone, done, waited

Verb:
Fiiller zamandan ve fiil ekinden etkilenirler.
Zaman: Present, Past, Future
Fiil ekleri: Simple, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous.

Example:
It is raining. Şu an yağmur yağıyor.
It has been raining for two hours.

Tense:

Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

Present Present Present Present
Past Past Past Past
Future Future Future Future
Simple

Simple

Simple

Continuous Continuous Continuous

Perfect Perfect Perfect

Past Present Future

Simple, When ?
Continuous, simple zamanın etrafında
Perfect, simple zamanın öncesi
Perfect continuous tense ise simple zamanın etrafında devam eden olayın süresi

Zamanın şu an mı, geçmişte mi yoksa gelecekte mi? Present, Past, Future.

Simple, “when” sorusuna yanıt arar.
Continuous, simple zamanın etrafında devam eden olayları tanımlar.
Perfect, simple zamanın öncesini tanımlar.
Perfect continuous tense ise simple zamanın etrafında devam eden olayın süresini tanımlar.

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Tenses are often regarded in groups:
 simple tenses / the indefinite tenses
 continuous tenses / the progressive tenses
 perfect tenses
 perfect continuous tenses / the perfect progressive tenses
 The tenses can be in the active or passive voice

Verb yapısında:
To be: durum belirtir.
Have /has got: aitlik belirtir.
Tense: olaylar anlatılır.
Modal: duygu ve düşünceler kullanılır.

Modal Verb:
Will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, ought to, had better, would rather, must.
Modal fiiller yanında bir fiil ile kullanılırlar. Duygu, düşünce üretirler. “Have to” bir modal değildir.

Perfect form

The perfect form is the verb tense used to indicate a completed, or "perfected," action or
condition. Verbs can appear in any one of three perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and
future perfect. Verbs in the perfect form use a form of "have" or "had" + the past participle. (It is
the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.)

- Present Perfect: I have finished my homework already.

- Past Perfect: He had watched TV for an hour before dinner.
- Future Perfect: Nancy will have finished by the time her parents return.

Progressive form

The progressive form is a verb tense used to show an ongoing action in progress at some point in
time. It shows an action still in progress. Verbs can appear in any one of three progressive
tenses: present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive.

The verbs in the progressive form use a form of "to be" + the present participle (an -ing verb). (It
is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.)

- Present Progressive: The cake is baking slowly.

- Past Progressive: The trees were waving back and forth.
- Future Progressive: The children will be laughing.

Perfect + Progressive
The perfect and progressive forms can be combined, as in the following examples (again, the
form of the helping verbs indicates the tense):

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 - Present Perfect Progressive: I have been running for an hour.
- Past Perfect Progressive: I had been running for an hour.
- Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been running for an hour.

“to be” for in the past

Was, were
- Columbus was not the first European to set foot on the American Continents.
- Until the mid-nineteenth century, producing steel cheaply and in large quantities was
impossible.

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 5.1. Simple Tenses

5.1.1. Present Simple Tense

Form: S +Verb (+ s/es in third person)
Habitual, regular action in the present.

Tekil cümleler:
We add “s /es” to the verb for “he, she or it”.
- Does it snow in the Sahara desert?
- It doesn’t snow in Egypt. It rains very often in the spring.
- Money doesn't guarantee happiness.
- He goes to work by bus every day. He works very hard.
- Tim sometimes works till 10 pm in the evening.
- He plays football but he doesn't play tennis.
- He wants to be (= become) a pilot when he grows up
- How does the laser work? It creats an intense beam of energy from light. The energy from
light rays is concentrated and the rays are able to penetrate objects. (Intense: şiddetli, güçlü,
Concentrated: Çok güçlü, yoğun, Penetrate: İçine nüfuz etmek)
- How does an inventor turn their new invention ideas into money?
- The European Court of Human Rights considers his appeal. (“The European Court of Human
Rights” tekil bir ifadedir.)
- Does it matter? Öneml mi?
- He lives in London and works at a bank.
- He plays the piano quite well.

Time expressions:
always, usually, every day, often, sometimes, rarely, never, occasionally, seldom.
- I usually work till seven o'clock.
- I often talk to him on the phone.
- He visits them sometimes.
- I don’t get up early on Sundays.
- What drinks do you like?
- They go on vacation to every summer.
- I usually get up at 7 o’clock in the morning.
- I don't like horror films! (horror: korku, dehşet )
- I never drink coffee with milk.
- The banks open at 9:00 am and close at 5:00 pm.
- The bus arrives at the station at 8 o’clock in the morning.

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Something that is always true:
- The earth goes around the sun.
- The sun rises in the East. The sun sets in the West.
- Kangaroos live in Australia. Do elephants live longer than humans?
- Trees lose their leaves in the fall. Flowers don't grow in winter.
- Wood floats on water. ( to float: batmadan yüzmek)
- Water freezes at 0 degrees. Water boils at 100° Celsius.
- The adult human body contains 206 bones.
- Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.
- Cyanobacteria, these microscopic organisms sometimes form bright blue-green layers on
ponds and oceans. Their ancestors invented a trick that has since spread like wildlife. They
evolved a way to take energy from sunlight, and use it to make sugars out of water and
carbon dioxide. This is called photosynthesis, and today it's how all green plants get their
food.
- Las Vegas massacre reignites gun control debate.
Las Vegas katliamı silah kontrol tartışmalarını yeniden başlatıyor.

Stating a fact, general truth, state or condition.

- Children now regularly learn to talk, walk and use the internet at a very early age.
- Trademarks protect words, names, symbols, sounds, or colors that distinguish goods and
services.
- Most babies learn to speak when they are about two years old.

Simple present can replace the simple future with the meaning "according to schedule,
timetable".
- The ship arrives next week.
- He works tomorrow.
- I leave Frankfurt at 5 in the morning and arrive in New York at midnight the next day.

Simple present is used instead of the present continuous with stative verbs.
- I see a little boy.
- I understand what you mean.
- “You look just like your mother,” Ms. Jones told me.

To be
- Her house is very small.

Reading Part:
John likes chocolates very much, but his mother doesn't give him. They are bad for his teeth,
she thinks. But John has a very nice grandfather. The old man loves his grandson very much.
And sometimes he buys John some chocolates. Then his mother lets him eat them, because
she wants to make the old man happy. On Sunday evening, it is John's seventh birthday. He
says, "Please, God, make them give me a big box of chocolates for my birthday,"His mother
says, “God can't hear you. Don't shout." " I know, "says the clever boy with a smile.”. "But my
grandfather is in the next room, and he can!"

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 5.1.2. Past Simple Tense
Past simple tense: Ved or irregular verbs. An action started and finished at a specific time in the
past. The action happened (started and ended) in the past.
Time expressions: yesterday; last week; last year; in 1995; in 2009; two hours ago; four years
ago.
- I saw him an hour ago.
- He came back last Friday.
- She went to the theater yesterday.
- They visited London in 2009.
- Did you wait for him very long? Yes, I didn’t go to bed until five in the morning.
- The World War II ended in 1945.
- I didn’t go to work last Friday.
- She washed the dishes this morning.
- Last year, I traveled to China.
- I waited two hours for her.
- Did she leave home early?
- The plants died and new plants grew on top of them. (grow- grew-grown)
- The businessmen travelled to Africa by aeroplane and in Africa, they travelled by car.
- The sea came in and covered the carpet of dead plants.
- He drilled the first oil well in USA, in 1859.
- We arrived at two o'clock and left at ten past (= ten minutes past two).
- About six or seven thousand years ago, someone had the good idea of using animals to do
work.
- I immediately got up, went the door and found it locked as usual on the inside.

Zaman Uyumu:
- Water and wind could not supply enough energy, so we began to use first coal and then oil.
- The Titanic sank when it hit an iceberg. (sink-sank-sunk, hit – hit –hit)
- When the police arrived, the woman was crying.
- By the time the police arrived, the woman had already killed her husband.
- Recent excavations in Algeria have indicated that Homo erectus resided there between
500,000 and 750,000 years ago.

Past simple is used for completed past actions, including past actions that lasted for some time or
happened one after another.
- He sold cars for two years, and then he quit his job and began to write novels.

Past simple expresses the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past
- The founders of the American nature reversed the custom after the Revolution.

Past simple expresses the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.
Sometimes it not mentions the specific time.
- Many people lost their jobs because of the firm’s collapse.

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A series of Completed Actions
Past simple Tense geçmişte yapılmış bir dizi, ardışık eylemden bahsederken kullanılır.
- I finished work, went home, had a shower and went to bed early.
- He arrived from the airport at 9:00, checked into the hotel at 10:00, and met the others at
11:00.

Single Duration
Past simple tense geçmişte başlayıp ve bitmiş olan bir eylemin ne kadar süre ile yapıldığından
bahsederken kullanılır. Eylemlerin şimdiki zamanda bir geçerliliği kalmamıştır.
- I lived in Istanbul for 5 years, from 1990 to 1995. ( I don’t live there anymore)
- Jane studied Chinese for 3 years.
- We talked on the phone for 30 minutes.
- How long did they wait for the bus?

Habits in the past, Past simple tense geçmişte düzenli olarak yapılan, fakat artık geçerli
olmayan eylem ve davranışlardan bahsederken kullanılır. Bu kullanım “ used to “ ile aynı
anlamdadır. Bu anlatımlarda cümlelerde genellikle "often," "usually," "never," "...when I was a
child" or "...when I was younger" gibi zarf yapıları yer alır.
- My father took me to the Luna Park every Sunday.
- After Sally ate dinner, she went to the library,
- He played the piano whenever he was at home.
- I cleaned my room before my mother came home.
- He usually worked at a restaurant after school.
- I lived with my grandparents when I was a child.
- After the children got home from school, they watched TV.
- I turned on the lights when I heard a strange noise.
- Before we entered the cinema, we bought the tickets.
- When the phone rang, I answered it.
- When I was a child, I lived with my grandparents.

Past Simple – Past Contiuous:

in the middle of an action
- I saw you yesterday from the bus. Why were you using a stick?
yesterday -> we use "saw"
at the time I saw -> you were using (in the middle of an action)
- Luckily the driver saw me and stopped the lory on time.
saw -> stopped (one thing happened after another, at the same time)
- Unfortunately when I arrived Ann was just leaving, so we only had time for a few words.
"I arrived" happened in the middle of "Ann was leaving" (in the middle of an action)

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Reading Part 1:
Man discovered fire many thousands years ago. The first time he saw was probably when a tree
was struck by lightning. He soon learned how to make fire for himself. However, man probably
made his fire by rubbing two sticks together. Fire was very important to man. He needed fire to
keep himself warm at night. He used fire to cook his food. He used fire to frighten away enemies
and wild animals. In some parts of the world he used fire to signal messages. Red Indians, for
example, used fire to make smoke signals.In some other countries people lit fires to warn thier
friends of danger. Fire was very also used to give light. Before the invention of oil lamp, men used
burning sticks as torches.And before man discovered gas and electricity; he hung small fires in
wire baskets from posts to light the streets.One man even used fire to tell the time .He invented a
candle clock.He made a candle that took exactly twelve hours to burn. Then he marked this
candle in twevle equal parts. He lit the candle and could tell the time by counting the number of
parts of the burning candle.But the candle clock did not always work well. If there was a wind
blowing on the candle, the flame burned too quickly.

Reading Part 2:
About three thousand years ago, there were no shops. If you needed something, you had to
make it yourself. For example, if you needed something to wear, you had to kill an animal and get
its coat. If you were a good hunter, and had a lot of coats, you could exchange them for other
things you needed. You could get meat or fruit. This way of exchanging things is called barter.
Later on, people began to use money. They made money from thing which would last and not go
bad easily. They used stones, shells and animals’ teeth. After men had discovered metal into
small bars to use copper, tin, silver and gold. They made these metals into small bars so that they
were easy to store and carry about. Before there were banks, people kept their money
themselves. Most people hid their money in the ground. They thought that it was the safest place
to store money. About five hundred years later, people began to make coins. They were easier to
carry than metal bars. Early coins were not flat and round but were in lumps. Usually a king or
ruler of a place gave the order to make coins. Therefore, people often put a picture of his head
and his name on one side of the coin. This side of the coin is called the head. Then they put the
date and value of the coin on the other side. This side is called the tail. The first paper money was
made by the Chinese. In the fifteenth century, the first banks appeared in Italy. Today the banks
look after our money in a number of ways.

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 5.1.3. Future Simple Tense
Meaning:
The action will happen in the future.
Future simple is used when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.

Structure:
You /they /it /he /she + will + V
I /we + will/shall + V
The short form of “will not” is “won’t”. “Will” is a modal auxiliary verb.

“Will” is used to promise to do something in the future. We use future simple with “will” to talk
about our hopes and predictions for the future. (“will” umutlar ve tahminler için kullanılır.)

“To be going to”: Gelecekte yapılacak, özellikle yapılmasına karar verilen bir planı veya niyeti
anlatmak için kullanılır. We use “going to” to talk about future plan and intention. We also use
“going to” to talk about things we do every day.

We can use the present continuous tense to talk about future arrangements.
- We are leaving early tomorrow.

Time expressions:
tomorrow; in a few days; next week; in 2025; in the future.

Examples:
- I think he will return next week.
- I will probably see him in a few days.
- We'll be home after eight.

The future simple with “will”

To talk about our hopes and predictions for the future:

- What will the cities of the future look like?
- They will be in Rome tonight.
- Will you go by bus? No, I think I will go on foot.
- You will have time to help me tomorrow.
- Will you finish your work by four o'clock?
- Do you think that he will recognize me?
- You will be able to drive after five another lessons.
- I wonder how many of us still will/shall be here next year. (how many of us = we)
- She will not be well enough to work in the foreseeable future (= during the period of time
when you know what is going to happen).
- Observation will usually raise specific questions in the mind of a scientist.

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 To offer or ask to do something, to offer the future certainly happenings:
- Will you eat some spinach? (to ask or offer)
- He will lend it to you if you ask him.
- Today you will have to speak to him.

To promise to do something:
- The management won’t be responsible for articles left on the seats.
- Don’t worry! I will call you as soon as I arrive at the airport.
- Thank you for lending me the money. I will pay it back on Friday. I promise!
- I promise I will not tell him about the surprise birthday party.

To express a voluntary action / willingness:

Kişilerin bir eylemi başkası için gönüllü olarak, kendi istekleri ile yapmaları, bir yardım isteğine
ya da ihtiyacına karşılık vermeleri üzerine olan durumlar “will” ile ifade edilir. Bu amlamda “be
going to” yapısı kullanılmaz. Aşağıdaki cümlelerdeki eylemler planlanmış gelecek zaman
eylemleri değillerdir.
- I'm really hungry. I'll make some sandwiches.
- These bags are so heavy! I'll help you.
- The phone is ringing. I'll get it.

Gelecekte olacağını düşündüğümüz bir eylemden bahsederken, başka bir deyişle, tahminler
yaparken, “will” ya da “be going to” kullanılabilir.
- The weather reports say it will be sunny tomorrow.
- Look at those black clouds. It’s going to rain.
- Be careful. You will hurt yourself!
- She is studying hard. She is going to pass the exam.

Using “be going to” to express a future plan

Gelecekte yapılacak, olacak, özellikle yapılmasına karar verilen ya da olacak olan bir hareketi
anlatmak için kullanılır.
- We're strong and we're going to stay very strong.
- You have bought a lot of paint. Are you going to redecorate your kitchen?
- They are going to visit us next weekend.
- It is going to be a warm day tomorrow.
- Are you going to go home after work? (future plan)
- Where are you going to be next week? (future plan)
- I am tired of taking the bus to work. I am going to buy a car as soon as possible.
- I bought some paint this morning. I am going to paint the garage tomorrow.
- I am going to start making dinner before my wife gets home from work today.
- We are going to wait here until Jessica comes.
- When they get to the hotel, they are going to jump into the swimming pool.

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 Present plans for future activities

“Intend, plan and hope” fiilleri, gelecekte yapacağımız eylemler için şu andaki düşüncelerimizi
ifade ederler. Bu fiiler future tense ile asla kullanılmazlar. Bu anlamı zaten taşırlar.
- I intend to go to Bodrum.
I am intending to go to Bodrum. (Incorrect: I will intend to go to Bodrum)
- I’m planning to buy another car this year.
I plan to buy another car this year. (Incorrect: I will plan to buy another car this year.)

Simple Present for Future

The simple present gelecekte belirli bir takvim ya da zaman tablosuna bağlı olarak düzenli olarak
yapılmakta olan eylemlerden bahasederken kullanılır. Simple present ‘in gelecek zaman
ifadelerinde oldukça sınırlı sayıda fiil lullanılır: arrive, leave, start, begin, end, finish, open, close,
be.
- The bus leaves the station at 7:45 tomorrow morning.
- The semester ends in two more weeks.
- His new job starts next Friday.

Present Continuous for Future

Geleceğe yönelik kesin bir plan, karar ya da niyet belirten cümlelerde present continuous tense
kulanılabilir. “Go, come, arrive, stay, leave” fiiler kesin planları ifade eder present continuous
tense’in gelecek zaman ifadelerinde sıklıkla kullanılır. We can use the present continuous tense
to talk about future arrangements.
- Are you leaving home tomorrow? He is arriving on Sunday. My brother is coming next week.
- Bill is coming to the meeting tomorrow. (Bill is going to come to the meeting tomorrow.)
- They are playing football this afternoon. (They are going to play football this afternoon.)
- I am leaving home tomorrow morning. (I am going to leave home tomorrow morning.)
- Where are you meeting them?
- I am meeting them at midnight in the middle of the wood.
- What time are we meeting? (It is not used as “What time will we meet?”)

Gelecekte planlanmış seyahat ifadelerinde kullanılan “fly, walk, ride, drive, take (a taxi, a bus
etc.)” gibi fiiller de present continuous tense’de kullanılırlar.
- I am flying on Monday.
- I am taking Helen to the dance tonight.
- We are flying to Istanbul tonight. (We are going to fly to Istanbul tomorrow.)

Using “present continuous” descibes situations already decided.

- She is coming back on Monday.
Note: “Remember” is not normally used in “the present continuous”.

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 Future Time Clauses with “Before, After, When”

Zaman cümleciklerinde, ifade edilen zaman kavramı gelecek zaman olsa dahi, her zaman simple
present tense kullanılır; future tense asla kullanılmaz.
- Before Mary goes to school tomorrow, she will eat breakfast.
Incorrect: Before Mary will go to school tomorrow, she will eat breakfast.
- After I eat dinner tonight, I will do my homework.
Incorrect: After I will eat dinner tonight, I will do my homework

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 5.2. Continuous Tenses

5.2.1. Present continuous tense

We make the Present Continuous with the present form of the verb “be” and “_ing” form of the
verb.

V+ing: cry crying, start starting

n nn, t  tt, etc. begin beginning, forget forgetting, swim swimming
e  “e” eki kalkar “ing” eki gelir. decide deciding, dance dacing, come coming
ie: “ie” eki kalkar “ying” eki gelir. die dying, tie tying

- Most of them are swimming, but one ore two of them aren’t swimming.
- A group of people are playing volleyball on the beach.

The action is going on right now.

When we talk about what is happening now, we use the present continuous. We use the Present
Continuos to talk about tempoarary events in the present. We also use the Present Continuos to
talk about what is happening at this moment. Sözün söylendiği anda yapılmakta olan bir hareketi
anlatmak için kullanılır.
Time expressions: now; right now; at the moment.
- I'm writing a letter at the moment.
- Are you reading a book now?
- Look! He is playing the piano.
- Is she not swimming in the river?
- They aren’t eating lunch now.
- We are counting the Money carefully.
- The children are playing in the garden at the moment.
- Sam is working at this office right now.
- The moon is shining tonight.
- She is cooking lunch in the kitchen now.
- I am practicing my English at the moment.

Using present continuous tense for future

“What are you doing this summer?” is an example of the present continuous tense used to talk
about a future arrangement. Present continuous can replace the simple future with the meaning
"preplanned action".
- My cousin Veronica is studying to be a veterinary.
- It's going to be a great match.
- I am meeting some friends after work.
- We are going to the cinema tonight.
- Are you coming? I am flying to Istanbul tomorrow morning.
- Are you visiting your grandparents next week?
- Your friend’s son is getting married. You have been invited to the wedding, which will take
place on the very day you are going abroad on urgent business that cannot be postponed.

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The action is going on at the present period of time (but not at the moment of speaking).
Time expressions: now; at present; today; this year.
- She is writing a new novel now.
- He is studying German this year.
- The levels of pollution in the atmosphere are increasing.
- At a panel, you are discussing with another colleague the uses and abuses of nuclear power.
- Amazon is doing great damage to tax paying retailers.

Using Present Simple Sense for Present Continuous Tense

- I hear a noise now.
- I like your composition.
- Only she knows the answer.
- I see what you mean.
- I understand you.
- He desires to live in a small house by the sea.

Present continuous tense ile kullanılmayan fiiller

Stative verbs "agree, belive, deserve, doubt, expect, forget, hate, hear, imagine, know, like, look,
love, mean, prefer, realize, remember, see, seem, suppose, think, understand, remember, want",
etc., are generally not used in the continuous tenses.
- I can not imagine that we are together again.
- She doesn’t remember what she did yesterday.
- In my opinion /I think they didn’t deserve prize as they didn’t play fairly. (In my opinion:
bence)
- I expected to attend/ join this meeting with my boss.
- I realized that I had forgotten to lock to door.

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 5.2.2. Past Continuous Tense
Past continuous: [was/were + present participle(Ving)]
We use the past continuous for actions that continued while other events happened.

The action was going on when another past action happened or at some point of time in the past.
Geçmişte bir hareket bittiğinde (The Past simple tense) devam edmekte olan diğer hareketi veya
bir süre aynı zamanda devam etmiş olan hareketleri anlatmak için kullanılır. We can also connect
the past continuous and Past simple together by using the words “when, while, and as.”
Time expressions: while; when; at five o'clock yesterday.
- When he came in, I was reading a letter.
- We were watching TV at three o'clock yesterday.
- When I was taking a bath, the telephone rang.
The telephone rang when I was taking a bath.
- While I was taking a bath, the telephone rang.
The telephone rang while I was taking a bath.
- As I was taking a bath, the telephone rang.
The telephone rang as I was taking a bath.
- While I was walking down the street, I saw an old friend of mine.
- I was working when they came.
- It was raining when I got up.
- I took another cake while you weren’t looking here. (take – took – taken)
- They were playing while we were working.
- Weren’t you sleeping when I got home. (get-got – got(gotten))
- John Lennon died while he was living in New York. (live-living)
- I met Andrew while studying History at the Sorbonne. (meet-met-met)
- It was past midnight when we got home.
- It was snowing when the accident happened.
- I took my car to the mechanic yesterday because it wasn’t working properly.
- What were you doing the bell rang? (ring-rang-rung)
- It was late at night when we finally arrived.

Past simple is used instead of the past continuous with stative verbs.
- She looked tired when I saw her at the party yesterday.

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 5.2.3. Future Continuous Tense
Meaning:
The action will be going on when another future action happens or at some point of time in the
future.
Structure:
“will be + Ving”; “shall be + Ving”
Using “will be + Ving” to say someboby will be in the middle of doing something.
It often used with “at”, “this time tomorrow, next week…”
Time expressions:
at this time next year; when.

Gelecekte devam edecek eylemlerde Future Continuous kullanılır.

- He'll be sleeping at two o'clock.
- When you come to the library, I'll be sitting by the central window.
- There is going to be a bus strike. Everyone will be walking to work next.
- This is my last year at this university. This time next year, I will be working in a bank. If you
work in a bank, you will have a compliance department.
- Don’t call me between seven and eight. I will be having dinner then.
- We will be playing football at this time tomorrow evening.
- When you are in Australia, will you be staying with friends?
- At four thirty on Tuesday afternoon I will be signing the contract.
- She will be washing all day tomorrow.

Gelecekte mormal olarak gerçekleşmesi beklenen, ya da gerçekleşecek eylemler için

kullanılır.
- Tomorrow at 7 a.m. I will be seeing my boss.
- I will be seeing Jim at the club next Thursday.
- I'll be going into town this afternoon, is there anything you want from the shops
- Will you be using the car tomorrow? - No, you can take it.
- I'll be seeing Jane this evening - I'll give her the message.
- We are sorry, but we won’t be coming to the meeting.

Soru yapısında, özellikle “ you” ile kullanıldığında, basit bir bilgi sorusunu davetten
ayırmak için kullanılır.
- Will you be coming to the party tonight? (= request for information)
- Will you come to the party? (= invitation)
- Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight?
- Will Alan be coming with us?
- Where will they be spending their holiday.

Birinin gelecekteki eylem ya da hislerini tarif etmek için kullanılır.

- You'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.
- He'll be coming to the meeting, I expect.
- You'll be missing the sunshine when you're back in England.
- If you come in the evening we will be finishing our work.

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 5.3. Perfect Tenses

5.3.1. Present Perfect Tense

“Present perfect tense”, geçmişte, belirsiz bir zamanda, yapılmış ya da hiç yapılmamış bir eylemi
ifade ederken kullanılır. Eylemlerin ne zaman yapıldığı Present Perfect Tense’de önemli değildir.
Zaman aralığı belirtilebilir. Ayrıca geçmişte başlamış etkisi devam eden cümlelerde kullanılır.
Eğer geçmişte belirli bir zaman belirtilmesi gerekirse, ya da eylemin ne zaman yapıldığı
belirtilmek istenirse, Past simple Tense kullanılır. We can use the present perfect to talk about
recent completed actions.

Structure:: have /has + V3 (Verb past participle)

Time expressions: by now: şu ana dek; so far: şimdiye kadar; never: asla; ever: her zaman;
several times; since: den beri; lately: son zamanlarda, geçenlerde.

Kullanılan “verb tense” göre cümlenin anlamı değişir:

- My mother has done a lot for me. Annem benim için çok şey yapmıştır. (= annem hayatta)
- My mother did a lot for me. Annem benim için çok şey yaptı. (= annem hayatta değil)

Present perfect tense çok kısa bir süre önce tamamlanmış, geçerliliğini hala koruyan
eylemleri ifade etmek için kullanılır:
- I have just eaten a sandwich. ( I am not hungry now)
- The robbers have been put into the prison. (They are in prison now.)
- I’ve cut my finger. It’s bleeding.
- They have just come. (come-came-come)
- My boss has gone to London. (He is there now)
- She has written two letters today.
- I have washed the car. (It is clean now!)
- I have read that book.

Bahsedilen zaman dilimi henüz bitmemiş ise present perfect tense kullanılır:
- It has rained a lot this year.
- Jane hasn’t called me today.
- My grandfather has written many novels. (He is still alive and writing novels)
- I haven’t seen Tom this morning. (It’s still this morning)
- What have you done this morning?

Reporting how things have developed by now.

- Recent excavations in Algeria have indicated that Homo erectus resided there between
500,000 and 750,000 years ago.
- He has admitted accepting bribes. Rüşvet aldığını itiraf etti.
- Have you decided in which sector you will look for a job when you graduate?
- American officials have ordered some overseas airports with direct flights to the US to
intensify screening of electronic devices.
- This man has got the hardest job in the world.

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Present perfect tense is used instead of the present perfect continuous with stative verbs.
- She has known them for six years.
- She has loved him all her life.

“Present perfect tense” geçmiş ve şimdiki zaman arasında, kesin zamanlar belirtmeksizin,
tekrarlanmış olan eylemlerden bahsederken kullanılır.
- I have seen that film three times. (see-saw-seen)
- How many times have you been to France?
- I have met many new friends since I came here.
- The telephone has rung six times since this morning.
- The scientists have made many important inventions since 1900’s.

This is the first /second /third … gibi ifadelerle kullanılır:

Present perfect tense can be used to describe the experience (the first/the most...that...)
- This is the third time that I have lost my keys. Bu, anahtarlarımı üçüncü kaybedişim.
- This is the fourth that hamburger you have eaten this evening. Bu, bu akşam yediğin
dördüncü hamburger.

Sıfatların en üstünlük dereceleriyle kullanılır:

- You are the most beautiful girl I have ever met. Sen, hayatımda tanıdığım en güzel kızsın.
- This is the highest building I have ever seen. Bu, hayatımda gördüğüm en yüksek bina.

“Gone” yerine “been” kullanımı

“Have /has gone” özellikle “I” ve “we” ile kullanılmaz. Amerikalılar kullanır. İngilizlerin
kullanmayışındaki sebep şudur:
- I have gone to Ankara. Biz Ankara’ya gittik. Bu cümle yanlıştır. Çünkü şu anda öznenin hala
Ankara’da olması gerekirdi. Eğer ben ya da biz özneleri hala Ankara’da isek, şimdi burada
olup nasıl konuşabiliriz. Bu yüzden “gone” “I” ve “we” ile kullanılmıyor, bunun yerine been
kullanılır.
I/We have been to Ankara. (Ankara’da bulundum/bulunduk.) yazılır.
- He has gone to Ankara. Bu cümlede özne Ankara’ya gitmiştir ve hala da Ankara’dadır.
He has been to Ankara. Bu cümlede ise özne şu anda Ankara’da değildir ama Ankara’ya
gitmiştir. Yani Ankara’yı bilir demektir.

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 Since, For

The action has lasted for some time by now. Time expressions: for a year; since; lately.
“For” ve “since” ile kullanıldığında present perfect tense geçmişte başlayıp içinde bulunduğumuz
ana kadar devem etmekte olan bir eylemden bahseder. Present perfect may replace the present
perfect continuous “for” the action that has lasted for some time by now.

“Since”, bir saat, gün, ay, yıl ya da geçmişte tamamlanmış bir eylem gibi, geçmiş zaman
referansları veren zarf ya da zarf cümlecikleri ile kullanılır.
Since + Friday /June /1998 / the beginning of this semester /yesterday /last week.
Since + Past simple Tense

Examples:
- He has lived here since 1995.
- You have changed since I saw you last.
- Only a small number of survivors have been rescued by the merergency services since
building collapsed.
- I haven’t seen my uncle since 1990.
- I have been here since 9 o’clock.
- I have liked science-fiction films ever since I was a child.
- My father has not smiled ever since my mother died.
- I have had this old car since 1990.
- Alex has not eaten anything since breakfast.
- Roger and I have known each other since last January.
- Jane has worn her new blue jeans only twice since she bought them.
- Since she went to Japan, her father has not heard from her.
- I have met so many people since I came to this town last year.

“For” and “Present Perfect Tense”:

“For”, Present Perfect Tense ile kullanıldığıda, bir eylemin geçmişte başlayıp, şu ana kadar
devam etmekte olduğunu ifade eder.

“For” ile birlikte two minutes, three hours, four days, five years gibi zamanın uzunluğunu ifade
eden yapılar kullanılır. For + a Length of time: for ten minutes, for three hours, for ten days, for
about eight years, for several weeks, for many years, for a long time, years.

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 Examples:
- We have worked here for five years.
- I have had this old car for 10 years.
- They have been married for 25 years.
- Janet has been very busy with the new project for the last three months.
- Men have also used fire for thousands of years, but only for heatings, like iron.
- I have had this old car for 10 years.
- Alex has not eaten anything for 8 hours.
- Roger and I have known each other for a year.
- Tom has worked on this project for a long time.
- Jane has not worn her new blue jeans for five months.
- For decade fuel cells have powered spacecraft and other specialized machinery, but their
spread has been limited by cost and efficiency problems.
- He has worked in this company for ten years.

Just, Yet

The action has just ended. Time expressions: already; just; yet.
Just: Biraz önce, az önce. Just eylemin daha çok kıza bir süre önce tamamlanığını, henüz
olduğunu ifade etmek için kullanılır.
- I have just seen him.
- No, thanks. I have just eaten a sandwich.
- They have just gone out.
- Mr. Green has just called you.
- I’ve just received a letter. Az önce bir mektup aldım.
- She has just gone out. Biraz önce dışarı çıktı.

“Yet” bir eylemin şu ana kadar henüz yapılmamış olduğunu, ama gelelecekte yapılabileceğini ya
da olabileceğini ifade etmek için kullanılır. Present perfect tense’de, cümle sonunda kullanılır.
- It’s 2:00 pm and I am very hungry. I haven’t eaten lunch yet.
- Hasn’t he gone yet? (go-went-gone)
- Has he arrived yet?
- Have you had breakfast yet?
- She hasn’t bought a car yet.
- Have you ever eaten at that restaurant yet?

“Yet”, esas fiilin önünde de kullanılabilir.

- It is the most bloody war man has yet seen. İnsanoğlunun şimdiye kadar gördüğü en kanlı
savaş.

Yet bağlaç olarak da kullanılabilir. However, still, neverthless, nonethless, yet: yine de.
He studied. Yet, ___
Note: It is yet to be seen: Zamanla görülecek, henüz görülmedi.

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 Ever, Never

We use the present perfect with “ever/never” to talk about experience at some time in the past.
“Ever and never” go before the past participle in a sentence. You can use 'ever' with the present
simple. 'Ever' and 'never' are adverbs. 'Ever' and 'never' are not adjectives.

Ever: A word meaning at any time: used mostly in questions, negatives, comparisons, or
sentences with “if”. We often use the present perfect with “ever” to talk about events which
happened at an indefinite in the past.

We often use “ever” in questions about experiences.

- Have you ever been to Turkey?
- Has she ever met John?

Olumsuz sorularda:
- Haven’t they ever been to Turkey?
- Hasn’t she ever met John?
Olumsuz yapılarda: nothing .......ever, nobody ........ever.
- Nobody has ever climbed to that mountain before.
- Nothing has ever been said to us.

“the first time .....” gibi yapılarda:

- This is the first time I have ever eaten Thai food.
- It’s the first time I have ever been to England.

Superlative yapılarda:
- Helen is the most beautiful girl I have ever seen.
- Istanbul is the most beautiful city I have ever been to?

Never: Never “daha önce hiç...” anlamında kullanılır. Never olumsuz bir “zarf” tır ve not ile birlikte
kullanılmamalıdır.
- I have never eaten caviar.
- She has never failed any exams.
- I have never seen such a big building. (All my life)

Already

Already bir eylemin hali hazırda (beklenenden önce) yapılmış olduğunu ve artık yapılmasının
gereksiz olduğunu ifade etmek içim kullanılır.
- You don’t need to go to the post office. I have already posted the letters.
- Don’t take the car to the mechanic. I have already fixed it.
- Have you already finished your homework?
- I have seen that movie already.
- I have already cleaned it. Temizledim bile (Şimdiye kalır mı?)
- He has already done it.

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Recentley, Lately, Before

Recently, lately, before: son günlerde, son zamanlarda

- There has been a lot of disturbance recently. Son günlerde ülkede çok kargaşa oluyor.
- The architects have built several buildings lately. Mimarlar son zamanlarda birkaç bina
yaptılar.
- I think I have seen that girl before.

Up to now, Till now, So far, Untilnow

Up to the present, till now, so far, up till now, until now: şimdiye kadar
- She has done great work up to now.
- Nobody has cleaned this room up to the present. Şimdiye kadar bu odayı kimse temizlemedi.
- They have watered seven fields so far. Şimdiye kadar yedi tarla suladılar.
- The patient has only drunk water till now. Hasta şimdiye kadar sadece su içti.
- Don’t get off the buss until it has stopped.

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 5.3.2. Past Perfect Tense
Meaning: The action happened before another past action or before some point of time in the
past.
Time expressions: by the time; before; after; by 1998; by yesterday; by last Sunday.
Unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far,
already, yet...
• Structure: Before /When Past Simple, Past Perfect. Past Perfect: Subject + had + past
participle
• Structure: S+ had + (ever/never...) + PP+ (since/for...)

It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past (by the time we got to
the airport).
- When they arrived the film had already begun.
- Alexander Graham Bell had already invented the telephone by the time I was born.
- By the time we got to the airport, our plane had already left.

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred (past perfect) before another action
in the past (Past simple).
- I didn’t recognise him. He had changed a lot.
- Her eyes were red. She had been crying.
- The house was dirty. She hadn’t cleaned it for ages.

- When Sam was born, I had been a doctor for 10 years.

- William turned up late because he had missed the bus.
- This morning’s earthquake was one of the most severe that we had experienced for the past
twenty years.
- I noticed that he hadn’t said anything all evening. (“hadn’t told” kullanılmaz. “Told someone to
something”)
- My son had already learnt how to read by the time he started the primary school.
- The hotel had just been robbed by the time the police arrived.
- His family was Jewish, but his father had converted to Protestantism in order to be able to
work as a lawyer.
- The portrait, as it is known today, was born in the Renaissance. In fact, portraits had existed
before the Renaissance.
- Russia announced earlier this week that it had pulled all its troops out of Georgia.
- I had read a lot about Scotland before I went there.

“By the time,” kullanıldığı past perfect cümlelerde bir eylemin, geçmişte başka bir eylem
gerçekleşmeden öncki hali hazırda tamamlanmış olduğunu belirtmek için kullanılır.
- By the time Susan arrived, we had already finished the work.
- They had already eaten everything by the time we went to the restaurant.

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Past perfect may replace the past perfect continuous for the action that lasted for some time
before another action in the past.
- By the time he returned, I had worked for six hours.

Before ya da after, hangi eylemin daha önce gerçekleştiği belli olduğu için past perfect kullanımı
gereksizdir. Past perfect yerine Past simple kullanılabilir.
- After the meeting (had) finished, everybody went home.
- Jack (had) left before I got to the office.
- Before Mrs. Green went to bed, she had taken her sleeping pill. ( or “ took her sleeping pill)
- After the old man (had) died, the doctor came.

Inverted clause in past perfect:

No sooner /hardly /barely...+ had (past perferct) + S +than + Past simple
- No sooner had he seen me than he ran away.

5.3.3. Future Perfect Tense

Meaning:
The action will happen before another future action or before some point of time in the future.
Future Perfect Tense, bir eylemin gelecekte belirli bir zamanda tamamlanmış olacağını ifade
eder.
Future Perfect Tense, complete, finish, retire gibi tamamlama, bitme ifade eden fiiller ile kullanılır.

Structure:
will/shall + have +PP
“Future Perfect Tense” yapısında he, she, it zamirlerinde “has” kullanılmaz, “have” kullanılır.

Time expressions:
It is often used with “by the time, before, by the end of the year, at 3 o’clock, by 3 O’clock, before
3 O’clock, by next June, by this time next week, by tomorrow, by next Monday, by 2035.

Examples:
- By the time I get there, she will have left.
- By 2050, scientists will have found the cure for cancer.
- I will have finished the project by the time you arrive at the office tomorrow morning.
- She will have prepared the dinner by the time we get home.
- The scientists will have found the cure for cancer by 2030.
- Efficient and reliable strategies for flood protection and prevention on the one hand, and
irrigation and fair water distribution on the other hand, will have to be developed.
- The students will not have been taught anything by the end of the term if the teacher goes on
like this.
- By the end of 2004 the rate of unemployment will have risen by %10.
- By that time next month all the daffodils will have died.
- On 3 May the expedition will have covered about 400 km.

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Bazen the Future Perfect ve the Future Perfect Continuous, aşağıdaki örneklerde olduğu gibi aynı
anlama gelir. Her iki zamanda da belirtilen aktivitenin, gemişte başlamış olabileceğini de
unutmayınız.
- When Mr. Lane retires next month, he will have worked for our company for 40 years.
- When Mr. Lane retires next month, he will have been working for our company for 40 years.

Future Perfect tense expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the
future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future.
- When you are my age you will have known all about this.

Expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show
that something will happen before a specific time in the future
- I will be back by 6. The will have finished by then.
- By the time the children come I will have made the beds.
- Next week they will have been married for 10 years.

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 5.4. Perfect Continuous Tenses

5.4.1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense indicates the duration of an activity that began in the past
and continuous to the present.
Time expressions: for an hour; for a week; for five years; all day; since, for, all morning, all day, all
week, etc.”
- I have been living in Ankara for 10 years.
- It has been raining all day.
- I have been working on this project for more than two year.
- The children have been playing in the garden since morning.
- How long has she been driving? She looks tired.
- I have been living in this city since 1987.
- He hasn’t been studying for two hours.
- You haven’t been doing anything since morning.
- We have been using more and more coal and oil during the last one hundred and fifty years.

The action has lasted for some time by now and is still going on.
- He has been sleeping for two hours already.
- She has been working as a teacher since she graduated from college.
- How long have you been waiting here?
- I have been working in this garage as a car mechanic for 15 years.

The action has been going on lately.

- All of them have been working very hard lately.
- I have been thinking about starting my own business.
- We have just been talking about you.

Present perfect continuous is often used without time expressions.

- It has been raining hard, and the ground is still wet.

When the present perfect continuous tense is used without any specific mention of time, it
indicates a general activity in progress recently, lately.
- My wife has been thinking about changing her car.
- The students have been studying hard. The final exams start next week.
- Tom’s clothes look very dirty. He has been painting the house.

Present perfect tense,on the other hand, is used to express duration of an activity happening . It
mostly answers the question “how often”?
- I have been running for two hours. I am very tired now.
- She has been sleeping since 8:00. She worked hard yesterday.

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If it is important to express the duration and the activity itself, Present Perfect Continuous Tense
is used.
- I have cleaned the room. It’s clear now. I have been cleaning the room since morning.
- I have read 50 pages of this novel. It’s very exciting. I have been reading this novel for a
week. It’s very exciting.

With certain verbs such as live, work, and teach, there is little or no difference in meaning
between the two tenses when since or for is used
- I have lived here since 1990. or I have ben living here since 1990.
- She has worked at the same company for five years. / She has been working at the same
company for five years.
Note: Be careful about the non-progressive verbs, which cannot be used in continuous
tenses.
Correct: I have known Jim for ten years. Incorrect: I have known Jim for ten years.

Stative verbs "know, understand, remember, like, love, hate, want, see, hear, seem, look", etc.,
are generally not used in the continuous tenses.

5.4.2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Meaning: The action lasted for some time before another past action or before some point of
time in the past.
Time expressions: by the time; before; after; by yesterday; by 2005; for two hours; for a long
time.
- By the time he returned, I had been working for six hours.
- By 2006, he had been living there for twenty years.

Note: Past perfect is used instead of the past perfect continuous with stative verbs.
- Example: She had known him for five years by the time they got married.

Structure: S+ had + been +V_ing

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It
can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past ( before the Second
World War).
- The passengers at the bus stop were very angry. They had been waiting for the bus for 45
minutes.
- Experiments in the sonic imaging of moving objects had been conducted in both of United
States and Europe well before the Second World War.
- When Mr Snowden fled the US, he had been working as a technician for Booz Allen, a giant
government contractor for the National Security Agency.
- The detectives had been searching for the murderer for a long time before they arrested him.
- He had only been studying French for two years before he got the job
- My father had been working for that company before it finaly went bankrupt.

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 Past perfect continuous geçmişte zaman olarak yakın başka bir eylemden önce
gerçekleşmekte olan bir eylemden bahsederken de kullanılabilir.
- John was out of breath when he came in. He had been jogging.
- When I saw Mary, her eyes were red. She had been crying.
- Brian gained overweight because he had been overeating.

Show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past.
- The Titanic had been lying on the sea bed for 70 years when they found it.
- Luke had been serving in the Navy for six months when he had the accident.
- They had been planting trees all afternoon when I saw them.
- The lonely couple had been wanting a son for a long time.

Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and
effect.
- We all knew he had been drinking whisky again. He stank. [Stink: pis kokmak, iğrenç
kokmak]

5.4.3. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Meaning:
The Future Perfect Continuous is used to show that something will continue up until a particular
event (by next week) or time in the future.

Structure:
Future perfect continous: [will have been + present participle]

Time expressions:
by the time; by 2030; before; for two hours, for five minutes, for two weeks, since Friday.

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms:

"Will have been doing " and "be going to have been doing."
Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous;
however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference point in the
future.
- By the time he returns, I will have been working for nine hours.
- By 2025, he will have been living here for fifty years.
- How long will you you have been working there by next time?
- Next January I’ll have been learning French for three years.
- Are you going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?
- They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.
- She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally closes.
- How long will you have been studying when you graduate?
- We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to Anchorage.

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Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show
cause and effect.
- Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.
- Claudia's English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have
been studying English in the United States for over two years.

The Future Perfect Continuous “learn, lie, live rain, sit, wait and work” gibi, devamlılık ifade eden
fiilerle kullanıldığında, şu anda devam etmekte olan eylemin, gelecekte de devam ediyor
olacağını da ifade eder.
- I will have been working for four hours by the time Pam gets to the office.
(Future tense: I will start working at 10am. Pam will get to the office at 2 pm.)
- We will have been waiting for them for 30 minutes by the time we arrive at the airport.
- I was born in 1975 and it is 2001 now. By 2040, I will have been living for 65 years.

If you do not include duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many
English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future Perfect
Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future Continuous
emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes duration of time
before something in the future. Study the examples below to understand the difference.
- He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard.
(This sentence emphasizes that he will be tired because he will be exercising at that exact
moment in the future.)
- He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard.
(This sentence emphasizes that he will be tired because he will have been exercising for a
period of time. It is possible that he will still be exercising at that moment OR that he will just
have finished.)

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with
time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc.
Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous is used.
- You won't get a promotion until you will have been working here as long as Tim. Not Correct
You won't get a promotion until you have been working here as long as Tim. Correct

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses.
Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using Future Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Future Perfect.
- Ned will have been having his driver's license for over two years. (Not Correct)
Ned will have had his driver's license for over two years. (Correct)

The placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
- Will you only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?
Are you only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?

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 5.5. Passive voice

Active – Passive Voice

İpuçları:
• Boşluğun arkasındaki ifade eğer nesne ise işaretlenecek şık aktif, eğer boşluğun
devamındaki ifadede nesne yok ise işaretlenecek şık pasif olmalıdır.
• Cümle pasif yapıda ise “V3” ten sonra genellikle “by” gelir.

Passive voice reduction:

Zarf cümleciğinde, soruda bağlaçlardan sonra özne yok ise doğru yanıt:
zaman aynı ise “aktif: Ving / being” ya da “ pasif: ( being) + V3”,
zaman farklı ise “aktif: having + V3”, ya da “pasif: (having been)+ V3” olacaktır.
Perfect Progressive: “having been Ving” olur.
- He remembers being taken to the fair as a child.

Voice shows whether the subject acts or is subjected to action. There are two voices in English:
the active voice and the passive voice. The noun or noun phrase that would be the object of an
active sentence appears as the subject of a sentence with passive voice. “Passive” yapıda önemli
olan, etkilenen olayın kendisidir. Yapanın kim ya da ne olduğu “by” ile belirtilir.

If the subject performs the action, the verb form is used in the active voice.
- His parents built a new house ten years ago.

To make the passive: “to be + past participle (+ by agent)”.

- A new house was built by his parents ten years ago.

The Formation of the Passive Voice

Tense Auxiliary + Verb form

Simple Present am/is/are + past participle (V3)
Present Continuous am/is/are being+ past participle
Present Perfect have/has been + past participle
Present Perfect Continuous have/has been being + past participle
Past simple was/were + past participle
Past Continuous was/were being + past participle
Past Perfect had been + past participle
Past Perfect Continuous had been being + past participle
Simple Future will (shall) be + past participle
Future Continuous will (shall) be being + past participle
Future Perfect will (shall) have been + past participle
Future Perfect Continuous will (shall) have been being + past participle

Present continuous (passive voice): am/is/are + being + PP. Use the Present Continuous with
normal verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment.

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Passive verb’den sonra “Agent” olarak kullanılan yapılar:
• By: tarafından, yoluyla, ile
• By means of: vasıtasıyla
• By way of: yoluyla
• Through: sayesinde, aracıyla
• Via: üzerinden, yoluyla
• In terms of: açısından
• into

Adjectival uses: (V3+ noun)

Past participles of transitive verbs can also be used as adjectives (as in a broken doll)
- The window was broken. The broken window…
- The car was stolen. The stolen car…

Examples:
- I see him every day. He is seen every day by me.
- I met him at the station. He was met at the station.
- He will read this story tomorrow. This story will be read tomorrow.
- I have written a story today. A story has been written today.
- I had done the same thing before.The same thing had been done before.
- He gave me a book. A book was given to me.
- He will deliver that letter. That letter will be delivered.
- She made the cake.The cake was made by her.
- I have not eaten the cake. The cake has not been eaten by me.
- You must not take these books.These books must not be taken by you.
- People don’t speak english here.English isn’t spoken here.
- Did anyone take my letter? Was my letter taken by anyone?
- When ought you to finish it? When ought it to be finished?
- Where had you caught the thief? Where had the thief been caught?
- Don’t you put the money into the safe? Isn’t the money put into the safe?

Generally, you need the passive voice in the following cases:

Case 1: When it is not known or not necessary to mention who performs the action.
- Cotton is grown in Egypt.
- His book hasn't been published yet.
- His house was built a year ago.
- The film will be released in a month.

Case 2: When it is necessary to draw more attention to the receiver of the action. In this case, the
object in the active construction becomes the subject in the passive construction and receives
more attention. A phrase with the preposition "by" is used if it is necessary to show by whom the
action is performed.
- Someone broke the kitchen window yesterday. (active construction: window – object)
The kitchen window was broken yesterday. (passive construction: window – subject)
- Stephen King wrote The Green Mile in 1996. (The Green Mile – object)
The Green Mile was written by Stephen King in 1996. (The Green Mile – subject)

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If there are two objects in the active construction, i.e., direct object and indirect object, either of
them can become the subject of the passive construction, though passive constructions in which
the indirect object has become the subject are considered to be more common.. Compare:
- They gave Tom a valuable prize. Tom was given a valuable prize. (The indirect object "Tom"
becomes the subject of this passive construction in English.)
A valuable prize was given to Tom. (The direct object "prize" becomes the subject of this
passive construction in English.)
- A large construction company offered George a good job.
George was offered a good job at a large construction company.
A good job was offered to George by a large construction company.

Do not use passive constructions unnecessarily. In many cases it is better to use active
constructions if you know who performs the action.
Normal: I've already bought a new computer.
Strange: A new computer has been bought by me already.
The subject is subjected to the action; the verb form is used in the passive voice:
- John wrote a letter. The letter was written by John. [write, wrote, written]
- The food was cooked by my father. The agent is “my father”. [Agent: etkili olan kimse].
- A new house was built by his parents ten years ago.
- He was bitten by a dog.
- His new car was damaged in the accident.
- The money was shared among three people.
- Your money will be refunded if the goods are not to your satisfaction.
- The area was closed to visitors.
- Three stores were robbed last night.
- He was completely deprived of his legal rights.
- He was denied the right to apply for a post at the University of Berlin.
- His novel idea of history was wholly based on his experiences of life and politics in Turkey
where he grew up.

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 Tenses in the passive voice

The passive construction has the same meaning of the tense as the active construction, and the
same adverbs of time are used with the tenses in the active and in the passive. As a rule, the
present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, future perfect continuous, and future
continuous are not used in the passive.

Simple Present:
Meaning 1: Habitual, regular action in the present.
Time expressions: usually; every day; often; sometimes; rarely.
Examples:
- Mail is usually delivered at eight o'clock.
- This blog is updated every day.
- Human behaviour is heavily influenced by environmental and social pressures.

Meaning 2: Stating a fact, general truth, state or condition.

Examples:
- English is spoken in many countries.
- Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
- Paper is made from wood pulp.
- Mail is delivered at 8:00 a.m.
- These toys are made in China.
- Dinner here is served after seven.
- English is spoken in many countries of the world.
- English textbooks are often sold at the university bookstore.
- The word "office" is spelled with double "f".
- He is said to be a hundred years old.
- She is supposed to be back in an hour.

Present Continuous:
The action is going on now.
Time expressions: now; right now; at the moment.
- He is being examined by the doctor at the moment.
- The report is being typed right now.
- A new road is being built now.

The present continuous in the passive is often replaced by active constructions in everyday
speech.
- A new road is under construction now.
- The doctor is examining him at the moment.

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Present Perfect:
The action has just ended.
Time expressions: already; just; yet.
- The letter has already been sent.
- We have just been informed of his arrival.
- One of your colleagues has been promoted to associate professor. As you have always been
very impressed by the academic quality of his work, you think that he fully deserves the
promotion.

Reporting how things have developed by now.

Time expressions: by now: şu ana dek; so far: şimdiye kadar; never: asla; ever: her zaman;
several times; since: den beri; lately: son zamanlarda, geçenlerde.
- So far, ten workers have been fired.
- He has never been invited to their house before.
- We have just been informed about another accident at the plant.
- This information has already been checked and reported to the boss.
- So far, ten employees have been fired by the new director.
- They have never been invited to a boat party before.
- He has been seen in that house twice.
- She has been locked in her apartment for three days already.

Past simple:
Meaning: The action happened in the past.
Time expressions: yesterday; last week; last year; in 1996; in 2010; two hours ago.
Examples: His house was built a year ago. She was offered a good job last week. The
telephone was invented by Alexander Bell.
- His uncle was killed in the war.
- This dress was made in India.
- The telescope was invented by Galileo.
- Laura was asked to speak at the teachers' conference last week.
- The message was left on my desk in the office two days ago.
- His wallet, his passport, and his credit card were stolen yesterday.

Past Continuous:
Meaning: The action was going on (1) when another past action happened or (2) at some point of
time in the past. The past continuous in the passive is often replaced by active constructions in
everyday speech.
Time expressions: while; when; at five o'clock yesterday.
- When I came to the hospital, Tom was being examined by the doctor.
- I couldn't use my office yesterday because it was being painted.
- The new program was being tested for errors at three o'clock yesterday.

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Past Perfect:
Meaning: The action happened before another past action or before some point of time in the
past.
Time expressions: by the time; before; after; by 1990; by yesterday; by last week.
- By the time I returned, the work on the project had been finished.
- By 2005, five new hotels had been built.
- By the time I returned, the work on the project had been finished.
The past perfect in the passive may be replaced by the Past simple in the passive in everyday
speech when using "before" or "after" instead of "by the time".
- The work on the project was finished before I returned. I returned after the work on the
project was finished.

Simple Future:
Meaning: The action will happen in the future.
Time expressions: tomorrow; in a few days; next week; in 2025; in the future.
- The film will be released in a month.
- This work will be done tomorrow.
- The construction of the new school will be completed next year.
- The results of the mathematical contest will be announced tomorrow.
- The award will be given to the best math student.
- It will be done, I am sure.
- The 1990s will be known as the second Gilded Age.

Future Perfect:
Meaning: The action will happen before another future action or before some point of time in the
future.
Time expressions: by the time; by 2035; by tomorrow; before.
- By the time you return, the report will have been typed.
- By 2050 the cure for cancer will have been found.
- Experts say that by 2050 the cure for cancer will have been found.
- Dear clients! By this time tomorrow your telephone connection will have been restored
completely.
The future perfect in the passive is used mostly in writing, for example, in formal
correspondence and scientific literature.

Need + to Verb
Passive voice: need to be + V3
- Not only knowledge and skills, but also attitudes need to be cultivated in school for students’s
future adjustment to society.

Forming passives with modals:

Affirmative Form: Object + may,(must, can, could, ought to, should) + be + verb3
Question Form Must, (may, can, should, might) + object + be + verb3 (past participle)
- Our English teacher may give an exam today.
An exam may be given by our English teacher today.

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Verbs that indicate state passive are mostly used with a preposition.
be based on
be committed to
be confused with
be connected to /with
be dedicated to
be devoted to
be done with
be engaged to
be filled with
be finished with
be interested in
be involved in
be known for
be made of (if there is only physical change in the raw material)
be made from (if the raw material changes chemically as well as physically)
be made out of (if you alter an item, and use it with a different aim)
be obliged to someone
be prepared for
be provided with
be related to
be remembered for
be terrified of
be tired of/from
be upset with someone
be used to

Impersonal passive constructions

Impersonal passive constructions in the form of impersonal sentences with the formal subject. "It"
in the main clause are often used in news reports. Passive constructions with the infinitive are
also used in the news quite often; in such constructions, the subject is stated.
- It is known that the director is against this plan. The director is known to be against this plan.
- It is believed that he is the richest man in the country. He is believed to be the richest man in
the country.
- It was expected that the mayor would approve the new project.
The mayor was expected to approve the new project.
- It is reported that four people were injured in the accident.
Four people are reported to have been injured in the accident.
- It was reported that he bought several expensive houses.
He was reported to have bought several expensive houses.

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Prepositional passive

To promote the object of a preposition may be called the prepositional passive.

- They talked about the problem. The problem was talked about.
- Someone has slept in this bunk. This bunk has been slept in. (fully acceptable)

It is not usually possible to promote a prepositional object if the verb also has a direct object;
any passive rendering of the sentence must instead promote the direct object. For example:
- Someone has put a child in this bunk.
This bunk has been put a child in. (unacceptable)
A child has been put in this bunk. (acceptable)

Exceptions occur with certain idiomatic combinations of “verb + object + preposition”, such as
take advantage of:
- I feel people have taken advantage of me.
I feel I have been taken advantage of. (acceptable)

Passive constructions without an exactly corresponding active

Some passive constructions are not derived exactly from a corresponding active construction.
- They say (that) he cheats. It is said that he cheats.

Another way of forming passives in such cases involves promoting the subject of the content
clause to the subject of the main clause, and converting the content clause into a non-finite
clause with the to-infinitive.
- They say that he cheats. He is said to cheat.
- They think that I am dying. I am thought to be dying.
- They report that she came back / has come back. She is reported to have come back.
- They say that she will resign. She is said to be going to resign.

Some verbs are used almost exclusively in the passive voice.

- He was rumored to be a war veteran. / It was rumored that he was a war veteran.
But it is not possible to use the active counterpart *They rumored that he was a war veteran.
(This was once possible, but has fallen out of use.)

Another situation in which the passive uses a different construction than the active involves the
verb make, meaning "compel". When this verb is used in the active voice it takes the bare
infinitive (without the particle to), but in the passive voice it takes the to-infinitive. For example:
- They made Jane attend classes. Jane was made to attend classes.

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 Additional passive constructions

Certain other constructions are sometimes classed as passives.

- City hall damaged by hail
- Our work done, we made our way back home.
- That said, there are also other considerations.

Other constructions are mentioned in which a passive past participle clause is used, even though
it is not introduced by the auxiliary be or get (or is introduced by get with a direct object):
- I had my car cleaned by a professional.
- Jane had her car stolen last week.
- You ought to get that lump looked at.
- This software comes pre-installed by the manufacturer.

In the concealed passive, the present participle or gerund form (-ing form) appears rather than
the past participle. This can appear after “need”, and for some speakers after want (with similar
meaning).
- Your car needs washing. (meaning "needs to be washed"; some speakers might say needs
washed)
- That rash needs looking at by a specialist.
- His hair wants cutting.

The verbs need and want also have similar uses with an object:
- I need/want my room painting.

Double passives

The construction called double passive can arise when one verb appears in the to-infinitive as the
complement of another verb.
- We expect you to complete the project. The project is expected to be completed. (double
passive)
- The man was ordered to be shot and I was persuaded to be ordained.
- We attempted to complete the project. The project was attempted to be completed.

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 Middle voice and passival

The term middle voice is sometimes used to refer to verbs used without a passive construction,
but in a meaning where the grammatical subject is understood as undergoing the action. The
meaning may be reflexive:
- Fred shaved. Fred shaved himself
- These cakes sell well. We sell these cakes successfully.
- The clothes are soaking. The water is soaking the clothes.
- The house is building. The house is being built.
- The meal is eating. The meal is being eaten.

A rare example of the passival form being used in modern English is with the following phrase:
- The drums are beating. The drums are being beaten.

Hints

Sorulan soruda boşluğun ardında nesne var ise aktif, nesne yoksa pasif olabilir, dikkatli
olunmalıdır. “Kime, niye” sorusuna cümlede yanıt olup olmadığına da bakılmalıdır.
- “The patient ___ the medicine tomorrow.” Cümlesinde nesne olmasına rağmen yapı pasiftir.
Yanıt:[will be given] olacaktır.
- He ___ (tell) yesterday. Cümlesinde “kime, niye sorusunun yanıtı yoktur, yapı pasiftir: He
was told yesterday.
- “They ___ (tell) him yesterday.” Cümlesinde kime sorusunun yanıtı mevcuttur, yapı aktifdir:
They told him yesterday.
- The food is being served. (Present progressive passive)
- The stadium will have been built by next January. (Future perfect passive)
- I would have gotten injured if I had stayed in my place. (Conditional perfect passive with get)
- It isn't nice to be insulted. (Passive infinitive)
- Having been humiliated, he left the stage. (Passive present participle, perfect aspect)

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Examples

- Jo Cox was seen as a rising political star. 52-year-old arrested Jo Cox’s death.She was a
lawmaker.
- The bridge was designed by him. The bridge which was designed by him. The bridge
designed by him
- The Golden Gate, [which is] painted a bright red-orange called "International Orange",
requires repainting every year because of the salty, corrosive air.
- The bright color, seen even in dense fog, gives the bridge high-visibility.
- Patients who are prescribed a full course of antibiotics need to keep taking the medicine until
it is completely gone.
Patients prescribed a full course of antibiotics need to keep taking the medicine until it is
completely gone.
- At this moment somebody in the world is dying and another is being born.
- My classmate gave this book to me. This book was given to me by my classmate
- You should pump up the tyres before every trip. Her seyahatten önce tekerlekleri şişirmelisin.
The tyres should be pumped up before every trip. Her seyahatten önce tekerlekler
şişirilmelidir.
- People say that that man is a thief. İnsanlar şu adamın hırsız olduğunu söylüyor.
It’s said that that man is a thief. O adamın hırsız olduğu söyleniyor. (noun clause)
That man is said to be the thief. O adamın hırsız olduğu söyleniyor.
- Nobody has used this computer. Hiç kimse bu bilgisayarı kullanmadı.
This computer hasn’t been used (by anybody). Bu bilgisayar hiç kimse tarafından
kullanılmadı.
This computer has been used by nobody. Bu bilgisayar hiç kimse tarafından kullanılmadı.
- The energy from light rays is concentrated and the rays are able to penetrate objects.
- He has ordered an investigation. Araştırma talimatı verildi.
- It was invited to give a concert.
- Electromagnetic radiation is identified based on frequency, wavelength, and source.
- The EM wave is attenuated (i.e. reduced in apparent power) as it propagates from the
transmitter to the receiver.
- This product was developed, manufactured and tested in compliance with our quality
management standards.
- Conformity is proven by compliance with the following standards. Uygunluk aşağıdaki
uygunluk standartlar ile kanıtlanır.
- Format defines how the measured data is presented in the graphical display.
- Some people are opposed to stem cell research. (Kök hücre)
- A single coin was found in the ruins of great Zimbabwe and one coin was found in the
Arabian Peninsula, in what is now Oman, but nowhere else. And yet, here is this handful of
them in northern Australia, this is the astonishing thing.
- I was given a piece of paper to write down information about myself.
- Social distinctions can be based only on common utility. Sosyal farklılıklar ancak ortak yarar
temelinde olabilir.
- More than 100 National Guard members were deployed in New York to assist in clearing
roads and removing abandoned vehicles.
- In 1990 it was introduced into the field of scientific psychology, defined as “the ability to
monitor one’s own and others’ feelings, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and action.”

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- It is believed that the first cheese was probably made more than 4,000 years ago by nomadic
tribes in Asia.
- When people told him he was wasting his time, energy, and money for nothing, Edison
exclaimed, “For nothing! Every time I make an experiment, I get new results. Failures are
stepping stones to success.” He was not discouraged by the possibility of failure.
- An enduring illusion of the Americans is that every social imperfection can be corrected
simply by passing a law.
- We're looking for the lady whose handbag was stolen yesterday.
- When the Sirkeci train station went into service on November 3, 1890, the waiting room was
heated with stoves brought from Austria and lit by coal-gas lamps.

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 5.6. Causative form

We usually make an arrangement with a professional to do to it. Maybe it’s difficult, impossible or
we simply don’t want to do it. The past participle is used after the verbs "have" and "get" in
constructions like "I had my car washed." which indicate that the action is performed for you by
someone. When we use “have” we are saying someone will do something for us; we give
someone the responsibility.

The differences between “have” and “get” something done are that “have” is slightly more formal
than “get”, and get is more frequent in the imperative form. "Have" close in meaning to "ask" and
"get" close in meaning to "persuade". “Let” shows there is permission

Active

have smb do smth:

have + someone + verb = "to give someone the responsibility to do something".
- I have the mechanic check the brakes.
- The students had the teacher solve questions. Öğrenciler, öğretmene soruları çözdürdü.
- I had my sister watch the baby while I was out.
- The teacher had him do all the work again
- Dr. Smith had his nurse take the patient's temperature.
- Please have your secretary fax me the information.

get smb to do smth:

Birine bir şeyi ikna yoluyla yaptırıldığı zaman bu yapı kullanılır.
get + someone + to + verb = "to convince to do something" or "to trick someone into doing
something".
- I got my brother to help me (to) repair my car.
- The government TV commercials are trying to get people to stop smoking.
- They couldn't get anyone to fix their burst pipes.
- He gets his brother to do his homework. O kardeşine ödevlerini yaptırır.
- How can parents get their children to read more?

make smb do smth:

Bir işin zorla ya da ısrarla başkasına yaptırıldığı anlamı vardır.
- My mother made me tidy my room. Annem bana odamı toplattı.
- My teacher made me apologize for what I had said.
- She made her children do their homework.

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let smb do smth:
Birine bir şey yapması için izin verildiği anlamına gelir.
- My parents never let me play football in our garden. Ailem bahçemizde futbol oynamama asla
izin vermez.
- John let me drive his new car.
- Will your parents let you go to the party?
- I don't know if my boss will let me take the day off.

Passive

Have /get smth V3:

Have /get + object + V3
I have my car serviced every month. [Simple present]
He is having his car serviced now. [Present Continuous]
Now I am having the bathroom redecorated. [Present Continuous]
He was having his car serviced when I arrived. [Past Continuous]
We’ve had the carpets cleaned. [Present Perfect]
We’ve been having our garden remodeled. [Present Perfect Continuous]
He had had his car serviced before he started the journey. [Past Perfect]
He will have his car serviced tomorrow. [Future]
I will get the door lock replaced as soon as I can. [Future]
Is he going to have his kitchen painted? [Future]
They’ll be having their dinner served at half past eight. [Future Continuous]
He may have his car serviced tomorrow. [Modal]
He should have his car serviced tomorrow. [Modal]
He should have had his car serviced yesterday. [Modal Perfect]
He could have had his car serviced yesterday. [Modal Perfect]
He might have had his car serviced yesterday. [Modal Perfect]
He may have had his car serviced yesterday. [Modal Perfect]
He must have had his car serviced yesterday. [Modal Perfect]

If we want to know who did the action, we can use the by agent.
- Every Saturday we have our car cleaned by a local lad in the village.
- She had had her nails done before her hair was cut by Sassoon.
- They’ll have had their meal served by the time we arrive.

We also use the causative form to talk about bad experiences or mishaps.
- They’ve had their suitcases stolen at the airport.
- We’ve had our electricity cut off all day.
- I had my car lights smashed by vandals.
- He had his garden destroyed by the storm.

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Examples
- I really must get my eyes tested. I´m sure I need glasses.
- Get your hair cut!
- The mechanic changed the oil in my car. I had the oil in my car changed.
- He has not had his car serviced yet. [Present Perfect]
- We get our car fixed by a mechanic.
- I don´t know how to repair cars, so I´m having mine repaired at the garage round the corner.
- He had his car serviced last month. [Past simple]
- The hairdresser cut my hair in a completely different style. I had my hair cut in a completely
new style.
- He will have her hair cut. (O saçlarını kestirecek)
- A decorator has repainted our house. We have had our house repainted.
- She’s having her house painted. [Present Continuous]
- They had their house painted blue. (Professional house painters did the work.)
- A friend of mine, who´s an electrician, is going to repair my DVD player next week. I´m going
to have my DVD player repaired next week by a friend of mine, who´s an electrician.
- My jacket is being cleaned at a specialist cleaner´s. I´m having my jacket cleaned at a
specialist cleaner´s.
- The town hall has just been rebuilt for the council. The council has just had the town hall
rebuilt.
- We usually have the decorating done professionally. [Simple present]
- She got plug changed the lamp last week. [Past simple]
- She got her teeth cleaned by a dental hygienist.
- I get my taxes done every year by an accountant.
- She had her nails manicured by a manicurist.
- You should have had it fixed a long time ago.
- She had her purse stolen on the underground last week.
- He had/got the roof repaired yesterday. (O dün çatısını tamir ettirdi.)
- He had his wife killed.

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 6. Modals
English verbs can be described from different sides: main verbs, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs;
regular and irregular verbs; transitive and intransitive verbs.

Modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs express ability, necessity, obligation, duty, request,
permission, advice, desire, probability, possibility, etc. Modal verbs express the speaker's attitude
to the action indicated by the main verb. Modal verbs are sometimes called defective verbs,
because they do not have all the functions of main verbs. They can't be used without a main verb,
can't form gerunds or participles, and do not have any endings to show person, number, or tense.

Modals: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather,
must.
Model-1: will, can, may, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather, must
Model-2: could, might, would
Model-3: would, could, might
Modal fiil eki yapısında: modal + be
Modal fiiller yanında bir fiil ile kullanılırlar. Duygu, düşünce üretirler. “Have to” bir modal değildir.

• Modals are not used to talk about things that definitely exist, or events that definitely
happened.
• All modal verbs take the infinitive without the particle "to". (The modal verb “ought to” consists
of two parts: "ought" and "to".)
• Modal verbs form the present and the past with the help of the above-mentioned infinitive
forms, and the future is expressed by the present tense.
- She can drive. (ability)
- Could you help me with this report, please? (request)
- I must go. (strong necessity)
- You should call him. (advice)
- You may stay here. (permission)
- I would like to see her. (desire)
- He might leave soon. (possibility)
- He must be at the tennis club now. (strong probability)

The meanings of modal verbs are extremely important for understanding how modal verbs work.
For example, look at this sentence:
- You must speak English at the conference. (strong necessity)
- You have lived in Canada for several years, you must speak English. (strong probability).

Certain grammatical constructions provide additional information and help us to understand the
meanings of modal verbs correctly. For example, the use of the infinitive of the verb “be” after
certain modal verbs is often an indication that the meaning is "probability, possibility".

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The meanings of modal verbs are a little difficult to single out and describe clearly. For example,
when speaking about the main meaning of the verb “Can”, some linguists use the words "ability,
possibility", others speak about "physical and mental ability", still others say "ability, power, skill,
opportunity".

The modal verbs “Should” and “Ought to” are close synonyms; “Will” and “Would” are synonyms
in some types of polite requests. For example, “May, Might, Could” are synonyms in the meaning
"possibility". “May” has two other meanings; “Could” has four other meanings, two of which are
rather difficult to distinguish from "possibility" without a clear context. Only “Might” has just one
meaning: possibility. The choice should be obvious – use “Might” or “May” for "possibility".

What is difference possibility and probability?

Possibility: vagueness, just an idea which is difficult to quantify or schedule
Probability: it's more solid; you can put numbers (and dollars) on it
- Until yesterday, the project was just a possibility, but now it has become a real probability.

Degrees of certainty: certainty; probability; possibility; impossibility.

Obligation /Freedom to act: permission, lack of permission; ability; obligation.

6.1. Formation of modals

Modal verbs use all of the infinitive forms without the particle "to" to form certain tenses and to
create meanings in their own peculiar way.
Modal + Verb:
- He must go.

Modal + be:
- He must be in the other room.

Modal + be + n/ Ving:
- He must be sleeping.
- He must be doctor.

Modal + perfect:
- He must have gone home.
- He may have broken the law. Yasayı ihlal etmiş olabilir.
- He must have told her about it.

Modal + perfect continuous:

- He must have been sleeping.

Modal + be + V3 (passive):
- It must be done quickly.

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 Modal + have been + V3 (perfect passive):
- It must have been done already.
- He might have been sleeping at three o'clock yesterday.
- This letter should have been sent a week ago.

Questions are formed by inversion of the verb and subject. Soru yardımcı fiil yapıları (do, does,
did) kullanılmaksızın oluşturulur. The negative is formed simply by adding "not" after the modals.
- Can you do it?
- May I take it?
- Should I go there?

“Might” is generally used instead of “May” in cases where the rules of the sequence of tenses
require the use of the past tense form of the verb.
- She may be at the hospital now. I said that she might be at the hospital now.

Modal verbs take the infinitive without the particle "to". The modal verb “Ought to” consists of two
parts: "ought" and "to".

Only two modal verbs can form the past by changing their forms directly. They are “Can, Could
and Will, Would” (only in some of their meanings). “Could” ve “would” durumları dışında geçmiş
zaman biçimleri yoktur.
- She can sing very well. – She could sing very well when she was younger.
- He will go there tomorrow. – I said that he would go there tomorrow.

The future is expressed by the present tense forms of modals with the help of the context and
adverbs of time referring to the future.
- Can I go there tomorrow? – Yes, you can.
- Can they go there now? – No, they can't.

The modal verbs “Will, Would”, express the future. The pair “Shall, Should” with the future
meaning can still work like that in British English. In American English, “Will” is used for all
persons in the future (“Would” for the Future in the Past), and “Shall, Should” are used mostly as
separate modal verbs.
- Shall we wait for you here? (polite suggestion of some action and asking for consent or
directive)
- Shall I bring you more coffee? (polite suggestion of some action and asking for consent or
directive)
- Should he call her? (Asking for advice; present or future) He shouldn't call her today.
- You should have called her yesterday. (giving advice; past tense)
- They should call her tomorrow.

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Modal verbs are very common and widely used in speech and writing. There are also quite a few
substitutes for modal verbs, such as the phrases "be able to, have to, have got to, had better, be
to, be supposed to, be going to, used to", the adverbs "probably, maybe", and some others.
Some substitutes are also very common and widely used, for example,
• “Have to” instead of “Must” in the meaning "strong necessity";
• “Probably” instead of “Must” in the meaning "strong probability";
• “May be” instead of “May, Might, Could” in the meaning "possibility".

The most important use of substitute phrases is in those cases where modal verbs can't be used.
For example, the modal verb “must” in the meaning "strong necessity" doesn't have the past form,
so the substitute phrase “have to” (necessity) is typically used instead of the modal verb “must” in
the past tense, with a little change in meaning.
- Maria must go to the bank today. (strong necessity)
- She has to go to the bank today. (necessity)
- She had to go to the bank yesterday. (necessity; realized action)

Modal adverbs and adjectives

Modal verbs aren't the only words that express this kind of meaning, of course. Adverbs,
adjectives and nouns can all achieve similar semantic effects, though each opens up a different
range of grammatical possibilities:
Modal adverbs: certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably, impossibly,
positively, scarcely, most certainly, surely, unquestionably, seriously, apparently, obviously,
rarely, occasionally
Modal adjectives: certain, definite, clear, probable, possible, potential, likely, unlikely, total,
essential, absolute, complete
Modal nouns: assumption, possibility, probability, chance, opportunity, necessity, capacity,
certainty
From low modality to high modality: might go, could possibly, go should go, will go, will definitely
go
From low modality to high modality: It could be hot outside. It is probably hot outside. It is hot
outside.

Modal verb:
He may be at home.
I can’t imagine they’ll like him.
But Frieda may well apply.
I shouldn’t think they will employ an oudsider.

Adverb:
Maybe he's at home.
Texas sure was a great place to grow up.
Maybe I will do well in my next English test.
I probably won’t need English for my next job.
I could possibly go. = Perhaps I will go.

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Adjective:
It's possible that he's at home.
He is likely to be there for at least a year.
He is unlikely to change his personality overnight.
He is bound to upset people.
I'm sure that I've seen that dress before.

Noun:
We're considering the possibility that he's at home.

Verb:
I don’t suppose he’ll worry about being popular.
I doubt if Lynn will go for it.
I dare say they will promote him.
I don’t think I will take any more English exams. I doubt if I will take any more English exams.

Modal perfect

“Modality or modal perfect” yapısı geçmişe göndermede bulunur.

Real Past: Unreal Past:
May have + V3 : olmuş olabilir, olabilirdi Would have + V3 :_erdi/_ebilirdi (ama)
Might have + V3: olmuş olabilir, olabilirdi Might have + V3 :_erdi/_ebilirdi (ama)
Could have + V3: olmuş olabilir, olabilirdi Could have + V3 :_erdi/_ebilirdi (ama)
Can’t have + V3 :olmuş olamaz Should have + V3 : olmalıydı (ama)
Couldn’t have + V3 :olmuş olamaz Ought to have + V3 : olmalıydı (ama)
Must have + V3 :olmuş olmalı Needn’t have + V3: olmasına gerek yoktu (ama)

The active infinitive, simple infinitive and the passive infinitive are the most common forms of the
infinitive used in speech and writing; the other forms are rarely used.
Subject + modal + V: He must go.
Subject + modal + be + N /Adj: He must be in the other room.
Subject + modal + be + Ving : He must be sleeping.
Subject + modal + be + V3 : It must be done quickly. (Passive)
Subject + modal + perfect simple: He must have gone home.
Subject + modal + perfect continuous: He must have been sleeping.
Subject + modal + have been + V3 : It must have been done already. (perfect passive)

May have + V3: olmuş olabilir, olabilirdi

- Nineteenth-century military helmets may have been better designed than they now appear,
but even at their best they did not point the way to the future of head protection.

Note: “May have + V3” yapısının eş anlamlısı “might / could have + V3” dır. Ayrıca eşlamlısı
olmasa da “it is possible …“ ya da “it is likely …” olarak da yakın anlamı verebilir.

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Must have + V3: yapmış olmalı
Geçmişe yönelik güçlü bir tahminde ya da çıkarımda bulunulursa bu yapı kullanılmaktadır. Bu
yapının “zorunluk” anlamı olamaz.
- It was a difficult exam, and Joe passed it. He must have studied hard.
- She passed by without saying even “hello”. She mustn’t have noticed me.
- He must have told her about it.
- It must not have been regarded. Kabul edilmiş olmamalıdır.
- Andy seems to be bulding a kennel in his garden. He must have have bought a dog.

Could have + V3,

Would have + V3,
Might have + V3: olabilirdi (Past possibility)
Geçmişte kaçırılmış fırsatlardan bahsedilir. (If clause, Type-3)
- If you had come here 10 minutes earlier, you could have applied. Buraya 10 dakika erken
gelebilseydin başvurabilirdin.
- If you hadn’t helped me, I couldn’t have passed the exam. Eğer bana yardım etmeseydin,
sınavı geçemeyebiliridim.
- She may have forgotten about meeting. Toplantıyı unutmuş olabilir.
- He could have developed. [Geliştirmiş olabilirdi, ama geliştirilemedi.]
- He might have been sleeping at three o'clock yesterday.
- It might have been happening on a different planet. Bu farklı bir gezegende oluyor olabilirdi.

Bu yapı bazen geleceğe de vurgu yapar.

- We could have finished this task by this time tomorrow. Yarın bu vakte kadar bitirmiş
olabiliriz.
- The sales representatives might have arrived in Istanbul by Tuesday. Satış temsilcileri Salı’ya
kadar Istanbul’a varmış olabilirler.

Should have + V3,

Ought to have + V3: olmalıydı (Past regret, past advice, past critism)
Eğer tavsiye ya da eleştiri geçmiş anlam içeriyorsa ya da pişmanlık söz konusu ise “olmalıydı”
anlamı veren “should have + V3” ya da “ought to have + V3” yapısı kullanılır.
- He should have developed. Geliştirmeliydi.
- She couldn’t pass her final exam. She should have studied more. O final sınavını geçemedi.
Daha fazla çalışmalıydı.
- I shouldn’t have told anything him. He isn’t a dependable person. Ona hiçbirşey
söylememeliydim. O güvenilir birisi değil.
- This letter should have been sent a week ago. Bu mektup bir hafta çnce gönderilmeliydi.

Can’t / couldn’t have + V3: yapmış olamaz (Negative decution in the past)
Geçmişe yönelik kuvvetli ve olumsuz bir çıkarımda bulunurken kullanılır.
- They only put the for-sale sign yesterday. They can’t have sold their house yet. Satılık ilanını
daha dün astylar. Henüz evi satmış olamazlar.

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Needn’t have + V3: yapmana gerek yoktu ama yaptın (Absence of necessity in the past)
Geçmişte bir eylemin yapılmasına asla gerek yoktu ama yine de eylem gerçekleşirse bu yapı
kullanılır.
- We needn’t have hurried indeed. The meeting started 30 minutes late. Aslında acele
etmemize gerek yoktu. Toplantı yarım saat geç başladı.

Modality progressive

Modality Progressive: Modal + be + Ving

Bu yapı konuşma anında başka bir duruma gönderme yapar.

May + be + Ving: yapıyor olabilir.

Might + be + Ving: yapıyor olabilir.
Could + be + Ving: yapıyor olabilir.
A: Do you know where James is?
B: I don’t know, but he may be sleeping at home.
C: She couldn’t be working on the project now.

Must be + Ving: yapıyor olmalı

Mustn’t be + Ving: yapıyor olmamalı
Can’t be + Ving: yapıyor olmamalı
- Jane’s lightsare off. Then, she can’t be studying. Jane’nin ışıkları sönük. Öyleyse çalışıyor
olamaz.
She must be sleeping. Uyuyor olmalı

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 6.2. Auxiliary verbs

Auxiliary verbs perform grammatical functions and do not have specific lexical meaning. Auxiliary
verbs could be called helping verbs: they don't mean anything when they are alone, but when in a
sentence, they help complete the form and meaning of main verbs. The predicate stands after the
subject and is usually represented by a main verb or by the combination of an auxiliary or modal
verb with a main verb. Negative forms of auxiliary verbs can be full or contracted.

Auxiliary verbs (be, have, will, do) perform different functions:

• the verb "be" helps to form the continuous tenses in the active voice and all of the tenses in
the passive voice and also functions as a linking verb;
• the verb "have" helps to form the perfect tenses;
• the verb "will" helps to form the future tenses;
• the verb "do" helps to form questions and answers in the simple present and Past simple.

The most common auxiliary verbs are:

 be: am, are, is, was, were, being,
 can, could,
 do, does, did, doing,
 have, has, had, having,
 may, might, must,
 shall, should,
 Will, would.
 Ought + to

Structure: S + Auxilary Verb + Main Verb + O + C + adverb + adverb of place + adverb of time
The predicate Verb: Auxilary Verb + Main Verb

Use an auxiliary verb when you want to avoid repeating some part of your sentence (because it
can be deduced from the context): didn't.

General questions:
Structure: Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (+ object + adverbial modifier)?
In general questions, the auxiliary verb (do, be, have, will) is placed before the subject, and the
main verb follows the subject. Responses to general questions can be in the form of short "Yes"
or "No" answers or in the form of full statements.

interrogative questions:
Structure: Question word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (+ object + adverbial modifier)?
When the question is put to any part of the sentence, except the subject, the word order after the
interrogative word (e.g., how, whom, what, when, where, why) is the same as in general
questions. The answer is usually given in full, but short responses are also possible.

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When the interrogative words "who" or "what" is the subject in the question (i.e., the question is
put to the subject), the question is asked without an auxiliary verb, and the word order is that of a
statement: interrogative word (i.e., the subject) + predicate (+ object + adverbial modifier). The
same word order is used when the subject of the question is in the form of which / whose / how
many + noun.
- Who told you about it?
- What made you do it?
- Which coat is yours?
- Whose book is this?
- How many people came to work?

If there are two auxiliary verbs in a tense form, the adverb is usually placed after the first auxiliary
verb. "Already" may also stand after the second auxiliary verb, for example, in the Future Perfect.
- He has never been asked such questions.
- He may already have called them.
- His plane will already have landed by the time we get to the airport.

The verb “be” helps to form the Continuous Tenses in the Active and all tenses in the Passive:
- She is crying.
- The car was sold.

The verb “have” helps to form the perfect tenses:

- He has gone home.
- He had left before I called.

Both “have and be” are used in the formation of the perfect continuous tenses:
- He has been sleeping for two hours.

The verb “will” helps to form the future tenses:

- I will try. He said that he would help us.

The verb “do” helps to ask questions and give short answers in the simple present and Past
simple:
- Does he work here? – Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
- Did you write a letter to her? – Yes, I did. No, I didn't.
- This movie is boring and too violent. I agree. Why don’t we leave?
The verbs “be, have, will, do” have lexical meaning and are used as main verbs.
- Lake Chad is in Africa. (is – is located);
- He has several houses. (has – owns);
- Can you do it? (Do – act, perform).
- Do what you will. (will – wish)

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Reduced compound (analytical) forms are formed with the help of the auxiliary verbs "be" and
"have": having done, being done, having been done. The form "having done" is perfect active; the
form "being done" is passive; the form "having been done" is perfect passive.

If there are two auxiliary verbs in the phrase to which you are responding, use the first auxiliary
verb in your response.

Modal verbs (can, could, must, should, ought to, may, might, will, would, shall) are modal auxiliary
verbs that express ability, necessity, obligation, duty, request, permission, advice, desire,
probability, possibility, etc. Modal verbs express the speaker's attitude to the action indicated by
the main verb.

Can
• Talking about ability:
- Can you play the piano? (present)

• Asking permission:
- Can I ask you a question?

• Choice and opportunities:

- If you want some help with your writing, you can come to classes.

• Present possibility:
- That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense.

• The negative is expressed by can't:

- You're going to sell your guitar! You can't be serious!
- She didn't wave - she can't have seen me.

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 Could

"Could", geçmiş zamanda gerçekleşmemiş, ihtimal dışında kalmış şart cümlelerinde

kullanılır.
- I could have gone to the cinema if I hadn't had so much work. Çok işim olmasaydı sinemaya
gelebilirdim. "ama işim çoktu o yüzden gelemedim."
- If Liz had studied very hard, she could have passed the exam. Liz çok çalışsaydı, sınavı
geçebilirdi. - "ama çalışmadı o yüzden geçemedi."

"Could" ile geçmişteki beceriler (ability) anlatılır.

- When I was a student, I could speak English very well. Öğrenciyken, çok iyi İngilizce
konuşabiliyordum.
- Could you swim well when you were six years old? Altı yaşındayken, iyi yüzebiliyor muydun?
- She could play the piano when she was five. (past)

"Could", kibarca birşey istenirken, rica edilirken kullanılır. Making requests:

- Could you speak up a bit please? (slightly more formal, polite or 'softer')
- Could you pass the salt, please? Tuzu uzatabilir misiniz, lütfen?
- Could I open the window? Pencereyi açabilir miyim?

Asking permission:
- Could I ask you a personal question? (more formal, polite or indirect)

Reported speech: “Could” is used as the past of can.

- He asked me if I could pick him up after work.

Future probability:
Could (not “can”) is sometimes used in the same way as might or may, often indicating
something less definite. Burada "Could" olasılık, "would" ise kesinlik ifade eder.

Possibility:
General: Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War.
Present: I think you could be right you know. (not “can”)
Past: If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have stayed in bed longer.

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Will

Making personal predictions:

- I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate.

Talking about the present with certainty (making deductions):

- I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the Department can do

Talking about the future with certainty:

- I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.

Talking about the past with certainty:

- I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen sharply.

Reassuring someone:
- Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure.
- It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself.

Making a decision:
- For the main course I'll have grilled tuna. (Ana yemek için ızgara ton hazırlanacak.)
- I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight.

Making a semi-formal request:

- Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here.
- Sign this, will you?

Offering to do something:
- You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks. (to fetch: gidip almak)

Insistence; habitual behavior:

- I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You will keep talking in class.
- Damn! My car won't start. I'll have to call the garage.

Making a promise or a threat:

- You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp.
- If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight to bed!

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 Would

"Could", geçmiş zamanda gerçekleşmemiş, ihtimal dışında kalmış şart cümlelerinde kullanılır.
"Could" olasılık, "would" ise kesinlik ifade eder.

"Would", “will” yerine “past” yapılarında kullanılır:

- Tom will come to the meeting. (Tom toplantıya gelecek.)
Tom would come to the meeting. (Tom toplantıya gelecekti.)
- He said that he would visit us.
- He told me he would resign

As the past of will, in indirect speech:

- "The next meeting will be in a month's time" becomes.
He said the next meeting would be in a month's time.

The past of future perfect, [yapmış olacak]:

- O 2020’ye kadar Türkiye’nin AB’ye girmiş olacağını söyledi.
He said that Turkey would have entered EU by 2020.

Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will):

Ricada bulunurken “you” öznesi ile yapılan sorularda kullanılır.
"Would" kibarca birşey isterken, rica ederken kullanılır.
- Would you close the window, please? (Pencereyi kapatır mısınız, lütfen?)
- Would you turn down the radio, please? (Radyonun sesini kısar mısınız, lütfen?.)
- Would you help me?
- Would you please hand me that book?

"Would like" arzu etmek, istemek anlamında kullanılır.

- I would like to have a cup of tea. (Bir fincan çay almak istiyorum.)
- Would you like some sugar? (Biraz şeker almak ister misiniz?)
- Would you like another cup of tea?

“Would” and “wish”

- I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me.
- I wish it would snow.
- I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.)
- They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I would resign

"Would": yapardı, (geçmişteki alışkanlıklarımızı anlatır, “Used to + V” yerine kullanılır.)

Talking about past habits (similiar meaning to used to). “Would + V”, “used to”anlamıyla kullanılan
fiiller; be, work, stay, teach, live.
- When I was a child, I would play all day.
- He has a very patient cat; he would sit for hours beside a mouse hole.
- When I was ten years old, I would play outside all day. (On yaşındayken bütün gün dışarda
oynardım.)
- When I was in the village, I would ride horse. (Köydeyken, ata binerdim.)

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Would Rather: …den ziyade, …mektense
Tercihte bulunurken “would rather, would prefer, would just as soon, would sooner” kalıplarında
kullanılır.
• Would rather + V
• Would rather + not + V
• Would rather + have + p.p
• Would rather + not + have + p.p

"would rather" kalıbından sonra doğrudan fiil gelir ve ek almaz.

- I’d rather go by car. (Arabayla gitmeyi tercih ederim.)
- I would rather stay at home than go out this evening. (Evde kalmayı tercih ederim.)

Would rather...than...
"Would rather" ve "would prefer" kalıpları arasında anlam olarak fark yoktur. Sadece kullanımda
yapısal olarak aşağıdaki fark vardır.
• would rather do
• would prefer to do
- In fact, Mary would rather have left for San Fransisco than have stayed in Los Angeles.

In conditionals, to indicate “distance from reality”: imagined, unreal, impossible

situations:
If clauses:
Type-2; would +V: If he studied hard, he would pass his exam.
Type-3; would have V3:
"Would" geçmiş zamanda gerçekleşmemiş, ihtimal dışında kalmış şart cümlelerinde kullanılır.
Burada "Could" olasılık, "would" ise kesinlik ifade eder.
- If you had locked your bike, it wouldn’t have been stolen.
- If I had had a lot of money, I would have bought a flat. Çok param olsaydı, bir daire satın
alırdım. - "ama param yoktu ve alamadım."
- If Tom hadn't been busy, he would have come to the meeting. John meşgul olmasaydı,
toplantıya gelirdi. - "ama o zaman meşguldü ve gelemedi."

(V2, V3): If I were you, I would have done it yesterday.

- If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day of spring. (to rule: yönetmek, hükmetmek)

Sol taraf V3, sağ taraf ise “now” dan dolayı V2 ye inerse:
- If you had helped us, we would be home now.

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 Implied condition:
but:
Subject+would+V, but + Present / Future
- I would help you, but I am busy. Size yardım ederdim fakat meşgulüm.
Subject+would+ have V3, but + Past
- I would have helped you, but I was busy.

Otherwise:
Present / Future. Otherwise + subject+ would + V.
- I am busy. Otherwise, I would help you.
Past. + Otherwise + subject + would + have V3
- I was busy. Otherwise I would have helped you.

Future in the past:

İngilizce’de basit cümle olarak “bu … olurdu” tipinde bir cümlenin şu an ya da gelecek zaman
için “would V”; geçmiş zaman karşılığı “would have V3” olur.
- Bu yıl master yapmayacağım. Bu benim için zor olurdu.
I will not do my master’s degree this year. This would be too difficult for me.
- Geçen yıl master yapamadım. Bu benim için çok zor olurdu.
I didn’t do my master’s degree last year. This would have been too hard for me.
- The assassination would become one of the key events of the century.

Planda değişiklik aksilik gösteren durumlarda zamansal olarak “would + V” ile 5 “tense”
kulanılır.
Note: “Bir araba alacaktım”, “ yapacaktım olmadı” anlamında kullanılır.

I would buy a car, , but now I find (that) I can’t.

I was going to buy a car, …, fakat bir de baktım ki olmadı.
I was buying a car,
I was to buy a car, (, but I couldn’t get the loan from the bank.)
I was to have bought a car,

- Last night I would phone you, but the phone was out of order.
Last night I was going to phone you… (Was yerine were kullanılmaz.)
- They were going to get married but in the end they changed their mind.
- I was coming to see you tomorrow, but now I find I can’t. Seni yarın görmeye gelecektim,
fakat birde baktım ki olmadı.
- A: Did you spend your holiday in Kemer?
B: No. I was to have spent it there, but I changed my mind went to Alanya instead.
- The men were to have been dismissed but the manager decided to give them a second
change.
- She was planning to go there tomorrow, but nowshe finds that she can’t go.

Note: “Would+V” genellikte “present” anlam verecek şekilde kullanılır.

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 Shall

“Will” can be used in all persons. Shall is also sometimes used in the first person when it has the
same meaning as “will”.
- I shall never finish this essay - I've still got 2,000 words to write!
- I'll never finish this homework - I'm tired and I want to go to bed!
- I shan't ever be good enough to go to university - I just haven't got the brains!

“Shall” is often used in questions in the first person singular and plural when making suggestions,
making an offer or asking for advice:
- Making offers: Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?
- Making suggestions: Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
- Shall we go out for dinner tonight?
- Shall I get more tomato juice when I'm at the supermarket?
- What shall we do now? We're clearly not going to get there by nightfall.

However, when we want to express a strong intention to do something, we use “will” or “ 'll ” in the
first person singular and plural:
- Is that somebody at the door? I'll just go and see who it is.
- We'll get the cakes for the coffee morning tomorrow, Jane.

Should

Suggestion (Öneri), Advice (Tavsiye), Expectation (Beklenti):

Bu kullanımda “ought to” ve “had better” yapıları da kullanılır.
- You should have consulted your doctor before you started dieting. (Suggestion)
- It should not be regarded. Kabul edilmemelidir. (Advice)
- Someone who has spent a year in England should at least be able to speak everday
language easily. Bir yıl İngiltere’de kalmış birinin, en azından günlük dili rahatlıkla
konuşabiliyor olması gerekir. (Expectation)

Referring to the present or future, should is often used as an alternative to shall in

connection with requests for advice or instruction:
- What do you think I should do now? Should I write him a letter, send him an e-mail, or should
I try to phone him up?
- You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics.
- You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're not going to finish it.
- In addition to this, world-wide objectives for water management, such as transportation,
recreation, and energy production should also be considered. Buna ek olarak, ulaşım,
eğlence, ve enerji üretimi gibi, su yönetimi için dünya çapında hedefler de dikkate alınmalıdır.

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“Should” is often used to talk about obligation and duty as an alternative to 'ought to'
(weak form of must):
- If you are still infectious, you should stay at home.
- You shouldn't be out and about, infecting everybody you meet.
- You really should open a bank account.
- You shouldn't keep so much money in the house.
- People with fierce dogs should keep them on a leash at all times.

“Should” is used after if when a slight possibility is suggested.

- If you should see her at the anniversary concert, do give her my best regards.
- If I should bump into Tony, do you want me to remind him that he still owes you one hundred
pounds?
- She should easly get that prize.
Deduction: Sonuç çıkarma
- The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it first class.

Things which didn't or “may”/”may not” have happened:

- should have renewed my TV licence last month, but I forgot.
- You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first question.

… that + S + (should) + V
That + clause yapısında “Should” kullanılmayabilmektedir.
- I should insist that that he (should) not be accept as a member, since he is very bad-
tempered.

If yerine şart cümleciği yapmak için kullanılır. (If clause, Type-1, Inversion – devrik yapı)
- Should (if) you see her, tell her to call me.
- You can use this house should the weather turn bad.
- Should you need my help again, just give me a ring. (If you need my help again, just give me
a ring.)

“If clause” yapısında ihtimalin düşük olduğunu belirtmede kullanılır.

- If I should go abroad, I may visit them.

“Noun Caluse” yapısında tavsiye, öneri, öğüt, gereklilik ya da zorunluluk var ise “should”
atılabilir. (Subjunctive)
- She doesn’t know when she should leave.
She doesn’t know when to leave.

“Should + have + V3”: geçmişe yönelik tavsiye ve pişmanlık bildirmede kullanılır.

- He failed. He should have studied more.
- I recommend that you (should) take this pill twice a dday. Bu ilacı günde iki defa almanızı
tavsiye ederim.
- It is advisable that necessary precautions (should) be taken. Gerekli önlemlerin alınması
tavsiye edilmektedir.

Akıl danışma anlamı vermede kullanılır. “I” ve “We” özneleri ile birlikte kullanılır.
- Should I start a new course?

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 May

“May” and “Might” sometimes have virtually the same meaning; they are used to talk about
possibilities in the past, present or future. (Could is also sometimes used). “May” is sometimes a
little bit "more sure" (50% chance); whereas might expresses more doubt (maybe only a 30%
chance).
May and might are used, then, for: Talking about the present or future with uncertainty.
- She may be back in her office. [The lecture finished ten minutes ago.]
- I may go shopping tonight. [I haven't decided yet.]
- England might win the World Cup. [you never know.]

Talking about the past with uncertainty

- I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have been ill on the day of the exam.

They can also sometimes be used for talking about permission, but usually only in formal
situations.
- Students may not borrow equipment without written permission.

Talking about things that can happen in certain situations:

- If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some users may experience headaches.
- Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty patients.

With a similar meaning to although:

- The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a lot of work to be done. (=
Although it was a success, there is still ...)

Might

Saying that something was possible, but did not actually happen.
- Have you decided where to go on holiday this year?
Not yet, but we might go to the same place as we did last year.

Might as well.... as: a phrase indicating that it is probably better to do something than not to do it.
May /might as well: bari … _yı yapalım
- There is no bus. We might as well walk. Otobüs yok bari yürüyelim.

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 Advice

Advice: Should, Ought to, Had better

Advice: Tavsiye; from stronger to weaker: must, have to, have got to, had better, ought to, and
should
“Should”, in this group, can express mild or insistent advice of all kinds, such as advice,
recommendation, advisability, desirability, suggestion, obligation, duty, responsibility. The modal
verb “ought to” is a close synonym for “should”, and “had better” expresses advice with a warning
of a possible unpleasant result if indicated advice is not followed.

The modal verbs of this group form have two tenses: the present and the past. (“Had better” is
not common in the past.) The future is expressed by the present tense with the help of the
adverbs of time that refer to the future (for example, tomorrow, soon, next week), or without such
adverbs, because advice, naturally, is given for the future.

Should

The modal verb “should” is very common. Using “should” is a preferred way of giving advice for
many native speakers. The modal verb “should” in the meaning "advice" is used in affirmative and
negative statements and questions referring to the present, future, and past. The modal verb
“should” is very common and much easier to use than “ought to” and “had better”.

Present and Future:

- His car broke down again. He should definitely buy a new car.
- It is eleven o'clock. You should be sleeping now.
- You shouldn't smoke in this room. Now I will have to air it.
- You shouldn't leave on Monday. We are going to have an important meeting on Tuesday.
- Should we leave on Friday? – Yes, you should. No, you shouldn't.
- You should have consulted your doctor before you started dieting. (Suggestion)
- It should not be regarded. Kabul edilmemelidir. (Advice)
- Someone who has spent a year in England should at least be able to speak everday
language easily. Bir yıl İngiltere’de kalmış birinin, en azından günlük dili rahatlıkla
konuşabiliyor olması gerekir. (Expectation)

The modal verb “should” in the meaning "advice" can replace “must” in the meanings "strong
necessity" and "prohibition" if the speaker wants to sound less categorical.
Must: güçlü tavsiye (strong advice), (Mutlaka yap)
- I have an unbearable headache. You must see a doctor soon!
- You should go there right away. (advice to go there)
You must go there right away. (strong necessity to go there)
- You shouldn't park here. (advice not to park your car here)
You must not park here. (prohibition: You are not allowed to park here.)

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“Should” in the past:
The modal verb “should” forms the past tense by adding the perfect infinitive of the main verb.
Such constructions show that the speaker feels that the past action (or absence of action) was a
mistake.
- You should have called her yesterday. Today is her day off.
- I should have studied harder for my exams. I failed two of them.
- You shouldn't have spent all the money on new clothes. Now you don't have enough money
to buy food.
- She shouldn't have told Mike about the present. It was supposed to be a secret.

In the case of reported speech describing advice that was given in the past, two variants of
constructions with “should” are possible:
• “Should + perfect infinitive” shows the action that took place in the past;
• “Should + simple infinitive” shows that you don't know whether the action happened.
- I told him that he should have paid his debt promptly. (He didn't follow my advice and didn't
pay his debt.)
- I told him that he should pay his debt promptly. (I don't know whether he followed my advice
and paid his debt.)

Ought to

• ought + to + V
• ought not + to + V

“Ought to” usually has the same meaning as should, particularly in affirmative statements in the
present:
- You ought to get your hair cut.
- You have broken still another glass. You ought to have ben carefull when you washed it.
- You ought to write a letter to Maria. You should write a letter to Maria.
- You ought to have written a letter to Tom. You should have written a letter to Tom.
- Parents ought to be considerate about their children. (Suggestion)
- I wonder what happened to her. She ought to have been waiting outside the station for us,
but she wasn’t. (Expectation)

Note: Should is much more common (and easier to say!), so if you're not sure, use should. In
American English, “should” is generally used instead of “ought to” in questions, in negative
statements, and in the past.
- Should I call him?
- Should I have called him?

“Ought to” in the negative is not used very often. “Ought to” in the negative may lose the
particle "to" (She ought not to smoke so much. She oughtn’t to smoke so much.), but style
manuals recommend using the particle "to" in such cases.
- She ought not to eat so much chocolate. She shouldn't eat so much chocolate.
- You ought not to have gone there alone. You should not have gone there alone.

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 Had better: yapsan iyi olur. (Öneri)

Had better + V
The phrase “Had better” is used as a synonym for “should” and “ought to” for giving advice.
- Your cough is getting worse; you'd better see a doctor.

The modal verb “had better” expresses advice with a warning of possible unpleasant
consequences or results if indicated advice is not followed. “Had better” is mostly used in
conversational English, in affirmative and negative statements in the present. “Should” is used
instead of “had better” in the past.
“Had better” yapısında gizliden bir tehdit söz konusudur.
- I'd better go (or I'll be late).You'd better come back on Friday.
- You'd better be there on time. She'd better not come here again!
- Your cough is becoming worse. You had better see a doctor.
- You should have come back on Friday. You missed an important meeting.
- You had better think on every detail carefully before deciding.
- You had better not park here or (else / otherwise) you will be fined.
- You had better not talk to me in that way again.
- You had better finish that in the morning; otherwise, we will be late leaving and we will miss
the bus.

Other phrases for giving advice:

You can use the verbs "tell, advise, recommend" in describing the advice given. Note that the
verbs "advise, recommend" have peculiarities in the use of gerund or infinitive after them.
Compare these examples:
- You should buy this car. You ought to buy this car.
- You'd better buy this car now. It may be gone tomorrow.
- I told him that he should buy that car.
- I advise buying this car. I advise you to buy this car.
- I advise that you buy this car. I advised him not to buy that car.
- I recommend buying this car. I recommend that you buy this car.

Advice may also be given in the form of a suggestion. For example:

- Why don't you visit France this summer? You could go to France next year.
- You might go to a mountain resort next winter.
- If I were you, I would go to Italy in May.

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 Possibility

Possibility: May, Might, Could

Use the modal verbs “may” and “might” in the meaning "possibility" in affirmative and negative
statements referring to the present, past, or future. The verb “might” is easier to use than “may” or
“could”.

Possibility: Olasılık
General Possibility:
May + V, might + V, could + V
May be + adj /noun

Olumlu cümlelerde muhtemel olasıklardan bahsedilirken kullanılır. Burada “can” modal yapısı
soru cümlelerinde kullanılır.
- The contract may be signed at the end of the week. Hafta sonu kontrat imzalanabilir.
- They could reach an agreement after the negotiations. Müzakerelerin ardından bir anlaşmaya
varabilirler.
- We might not go on holiday next month. Gelecek ay tatile gitmeyebiliriz.
- His words may be grandiose or humble, fanciful or matter of fact, romantic or realistic, archaic
or modern, technical or everyday, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.
Onun sözleri görkemli ya da mütevazı, hayali ya da aslında meselesi, romantik ya da
gerçekçi, arkaik ya da modern, teknik ya da günlük, tek heceli veya çok heceli olabilir.

Theoretical Possibility: can + V

Eylemlerin teorik olarak gerçeklemesi mümkün olan durumlar anlatılırken de “can” yapısı
kullanılır.
- Anybody can learn German.

Olasılık ifade eden diğer yapılar:

Be likely to + V:
- Some people are likely to suffer back problems.

Be unlikely to + V:
- The dispute is unlikely to be settled for a long time. Uyuşmazlık uzun bir sure
çözümlenemeyebilir.

Be bound to + V:
- If you have problems at home, it is bound to affect your work. Eve problemlerin varsa işini
etkilemesi kuvvetle muhtemeldir.

May/might/could well + V:
- He may well find the course difficult. Kurs ona zor gelebilir.

Note: “May /Might /Could + as well” yapısı olasılık ifade etmez ve “bari yapalım”
anlamındadır, “may/might/could well” yapısı ile karıştırılmamalıdır.
- There is no bus at this time. We may as well walk home. Bu vakitte otobüs yoktur. Bari eve
yürüyelim.

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Meaning and context
The modal verbs “May, Might, Could” are very close synonyms in the meaning "possibility",
though “may” expresses a bit stronger possibility than “might” or “could”. “May” and “Could” have
several other meanings; “Might” has only one meaning – possibility. “Might” can be used in
making a polite request in the same way as “May”, but “Might” and “Could” have other meanings,
it is important to know how to recognize the meaning in which they are used.

The context, as usual, is the most reliable means of recognizing the meaning of modal verbs in
this or that situation. If the context is not clear enough, it may be difficult to understand in which
meaning the modal verb is used. Look at these examples:
- You may leave now. (permission)
- He may leave for Rome soon. (possibility)
- He may leave. (permission or possibility?)

Certain grammatical structures provide additional context and help us to understand the
meanings of modal verbs. Quite often, the use of the infinitive “be” after the modal verbs “May”
and “Could” is an indication that the meaning is "possibility". The perfect infinitive of the main verb
after these modal verbs signals that the meaning is "possibility".
- They may be at home.
- You may be right.
- He may have left already.
- He could have been sleeping when I called him.

Tenses

The modal verbs “May, Might, Could” in the meaning "possibility" form two tenses: the present
and the past. The future is expressed by the present tense forms with the help of adverbs and
adverbial phrases indicating the future time, e.g., "tomorrow, soon, next week".

Present tense
The present tense is formed by combining “May, Might,” or “Could” with one of the infinitive forms
for the present tense: with the simple infinitive, the continuous infinitive, or the passive infinitive.
The simple infinitive (active infinitive) is used more frequently.

With simple /active infinitive:

- She may be at home now.
- He may leave for Rome soon.
- He may not know my address.
- It may rain in the evening.
- He might be at the library.
- She might ask him for help.
- It might be difficult to do.
- He might go there tomorrow.
- He might not come back soon.
- I don't know where he could be.
- He could be at school or at home.
- It could be John, but I can't see clearly.

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With continuous infinitive:
- They may be working now.
- He might be sleeping now.
- He could be sleeping now.
- He could be still playing tennis at the club at the moment.

With passive infinitive:

- This work may be done tomorrow.
- She might be offered a new job.
- It could be done in a different way.

Past Tense
The past tense is formed by combining “may, might, or could” with one of the infinitive forms for
the past tense: with the perfect infinitive, the perfect continuous infinitive, or the perfect passive
infinitive. The perfect infinitive is used more frequently.

With perfect infinitive:

- He may have been at home then.
- She may have left already.
- She may not have known his address.
- He might have been at the bank.
- He might not have come back yet.
- He might have told her the truth.
- I really don't know where he could have been last week.
- It could have been John, but I'm not sure.

With perfect continuous infinitive:

- She may have been walking her dog yesterday in the evening.
- They might have been sleeping when she called them in the morning.
- He could have been playing tennis at the club at that time.
- With perfect passive infinitive:
- It might have been done already.
- He may have been offered a new job.

In reported speech:
“Might” is used as the past form of “May”, for example, in reported speech according to the rules
of the sequence of tenses.
- He said, "I may go there soon."
- He said that he might go there soon.
- She said, "I may have dropped my keys in the park."
- She said that she might have dropped her keys in the park.

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In conditional sentences:
Also, only “Might” is used to express supposition in conditional sentences with unreal condition,
while both “May” and “Might” are used to express possibility in sentences with real condition.
If he repaired his car, he might go to the lake with them tomorrow. (unreal condition referring to
the present or future)
- If he had repaired his car, he might have gone to the lake with them yesterday. (unreal
condition referring to the past)
- If he repairs his car, he may go to the lake with them tomorrow. (real condition referring to the
future)
- If he repairs his car, he might go to the lake with them tomorrow. (real condition referring to
the future)

Note: “Could” is also used in conditional sentences with unreal condition.

Questions

“May” and “Might” in the meaning "possibility" are usually not used in questions. The substitute
phrases "be likely; “Is it possible? Are you sure?” replace them in questions.
- Is he likely to return soon?
- Is she likely to be at home now?
- Was he likely to tell Mike about it?
- Is it possible that she is at home now?
- Are you sure that he told Mike about it?

“Could” doesn't have such restrictions and is used in questions, but sufficient context is needed to
distinguish the meaning "possibility" from the other meanings of “Could” Compare:
- Could you be more specific? (request)
- Could he be lying to us about his past? (possibility)
- Could you write a letter to her? (request)
- Could he write in English when he was 15? (ability; here “Could” is the past form of the verb
“Can”)
- Could he have written this letter? (possibility)

Students often make mistakes in questions about the possibility of something. To avoid
misunderstanding or mistakes, use the phrases "be likely; Is it possible; Are you sure" instead of
“may, might, could” in questions or ask questions without the meaning "possibility".
- Is she likely to know him?
- Is it possible that she knows him?
- Are you sure that she knows him?
- Does she know him?
- Is he likely to be there now?
- Where is he now?
- Where can I find him?

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 Negative statements

“May” and “Might” are used in negative statements in the meaning that there is a possibility that
some action might not take place.
- He may not be home yet.
- They may not have seen my letter.
- It might not be true.
- She might not know his address.
- I might not have locked the door.

“Could” in the negative, usually in the combination "couldn't be" in the present and with the
perfect infinitive of the main verb in the past, has the meaning "impossibility". "Can't" is used in
the same way and in the same meaning. ("Couldn't" is a little milder). "Couldn't" and "can't" in this
meaning indicate that the speaker strongly believes that something is really impossible.
- It couldn't be true! / It can't be true!
- It couldn't have been true! / It can't have been true!
- George couldn't be lying to us. He is an honest man.
- He couldn't have taken the money! / He can't have taken the money!
- It couldn't have been Tom. Tom was in Chicago last week.
- Is this a joke? You can't be serious!

Combinations with "have to" and "be able to"

“May” and “Might” are used in combinations with "have to" and "be able to".
- He may have to move to the South soon.
- She might have to sell her apartment.
- He might be able to help you.
- They might not be able to come to the party tomorrow.
- He might have been able to solve this problem.

Substitutes

The adverbs "may be, perhaps" and the phrase "It is possible that" are simple and useful
substitutes for the modal verbs of this group.
- May be he's still at home.
- May be he was really sick yesterday.
- May be he will tell us about it.
- May be she didn't go there.
- Perhaps he'll come back.
- It's possible that she doesn't know them.

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 Strong probability

Strong Probability: Must, Should, Ought to

The term "strong probability" means that something is highly probable or very likely to be true.
Strong probability is expressed by the modal verbs “must, should, ought to”. The verb “Must” in
the meaning "strong probability" is stronger than the verbs “should, ought to”. The verb “Must”
stresses the "almost sure" side of this meaning, while “Should, Ought to” express the speaker's
strong expectation that something is true to reality.
- It's ten o'clock. He must be in the office now. (I'm almost sure of that, because today is his
working day, and he is usually at his desk in the morning.)
- She should be at home after eight. (I strongly expect her to be at home after eight, because
she usually comes back at eight.)
- Is everything ready? The guests ought to be here soon. (I strongly expect them to be here
soon, because we invited them to our party.)
- The boy is reading a book and not paying attention to anything else. The book must be very
interesting. (I'm almost sure that the book that he is reading is very interesting.)
- Let's buy these books. They should be interesting. (I strongly expect these books to be
interesting.)

The meanings of “Must”

“Must” has two other meanings that are quite strong.

The first meaning of “Must” is strong necessity to do something.
- He must do it right now.

The second meaning, with a negative, is strong necessity not to do something.

- I must not forget to call her.

If “Must” in this meaning is addressed to other people, “Must” is often understood as prohibition.
- You must not go there alone.

Without sufficient context, it is sometimes difficult to understand in which meaning the verb
“must” is used. Compare these examples:
- He must read these magazines. (Strong necessity or strong probability?)
- He must not speak English. (Is it "I don't allow him to speak English" or "I'm almost sure that
he can't speak English"?)

We need additional information to make the meaning clear.

- There are bookmarks and his notes in these magazines. He must read them often. (Strong
probability.)
- James was silent during the whole conversation. He must not speak English. (Strong
probability.)

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Constructions and meaning
Certain grammatical constructions provide additional information and help us to understand the
meaning of “Must”. Quite often, the use of the infinitive of the stative verbs "be, know, like, feel"
after the modal verb “Must” is an indication that the meaning is "strong probability".
- He must be rich.
- It must be a mistake.
- He must know where to find her.
- He hasn't eaten any vegetables. He must not like vegetables.
- He must feel terrible after the accident.

The perfect infinitive of the main verb after “Must” is a clear indication that the meaning here is
"strong probability" because the other meanings of “Must” do not have the past forms. Compare
these examples:
- He must go to the bank as soon as possible. (Strong necessity to go to the bank as soon as
possible.)
- He must have gone to the bank already. (Strong probability that he has gone to the bank
already.)
- I must be at the meeting tomorrow. It's very important. (Strong necessity to be at the meeting
tomorrow.)
- I must have been at the meeting when he called. (Strong probability that I was at the meeting
when he called.)
- She must not see this letter. (Prohibition: I don't allow showing this letter to her.)
- She must not have seen this letter. (Strong probability: I'm almost sure that she hasn't seen
this letter.)

“Should” and “Ought to” in the meaning "strong probability"

The modal verbs “Should” and “Ought to” in the meaning "strong probability" express a strongly
expected action (i.e., strongly expected because it is highly probable) referring to the present,
future, or past.

The future is expressed by “Should, Ought to” with the help of adverbs and adverbial phrases
indicating the future time, such as "soon, tomorrow, next week, in an hour", etc., or without them,
because expectation, naturally, refers to the future.

Usually, “Should” or “Ought to” are combined with the active / simple infinitive of the main verb for
expected actions in the present or future and with the perfect infinitive for actions expected in the
past.

“Ought to” is a close synonym of “Should”, but “Should” is more common than “Ought to”. In
American English, “Should” usually replaces “Ought to” in questions, in negative statements, and
in the past.
- She should be back in about an hour. / She ought to be back in about an hour.
- He should be in Rome by now. Let's call him.
- The lecture should be interesting.
- This task shouldn't be difficult for you.
- You should receive this package soon. / You ought to receive this package soon.

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 - He should arrive in Chicago tomorrow.
- Where is Alexander? He should have arrived an hour ago.
- She should have received my letter last week, but it was delivered only yesterday.

The meanings of “Should, Ought to”

The most common use of “Should, Ought to” is giving advice.
- You should call her.
- You shouldn't go there alone.

It is not always easy to recognize or express strong probability with “Should” and “Ought to”
without sufficient context.
- He should arrive by train. (Is it "I advise him to arrive by train" or "I expect him to arrive by
train"?)
- He should arrive by train. His daughter says that he is afraid of flying. (Strong probability: I
expect him to arrive by train.)

The meaning "strong probability" in the past isn't always evident either, because “Should,
Ought To” in the meaning "advice" also form the past with the help of the perfect infinitive.
- You should have asked about it in advance.
We need clear context to bring out the meaning of "strong probability" with “Should, Ought To”.
Note that

“Should, Ought To” in the meaning "strong probability" in the past usually indicate the action
that was strongly expected but didn't take place.
- I'm really worried. I should have heard from him an hour ago. (I expected him to call me an
hour ago, but he didn't call.)
- She should have arrived yesterday. (I expected her to arrive yesterday, but she didn't arrive.)

Tense forms of “Must”

Using the verb “Must” is the most common way of expressing strong probability. “Must” in the
meaning "strong probability" forms two tenses: the present and the past.

“Must” in the present

The present tense of “Must” in the meaning "strong probability" is formed by combining “Must”
with the active / simple infinitive (often, with the simple infinitive of the verbs "be, know, like, feel")
and with the continuous infinitive of various main verbs.
- He must be a teacher. I have seen him at teachers' conferences several times.
- They have a huge house. They must be rich.
- She is his close friend. She must know his telephone.
- He must be working on his report at the library now.
- There's no light in the windows. They must be sleeping.

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“Must” in the past
The past tense forms of Must” for the past tense: the perfect infinitive, the perfect continuous
infinitive, or the perfect passive infinitive.
With present perfect:
- It must have been a mistake.
- She must have been at home yesterday.
- Someone brought you this package. – It must have been Victor.
- She must have left for New York already.
- She must not have known his address.
- He must have told her the truth.

With present perfect continuous:

- She must have been walking her dog at seven o'clock yesterday.
- He must have been sleeping when she called him in the morning.

With perfect passive:

- He looks happy. He must have been offered a new job.
- It must have been done already.

“Must” in the future

“Must” expresses strong necessity to do something in the future. The modal verb “Should” is
usually used instead of “Must” to express strong probability in the future. Note that the meaning
expressed by “Should” in such cases may also be "advice, recommendation". Compare:
- His bag is here. He must be in the office. (Strong probability.)
- He must be in the office tomorrow. We are going to have an important meeting. (Strong
necessity.)
- He should be in the office tomorrow. (Strong probability.)
- You should be in the office tomorrow. (Advice, recommendation.)

With some verbs, strong probability in the future may be expressed by “must” with the continuous
infinitive.
- He must be arriving tomorrow.

Probability in questions
The modal verbs “Must, Should, Ought to” in the meaning "strong probability" are generally not
used in questions. The phrases "Is it likely that; Is he likely to; Are you sure that" and their
variants are used instead of these modal verbs in questions about the probability of something.
- Is he likely to be at home now?
- Is it likely that he will come back soon?
- Is she likely to go there tomorrow?
- Was he likely to tell her the truth?
- Are you sure that he is still at the office?
- Do you think that they will help us?

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Substitutes
The adverb "probably" is widely used to express probability in the present, future, and past.
- He is probably a student.
- He's probably at home now.
- He probably lives near here.
- She'll probably go to Spain in the summer.
- I probably left my keys at home.
- She probably hasn't seen him yet.
- It probably wasn't difficult to do.
- They probably broke into the house at night.

The phrases "I'm sure that; I think that" and other similar phrases can be used as substitutes for
the modal verbs of this group to express an opinion about the probability of some action or
situation in the present, future, and past.
- I'm sure that he lives near here.
- I'm sure that he'll be able to help you.
- I'm sure that he was at home yesterday.
- I'm not sure that she has this book.
- I think that he is rich.
- I don't think that he can do it.
- I think that he left for New York yesterday.

The phrase "I expect" and its variants can be used to express expectation of some action or
situation.
- I expect him to arrive in an hour.
- You can expect to receive our report tomorrow morning.
- She expected him to bring flowers.
- He didn't expect us to find out the truth.

Recommendations
Use "must be" in affirmative statements in cases of strong probability in the present and "must
have been, must have done, must have seen", etc., in such cases in the past. Use "should be" in
cases of strong probability in the future. Use substitutes (probably; I think that; I'm sure that; I
expect) if you want to express probability in the present, future, or past without the modal verbs of
this group.

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 Obligation and Necessity

Obligation and Necessity: Must, have to

Must, Have to, Be to, Need, Dare

Obligation and Necessity: Must, have to, has to, is/are to, need / need to, dare.
We use “must” to talk about present and future obligation.
The past tense of “must” is “had to”.
“Don’t / doesn’t have to” doesn’t mean the same as “musn’t”.

The meaning of “must” is stronger than “ have to”

The word "necessity" is a general term used for describing the main meaning of the modal verb
“must” and its substitutes “have to, have got to, and need”. The modal verb “must” expresses
strong necessity to do something, with such shades of meaning as necessity, obligation, duty,
responsibility, and requirement. The phrase “have to” is the most common substitute for “must” in
the meaning "necessity".

“Must” is used in the meaning "strong necessity" in the present and future. Replace “must” with
“had to” for "necessity" in the past. In a number of cases you can replace “must” with “have to”
(necessity) or “should” (advice) if you want to sound less categorical. "Don't have to; don't need
to" is used if there is no necessity to do something. “Must (it is your duty)” kendimizden
kaynaklanan zorunlulukları, “have to” ise dışarıdan kaynaklanan zorunlulukları ifade etmek için
kullanılır.

Must, have to, have got to

“Must, have to and have got to” are all used to express obligation or the need to do something.
They can be used interchangeably in the present tense, except that “must” suggests that it is the
speaker who has decided that something is necessary, whereas “have to” and “have got to”
suggest that somebody else has imposed the decision. “Have got to" is characteristic of very
informal speech. “Have to” sounds slightly more formal.

We use “must” to talk about present and future obligation.

The past tense of “must” is “had to”.
“Must” has a stronger meaning than “should.”
“I must get up early” has the same meaning as from “I have to get up early”.
We use “have/has to” to talk about things we must do in the present and future.
“Don’t / doesn’t have to” doesn’t mean the same as “mustn’t”.

Explanation:
Question: Must + S + O? Answer: No, S + need not.
- I must clean the house before mum gets back. I want her to find it all neat and tidy.
- Sorry, I can't come out now. I've got to tidy up my room before I'm allowed out.
- He has to attend the clinic every two weeks. He's really quite seriously ill.

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Strong advice and invitations, saying you think something is certain:
- Don't tell anyone. You must keep it a secret.
- Ssh! It's an exam. You mustn't talk.
- If you know anything about the robbery, you must go to the police.
- If you want to visit the USA, you must have the right visa.
- We want the party to be a surprise for her. You mustn't tell her about it.
- I mustn't forget my mum's birthday this year. I forgot it last year and she was really upset.
- The doctor said she must take the medicine for two more weeks.
- “You must arrive on time every morning.” Said the shopkeeper to the new trainee.
- The economic system currently in place must be rethought

With frequency adverbs such as always, often, sometimes, never, etc, “have to” is
normally preferred:
- I usually have to work on Saturdays so I hardly ever go away for the weekend.
- They sometimes have to get their own supper if their mother is working late.

“Have to” and mustn't

We have to use have to for the negative of must when there is no obligation or necessity to do
something:
- You don't have to drink champagne at the reception. You can have a soft drink.
- I didn't have to play after all. Jane turned up and could partner Alice.
- You won't have to drive Tom to the airport next Saturday. Julie's taking him.

We use “mustn't” to say that something is not allowed:

- You mustn't drink if you're going to drive afterwards.
- You mustn't drink that water. It's contaminated.
- You mustn't lie under oath. If you do, that's perjury.
- I mustn't forget my keys. I'll put them here so that I remember them.

Must not / Need not

• Need not - option (it is not necessary)
• Must not - prohibition (it is not allowed)
- You need not look under the bed. There isn’t anybody there.
- You must not play with matches.
- You must not put salt in any of in his dishes. Salt is very bad for him.
- You must not ask a woman her age. It is not polite.
- You need not turn on light; I can see quite well.

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 Have to

We often use “have to” to say that something is obligatory (zorunlu), for example:
Children have to go to school.
- I have to work today.
- In France, you have to drive on the right.
- I will have to work tomorrow.
- We have had to change the time.
- We had had to change the time
- We may have to do it again.
- My boss needs this report urgently. I have to finish it now.
- You mustn't tell George = it is important not to tell George = don't tell George.
You don't have to tell George =you can tell George if you like, but it isn't necessary. It's your
decision.
- They have had to learn that nothing is to be gained by fighting against the rages of the mighty
stream.
- To control it, Americans have had to accept some of the river’s own terms and to undertake
the patient work of conserving and rebuilding soil, grasslands and forests, far back where the
waters begin to gather.

Must

The modal verb “must” in the meaning "strong necessity" forms only the present tense. The future
is expressed by the present tense with the help of the context and adverbs or adverbial phrases
indicating the future time, for example, "tomorrow, soon, next week, in an hour".
- I must talk to him immediately.
- She must obey the rules.
- If he wants to go to England, he must obtain a visa first.
- He must pay the bills today.
- People must eat to live.
- This patient must stay in bed for at least two weeks.
- I must help him with his report.

“Must” in the meaning "strong necessity" does not have the past form. The substitute phrase
“had to” (necessity) is typically used instead of “must” in the past tense, with a little change in
meaning.
- She must go to the bank today. (strong necessity)
- She has to go to the bank today. (necessity)
- Victor had to go to the bank yesterday. (necessity, with the following meaning: It was
necessary for him to go to the bank yesterday, and he went there.)
- Students had to take their seats before the examination started.
- I had to get up early to catch up the train.

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 “Must” and its substitute “have to”

“Must” is stronger, stricter, and more categorical than “have to”. “Must” implies that the action
expressed by the infinitive is absolutely necessary. “Have to” in the meaning "necessity" is used
in affirmative statements and questions in the present, past, and future. Negative questions with
“have to” are also possible in this meaning. The verb “have to” is used in both formal and informal
English in speech and writing, and many native speakers use “have to” instead of “must” in many
cases, especially in American English.
- He must write a report. (strong necessity)
He has to write a report. (necessity)
- He must finish his report tomorrow. (strong necessity)
He has to finish it tomorrow. (necessity)
He will have to finish his report tomorrow. (necessity)
- He had to rewrite several pages of the report yesterday.
- Does he have to write his report today? – Yes, he does.
- Doesn't he have to finish his report today? – No, he doesn't.
- Will he have to finish his report tomorrow? – Yes, he will.
- Didn't he have to rewrite several pages yesterday? – Yes, he did.
- You have to work overtime tomorrow Yarın fazla mesai çalışmak zorundasın.
- I have to reply his mail as soon as possible.

S + have to = S + are + obliged to:

- You are to wait outside the manager’s office until he is ready to see you.

In some cases the difference between “must” and “have to” is bigger than "strong necessity"
versus "necessity". “Must” shows that the speaker thinks that the action specified by the main
verb is necessary to do, and it's the right thing to do (i.e., the speaker expresses personal
opinion), while “have to” just states the fact that this action is necessary. Compare these
sentences:
- Children must go to school. (It's obligatory, and it's the right thing to do.)
Children have to go to school. (It's obligatory.)
- I must help him. (It's necessary, and it's the right thing to do.)
I have to help him. (It's necessary.)
- You must read this article. It is very interesting.
You have to read this article. We are going to discuss it in class.

“Must” and “Should”: The modal verb “should” can be used instead of “must” if the speaker
wants to sound less categorical.
- You must do it today. (strong necessity, obligation)
You should do it today. (advice, recommendation)
- You must tell the boss about it. (strong necessity, obligation)
You should tell the boss about it. (advice, recommendation)

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 Substitute phrase “Have got to”

The substitute phrase “have got to” is used mostly in conversational English. “Have got to” has
only the present tense form and expresses necessity to do something in the present and future,
mostly in affirmative statements, though negative questions are also possible. “Have to” is often
used instead of “have got to” in questions.
- I've got to see her immediately.
- He's got to exercise more. He's putting on weight.
- Haven't you got to finish your report today? – Yes, I have. No, I haven't.
Don't you have to finish your report today? – Yes, I do. No, I don't.

The phrase “have got to” does not have the past form, so “had to” is typically used instead of it in
the past.

Need

The verb “Need”:

The verb “need” is frequently used with an object after it (verb):
I need help.
We need bread and cheese.
He needs money.

Need to + V:
With an infinitive, “need” expresses necessity to do something and can be used as a less
categorical substitute for “must”.
- I need to see you.
- He needs to exercise more.
- Do we need to buy bread and cheese? – Yes, we do. No, we don't.
- You needn’t to ask for permission to use the phone. You can use it whenever you like.
- She never dare go out in the dark.
- But in an increasingly globalized world, and in the face of rapid scientific change, they will
need to think about a set of new challenges and how best to prepare their students for the
coming decades.
in an increasingly globalized world: giderek daha küreselleşen bir dünyada
in the face of rapid scientific change: hızlı bilimsel değişim karşısında
a set of new challenges: bir takım yeni zorluklar
how best to prepare their students: öğrencilerini en iyi nasıl hazırlayacakları
for the coming decades: onlu yıllar boyunca
Ancak giderek daha küreselleşen bir dünyada ve hızlı bilimsel değişim karşısında, bir takım
yeni zorlukları ve önümüzdeki on yıllar boyunca öğrencilerini en iyi nasıl hazırlayacaklarını
düşünmeleri gerekecek.
- Universities will need to teach a new kind of technique, in which global awareness will play an
important role.
Üniversiteler, küresel farkındalığın önemli bir rol oynayacağı yeni bir teknik öğretmek zorunda
kalacaklar.

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 - They also need to deal with the dilemmas posed by the accelerating pace of change brought
on by scientific and technological advances.
Ayrıca, bilimsel ve teknolojik gelişmelerin getirdiği hızlanan değişim adımlarının ortaya
çıkardığı ikilemlerle başa çıkmaları gerekiyor.

Need is also a modal verb: no –s in the third singular, no 'do' in questions and negatives, no
past forms.
- His advice need not be taken.

Must not / Need not:

• Need not - option (it is not necessary)
• Must not - prohibition (it is not allowed)
- You need not look under the bed. There isn’t anybody there.

Absence of necessity

Absence of obligation: Zorunluluğun ortadan kalkması

Absence of necessity is usually expressed by “have to” in the negative.
Needn’t, don’t/doesn’t need to, don’t/doesn’t have to: _ e gerek yok, zorunda değilsin.
- My husband ordered pizza for dinner, so I didn’t have to cook anything.
- I don't have to go to work today. It is Saturday.
- She doesn't have to go to the store. The refrigerator is full of food.
- You don't have to give me an answer now. Talk it over with your family first.
- He doesn't have to go to the museum with us, but it might be interesting for him too.
- He didn't have to study yesterday, so he went to the movies with us.
- He won't have to explain anything to us.

Absence of necessity can be expressed by “need” in the negative. The verb “need” in the
negative is generally used as a main verb in the construction "don't need to". But sometimes
“need” in the negative is used as a modal verb (i.e., needn't). The infinitive after the modal verb
"needn't" is used without the particle "to". Compare these sentences:
- I don't need to go to the store today.
- We don't need to wash our car. It's not dirty.
- She doesn't need to worry. Everything will be all right. (“Need” as a main verb)
- She needn't worry. Everything will be all right. (modal verb "needn't")
- You don't need to shout. I can hear you well. (“Need” as a main verb)
- You needn't shout. I can hear you well. (modal verb "needn't")

Note: "Must not" does not have the meaning "absence of necessity". "Must not" and its
contraction "mustn't" express strong necessity “not” to do something. This meaning of “must” in
the negative is often called "prohibition".

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 Ability

Ability: Can, Could, Be able to

It includes general ability to do something; physical and mental ability or skill to do something;
freedom, right, or opportunity to do something.

Explanation:
• “Can” is used in the present and future, except physical and mental ability or skill referring to
the future.
• "Will be able to" is used instead of “can” for physical and mental ability or skill referring to the
future.
• “Could” or "was / were able to" is used for ability in the past.

“Can” and “be able to”:

Present ability: Can + V, be able to V
Yapabilme yeteneği belirtilirken “Can” ve modal olmamasına rağmen “be able to” yapıları
kullanılır. “Can” genel yeteneklerden bahsederken, “be able to” özel yeteneklerden veya zor olan
işleri başarabilmekten bahseder. The modal verb “Can” in the meaning "ability" is used in
affirmative and negative statements and questions in the present and future. The future is
expressed by the present tense and by the adverbs of time that refer to the future (e.g., tomorrow,
soon). The substitute phrase “be able to” can replace “Can” in many cases, but “Can” is much
more common. “Be able to” is used as a substitute for “can” in the future and in the past in cases
where “can” is not used.
- He can drive.
- He can speak Spanish.
- I can go with you.
- You can't help him.
- It can't be done today.
- Only you can solve this problem.
- This problem can be solved quickly.
- This book can be used as an example of good literature for children.
- Will she be able to cope with the work? İşle baş edebilecek mi?

Present and Future, affirmative and negative statements:

- He can start tomorrow.
He will be able to start tomorrow.
- I can't see her now, I'm very busy.
He won't be able to see her tomorrow.

Present and Future, questions:

- Can you go to the bank now? – Yes, I can. No, I can't.
- Can he go there tomorrow? – Yes, he can. No, he can't.
Will he be able to go there tomorrow? – Yes, he will. No, he won't.
- Can't she go there tomorrow? – Yes, she can. No, she can't.
Won't she be able to go there tomorrow? – Yes, she will. No, she won't.

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 Bir işin nasıl yapılacağını bilmek anlamında be able to yerine can tercih edilir.
- Can you drive? (= Are you able to drive? daha az tercih edilir.)

Generally, “be able to” is not used with the passive infinitive. Besides, “be able to” is generally
used with animate nouns.
- The teacher can’t be taught. (= The teacher is not able to be taught. denmez)

“Can” in the future:

In the case of physical and mental ability or skill referring to the future, the modal verb “can” can't
be used and is replaced by the phrase "will be able to". Compare these examples:
Present, “can” or “be able to”:
- This patient can already walk. This patient is already able to walk.
- He can speak Chinese a little.

Future, only “be able to”:

- This patient will be able to walk in a couple of weeks.
Will he be able to walk? The patient won't be able to walk.
- He will be able to speak Chinese in a year.

Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish physical and mental ability or skill referring to the future
from opportunity. Compare these sentences:
- He can drive well. (skill)
- He will be able to drive well next month. (skill in the future: "will be able to" is used instead of
“can”)
- I will drive the car this week, and you can drive next week. (opportunity in the future: “can” or
"will be able to")

“Future ability” ifade etmek için “be able to” yapısı “will/shall” modal yapıları ile birlikte kullanılır.
Will/shall be able to + V
- After he has finished this course, he will be able to speak English very well. Bu kursu
bitirdikten sonra çok iyi İngilizce konuşabilecek.
- When he comes, we shall be able to learn the results. O geldiğinde sonuçları
öğrenebileceğiz.

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“Could” and “be able to”:
Past Ability: Could + V, Was/were able to + V
“Could” is the past form of “can” in the meaning "ability". “Could” is used for indicating ability in
the past. The substitute phrase "was / were able to" can replace “could” in many cases of ability
in the past.
- She could play the piano at the age of five.
She was able to play the piano at the age of five.
- He could run very fast when he was young.
He was able to run very fast when he was young.
- Could she drive when she was twenty? Yes, she could. No, she couldn't.
Was she able to drive when she was twenty? Yes, she was. No, she wasn't.

Realized action in the past:

“Could” does not show realized (completed) actions in the past. If you need to show specific
realized actions in the past in the meaning "ability", use "was / were able to" or "managed to"
instead of “could” in affirmative statements and questions.

Geçmişteki yeteneklerden bahsedilirken “could” yapısı kullanılır. Could yapısı “see, hear,
understand, etc” gibi algılama fiilleri ile geçmişteki tek eylem belirtilebilir. Tercih her zaman
“was/were able to” olmalıdır. “Was/were able to” yapısı “başardım”: “managed to” anlamındadır,
geçmişte belli bir anda bir seferlik yapılan, uğraş sonucu elde edilen başarıyı ya da yeteneği
anlatılırken kullanılır.
- My grandfather could play golf very well.
- Although he was very old, he was able to dance well.
- He couldn’t play the piano as well as he expected to.
- When Mr. Lee was younger, he could work in the garden for hours, but now he has to take
frequent rests because he has emphysema.
- He read the message but he wasn’t able to understand it. (particular action in the past)
- He was able to find Tom yesterday. He managed to find Tom yesterday.
- She was able to get across the river on a raft. She managed to get across the river on a raft.
- Was he able to find Tom yesterday?
- Was she able to get across the river on a raft?

But you can use “could” for realized actions in the past with some verbs of sense perception,
such as "feel, hear, see".
- I could feel their hostility during the conversation. I felt their hostility during the conversation.
- I could hear loud shouts in my neighbor's apartment yesterday. I heard loud shouts in my
neighbor's apartment yesterday.
- I could see that he was very upset. I saw that he was very upset.

Negative statements (with the forms "couldn't" and "wasn't /weren't able to") do not have much
difference in meaning.
- He couldn't find Tom yesterday. He wasn't able to find Tom yesterday.
- She couldn't get across the river on a raft. She wasn't able to get across the river on a raft.

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Other meanings of “can” and “could”:
Modal verbs “can” and “could” have several other meanings. For example, “can” is used in
informal requests and in asking for and giving informal permission; "can't" and "couldn't" can
express impossibility and improbability; “could” is used in polite requests and can express
possibility and suggestion.
Especially in the case of “could”, it is often necessary to provide sufficient context to make sure
that it's the meaning of “could” that you need. Compare these examples:
- Can I have a cup of coffee? (informal request)
- Could I borrow your dictionary for a couple of minutes? (polite request)
Yes, you can. / No, you can't. (informal permission)
- This story can't be true!
This story couldn't be true! (impossibility)
- She can't come to the party. (ability)
She couldn't come to the party yesterday. (ability in the past)
- She could be sleeping now. (possibility)
- She could read in English when she was five years old. (ability in the past)
She could read in English more often. (suggestion)

Examples:
- The change can be a stressful experience.

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 Request and Permission

Requests and Permission: may, can, could, will, would

Use "Could you" for making a request, and "Could I" for making a request or for asking for
permission. “Could” is used in both formal and informal speech and writing. The phrase "Would
you mind" is also very common in making requests or asking for permission, though it is a little
more difficult to use than "Could you, Could I". Use typical affirmative or negative responses to
requests. Do not use negative questions to make a request or ask for permission.

Making requests

The modal verbs “may, could, will, would” are used in making polite requests in speech and
writing, in communication with strangers and with people you know. “Can” in requests is
considered to be less polite than the other modals in this group. “Can” is generally used in
informal requests, mostly in conversation with friends and family.

Note the use of the pronouns "I, you". In requests, “may” is used in the form "May I"; “will and
would” are used in the forms "Will you" and "Would you"; “could and can” are used in both
variants.
- May I speak to Tom Lee, please?
- May I borrow your pen, please?
- Could I speak to Tom Lee, please?
- Could you lend me thirty dollars till Wednesday, please?
- Can I borrow your pen, please?
- Can you tell me where the bank is, please?
- Will you please be quiet?
- Would you please ask her to call me?
- Can / Will you hold for a minute?
- Could you give a little bit more importance to my decisions, please?
- Would you please pass the butter? (Lütfen yağı uzatır mısın?)
- Would you please be quite? (Lütfen sessiz olur musun?)
- I would like a cup of coffee (Bir fincan kahve istiyorum.)

The modal verb “might” may be used in making polite requests in the same way as “may”, but it
is rarely used in this function.

Typical responses to requests:

If you want to respond to a request positively, use the following typical responses to requests.
Formal style: I'd be glad to. / I'd be happy to.
Less formal: Yes, of course. / Of course. / Certainly.
Informal: Sure. / No problem. / Uh-huh.
- Could you tell her that Roy James called? – I'd be glad to.
- Could you help me with this report? – Yes, of course. / Certainly.

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 - Could you tell me where the bank is, please? – Sure. It's right around the corner on Fifth
Street, next to the post office.
- Could I borrow your calculator for a minute? – Sure, here it is.

If for some reason you want to respond to a request negatively, use the following typical
responses.
Formal style: I'm afraid it's not possible. / I'm very sorry, but... / I'd like to, but... / I wish I could
(help), but...
Less formal: Sorry. / Sorry, I can't.
- Could you lend me a hundred dollars? – I'm afraid it's not possible. / I'm very sorry, but I can't
lend you a hundred dollars now. / I wish I could help you, but I'm afraid I can't.
- Could I use your phone? – I'm sorry. I'm waiting for a phone call.
- May I speak to Mr. Brown, please? – Sorry, he is not in.
- Would you please ask him to call me at seven o'clock? – I'd like to, but I won't see him.
- Can I borrow your CD player? – Sorry, I need it today.

It is often incorrect to respond to requests using the same modal verb in short answers. Modal
verbs form requests in the form of questions, and the meaning of the same modal verbs in
statements is often different and might not fit logically. Compare the meanings of modal verbs
in the following requests and in incorrect responses to them.
- Could I borrow your pen? (request) – Yes, you could. (possibility)
- Could you open the window, please? (request) – Yes, I could. (possibility)
- May I speak to Mr. Brown, please? (request) – Yes, you may. (permission)
- Would you please pass the salt? (request) – Yes, I would. (supposition)

Asking for permission

The structures "Could you, can you, will you, would you" are used in requests to do something,
while "may I, could I, can I" are used in making a request and asking for permission.

Asking for permission to do something is also a request. Permission is asked in the form of
affirmative questions with the help of “may, could, can”. “May” asks for formal permission, “could”
is less formal, and “can” asks informal permission. “May” and “could” are more polite than “can”.

Permission is given with the help of typical responses to requests mentioned above or with the
help of MAY (formal permission) and CAN (informal permission). If permission is not given, "can't"
is generally used. "May not" is used in formal situations. Look at these examples:

Formal style:
- Mrs. Brown, may I stay at your house till Wednesday? Yes, you may. No, you may not. I'm
afraid it's not possible.

Less formal:
- Could I stay here till Wednesday? Yes, of course. Certainly. Yes, you can. I'm afraid it's not
possible. /Sorry, you can't.

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Informal:
- Can I stay here till Wednesday? – Sure.

More examples with "can't":

- You can't do it!
- Sorry, you can't park here.
- Please tell him that he can't use my car without permission.

The phrase "be allowed to"

The substitute phrases "be allowed to do something, be not allowed to do something" can be
used for describing permission in the present, future, and past.
- I am not allowed to leave the house.
- You will be allowed to see the patient soon.
- We were allowed to take his car.
- They weren't allowed to stay there.
- She wasn't allowed to go there alone.

“Can” and “may” are also used in polite offers, often in an offer of help.
- Can I help you? (less formal)
- May I help you? (More formal).
- Can I help you with anything?
- Can I help you with your home assignment?
- Can I help you (to) wash the dishes?
- Can I help?
- Can I offer you a drink?

Permission: İzin; “May, Might, Can, Could, be allowed to”

“Can /could” biraz daha samimi bir ortam içinde kullanılırken, “May / might” biraz daha kibar ve
resmi durumda kullanılır.
- Can I use your pen for a minute?
- May I see the manager, please?
- All citizens over the age of 18 are allowed to vote.

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 The phrase "Would you mind"

The phrase "Would you mind" is widely used in making requests and asking for permission.

Would you mind + if + S + V2:

Kibarca bir şey istemek için kullanılır. Kendimiz için bir şey yapmak istediğimizde.
- Would you mind if I smoked here?
- Would you mind if I closed the window? Pencereyi kapatmamda bir sakınca var mı?

Would you mind + Ving:

Karşımızdakinden bir şey yapmasını istediğimizde kullanılır.
- Would you mind turning on the air-conditioner?
- Would you mind speaking a bit louder? Biraz daha yüksek sesle konuşmanda sakınca var
mı?
- Would you mind closing the door?
- That radio is rather loud. Would you mind turning it down a bit?

Request to do something: Would you mind + gerund

Would you mind opening the window? (Meaning: You ask someone to open the window.) – Of
course not. / Not at all.
- Would you mind repeating what you said? (Meaning: You ask someone to repeat what he
said.) – Of course not. I said...
- Would you mind not smoking here? (Meaning: You ask someone not to smoke here.) – Oh,
I'm sorry.
- Would you mind not using my CD player without permission? – Oh, I'm sorry.

Asking for permission: Would you mind + if I + Past simple

- Would you mind if I opened the window? (Meaning: You ask someone whether you could
open the window.) – Of course not. / Not at all. / No, I wouldn't mind.
- Would you mind if I smoked? (Meaning: You ask someone whether you could smoke here.) –
I'd rather you didn't. I'm allergic to smoke.
- Would you mind if I didn't come to the meeting? I don't feel very well. (Meaning: You ask
someone whether it will be all right if you don't come to the meeting.) – No, I wouldn't mind. /
No, that would be all right.
- Would you mind if I didn't go to the party with you? I'm really tired.

Sometimes in informal situations in spoken English, the simple present is used instead of the
Past simple in the second part after "if", e.g., "Would you mind if I open the window?" instead of
"Would you mind if I opened the window?" It is advisable for language learners to use only the
standard variants in formal and informal polite requests in speech and writing.
The phrase "Do you mind"
In everyday English, the structure "Would you mind" is sometimes changed to "Do you mind".
The structure "Do you mind" is a little less polite than "Would you mind".
- Do you mind opening the window?
- Do you mind if I open the window?
- Do you mind if I don't go to the party with you?

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 Other phrases with “would”

“Would” is also used in other structures in polite requests to do something and in requests for
permission.
- Would it be OK if I returned your book tomorrow?
- Would it be all right if I didn't go to the party with you?
- Would you be so kind as to send me the list of recommended literature?

Note that the formal polite request "Would you be so kind as to" may be used sarcastically.
- Would you be so kind as to remove your hand from my shoulder?

The phrase "I would like":

The phrase "I would like" expresses preference or desire to do or get something and is used in
certain situations as a polite substitute for requests. In questions, "Would you like" is often used
as a polite offer.
- I would like to speak to Mr. Smith, please.
- I'd like to know the telephone number for ABC Electronics, please.
- I'd like two tickets for tonight's concert, please.
- I'd like a cup of coffee with cream and sugar, please.
- Would you like to speak to Mr. James? Who would you like to speak to?
- Would you like to go to a concert tonight? I'd like that very much. I'd like to, but I have to
study.
- Would you like some more cake? Yes, please. No, thank you.

Requests in the form of negative questions:

As a rule, polite requests in English are not asked in the form of negative questions.

Generally, negative questions have some emotion in them, e.g., surprise, expecting yes for an
answer, mockery, annoyance, complaint. Requests in the form of negative questions can often
sound impolite. Learners of English should avoid making requests in the form of negative
questions. Examples of impolite requests, with the meaning they convey and the reaction they
might provoke:
- Can't you give me a cup of tea? (Meaning: I'm surprised that you haven't offered me a cup of
tea.) – Of course I can give you a cup of tea! I just didn't know that you wanted tea.
- Won't you help me? (Meaning: I see that you don't want to help me.) – Of course I will help
you! Have I ever refused to help you?

There are just a couple of situations in which requests in the form of negative questions are
acceptable.
For example, if a negative question is actually not a request but an offer, a negative question
will sound more interested than an affirmative question. (There is some surprise in such
negative questions too.)
- Won't you sit down? – Thank you.
- Won't you have some more potato salad? – 1. Yes, please. It's delicious. 2. No, thank you.
I'm full.
- But you just got here! Can't you stay a little longer? – I'd like to, but I really have to go.

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 Another possible case is when the speaker knows that there are reasons why a request can't
be fulfilled or a permission given but still hopes that something can be done. Affirmative
questions are also common in such cases.
- I'm extremely sorry, but couldn't I return the money that I owe you after the holiday?
- I'm extremely sorry, but could I return the money that I owe you after the holiday?
- I'm sorry to ask about it, but wouldn't it be possible to postpone my trip to Rome?
- I'm sorry to ask about it, but would it be possible to postpone my trip to Rome?
- You wouldn't have a larger room, would you?

6.3. Prohibition: Must not

If you want to tell other people what they should not do, do not use MUST NOT in the meaning
"prohibition" without an important reason. Use “hould not” (advice not to do something) or
“can't”(permission is not given) instead of “must not”.

The modal verb “must not” and its contraction “mustn't” show strong necessity “not” to do
something. This meaning of “must” in the negative is often called "prohibition". It is very
categorical and strict, and language learners should use it with caution. “Must” in this meaning
does not have the past form. Compare these examples:
- I must not forget to call her. (Strong necessity not to forget to call her.)
- I must not lose this opportunity. (Strong necessity not to lose this opportunity.)
- You must not leave the house today. (Prohibition: You are not allowed to leave the house
today. It is prohibited.)
- You must not open the door to anyone. (Prohibition: You are not allowed to open the door to
anyone. It is prohibited.)

As there are not many situations when we really want to prohibit (or have the right to prohibit)
other people from doing something, it is necessary to know the fitting substitutes for MUST
NOT, for example, for use in the situations when you want to tell other people what they
shouldn't do.

Prohibition (Yasaklama):
Mustn’t : yapmamak ile sorumlusun
Be not allowed to : yapmamak ile sorumlusun
Be prohibited to : yapmamak ile sorumlusun
Diğer yasak “modals”: be forbidden to, be banned to
- You mustn’t talk to the strangers.
- You mustn’t be so impatient with your sister. She is much younger than you, you know.
- You aren’t allowed to enter this room after 6 o’clock p.m.

Yasaklama anlamı vermemesine ragmen “mamalısın” anlamı veren diğer yapılar:

Be not supposed to + V
Be not to + V
Shouldn’t + V
Ought not to + V
Had better not + V

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 Substitutes for “must not”

The modal verb “should not”

Many native speakers prefer to use “should not” or its contraction “shouldn't” instead of “must not”
and “mustn't” when telling other people what they (that is, other people) should not do. This
changes the meaning of "prohibition" or "strong necessity not to do something" to "advice not to
do something".
- I must not go there alone. (Strong necessity not to go there alone.)
- I should not go there alone. (Advice not to go there alone.)
- You mustn't leave the door open. (Prohibition: You are not allowed to leave the door open.)
- You shouldn't leave the door open. (Advice not to leave the door open.)

“Must” in the affirmative

You can also try using “must” in the affirmative instead of “must not” with the help of the verbs
that are antonyms.
- You must not leave the door open.
- You must lock the door when you leave.
- You must not leave the house today.
- You must stay in the house today.

Using a command
You can use a command instead of “must not”. Add "please" to make the command more polite.
- Please stay in the house today.
- Please don't go there alone.
- Don't smoke here, please.

The phrase “be to”

The phrase “be to” expresses strong expectation of some action, usually according to some laws,
rules, agreements, or orders, i.e., someone has serious grounds to expect another person to do
something. The phrase “be to” is close in meaning to “must”.
The negative form “be not to” is close in meaning to “must not”, i.e., someone has serious
grounds to expect another person not to do something. The phrases “be to” and “be not to” are
also used in the past tense. These phrases are rather categorical and not very common in
everyday speech.
- You are not to smoke here.
- You are not to step on the flower beds.
- You are not to feed the animals.
- You were not to leave the house today.
- You were not to tell anyone about it.

The phrase “be supposed to”

The phrase “be supposed to” is a milder synonym of the phrase “be to”. The phrase “be supposed
to” expresses expectation of some action; that is, someone expects another person to do
something or, in the negative, not to do something.

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The phrase “be supposed to” is a popular non-categorical phrase that can be used instead of
“must” and “be to” in the present and past, while “be not supposed to” can be used instead of
“must not” and “be not to”.
- I am not supposed to go there alone.
- She is not supposed to work on weekends.
- You are not supposed to park here.
- You were not supposed to leave the house today.
- He was not supposed to tell anyone about it.

“be to” and “be supposed to” in the past may imply that the expected action did not take place.
- You were to stay in bed today. Why did you go to work?
- You were supposed to wash the dishes. Why didn't you do it?
- He was not supposed to be there. I wonder what he was doing there.

Modal verbs “may not” and “can't”

The verb “must not” (prohibition) can be replaced by the verbs “may not” or “can't” in the meaning
"permission is not given". The modal verbs “may, could, can” are used in asking for permission.
Permission is given with the help of typical responses to requests (for example, "Yes, of course")
or with the help of “May” (formal permission) and “can” (informal permission). If permission is not
given, “can't” is typically used. “May not” is used in formal situations. Compare:
- You must not leave the house today. (Prohibition: You are not allowed to leave the house
today. It is prohibited.)
- You can't leave the house today. (Permission is not given: You are not allowed to leave the
house today.)
- You may not leave the house today. (Formal permission is not given: You are not allowed to
leave the house today.)
- I'm sorry, but you can't take my dictionary. I need it today.

The phrase “be not allowed to”

The phrase “be not allowed to” can serve as a descriptive substitute for MUST NOT in the
present, future, and past.
- I'm not allowed to see them.
- He won't be allowed to do it.
- They were not allowed to stay there.
- I was not allowed to tell you about it.

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 6.4. Suggestion, Deduction, Expectation

Suggestion: Öneri
Can: We can help you for the party.
Let: It's a nice day today. Let's not stay home. Let's go out for a walk. Let’s call him.
Modal olmazsa dahi “suggestion” anlamı veren diğer ifadeler:
"Why don't...?" yapısı, soru biçiminde olmasına karşın, gerçek bir soru değildir. Öneri getirir.
- Why don't you go to bed? (Neden yatmıyorsun?)

How about + Ving:

- How about walking home instead of taking the car? Arabayı alma yerine eve yürüme nasıl
olur?

What about + Ving: What about going to the zoo?

Affirmative: Olumlu, doğrulayıcı

In affirmative sentences, the correct word order is “subject + should + V”

Asking for someone’s opinion: Akıl danışma, öneri

Shall, Should
- Shall we paint the living room at the weekend? Hafta sonu oturma odasını boyayalım mı?
- Should I leave margins on this page? Bu sayfada kenar boşluğu bırakmalı mıyım?

Note: “Shall” yapısının olumsuz kullanımı “shall not / shan’t” olsa da nadir olarak “won’t” da
kullanılmaktadır.

Deduction: Sonuç çıkarımda bulunma

Positive deduction: must
- He has worked for 10 hours today. He must be very tired now.

Negative deduction: mustn’t, can’t

- They nustn’t be at home. Their lights are off.
- You have just eaten 4 hamburgers You can’t be hungry.

Expectation: Beklenti (is to, are to; is to be, are to be)

Be to: is to, are to: aktif yapı
Be to be: is to be, are to be: pasif yapı
- I will collect some data and you are to enter them to computer as soon as possible.
- The meeting is to start at 11 a.m.

“Be to + V” yapısının “past” hali “was/were to + V” yapısındadır.

Was to have + V3, were to have +V3: Yapacaktım ama yapamadım

Geçmişte planlanan ancak gerçeklenmeyen durumları ifade ederken kullanılır.
- He was to have announced the decision yesterday, but the announcement was delayed.

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Be supposed to + V: beklentiler ve programlar
Bu yapı “should” ve “ought to” yapıları ile benzer anlam taşır, beklentileri ifade eder.
- I am supposed to finalize the project by Monday.Projeyi pazartesiye kadar bitirilmeliyim.
- You were supposed to attend the meeting yesterday. Where were you? Dün toplantıya
katılman gerekiyordu. Neredeydin?

6.5. Habitual Activities: Used to

Habitual Activities in the past: Geçmişteki alışkanlıklar

Şu an yapmadığımız ancak eskiden yaptığımız alışkanlıklar ve eylemlerden bahsedilirken “used
to V”, “would V” veya “Past simple tense” kullanılır. Expresses the idea that something was an old
habit that stopped in the past.

Used to + V:
- I used to earn a lot of money, but then I lost my job.
- I used to smoke a packet a day when I was a student, but I stopped two years ago.
- Can you play basketball? I used to play basketball several times a week while I was at
university
- He used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.
- I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.
- I used to drink milk every night when I was a child.
- I used to run everyday when I was at university.
- I used to be able to play the guitar quite well, but I haven’t practised for so long that I don’t
think I can any more.
- As she didn’t have any the money, she used to walk to school.
- I was really surpised that he didn’t want to go the theatre with us. He always used to be the
first to accept.
- When I was a university student, it was my habit to play basketball a few times a week, but
now I don’t.

Used to – would play:

- I used to play computer games every day when I was a child. Bu cümlede "used to" kalıbı
kullanıldığı için, cümleyi söyleyen kişinin artık oyun oynamadığı anlaşılır.
- I would play computer games when I was a child. Bu cümlede ise "would" kalıbı kullanıldığı
için, artık oynamıyorum anlamı ifade etmez.

We also use “used to” for something that was true but no longer is.
- There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.
- She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.

Geçmişte var olup artık günümüzde mevcut olmayan durumlar da “used to” veya “past simple”
kullanarak ifade edilir.
- She used to be very shy when she was young. O küçükken çok utangaçtı.

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Get used to Ving/something: alışkanlık edinmek
Tobe used to + Ving /Noun Phrase: alışkanlık edinmek
Alışkanlık ve deneyim kazanılmış durumu anlatmak için “to be used to Ving” ya da “get used to
Ving” yapısı kullanılır. “Be /get used to Ving /something” to have experienced something so that
it no longer seems surprising, diffuclt, strange.
- I am used to getting up early in the mornings.
- I am not used to living in hotels.
- When she lived in Japan she had to get used to eating raw fish.
- I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time.
- Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now.
- They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.
- I often get up early. I am used to getting up early. (Sabahları erken kalkmaya alıştım.)
- I haven’t worked for ages and I’m finding it hard to get used to getting up early every day.
- You'll soon get used to driving your new car. (Kısa zaman sonra yeni arabanızı kullanmaya
alışacaksınız.)
- The new rules were quite different for them but they got used to them in a short time. (Yeni
kurallar onlar için oldukça farklıydı fakat kısa zamanda alıştılar.)
- I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.
- She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day.
- I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.
- They were used to the heavy traffic when they were in London. (Londra'da iken ağır trafiğe
alışkınlardı.)
- When I started as a singer, I was very nervous of going on stage. Slowly I got used to
performing and now I really enjoy it.

Get accustomed to + Ving /Noun Phrase: _ e alışmak

Tobe accustomed to + Ving /Noun Phrase: _ e alışkın olmak
- I will get accustomed to working with you soon.
- As she doesn’t have any the money, she is accustomed to walking to school.

Tobe noun used for:

Microwave vacuum tubes are devices used for generation or amplification of the microwaves.

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 7. Modifiers
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole groups of words. An adverb answers
one of four questions: where, when, how, or to what extent?
Comparatives are adjectives and adverbs used to compare two things.
Superlatives are adjectives and adverbs used to compare more than two things.
The emphasis structures are used to give strong advice, to express opinions clearly, to disagree,
to show concern, to entertain.

Süperlative yapıların önünde belirteç kullanılır. The, my, this

Such + noun

Adverbs
- I didn’t enjoy this book on how to succeed in business. It wasn’t very well written.
Adv + verb (write)
“good” is adjective. Adj + noun.
Wasn't : implies nagative-> poorly written is not correct
Well typed: no error typing

To be + adj /noun, to be yapısından sonra sıfat gelir, zarf gelmez.

Comparative of adj/adv
Short adj/adv: adj/adv + er + than
Long adj: More + adj/adv + than

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 7.1. Adjectives

Adjective is a word that describes or clarifies a noun or pronoun (size, shape, age, color, origin or
material). They modify or describe features and qualities of people, animals and things
represented by nouns and pronouns. An adjective answers one of three questions: which one,
what kind, or how many?
Attributive adjectives: Size, colour, qualities.

Structure:
adj + noun /pronoun: Poor me!
To be + adj: I am ready. That’s a big house.

It's + adj + to + V: ( It's + adj + to do sth)

To be + adj + to do sth: He was powerless to prevent it.

Indefinite pronoun + adj: I feel ill.

Subject + sense verb (Look, feel, sound taste and smell ) + adj.

Adjectives patterns with “kind, considerate, tactful”:

- You are very kind to invite me.
- It is tactful of you to invite me.

A/an + Noun/noun phrase (= adj + noun)

- A fearful railway accident happened 3 days ago.

Kelime kökü olarak sıfat kelimeler:

Big, small, blue, old, rich and nice: Pretty woman, big mistake, small car.

Bileşik sıfatlar:
Home-made, time-comsuming, absent-minded.

Most common adjectives are members of a pair of opposites:

Beautiful – ugly, happy – sad, good – bad,
big – small, tall – short, heavy – light,
dead – alive, rough – smooth, dry – wet, cold – hot.

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 The suffixes and adjectives

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which makes a new word.
• Adjectives are formed from verbs by adding the suffixes “able, ible, ant, ent, ory, ive”:
reliable, convertible, ignorant, confident, contradictory, and attractive.
• Adjectives are formed from nouns by adding the suffixes “able,ful, ible, (i)al, an, ian, ary, ory,
en, ent, ful, ic, ish, ive, less, ous, y”: reasonable, sensible, cultural, American, humanitarian,
legendary, compulsory, golden, beautiful, patriotic, foolish, hopeless, famous, windy.
Noun+ly=adjective: riend – friendly, cost – costly, dead – deadly.
History -> historic, Politics -> political, Fashion -> fashionable, Beauty -> beautiful
Depent -> dependent, Effect -> effective, Danger -> dangerous, Hope -> hopleless
• Adjectives are formed from adjectives by adding the suffixes “al, ish”: poetical, greenish.
• Adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the suffix “ly”: exactly, logically.

-ful: useful, beautiful;

-less: careless, priceless;
-ous: curious, dangerous;
-ish: foolish, greenish;
-able, -ible: valuable, credible;
-al: digital, official;
-ant, -ent: reluctant, different;
-ic: dynamic, fantastic;
-ive: active, sensitive;
-ly: timely, lovely;
-y: empty, sunny.

Some suffixes are found in nouns and adjectives. For example, the words "metal, static,
resident" can be nouns or adjectives. The suffix "ate" is found in adjectives (adequate,
separate), nouns (advocate, nitrate), and verbs (separate, demonstrate).

The prefixes and adjectives

The prefixes "un, in, im, ir"; unclear, unfriendly; inevitable, insincere; impolite, irregular.

Some of these prefixes are also used with other parts of speech; for example, undo, unsettle –
verbs; until – preposition; increase – verb or noun; imply – verb.

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 The measures as adjectives

Tam ölçü anlatan sıfatlar isimlerden sonra kullanılır.

- The room is five meter wide.
- The room is twentyfive meter square.
- This road is two kilometer long.

Bir ismin önüne bir miktar belirteçi getirilirse (-) ile nitelenen isimden ayırmak gerekir.
Compound Adjectives with Numbers: number- name of thing (in singular) – Noun.
Usually, hyphens are used to link the words together to show that it is one adjective.
- Last year we had a four-week vacation in the Alps.

Rakamlar ve niteledikleri isimler arasında her zaman bir tire ( - ) kullanılır.

Ölçüm birimleriyle yapılan sıfat tamlamalarında rakamsal bir ifade ve tekil isimleri kullanılır.
Adjectives are never plural. Therefore, when the adjective contains a number and noun, the noun
associated with the number is singular.
- This tank holds ten gallons. Yes, it is a ten gallon tank.
- A two-meter-tall wall
- A second-hand car
- Tax-free
Yaş : A Two -Year Old Baby
Hacim : A Three- Liter Bottle
Uzunluk : A Fifty - Meter Building.
Fiyat : A Ten- Dollar Shirt
Alan : A Thirty- Acre Campus
Süre : A Nine – Hour Journey
Ağirlik : A Five – Kilo Bag
Zaman / Mesafe : A Five – Minute Walk

With numbers and with words like “first, last, next”, the usual order is “first/next + number + adj
+ noun”:
- There used to be two big fields here when I was young.
- I don’t have to work for the next four days.
- That’s the second large study on unemployment this year.

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 The comparative and superlative degrees

Adjectives don't have any means to show gender, number, or case. Adjectives form two degrees
of comparison. One-syllable adjectives (and certain two-syllable adjectives) form the comparative
and superlative degrees by adding the suffixes "er, est". Adjectives consisting of three or more
syllables (and many adjectives of two syllables) form degrees of comparison with the help of
"more, most".
Big – bigger – the biggest; Long – longer – the longest;
Nice – nicer – the nicest; Happy – happier – the happiest;
Foolish – more foolish – the most foolish; Curious – more curious – the most curious;
Beautiful – more beautiful – the most beautiful; Important – more important – the most
important.

- Our car is larger than your car.[comparative]

- This stick is too short. Can you give me a longer stick?
- This exercise was more difficult than I thought, but my sister helped me to do it.
- This is the most interesting book that I have ever read.
- Peter is the tallest boy in his class.

The most reliable way to identify an adjective is by its function in the sentence, by the word
order, and by the immediate surrounding. For example, the phrases "a tall tree, the tallest tree,
my tall trees" indicate that the word "tall" is an adjective in the function of an attribute.

Many pairs of opposites are gradable, i.e. they have different degrees of the same feature:
Small: This suitcase is extremely small. This suitcase is very small. This suitcase is quite small.
Hot: It was reasonably hot in Italy this summer. It was quite hot in Italy this summer.
It was pretty hot in Italy this summer. It was very hot in Italy this summer. It was extremely
hot in Italy this summer.

Describing people

Hair: Curly, wavy, straight; long, short; blonde, dark, red

Eyes: Dark, light, blue, brown, green
Complexion: cilt, ten rengi, görünüm : Asian, Black, White
- My best friend has curly short hair and green eyes.
- He’s got a beard and moustache and has a chubby face.
- She’s got straight hair and she’s thin-faced (or she’s got a thin face).
- She’s got curly hair and is dark-skinned (or she’s got dark skin).
- He used to have black hair but now it’s gone grey, almost white.
- He’s got receding hair and a few wrinkles
- She’s a very smart and elegant woman, always well-dressed; her husband is quite the
opposite, very scruffy and untidy-looking / messy-looking.
- He’s very good-looking, but his friend’s rather unattractive.
- Do you think beautiful women are always attracted to handsome men? I don’t. I think
personality matters most.

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7.1.1. Place of the adjectives
When an adjective is used with a noun, the usual order is “adjective + noun”: a yellow balloon
Sıfatlar genellikle isimlerden ya da zamirlerden önce kullanılır.
- I saw a white caw.
- Give me the red pencil.
- The angry man shouted all day long.
- New York is a very big city.
- He wore a red hat.
- They are friendly people. (qualities)
- My house is very old. (age)
- All dogs have tails, but some dogs have long tails.

Use "adverb" stands in front of adjective to describle or give more stress on adjective: very fast
- It is very cold here. Put on your sweater.

Most commonly, the adjectives “ill” and “well” are used after a verb and not before a noun:
- I feel ill.

Bir sonuç anlatan sıfatlar isimden sonra kullanılır:

- The medicine made my friend sick.

Sıfatlar “some, any, every, no” ile başlayan bileşik isimlerden sonra kullanılır.
- There is nobody ill in the family.

We often say "the last /next few day (s)":

- We spent the last few sunny days at the seaside.

When “this, that, these, and those” are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When “this,
that, these, and those” appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
- This house is for sale. This is an adjective.
- This is for sale. This is a pronoun.

Duygu, fikir ya da inanış bildiren sıfatlarda sonra “that clause” ya da “Questin words, whether
/If” gelebilir.
- I am worried that I can not answer all the questions in two hours.
- I am not sure which direction I would choose.

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To be + adj:
- The methot that was used did not prove to be effective: kullanılan metot faydalı olmadı.

S + to be + adj:
- We will be late and we will miss the bus.

Adjective preceded by a modifier: adv + adj

- That soup is pretty cold.
- Many of the exercises are fairly difficult.

Adjective + a modifier after it:

- The food was tasty enough. (adj/adv + enough)
- The car is economical for its size.

Adjective + a word or phrase, which is required to complete its meaning (a complement):

- She was aware of the danger of travelling alone.
- Some people weren’t willing to pay extra to book a seat on the plane.

Adjective proceeded by a modifier + a word or phrase, which is required to complete its

meaning (a complement):
- We’re not very keen on having an activity holiday.
- Are you really interested in rock and roll?

To be + adj + to + V: express feelings and react

It is + adj + to do sth:
To be + adj + to + V: express feelings and react

Sıfat kendinden sonra fiil alacaksa genellikle “to + V” şeklinde kullanılır.

- It is not difficult to learn English.
- We are happy to see you here.
- Dave had many obstacles to overcome. “To overcome” is the infinitive and tells which
obstacles have to be overcome. Thus, it modifies the noun, obstacles.
- The first attempt to build the Panama Canal ended failure.
- This is the best time to start.
- It’s hard to explain what makes Hong Kong so exhilarating.
Hong Kong'u bu kadar canlı yapan şeyin ne olduğunu açıklamak zordur.

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 Adjectives in a sentence are ordered to…

Cümlede sıfat sıralaması: OSAScCpOMP İngilizce kısa şifreleme ( Opinion, Size, Age, Shape,
Condition, Colour, Pattern, Origin, Material, Purpose)
• Opinion: This is usually our opinion, attitude or observations. These adjectives almost always
come before all other adjectives. Attractive, beautiful, boring, stupid, delicious, useful, lovely,
and comfortable.
• Size: Tells us how big or small something is. Big, small, tall, huge, tiny.
• Age: Tells us how old someone or something is. Old, young, new, ancient, antique.
- We found the interesting big circular dirty antique vehicle.
• Shape /Weight /Length: Tells about the shape of something or how long or short it is. It can
also refer to the weight of someone or something. Round, square, circular, skinny, fat, heavy,
straight, long, short.
- We found the interesting big circular vehicle.
• Condition: Tells us the general condition or state of something. Broken, cold, hot, wet,
hungry, rich, easy, difficult, and dirty.
• Colour: The colour or approximate colour of something. Green, white, blue, reddish, purple.
• Pattern: The pattern or design of something. Striped, spotted, checked, flowery.
- We found the interesting big circular dirty antique gray abondened vehicle.
• Origin: Tells us where something is from. American, British, Italian, eastern, Australian,
Chilean.
• Material: What is the thing made of or constructed of? Gold, wooden, silk, paper, synthetic,
cotton, woolen.
- We found the interesting big circular dirty antique gray abondened American steel vehicle.
• Purpose /Qualifier /Use: What is it for? These adjectives often end in –ing. Sleeping (bag),
gardening (gloves), shopping (bag), and wedding (dress).
- My father lives in a lovely, gigantic, ancient, brick house.
- I have an annoying, small, circular, American, tin, alarm clock that wakes me up.
- Let’s order a delicious, huge, rectangular, pepperoni pizza.
- They all received several dazzling, small, ancient, gold coins.
- She owns a stunning, large, old, brown dog named Boris.

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 7.1.2. Adjectives and Linking verbs
Linking verbs: be, appare, become, feel, get, go, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound,
taste, turn. Bu fiilerin özelliği, bu fiillerden sonra sıfatların gelmesidir.
The linking verb “be” may be followed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun, an infinitive,
a gerund.

“Linking Verbs + adj” modifies the noun before the verb. Sıfatlar “Linking verbs” diye bilinen
fiillerin anlamını tamamlamak için kullanılır. Adjectives can go before the noun (attributive) or after
linking verbs such as “be, become, seem” (predicative).
- He is strong.
- She is tall.
- These people are friendly.
- Math is boring. (judgement)
- Emma is French. (nationalty)
- The knife is sharp. (characteristics)
- It tastes sweet.
- She seems very happy.
- It smells so good.
- I thought he looked tired.
- The tragedy sounds true.
- He told me that he was feeling hungry
- I am afraid the weather will become cold.
- Remain silent and never tell what I said to anyone. (Silent: sessiz kalmak)
- The cat’s fur feels like cotton. (fur: tüy)
- What a beautiful flower! (attributive)
- This bridge looks unsafe. (predicative)
- That’s a big house.
- Some dogs have long tails.

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 7.1.3. Adjective phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words in a sentence that acts like an adjective. The adjective
phrase may also contain words or phrases before or after the head (modifiers and complements).
You could replace experienced with a group of words (a phrase) and say,

Example:
"Lisa is a teacher with a lot of experience." “With a lot of experience” is a phrase (a group of
words without a finite verb), and it functions as an adjective in the sentence. It describes Lisa. So
we call it an adjective phrase.

- That’s a lovely cake.

- These flowers are wonderful.
- Tom is a man with good instincts.
- She brought a cake made of nuts and fruit.
- His friends are sailors living in the sea.
- The name of the city is La Plata.
- They are a couple with no children.
- The price of the boots was too high.
- Mr. Clinton is a man of great wealth.
- He is a man without a friend.
- The tops of the mountains were covered with snows.
- He walked through the street covered with mud.

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7.1.4. Ving or V3 as adjective
Ving: describe the cause of our feelings. Adjectives ending in Ving, e.g. frightening, shocking,
describe the cause of our feelings.

V3: describe people's feelings. Adjectives ending in V3, e.g. surprised, interested, describe how
we feel.

For example, you could say "Lisa is an experienced teacher." In this sentence the word
“experienced” is an adjective. It describes Lisa.

Belirleyici factor-1: Etkileyen ise “Ving”, etkilenen ise “V3” sıfatları kullanılır.
- Freezing temperatures have continued in many parts of the US, with heavy disruption to
travel.
- The movie was such a fascinating that we were all impressed.
- I watched that film on television last night. It was really boring. I was just bored by it.
- I like smiling girls.
- Never kiss a smiling crocodile.
- My father prefers to drink filtered spring water.
- She always has a warm welcoming smile.
- Increasing prices are making food very expensive.
- She was scared that they would find her.
- The fallen leaves covered the new driveway.

Belirleyici factor-2: Devam ediyorsa Ving, bitmiş ise V3 sıfatları kullanılır.

- The admission of application is a continuing process, which will end next year.
- The USA is one of the few developed countries in the world.
- She was sweeping up the broken glass. (sweeping up: süpürmek)
- He is planning an amazing wedding. (amazing: Şaşırtıcı)
- A drug-addicated man was taken to hospital because of overdose. (drug-addicated:İlaç
bağımlısı)
- He lives in a charming house just outside the town.
- I prefer cooking to eating. [You like the activity cooking more than you like the activity eating.]
- The bird had a broken wing.
- She was quite astonished at his behavior.
- He was a very disappointed young man.

Fiillerden türetilen sıfatlar tam olarak fiilliklerini kaybetmemişler ise isimlerden sonra kullanılır.
(Reduction Clauses, devrik yapılar)
- On the day following he sent me a cheque.

Developed: aready develop; highly developed

Developing: in progress of developing
"Feared" often goes with "shock" to describle something very frightened

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 7.1.5. Nouns as adjectives
Sometime we use a noun to describe another noun, first noun acts as an adjective. Bir isim diğer
bir ismin önüne gelerek onu nitelyebilir. Böyle bir durumda, ismin önünde kullanılan isim sıfat
olarak görev yapar. Niteleme amaçlı kullanılan isim daima tekildir.
Structure:
Two separate word: door bell, car door, love story, room windows, traffic jam, morning tea,
garden chair.
Two hyphenated words: book-case
One word: bathroom
- This is the entrance door.
- I like that yellow table lamp.
- Let’s buy those wine glasses.
- I don’t like war stories.
- There was a stone wall at one side of the road.
- A woman who drives a car is called a woman driver.
- I bought a grammar book.
- They sell shoes in that store, so it is a shoe store.
- We ate at an Italian restaurant.
- I like lentil soup.
- The soup has vegetables in it, so it is vegetable soup. I like vegetable soup.
- My garden has flowers in it, so it is a flower garden.
- It was a golden plate. (material)
- We say “a glass or wine” when it is full. When it is empty we say a wine glass.

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 7.1.6. Adjectives as nouns
The adjective as a subject:
Adjectives are often used as nouns to play as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence. In
this case, noun is often hidden. “The” is combined with these adjectives so that they can be used
as nouns. These adjectives are always plural and take a plural verb.
“The + adjective” is used as noun. These type nouns are always plural and take a plural verb.
“The + adjective” is often used as nouns to play role as a subject, object, or complement in a
sentence.
- Of course, the French are famous for their wines and cooking.
- The government should help the unemployed.
- The dead were taken away.
- They are collecting money for the blind. (The needy, the poor)
- Public transport is rarely adapted to the needs of the disabled.
- The English don’t like learning languages.

Adjectives are words that are used to describe a noun.

Sometimes we use a “noun” to describe another noun. In that case the first “noun” acts as
“adjective”.
Structure: adj + Noun.
Gold (n) – golden (adj); golden eggs
Wool (n) – woollen (adj); woollen jacket
Wood(n) – wooden (adj), wooden horse
- A horse made of wood is a wooden horse.
- This woollen jacket looks very nice.
- A table made of wood is a wooden table.

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 7.2. Adverbs

An adverb is a word, which serves as a modifier of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, a

preposition, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. Fiilleri, sıfatları veya diğer zarfları anlamlandıran
kelimelere zarf denir. Zarflar bir cümlede ya bir sıfatı ya da başka bir zarfı niteleyerek derecelerini
artırır ya da doğrudan fiili niteler. The adverb expresses some relation of manner or quality, place,
time, degree, number, cause, opposition, affirmation, or denial.

We use adverbs to describe how we do something. To make an adverb, we usually add “_ly” to
the adjective. To make an adverb from adjectives like “comfortable”, we drop the “e” and add “_y”.

Adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it indicates how much, to what extent, etc.
- He is very tall.
- It's an extremely important task.
- He spoke too loudly.
- She visits them quite often.
- A holiday in America can be surprisingly cheap.

Adverbs modify a whole sentence:

- Probably she will leave me alone now. “Muhtemelen”, beni şimdi yalnız bırakacak.
“Probably” burada bir zarftır ve ardından gelen bütün bir cümleyi tanımlamaktadır.
- Unfortunately, he refused to help us.
- Finally, we arrived in Boston.
- It would be better, however, to tell him about your plans.

Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):

- She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
- The senator ran to catch the bus.

We often use “more and most, less and least” to show degree with adverbs:
- With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
- The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
- She worked less confidently after her accident.
- That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

The “as … as” construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality:
- He can't run as fast as his sister.
- He calls his mother as often as possible.

Depending on their meanings, adverbs may be members of more than one group. For example,
in the first sentence below the adverb "seriously" is an adverb of manner; in the second sentence,
"seriously" is an adverb of degree.
- "No," he said seriously.
- She is seriously ill.

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There are other types of adverbs, for example, adverbs of consequence (consequently, hence,
so, as a result); adverbs of purpose (intentionally, purposely, so as), etc. For easier study, it is
helpful to organize adverbs in small groups or subgroups, with typical examples of use.

Adverbs can describe to what extent something was done or an action was executed,
including:
very, too, almost, also, only, enough, so, quite, and rather.
Mostly: of all the options, this is the majority.
Almost: good enough but not perfect.
Nearly: very close to the optimal position but not quite there.
Hardly: seldom
Hereby: bu vesile ile, böylelikle

Adverbial Clause:
- He was ill, therefore, he couldn’t come.
- No doubt, I feel, I will pass.

Interrogative words are used as Adjectives

Interrogative words such as "when, where, why, how" are use as adverbs in questions and as
conjunctions introducing subordinate clauses.
- When will she come back?
- Where do you live?
- Why are you late?
- How did you do it?
- I don't know when she will come back.
- I know where you live.
- I want to know why you are late.
- Tell me how you did it.

Adverb answers the questions words "where, when, how, …".

With a verb: He drove slowly. ( How did he drive?)
With an adjective: He drove very fast the car. ( How did he drive his car?)
With another adverb: She moved quite slowly down the aisle. (How slowly did she move?)
- Please do it quickly. (How do I do it?)
- She will leave tomorrow. (When will she leave?)
- We live here. (Where do you live?)

Adverbs are used as interrogative words in questions.

- When are you leaving?
- How often does he go there?

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 Adverbial prepositional phrases

Adverbial prepositional phrases, like adverbs, modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions,
and answer the same range of questions as adverbs:
- When? after the party, at midnight
- Where? at the station, near London
- Why? for my sake, because of the cold

How to distinguish between adjectives and adverbs in the same form

Adjectives are used in the function of attributes and usually stand before the nouns that they
modify. Adverbs are used in the function of adverbial modifiers and usually stand after verbs.
Compare:
- It was early morning. – He got up early.
- It is a daily newspaper. – He calls them daily.
- a backward movement – to move backward(s);
- hard work – to work hard;
- in the late fall – to come back late;
- a straight line – to stand straight.
- We had a long conversation. – How long did they stay there?

An adjective is used in the predicative after a linking verb (be, become, seem, appear, look, feel);
an adverb is used after a notional verb. Compare:
- She is beautiful. – She sings beautifully.
- He looks sad. – He sighed sadly.

Adjective "fast": She is fast. – Adverb "fast": She drives fast.

Note that the verb "be" can be a notional verb (meaning: to be located in some place), and in
such cases the verb "be" is usually followed by an adverbial modifier of place (in the form of an
adverb of place or an adverbial phrase of place).
- Your room is upstairs.
- Who's there?
- His books are on the table.
- He is here.

Very commonly used adverbs

Nearly: almost, but not quite or not completely [= almost]

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 7.2.1. Adverbs forms
Adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms
have different meanings:
- He arrived late.
- Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

An adverb may be a single word (often, today, slowly, why) or an adverbial phrase (at first; every
year; for a long time).

One-word adverbs are divided into simple (fast, never, now, there, very), derivative (generously,
noticeably, quickly, unexpectedly), and compound (anywhere, downstairs, outside, sometimes).

Degrees of comparison of adverbs are formed in the same way as degrees of comparison of
adjectives, that is, with the help of the suffixes "er, est" or the adverbs "more, most" depending on
the number of syllables.

Sequencing adverbs:
We use sequencing adverbs to say in what order things happen. Sequencing adverbs: first, next,
then, finally.

Ving + Noun, Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions: telling place and time,
modifying the verb.

Two-word adverbial modifiers:

Adverbial modifiers consisting of two or more words are placed at the end of the sentence after
the main verb (or after the object, if any). Possible positions of adverbial modifiers of time and
frequency consisting of one word are described below.

Two-word adverbs and adverbial modifiers with prepositions are placed at the end of the
sentence after the verb (or after the object, if any). If there are several adverbial modifiers, the
adverbial modifier of place is usually placed before the adverbial modifier of time.
- They stayed in his house for about an hour.
- Professor Benson usually has two classes at the university every day.
- My new neighbors often read a good book in their garden after breakfast.
- He arrived in Vienna by train at 7:00 a.m. on Thursday.

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 Suffix "ly"

A number of adverbs have the suffix "ly": simply, happily, probably, usually; other adverbs have
no suffix: often, never, maybe, here, there; adverbs also may be in the same form as adjectives:
fast, far, hard, low, early, daily, weekly.
- It is his daily work. (daily – adjective)
He studies daily. (daily – adverb)
- That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual
situations:
- She certainly drives slowly in that old Buick of hers.
- He did wrong by her.
- He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Derivative adverbs are formed from adjectives with the help of the suffix "ly". To make an adverb
from adjectives like “happy” and “angry”, we drop the “ y “ and add “_ily”. To make an adverb
from adjectives like “comfortable”, we drop the “ e” and add “_y”. Sıfat ya da ismin sonuna “ly”
ekleyerek oluşan zarflar genellikle “… bir şekilde”, ya da “bir biçimde” anlamını alır. Diğer
anlamlar ise:
Clever (adj): zeki – cleverly (adv): zekice
Suspicious (adj): şüpheli – suspiciously (adv): şüpheyle, şüpheli bir biçimde
Last (adj): son – lastly (adv): son olarak, en sonunda
Wide (adj): geniş – widely (adv): genş ölçüde
active – actively; actual – actually; angry – angrily; awful – awfully;
basic – basically; considerable – considerably; convincing – convincingly; cruel – cruelly;
dishonest – dishonestly; dry – dryly; easy – easily; endless – endlessly; excited – excitedly;
frank – frankly; full – fully; gradual – gradually; historical – historically;
incorrect – incorrectly; interesting – interestingly; irresponsible – irresponsibly;
loud (adjective) – loudly (adverb); obvious – obviously;
polite – politely; poor – poorly; probable – probably; quick – quickly;
rare – rarely; ready – readily; reasonable – reasonably; silent – silently; slow – slowly; shy –
shyly; temporary – temporarily; terrible – terribly; true – truly; typical – typically;
unexpected – unexpectedly; unhappy – unhappily; whole – wholly; wise – wisely.

Sonu “ly” ile biten her kelime zarf olarak düşünülmemelidir. Çünkü “ly” takısı bir ismin sonuna
getirildiğinde genellikle zarf değil sıfat elde edilir. (friend – friendly)
"fatherly, friendly, lively, lonely, lovely, manly, silly, ugly". (Some American dictionaries list the
adverbs "friendly, lonelily, sillily, uglily", but such adverbs are rarely used.) Adverbial phrases
are generally used in such cases.
- He is friendly. – He spoke with them in a friendly manner.
- His behavior was silly. – He behaved in a silly way.

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Bazı zarflar -ly ile bitmemektedir: Everywhere, here, never, so, fast, much, rather, well.
A number of adverbs are in the same form as adjectives. Miscellaneous adjectives and adverbs
in the same form: far, fast, hard, high, late, long, low, near, straight. Düzensiz zarflar: fast, late,
early, hard. (Düzensiz zarfların bazıları sıfatlar ile aynıdır.) Good (adj) – well (adv)
Some adjectives and adverbs with the suffix "ly":
early (adj.) – early (adv.); daily (adj.) – daily (adv.);
weekly (adj.) – weekly (adv.); monthly (adj.) – monthly (adv.); only (adj.) – only (adv.).

Adjectives with the suffix "ward" and adverbs with the suffix "ward" or "wards".
forward (adj.) – forward (adv.); backward (adj.) – backward (adv.), backwards (adv.);
westward – westward, westwards; southward – southward, southwards.

“late” zarfı “lately” ile karıştırılmamalıdır. “lately: son zamanlarda” anlamındadır. Aynı şekilde
“hardly: neredeyse hiç, zar zor” anlamındadır.” Hardly”, anlam olarak olumsuzluk ifade ettiği için
grammer olarak olumlu yanıtlarda kullanılır.
- We know hardly anyone in this neighbourhood. Bu muhitte nerede ise hiç kimseyi
tanımıyoruz.

7.2.2. The place of the adverbial modifiers

Depending on their function and meaning, adverbs may stand before adjectives, before other
adverbs, after verbs, at the end of sentences, at the beginning of sentences.
- This song is very popular.
- Mike learned the lyrics very quickly.
- He sings beautifully.
- He sings this song beautifully.
- Sometimes, Mike and his sister sing this song together.

Some adverbs of frequency can stand before the verb in the simple tenses and between the
auxiliary and the main verb in the perfect tenses.
- How often does he sing this song? Does he sing it often?
- He never sings this song. He often sings this song. He sings it very often.
- He has already sung it. He has sung it already.

We can put adverbs and adverb phrases at the front, in the middle or at the end of a clause. The
three main positions of adverbs in English sentences:

Adverb at the beginning of a sentence

- Unfortunately, we could not see Mount Snowdon.
- Suddenly I felt afraid.
- Yesterday detectives arrested a man and a woman in connection with the murder.

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Adverb at the end of a sentence
- Andy reads a comic every afternoon.
- Why do you always have to eat so fast?

Adverb in the middle of a sentence

- The children often ride their bikes.
- Apples always taste best when you pick them straight off the tree.

Where there is more than one verb, mid position means after the first auxiliary verb or after a
modal verb:
- The government has occasionally been forced to change its mind. (after the first auxiliary
verb)
- You can definitely never predict what will happen. (after a modal verb)
- We mightn’t ever have met. (after the modal verb and before the auxiliary verb)

In questions, mid position is between the subject and the main verb:
- Do you ever think about living there?

Adverbs usually come after the main verb be, except in emphatic clauses:
- She’s always late for everything.

When be is emphasised, the adverb comes before the verb:

- Why should I have gone to see Madonna? I never was a fan of hers.(emphatic)

More than one adverb at the end of a sentence

If there are more adverbs at the end of a sentence, the word order is normally: Manner –Place –
Time
- Peter sang the song happily in the bathroom yesterday evening.

Bir cümlede birden fazla “Adverb” varsa belirli bir sıralama takip eder.
Manner – Place – Time, Usual sequence:
- He read the book carefully in his room yesterday.
Place – manner- time:
- He drove home in a hurry two hours ago.
Place – manner – frequency – time:
- Terry read the book in his room with great interest twice yesterday.

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 7.2.3. Types of adverbs
The modifiers of place, time, frequency, and manner are often expressed by adverbs or by nouns
with prepositions and are placed at the end of the sentence after the main verb or after the object
if there is an object. According to their meanings, adverbs are divided into the following main
groups: adverbs of manner; adverbs of time; adverbs of frequency; adverbs of place; adverbs of
degree.

Adverbs of manner:
Adverbs would be words that how something was done or the manner in which it was done.
These would be words like: uneasily, weirdly, cheerfully, expertly, angrily, attentively, badly,
calmly, carefully, coldly, deeply, easily, fast, gratefully, greedily, happily, honestly, kindly, loudly,
nervously, patiently, politely, proudly, quietly, quickly, reluctantly, sadly, seriously, sincerely,
slowly, softly, tenderly, thoughtfully, warmly, well, willingly, wisely, etc.
- She waited patiently.
- He walks too slowly.
- He closed the door slowly.
- He sincerely hopes that she will come back.
- She quickly understood her mistake.
- She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
- He got up quickly.
- She does everything well.
- The maid does her work satisfactorily.
- He drives very fast.
- He ate the food hungrily.
- We came here by train.
- He opened the door with a key.
- She swims really well.
- Don’t go so fast.
- Actually, I don’t know her.

Adverbs of frequency: Sıklık zarfları

The adverbs of frequency "often, generally, frequently, rarely, regularly, sometimes" are often
placed between the subject and the main verb in the simple tenses but may also be placed after
the main verb (or after the object, if any). The adverbs of frequency: again, always, annually,
constantly, daily, ever, every day, every week, frequently, never, occasionally, often, periodically,
seldom, twice, usually, weekly.
- He often goes to the park.
- I usually get up at eight.
- She visits them every day. She visits them sometimes.
- I have never seen this film.
- Have you ever been to Boston?
- He often goes to the park. He goes to the park often.
- We rarely buy food in that store.
- He frequently visited them last year. He visited them frequently last year.
- They go to concerts often.

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 - He calls her every day.
- He writes to her regularly.
- She goes shopping once or twice a week.
- She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
- She often goes by herself.
- He only lent this pen to me.
- She sometimes forgets her homework.
- He is genarelly busy at this hour.
- I’m always losing my keys.

Adverbs of frequency "usually, always, never, seldom" are placed between the subject and the
main verb in the simple tenses but are usually placed after the verb "be".
- They seldom talk about it.
- She usually buys bread, cheese, and milk in this grocery store.
- He always asks me this question.
- He is always late.
- He is never home before seven.
- The buses are usually full in this city.
- She is always a good girl.

Adverbs of time:
The adverbs of time are placed between the two parts of the predicate in the perfect tenses:
already, just, never, ever. The adverbs of time can also stand after the main verb: already.
Adverbs that tell when an action occurred, or its time, include: Now, first, last, early, yesterday,
tomorrow, today, later, afterwards, ago (e.g., two hours ago), already, early, immediately, just,
late, lately, later, long, now, once, recently, soon, still, then, today, tomorrow, when, yesterday,
yet.
- He arrived an hour ago.
- He has already done it.
- She is still working.
- I will see her soon.
- She didn't have to wait long.
- How long have you been here?
- She has already left.
- She has just called me.
- I have never been to Mexico.
- Have you ever seen this film?
- They had already left for London by the time he arrived in Paris.
- I'm going to see him tomorrow.
- I spoke to him an hour ago.
- He saw her before leaving.
- I went to work after class.
- She was sick yesterday.
- The meeting was at ten o'clock last Friday.
- She tries to get back before dark.
- I never get up early at the weekends.
- She finished her tea first.

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 If there are two auxiliary verbs in a tense form, the adverb is usually placed after the first
auxiliary verb. "Already" may also stand after the second auxiliary verb, for example, in the
Future Perfect.
- He has never been asked such questions.
- He may already have called them.
- His plane will already have landed by the time we get to the airport.
- He will have already left for London by Friday.

Some one-word adverbs of time or frequency, for example, "today, tomorrow, yesterday,
sometimes, usually", are sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence before the subject
(usually for emphasis).
- Yesterday I talked to Jim.
- Tomorrow we are leaving.
- Suddenly the rain started.
- Sometimes she stays at this hotel for a few days.
- Usually, she has a cheese sandwich in the morning, but today she is eating scrambled eggs
for breakfast.

Adverbs of Purpose:
- She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
- She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
- She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
- Walk across the road carefully!
- She smiled cheerfully; the word.
- The house was spotlessly clean.
- Can you move it carefully? It’s fragile.

Adverbs of Place:
Adverbs tell the place of an action, or where it occurred. Adverbs like this would be: here, there,
everywhere, somewhere, in, inside, underground, out, outside, upstairs, downstairs, above,
anywhere, below, far, far away, near, nowhere, outside, where.
- She has lived on the island all her life. She still lives there now.
- I will wait her there.
- I saw them going down.
- They live on Main Street.
- The bedrooms are upstairs.
- She has to go to the bank.
- They spent their vacation at the lake.
- He works here.
- I looked everywhere, but I didn't find my key.
- Where are they? They are inside.
- When we got there, the tickets had sold out.
- I haven’t seen them recently.
- The bathroom’s upstairs on the left.
- You have to turn it clockwise.

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 Adverbs of direction (anywhere, back, backwards, eastwards, here, inside, there, upstairs,
where, etc.) are often included in this group, and the group is usually called "Adverbs of place
and direction".
- The difference between adverbs of place and adverbs of direction is in their meaning. For
example: Where are you?
- Where are you going?

Compare the adverb of place "far" with the adverb of direction "far":
- They live too far from the station.
- They went too far into the woods and got lost.

Adverbs of degree:
Almost, badly, barely, completely, considerably, deeply, enough, extremely, fully, hardly, highly,
little, much, nearly, quite, rather, really, scarcely, seriously, so, too, very.
- I almost forgot.
- He could hardly move.
- Thank you very much.
- It was completely unnecessary.
- This film is quite good.
- She is old enough to understand such things.
- I know him well enough.
- It happened so quickly.
- She eats too much.
- Why does it surprise you so much?
- It’s rather cold, isn’t it?

Adverbial phrases of frequency, time and place

When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an
adverbial phrase. An adverbial phrase describes where, when or how often something happens.

Adverbial phrases of frequency describe how often something happens.

every morning, every afternoon; every day – daily
every week – weekly; every month – monthly; every year – annually
every Sunday – on Sundays – on Sunday afternoons
once a day; twice a day
three / four / five times a day
all the time

Adverbs of frequency often use in present simple sentences.

- I have toast for breakfast every day.
- We visit our grandparents twice a month.

Note that ‘on Saturday’ refers to one day. ‘On Saturdays’ means ‘every Saturday’.

Adverbs of frequency in the wrong place: We every day go the park. We go to the park every
day.

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The plural form with every is wrong: John goes swimming every days. John goes swimming
every day.

Use adverbs and adverbial phrases of time to talk about when you do something.
Adverbs of time include: today, tomorrow, tonight, yesterday, tomorrow, nowadays;
now, first of all, beforehand; soon, afterwards, later, next, then
Adverbs of time usually use at the beginning or the end of a sentence or clause.
- Tomorrow, I’m going to the beach. I’m going to the beach tomorrow.
- First of all, we had a drink at a café. We had a drink at a café first of all.
- I’m going to the supermarket, and afterwards I’m going to the library.
I’m going to the supermarket, and I’m going to the library afterwards.

It is more common to use “then” at the beginning of a sentence or clause.

- Then we arrived at the castle.
- I’m going to finish my work and then I’m going to have a drink.

It is more common to use “soon” and “now” at the end of a sentence.

- We’re going on holiday soon.
- I’m going home now.

Don’t use an adverb of time between the subject and the object of a sentence.
- I went yesterday to the zoo. I went to the zoo yesterday. / Yesterday I went to the zoo.
- I’m going now to the bank. I’m going to the bank now.

You must use a noun after “After” and “Before”. Otherwise, use “afterwards” or “beforehand”.
- I’ll be late to class tomorrow. I’m going to the doctors before.
- I’ll be late to class tomorrow. I’m going to the doctors beforehand.
- I’m going to my English class and I’m going to the bar after. I’m going to my English class
and I’m going to the bar afterwards.

Use adverbs and adverbial phrases of place to talk about where something happens. Adverbs of
place include: outside, inside, indoors, upstairs, downstairs; (over) here, (over) there; abroad,
overseas
Adverbs of place usually go after a verb.
- She lives abroad.
- Let’s go indoors.

Adverbs of place can also go after the object of the sentence.

- Rachel works in the office upstairs.
- Your bag is on the table over there.

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 7.2.4. Peculiarities in the use of adverbs
The adverb "much"
The adverb "much" is frequently used in interrogative and negative sentences. In affirmative
sentences, the adverb "much" is used mostly after "very, so, too".
- Does he work much?
- He doesn't work much.
- It didn't interest him very much.
- Thank you very much for your help.
- He complains too much.
- She misses him so much.
- I doubt it very much.

The adverb "very": very + adj

The adverb "very" is used with adjectives, with participles used as adjectives, and with adverbs.
For example:
- It was very cold.
- This book is very interesting.
- He is very tired.
- He said it very slowly.

"Very" is not used with verbs and with those past participles which are closer to verbs than to
adjectives. "Very much" is used instead of "very" in such cases. For example:
- I like it very much.
- His latest book was very much criticized.

The adverb "enough"

The adverb "enough" usually stands after the adjective or adverb that it modifies.
- It's not good enough.
- She did it quickly enough.
- He stayed there long enough to understand what happened.

The adverbs "somewhere, anywhere, nowhere"

The adverb "somewhere" is used in affirmative sentences; the adverb "anywhere" replaces it in
interrogative and negative sentences. The adverb "nowhere" is usually used in short answers.
For example:
- I'll try to find this book somewhere.
- I haven't seen it anywhere.
- Are you going anywhere tonight?
- Where did you go? – Nowhere.

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Good and well; bad and badly
"Good" and "bad" are adjectives; the corresponding adverbs are "well" and "badly". Examples:
Adjective "good":
- This book is good.
- He is good at geography.
- This music makes him feel good.
- He looks good.

Adjective "bad":
- This road is bad.
- He feels bad.
- He looks bad.

Note that adjectives (not adverbs) are used after linking verbs in English; i.e., the adjectives
"good, bad" are used after the linking verbs "feel, look" in the examples above.
Adverb "well":
- The baby eats and sleeps well.
- He knows it well.

Adverb "badly":
- The boys behaved badly.
- He sings badly.

Note that "well" can be an adjective (meaning: healthy).

- Are you well? I don't feel well.
- She looked well, and she didn't have a headache.

In informal speech, "good" and "bad" are sometimes used as adverbs (instead of the adverbs
"well" and "badly"), which is considered to be incorrect. For example, the sentence "He played
good" is incorrect and should be changed to "He played well".

The adverb "badly" is often used after the verb "feel" in informal speech, for example, "He feels
badly about it". It is advisable for language learners to use an adjective after "feel" in such cases:
He feels bad about it.
The adverb "badly" is often used in the meaning "very much" in informal speech:
- I need it badly.
- His car was badly damaged.

Rather: oldukça, epeyce, bir hayli

“Rather” zarf olarak sıfatları ya da başka zarfları nitleler.
- The question was rather difficult.

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Also, As well, Too: üstelik, keza, dahi, de, da
The adverbs “also, as well and too” have similar meanings, but they do not go in the same
position in sentences. “Also” is usually used with the verb. “Too and as well” usually go at the end
of a sentence or clause. Note that “as well” is not very common in American English.
- She gave me money as well. Üstelik bana para da verdi.
- If you study your lessons, I will give you a chocolate and an apple as well.
- He not only plays; he also works.
- He was fat, and he was also short.
- He not only plays; he works as well.
- He was fat, he was short as well.
- He not only plays; he works too.
- He was fat, he was short too.

The adverbs “also, as well and too” can refer to different parts of a clause, depending on the
meaning. The exact meaning is usually conveyed by stressing the word or phrase that “also, as
well, too” refers to.

“As well and too” can be used in imperatives and short answers. Also is not usually used in
these sentences.
- She is pretty. “Her sister is (pretty) as well.” Is more natural than “Her sister is also”
- I have got the invitation. “I have too” is more natural than “I have also”

Note that in informal speech, we often use “me too” as a short answer.
- I am going home. “Me too.” Is less formal than “So am I” or “I am too”

When used at the beginning of a clause, “also” can refer to the whole of it.
- It is a small house. Also, it needs a lot of repairs.

In a very formal style, “too” can be used immediately after the subject.
- I, too, have been in such situations.

“May /Might /Could + as well” yapısı olasılık ifade etmez ve “bari yapalım” anlamındadır,
“may/might/could well” yapısı ile karıştırılmamalıdır.
- There is no bus at this time. We may as well walk home. Bu vakitte otobüs yoktur. Bari eve
yürüyelim.

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 7.3. Qualification

Qualification: Niteleme

"very" and "much":

"Very" is used with the positive degree of adjectives and adverbs.
- It was very warm yesterday. He was very serious.
- This film is very interesting. He will do it very quickly.

"Much" is used with the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs.

- It is much warmer today.
- He was much more serious at that time.
- This film is much more interesting than that film.
- He will do it much more quickly next time.

"Very" may be used with the superlative degree of some adjectives (for example, best, worst,
first, last) to emphasize the superlative adjective: the very best quality; on the very first day.

Niteleyici kelimelerden en çok kullanılanlar:

• a little / a bit: biraz

• much / far ; a lot; lots (çok)
• somewhat: bir miktar, biraz
- The death of that market is somewhat overblown.
• Rather: oldukça, epeyce, bir hayli
• Even: da

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 7.4. Quantifiers

Quantifiers are adjectives and adjectival phrases that give approximate or specific answers to the
questions "How much?" and "How many?" The quantifiers are used to give someone information
about the number of something: how much or how many. Particularly with abstract nouns such
as time, money, trouble, etc.

“Very + adjective /adverb” is used to emphasize an adjective, adverb, or phrase

The words “some” and “any” are used for countable and uncountable nouns. In general, we could
use “some” in possitive sentence with meaning “a few / a little” and “any” with meaning “none” in
negative clauses or a “few / a little” in questions

How much + uncountable noun

How many + countable noun

Few /a few /many + countable noun

As a noun, many= many people, few= few people
- Many heard about the book, but few read it.
This case: many= many people, few= few people
- The forces were unequal, they were many we were few.
Few/a few/many: countable noun (forces)

Much + uncountable noun (mean a large amount of something)

Some + uncountable noun/plural noun (use in narrative sentence)
Any + uncountable noun/plural noun (use in negative and question sentence)
a little/little + uncountable noun
- I don’t have much money.
- You should say little and do much.

So + much noun, so + many noun: so much paper, so many problems

A great deal of, a good deal of: epeyce (countable and uncountable)
- There are a great deal of books in your bag.
- A great deal of books are in your bag.
- There is a great deal of milk left in your glass.
- A great deal of milk is left in your glass.

The quantifier is used in the place of a determiner:

- Most children start school at the age of five.
- We ate some bread and butter.

We use “so” rather than “very” before “much and many” in affirmative clauses to
emphasize a very large quantity of something:
- He has so much money!
- There were so many jobs to do.

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 Quantifiers for only with countable nouns

Many, several, a few, few, fewer, both, each, either, neither, several, a number (of), a large
number of, a great number of, a majority of
Structure: Quantifiers + Sayılabilen tekil isim + Tekil fiil

Many are used with plural and countable noun:

- Many students came to the lecture.
- Many of them were third-year students.
- The other books that I bought are on the table.

Several + countable nouns: birkaç

Many + countable nouns: çok (many, more, most)
Few: az (few, comparitve: fewer, superlative: fewest)
 “A few”, some anlamına gelir ama “many” anlamına gelmez. “A few”, biraz anlamındadır.
 “A few + Countable noun” ile biraz anlamındadır. Olumlu, yeterlidir.
 “Few + Countable noun” ile biraz anlamındadır. Olumsuz, yetersizdir.
- I've done it a ____ times.
- Many students came to the lecture.
- Many of them were third-year students.
- According to the studies, dolphins, whales and many other sea creatures use highly
sophisticated navigation systems.
- There are many people in this town.
- I admire him because he has a few problems.
- I have a few friends.
- I have a few financial difficulties.
- Do you have a few minutes?
- Many children suffer from loneliness in urban areas.

Many of: _nın çoğu

- He may be responsible for many of the problems, but you can’t blame everything on him.
Sorunların çoğunun sorumlusu o olabilir ama herşeyi de ona yükleyemezsin.

So many/few + (noun) + that + Clause: o kadar … ki, (So /that)

“So" can be combined with "many" or "few" plus a plural noun to show extremes in amount.
This form is often used in exclamations.
- There were so many apples that we didn’t know where to put them all. Öyle çok elma vardı ki
hepsini nereye koyacağımızı bilemedik.
- There is so few good jobs that people are looking for jobs in other states.
- There were so many that we didn’t know where to put them all. Öyle çok vardı ki hepsini
nereye koyacağımızı bilemedik.

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 The quantifiers for only with uncountable nouns (Much)

Much /little + uncountable noun

“A little” + Sayılamayan isim ile biraz anlamındadır. Olumlu, yeterlidir.
“ little” + Sayılamayan isim ile biraz anlamındadır. Olumsuz, yetersizdir.
Çok anlamına gelen “much” yapısı genellikle olumsuz cümlelerde ve soru cümlelerinde kullanılır.
Olumlu cümlelerde genellikle özne olarak kullanılır. Özne dışında olumlu cümlelerde kullanılırken
“so / very / too” ile kullanılmalıdır.

A little
Little (little, comparative: less, superlative: least)
- I've only read a little of the book so far- just the first couple of chapters.
- There isn’t much rain in the desert.
- How much money do you spend a day?
- I don’t like her much.
- I am lucky because there is a little water in the bottle.
- We were able to arrive at the airport on time because there was a little traffic.
- She didn’t eat anything, but she drank a little coffee.

Much: (much, comparative: more, superlative: most)

Much of: _nın çoğu

- Much of the content of his work.
- Much of the money was spent for the decoration.

A much:
- Outside the bright primary rainbow, a much fainter secondary rainbow may be visible.
This sentence shows that there are two rainbown: one bright and one fain

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 A lot of, lots of, a lot, lots

A lot of:
If the noun after the phrase "a lot of" is uncountable (singular), the singular form of the verb is
used. If the noun after the phrase "a lot of" is plural countable, the plural form of the verb is used.
- There is a lot of snow on the roof.
- There are a lot of people in the park.
- A lot of tourists come to this small village every autumn.

A lot of, lots of:

“A lot of” and “lots of” have the same meaning: they both mean a large amount or number of
people or things. Be careful: a common mistake is to use “'a lot” or “lots” instead of “a lot of” or
“lots of” before the noun. Remember: you can use both “a lot of” and 'lots of' with plural and
uncountable nouns (but not use “lots” or “a lot” before the noun.)
- He earns a lot of money.
- There are lots of people here today.
- They have had lots of homework in mathematics recently.
- There are lots of cars. or There are a lot of cars.

with countable nouns:

- A lot of people went to the game. Halkın çoğu oyuna gitti.
- Lots of people went to the game. Halkın çoğunluğu oyuna gitti.

with uncountable nouns:

- A lot of snow falls in winter.
- Lots of snow falls in winter.
- I like to drink a lot of coffee. Çok kahve içmekten hoşlanırım.
- There are a lot of cars in the car park. Araba parkında çok araba var.
- I went shopping and spent a lot of money.
- A lot of computers are needed at schools.

A lot, lots:
“A lot” means very often or very much. “A lot” is an adverb. It is used as an adverb. It often comes
at the end of a sentence and never before a noun. It describes the verb.
- I saw him a lot
- I like basketball a lot.
- She's a lot happier now than she was.
- I don't go there a lot anymore.

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 7.5. Comparative

Comparative of adj/adv: Short: adj/adv + er + than, Long: More + adj/adv + than

Comparison of Equality: as + adj /adv+ as
The Compared things must be equal; person to person, objet to object.
The two basic ways to compare are using “than” and “as ... as”.
- Total weight of all the ants in the world is much greater than that of all human beings.(that
=total weight of all the ants)
- The salary of a bus driver is much higher than that of a teacher. (that =the salary of a bus
driver)

7.5.1. “than” are used as comparison

Comparative of adj/adv:
Short: adj /adv + er + than
Long: More + adj/adv + than

One-syllable adjectives form the comparative degrees by adding the suffixes “er”:
cheap, cheaper; cold, colder; high, higher; large, larger; short, shorter; long, longer; tall, taller;
loud, louder; new, newer; nice, nicer; soft, softer; sweet, sweeter; tough, tougher; wise, wiser.
- Your sister is tall. My sister is taller than your sister.
- My house is smaller than your house.
- Your car is larger than mine.
- His brother is harder working than mine.

If an adjective ends in a single consonant preceded by a single “vowel”, the consonant is doubled
before adding “er”:
big, bigger; fat, fatter; hot, hotter; sad, sadder; thin, thinner; wet, wetter.
- New York is much bigger than Boston.
- France is a bigger country than Britain.
- He is a better player than Ronaldo.

If an adjective ends in mute “e”, the letter “e” is dropped before adding “er”: blue, bluer; brave,
braver; close, closer; fine, finer; pale, paler; rude, ruder; simple, simpler; wide, wider.
If an adjective ends in "y" usually form the comparative degrees by adding “ier”.
angry, angrier; crazy, crazier; busy, busier; easy, easier; early, earlier; noisy, noisier; dirty, dirtier;
heavy, heavier; happy, happier; lucky, luckier; pretty, prettier; silly, sillier; sunny, sunnier;
- The Dead Sea is eight or nine times saltier than the oceans of the world. The Dead Sea is so
rich in salt and other minerals that humans float naturally on the surface

If final “y” is preceded by a vowel, “y” doesn't change before adding “er”: gray, grayer.

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Two-syllable adjectives ending in "y, er, ow" often have variants with “more”:
lazy, lazier /more lazy; fancy, fancier /more fancy; friendly, friendlier /more friendly;
lovely, lovelier /more lovely; risky, riskier /more risky; clever, cleverer /more clever;

The choice of “er” or “more” in the case of disyllabic adjectives ending in "y, er, ow" depends to
some extent on preferences in usage, on what sounds better or more natural to an English
speaker in the given sentence. On the whole, variants formed with the help of “er” are more
traditional and more widely used than those with “more”.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in "er, ow" usually form the comparative degrees by adding “er”.
clever, cleverer; narrow, narrower.

Most two-syllable adjectives, and including adjectives ending in the suffixes "al, ant, ent, ish, ive,
ic, ous, ful, less", form the comparative degrees with the help of “more”:

active, more active; careless, more careless; eager, more eager; tragic, more tragic; famous,
more famous; foolish, more foolish; useful, more useful; modern, more modern; private, more
private.
- Laura is more selfish than Anita.
- People say that health is more important than money.
- My car is more economical than the one I had before.
- The solar calendar the Egyptians developed was more accurate and sophisticated than the
Mesopotamian lunar calendar.

There are some other disyllabic adjectives which have variant forms with “er” or “more”, for
example, quiet, simple, stable, noble, gentle, common, polite, pleasant, handsome.
Though both variants are considered correct, the following comparative forms seem to be more
frequently used for these adjectives at present:
quieter; simpler; gentler, more gentle; more stable; more noble; more common; more polite.
- These questions are simpler than those.
- She is more polite than her sister.

Adjectives consisting of three or more syllables form the comparative degrees by using “more”
before the adjective:
beautiful, more beautiful; comfortable, more comfortable; dangerous, more dangerous;
difficult, more difficult; successful, more successful; expensive, more expensive;
important, more important; intelligent, more intelligent; interesting, more interesting;
- This book is interesting. This book is more interesting than that one.
- John has a difficult task. My task is more difficult than John's task. I have a more difficult task.

An adjective in the comparative form can stand before the noun that it modifies or after the verb
“be” in the predicative. For example: Try an easier exercise. This exercise is easier.

In everyday speech, phrases like "emptier than; more complete than; more correct than; more
honest than; more perfect", etc., are sometimes used.
- He looks more dead than alive.
- Karl is more honest than Bart.
- Now you are more wrong than ever.

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 7.5.2. Comparison of Equality “as”
Karşılaştırılan iki isim arasında eşitliği göstermek için kullanılır.

As + adj / adv + as: … kadar

This is used when you are comparing two people, things, and situations. Yorum amaçlı da
kullanılır.
- She speaks as fluently as a native speaker.
- I'm almost as good in maths as in science.
- I am as tall as John. John ile aynı boydayım.
- I'm not as young as you, slow down. Senin kadar genç değilim, yavaşla.
- Jane works as hard as Gwen, but she has a problem with her style of working. (Jane de
Gwen kadar çok çalışıyor ama onun çalışma tazrında bir problem var.)
- Some of the doctors are paid almost twice as much as the nurses. (Bazı doktorlara
hemşirerin neredeyse iki katı ödeme yapılmaktadır.)
- We must make as few mistakes as possible. Biz mümkün olduğunca az hata yapmalıyız.
- Your guess is as good as mine. Sizin tahmininiz benim ki kadar iyiydir.
- Mike is 45 years old and Jack is 45, too. Mike is as old as Jack.
- Niko and Berke got the same grades from their final exams, so we can say that Niko is as
hardworking as Berke.
- Their father is as old as my father. Onların babası benim babam kadar yaşlıdır.
- Our garden was as big as that garden. Bizim bahçemiz şu bahçe kadar büyüktü.
- In some parts of Western Europe, notably in France, Denmark and Sweden, cohabitation has
become almost as common as marriage.

“as…..as” yapısı negative cümlede kullanıldığında eşitlik ortadan kalmakta, bir farklılıktan
bahsedilmektedir.
- I am not as old as Selly. = Sell is older than me.
- This book is not as exciting as the last one.
- Turkish is not quite as difficult as Chinese.
- He's not as stupid as he looks!
- John and James are identical twins. However, you can distinguish them because John is not
as tall as James.
- Roosen LTD. and Sintek CO. are two companies in the United States. Nevertheless, Roosen
LTD is not as big as Sintek CO.

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Constructions "as...as; not as...as"
The construction "as...as" indicates approximately the same degree. The constructions "not
as...as; not so...as" indicate a lesser degree and are less formal than the constructions with
"less".
- Lena is as tall as her father. Lena is as attractive as her mother.
- Mike is not as tall as his father. (Mike is shorter than his father. Mike's father is taller than
Mike.)
- The remake of the film is not so interesting as the original version.
- This ring is not as expensive as that one. (This ring is less expensive than that one. That ring
is more expensive than this one.)
- Bella does not type as fast as Linda. (Bella types more slowly than Linda. Linda types faster
than Bella.)

The constructions "as...as; not as...as; not so...as" can also be used with some of the adjectives
that do not form degrees of comparison or have limitations in their formation.
- I'm as aware of the consequences as you are.
- This phenomenon is not as unique as you think.

So + adj / adv + as: … kadar (Genellikle negatif cümlelerde)

“So ... as” is used in comparisons to say that something or someone has less of a particular
quality than another person or thing. Karşılaştırma cümlelerini olumsuz yapmak için ilk “as” yerine
“so” konulur.
- You aren’t so old as my son. Sen oğlum kadar yaşlı değilsin.
- The white pencil isn’t so long as the black pencil. Beyaz kalem siyah kalem kadar uzun
değildir.
- Mary doesn’t study so hard as Bob does. Bob studies harder than Mary.

“as ... as” ve “so ... as” yapısı arasında daha uzun kelime grupları kullanılabilir.
- She is viewed as a strong candidate for the presidency as you are.
- The young actor acts as perfectly in horror films as he does in TV comedies.
- After the global warming news, people aren’t as / so optimistic about the future of the world
as they were in the past.

As + many + countable nouns + as,

As + few + countable nouns + as: … kadar
- There were as many people as I had expected.
- We have as many customers as them.
- There are as few houses in his village as in mine.
- You know as many people as I do.
- I have visited the States as many times as he has.
- There are not as many trees in this area as there used to be.
- We hope to see as few job losses in the company as possible.

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As much + uncountable nouns + as,
As little + uncountable nouns + as: … kadar
- She earns as much as her father.
- She can eat as much as she wants and she never puts on weight.
- John eats as much food as Peter.
- You've heard as much news as I have.
- He's had as much success as his brother has.
- They've got as little water as we have.
- I don’t have as much money as you have.
- My father puts as little sugar in tea as possible.

As/so + adj/adv + as to V: yapacak kadar

- He isn’t as qualified as to get the post without having some additional training. Biraz ek eğitim
almaksızın işe alınacak kadar kalifiye değil.

Such + adj + noun+ as to V: yapacak kadar

- She isn’t such a qualified candidate as to deal with all these diplomatic troubles. Bütün bu
diplomatic sıkınlarla baş edck kadar nitelikli bir aday değil.

As near as: … e kadar

- I walked as near as the post office. Postaneye kadar yürüdüm.
- We didn’t go as near as the others did. Diğerleri kadar gitmedik.
- Trading ships could navigate the Tiber as near as Rome.
- You should stand as near as you can. (Olabildiğiniz kadar yakında durmalısınız.)

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 7.5.3. Comparison “Like”
To talk about future events that are likely to happen.

“Like” as a verb:
The verb like can be followed by either the “Ving” form or by an “infinitive”.

Like + noun phrase: I like Sarah but I don’t like her brother much.
Like + -ing: I like swimming before breakfast.
Like + to-infinitive: I don’t like to cycle in the dark.
Like + wh-clause: I don’t like what he did.
- I like going to the cinema
- I like to see all the latest movies.

Often these two forms (Ving, To V) mean exactly the same thing but there can be a difference
between them. When we use “like to” there is an ide that we think is is a good idea, even if not
pleasant, and it is probably a regular action.
- I like to visit the dentist twice a year.
- I like my children to be in bed by nine.
- I like to keep fit.

“Would like” in offers and requests:

We use “would like” to to make polite offers and requests.
- Would you like to have lunch one day next week?
- I'd like to have your opinion.
- Would you like another coffee?

Like as a preposition meaning ‘similar to’:

Used as a preposition, “like” often means 'similar' or 'typical'..
We often use it with verbs of the senses such as look, sound, feel, taste, seem:
- That looks like Marco’s car.
- He seems like a nice man.

When we use like to mean ‘similar to’, we can put words and phrase such as a bit, just, very, so
and more before it to talk about the degree of similarity:
Isn’t that just like the bike we bought you for your birthday?
- That smells very like garlic.
- The car was more like a green than a blue colour.
- Like me, you probably are a bit shocked by his behaviour.
- What is Harry like? Is he conceited?
- You look like you need to sit down.
- I want to do something exciting - like bungee jumping.
- It is just like him to be late.

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Like as a conjunction:
In informal contexts, we can use like as a conjunction instead of as.
- Like any good cook book will tell you, don’t let the milk boil. (or As any good cook book …)

Asking for an example:

Like what?

Be like or look like?

We use be like to talk about someone’s character or personality. We use look like to talk about
someone’s appearance:
- What’s your new boss like?
- What does your father look like?
- He’s very like me but taller and older!

Be like or what is … like?

We can use be like to ask for a description of someone or something (e.g. their appearance,
their character, their behaviour):
- What’s your new apartment like?

In informal American English, “like” is used to mean “as if”. (Some people think it is 'incorrect' but
you will certainly hear it a lot.)
- I feel like I am a princess.
- It was like I was back in the sixties.

Don't confuse that with “feel like” meaning “a desire to do something”.

- I feel like going out for a meal.
- I don't feel like driving any more today.

Unusually for a preposition, “like” can have the adverbs “quite” or “rather” in front of it.
- It is quite like old times.
- It is rather like it was before we had computers.

Uuseful phrases using like:

Come when you like:
- You are always welcome. Come when you like.

Do as you like:
- It is entirely your choice. Do as you like.

“If you like” is used to make suggestions:

- We could go later, if you like.

“Like this” is used when you are demonstrating something:

- You put the paper in here like this.

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“Eat like a horse” means to eat in large quantities:
- Kate eats like a horse but she never seems to put on any weight.
“Feel like a million” means that you feel really good:
- I have met a new girl. I feel like a million.

“Go like clockwork” means that it happens without problems:

- The launch of the new product went like clockwork.

“Like a bat out of hell” means very fast:

- He drove like a bat out of hell. I was scared.

“Like a fish out of water” means that the person does not fit in at all:
- He knows a lot about accounting but he is like a fish out of water in marketing.

If something sells “like hot cakes”, it sells really well:

- The new iphone is selling like hot cakes.

If you go “out like a light”, you fall asleep immediately:

- He was so tired that he went out like a light when he lay on the sofa.

If you sleep well, you “sleep like a log”:

- I slept really well. I slept like a log.

If you “watch like a hawk”, you watch really closely:

- I didn't trust him so I watched him like a hawk for the whole time he was here. He didn't do
anything wrong.

If news “spreads like wildfire”, everybody hears it very quickly:

- Reports of their argument spread like wildfire through the company.

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 7.5.4. Parallel constructions
The more … the more,
The more + clause + the more + clause: ne kadar… o kadar …
The comparative degree is also used in parallel constructions of the type "the more...the more".
- The more I know about men the more I like animals. İnsanları ne kadar tanırsam hayvanları o
kadar çok seviyorum.
- The more you work, the more you earn.
- The more I think about this project, the less I like it.
- The more an organization depends on collaborative arrangements, the more likely it is to lose
control over decisions. (The more you work, the more you earn.)

More and more: Gittikçe artan veya azalan işler anlatılır.

_er and _er : Gittikçe artan veya azalan işler anlatılır.
When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives
with “and”.
- The weather is getting colder and colder.
- Life is getting more and more difficult.

The sooner + clause, the better + clause: ne kadar … olursa o kadar … iyi olur.
- The sooner you come early, the better it is. Ne kadar erken gelirsen iyi olur.
- My father doesn't own a factory. I don't even know where he is. Anyway, the sooner I get a
job, the sooner I can open a bank account. I got to buy some clothes.
- The sooner I get a job, the quicker I can pay my loans
- The longer she stayed there, the better she felt.

Qualities of one and the same person or thing:

Generally, the qualities of two different people or things are compared with the help of the
comparative degree. But it is also possible to compare the qualities of one and the same person
or thing. Examples:
Laura is more stubborn than Rita. Laura is more stubborn than persevering.
- The leaves of this plant are more oblong than round.
- I was more asleep than awake.
- She was more afraid to stay than to leave.
- His job is not so difficult as it is boring.

When comparing the qualities of one and the same person or thing, the comparative degree of
adjectives (including monosyllabic adjectives) is formed with the help of “more”.
- His eyes are more blue than gray.
- She is more lazy than incapable.

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 7.5.5. Numerals in comparisons
The superlative degree of adjectives may be used in combination with the ordinal numerals
"second, third, fifth", etc., to indicate the size of an object (especially about geographical places).
- Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system.
- Canada is the world's second-largest country.
- Geneva is the third-largest city in Switzerland.
- Madagascar is the fourth-largest island in the world.

Constructions like "twice as large; three times as large; half as large" are widely used for
comparing size, quantity, amount, speed, and other measurable characteristics.
- Your house is twice as large as my house.
- Their car is three times as large as our car.
- He is twice as old as she is.
- Her bag is five times as heavy as your bag.
- His report is half as long as her report.
- She pays half as much for water and electricity as I do.
- His house is five times the size of your house.
- My house is half the size of your house.
- She is half your age.

… times,
[two /half /twice times] as + adj + as:
Farklılık koymakta ve bu farklılığın katlarını da karşı tarafa aktarır.
Constructions like "three times larger; four times bigger; four times smaller; five times faster" are
also used quite often. Some manuals of style object to such use in formal writing.
- Istanbul is three times as large as Ankara.
- My grand father is four times as old as his grand son.
- She's twice as old as her sister.
- The glass is twice as big as it needs to be.
- I read twice as many books as you did.
- The old one now produces half as much water as it did in the past.
- Your collection of coins is several times larger than mine.
- His computer is ten times faster than my computer.
- These light bulbs are five times brighter than those.

Note the following constructions which emphasize the amount or quantity indicated in
the sentence.
- This box weighs as much as fifty kilograms.
- The new hotel can accommodate as many as a thousand people.
- I bought this vase for as little as ten dollars.

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 7.5.6. Intensifiers and modifiers
Intensifiers can emphasize, amplify, or downtone.
Emphasizers:
- I really don't believe him. She simply ignored me.
- He literally wrecked his mother's car.
- They're going to be late, for sure.

Amplifiers:
- The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
- I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
- They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
- I so wanted to go with them.
- We know this city well.

Downtoners:
- I kind of like this college.
- Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
- His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
- We can improve on this to some extent.
- The boss almost quit after that.
- The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:
- She runs very fast.
- We're going to run out of material all the faster

Various adverbs may be used in constructions of comparison in order to emphasize, specify, or

clarify comparisons.
The adverbs "much, a lot, a little, even" are used with the comparative degree; "almost, nearly"
are used with the construction "as...as"; "by far" is used with the superlative degree of adjectives.
- Your report will be much better (a little better; a lot better; even better) if you make it shorter.
- She would be a lot happier if you visited her more often.
- The book that I wanted to buy turned out to be much more expensive than I thought.
- The second part of the book is almost as interesting as the first part.
- This device is not nearly as good as the one you showed me yesterday.
- This film is by far the funniest that I have seen recently.
- She is by far the most efficient manager in our company.

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 7.5.7. Comparison of adverbs
Mostly adverbs of manner and some adverbs of other types can form degrees of comparison in
the same way as adjectives. The comparative degree of adverbs is used more widely than the
superlative degree. The definite article before the superlative form of adverbs is often omitted.

Monosyllabic adverbs:
One-syllable adverbs and the adverb "early" form the comparative and superlative degrees by
adding “er, est”: fast, faster, fastest; hard, harder, hardest; high, higher, highest; late, later, latest;
long, longer, longest; loud, louder, loudest; low, lower, lowest; near, nearer, nearest; soon,
sooner, soonest; early, earlier, earliest.
- Please hang the picture higher.
- She bent lower to kiss the sleeping baby.
- Tom arrived later than Jim. Jim arrived earlier than Tom. George arrived (the) earliest of all.
- I expected her to respond sooner.

Adjectives and adverbs in the same form:

One-syllable adverbs mentioned above (except "soon") are in the same form as adjectives. Their
position in the sentence indicates whether they are used as adverbs or as adjectives: adverbs
usually stand after the main verb, while adjectives stand before the noun that they modify or after
the linking verb (be, become, get, feel, look, seem).
Adverb "fast": Jim, Rosa, and Phil can run very fast. Rosa runs faster than Jim. Phil runs (the)
fastest of them all.

Adjective "fast": I would like to have a faster car. His reaction was faster than mine.
Adverb "hard": Tom works harder than Don. Pete works (the) hardest of anyone I know.
Adjective "hard": Her work is becoming harder and harder. It is the hardest work she has ever
done.

Adverbs of two or more syllables:

Adverbs of two or more syllables (usually with the suffix "ly") form the comparative and
superlative degrees by placing “more, most” before the adverb: easily, more easily, most easily;
formally, more formally, most formally; loudly, more loudly, most loudly; often, more often, most
often; quickly, more quickly, most quickly; simply, more simply, most simply; slowly, more slowly,
most slowly; comfortably, more comfortably, most comfortably.
- Please speak more slowly.
- He pushed the door much more strongly than was necessary.

Note: “most + adverb” is not always the superlative degree. “Most” before an adverb often means
"very, extremely".
- She articulated her ideas most clearly. He listened to her most attentively.

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Irregular adverbs:
Irregular adverbs "well, badly, much, little, far" have the following degrees of comparison: well,
better, best; badly, worse, worst; much, more, most; little, less, least; far, farther, farthest; far,
further, furthest.
- Tanya speaks Spanish better than you do. Who writes best of all in your class? He works
best in the evening.
- His brother treated him badly. His father treated him even worse. His classmates treated him
worst of all.
- The doctor told him to eat less and to exercise more.
- He went too far. Do not go farther than that tree. It's pointless to discuss it further.

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 7.6. Superlative

“The” definite article:

As a rule, “the” definite article is required before the superlative form of the adjective: The nearest
hospital; the largest room. “The” definite article’ından başka, “a /an” veya” possessive pronoun”da
kullanılmaktadır: My best friend.
Superlative form of adjactive:
+Short adj: The + adj +est
+ Long adj: The + most + adj

One-syllable adjectives form the superlative degrees by adding the suffixes “est”:
cheap, cheapest; cold, coldest; high, highest; large, largest; short, shortest; long, longest;
tall, tallest; loud, loudest; new, newest; nice, nicest; slow, slowest; soft, softest;
sweet, sweetest; tough, toughest; warm, warmest; wise, wisest.

Examples:
- There are among the 20 students in class, Ayşe is the youngest of all.
- The Nile River is the longest river in the world.
- For many years people believed that the cleverest animals after man were chimpanzees.
Now, however, there is proof that dolphins may be even cleverer than these big apes.
- He is the tallest boy in our class. (Sınıfımızın en uzun boylu çocuğudur.)
- This is the highest building I have ever seen. Bu, hayatımda gördüğüm en yüksek bina.
- The oldest society on earth was first created some 200 million years ago.
- The largest, Angkor Wat, constructed around 1150, remains the biggest religious complex on
Earth, covering an area four times larger than Vatican City.
- My dog is the cleverest dog in the whole world.
- The narrowest of the three tunnels leads to a small chamber under the engine room.
- He is the youngest of my students.
- The highest peak in Africa is Mount Kilimanjaro.
- The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world.
- The healthiest hearts in the world have been found in the Tsimane people in the forests of
Bolivia, say researchers.

If final “y” is preceded by “a” vowel, “y” doesn't change before adding “est”: gray, grayest.

If an adjective ends in mute “e”, the letter “e” is dropped before adding “est”: blue, bluest; brave,
bravest; close, closest; fine, finest; pale, palest; rude, rudest; simple, simplest; wide, widest.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in "y, er, ow" often have variants with “most”:
lazy, laziest /most lazy; fancy, fanciest /most fancy; friendly, friendliest /most friendly;
lovely, loveliest / most lovely; risky, riskiest /most risky; clever, cleverest / most clever;

The choice of “est” or “most” in the case of disyllabic adjectives ending in "y, er, ow" depends to
some extent on preferences in usage, on what sounds better or more natural to an English
speaker in the given sentence. On the whole, variants formed with the help of “est” are more
traditional and more widely used than those with “most”.

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There are some other disyllabic adjectives which have variant forms with “est” or “most”, for
example, quiet, simple, stable, noble, gentle, common, polite, pleasant, handsome. Though both
variants are considered correct, the following superlative forms seem to be more frequently used
for these adjectives at present: quietest; simplest; gentlest, most gentle; most stable; most noble;
most common; most polite; most pleasant; most handsome.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in "y, er, ow" usually form the superlative degrees by adding “iest”:
angry, angriest; ugly, ugliest; crazy, craziest; funny, funniest; busy, busiest; easy, easiest;
early, earliest; noisy, noisiest; dirty, dirtiest; heavy, heaviest; happy, happiest; clever, cleverest;
lucky, luckiest; pretty, prettiest; silly, silliest; sunny, sunniest; narrow, narrowest.

Predicative adjectives:
Some adjectives, such as "afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware", are used
only predicatively after linking verbs (i.e., they are not used in the position before a noun).
Predicative adjectives can form the comparative degree with the help of “more”, but are hardly
ever used in the superlative degree.
- As time passed, he became more and more ashamed of himself.
- She is more afraid of him than of his father.

The adj_er of which: … olanı

- There were two small rooms in the beach house, the smaller of which served as a kitchen.

The definite article before the superlative form may be omitted in some cases, for example, in
those cases where the adjective is used in the predicative after the verb “be” (or other linking
verbs), and there is no noun or defining phrase after the adjective.
- She is happiest when she is alone with her books.
- She is prettiest when she lets her hair down and puts on a white dress.

Üstünlük derecesinde, eğer sıfatın sonu sessiz bir ünsüz ve bu ünsüzden hemen önce bir tek
sesli geliyorsa, sondaki ünsüz çift gelir. If an adjective ends in a single consonant preceded by a
single vowel, the consonant is doubled before adding “est”: big, biggest; fat, fattest; hot, hottest;
thin, thinnest; wet, wettest.

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Uncomparable adjectives
Some adjectives should not be used in either the comparative or the superlative degree because,
logically, their meaning does not admit of comparison. Such adjectives are sometimes called
absolute adjectives.

Examples of uncomparable adjectives: absent, absolute, chief, complete, contemporary, daily,

dead, essential, eternal, excellent, empty, full, entire, fatal, final, honest, impossible, infinite,
inevitable, ideal, junior, meaningless, perfect, main, major, minor, round, sufficient, supreme,
senior, square, unique, universal, utmost, vital, weekly, whole, wooden, worthless, wrong.

If it is necessary for you to make some kind of comparison of such adjectives, use "almost,
nearly, quite" with them, for example, "almost perfect; almost empty; nearly full; quite sufficient".

The comparative degree indicates one of two objects, while the superlative degree singles
out one of three or more objects.
- Alex is strong. Tom is stronger than Alex. Tom is the stronger of the two boys.
- Alex, Tom, and John are strong. John is the strongest of the three boys. John is the strongest
in his class.
- Gina is more attentive than Ella. Gina is the more attentive of the two girls. Vera is the most
attentive pupil in my English class.

Adjectives formed from participles (V3, Ving)

Adjectives formed from participles form the comparative and superlative forms with the help of
“more, most” irrespective of the number of the syllables: annoying, more annoying, most
annoying; boring, more boring, most boring; hurt, more hurt, most hurt; pleased, more pleased,
most pleased; surprised, more surprised, most surprised; tired, more tired, most tired; worried,
more worried, most worried.
- I can't think of a more boring subject of conversation.
- She seems more worried today.
- He is the most annoying person I know.

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 Irregular adjectives

Several adjectives have irregular forms of the comparative and superlative degrees: good, better,
best; bad, worse, worst; many/much, more, most; little, less (lesser), least; far, farther, farthest;
far, further, furthest. "Less" can be an adjective or an adverb; "lesser" is only an adjective;
"farther, farthest" refer to distance; "further, furthest" refer to distance or addition.
- The hotel was better than we expected. This is the best layer cake I've ever had.
- His health is becoming worse. Her examination paper was the worst in class.
- I bought many books. Mike bought more books than I did. Nick bought the most books.
- I don't have much work today. Mike has more work than I do. Nick has the most work to do
today.
- He spent less money than you. She has the least time of all of them.
- All of them are suffering from an allergy, to a greater or lesser degree. Choose the lesser of
two evils.
- His house is farther down the street. It is the farthest house on the opposite side of the street.
- I have no further questions. Further information can be obtained at our office.

The adjective "less" is used with uncountable nouns; the adjective "fewer" is used with plural
countable nouns.
- He has less time than she does. She has fewer books than he does.

The adjectives "ill" and "well" (referring to health) have the same comparative and superlative
forms as the adjectives "bad" and "good": ill, worse, worst; well, better, best.
- Is he well? Is he ill? He felt worse yesterday. He feels better today.

Set expressions
There are quite a few set expressions containing the comparative or superlative forms of irregular
adjectives. For example: a change for the better; a change for the worse; at best / at the best; at
most / at the most; at worst / at the worst; get the worst of it; go from bad to worse; if worst comes
to worst / if the worst comes to the worst; last but not least; more or less; none the less; not in the
least; prepare for the worst; so much the better; so much the worse.
- If he leaves, so much the better.
- If he doesn't want to obey the rules, so much the worse for him.
- Many companies sustained losses during that period, but small companies got the worst of it.

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 7.6.1. Most
We use the quantifier “most” to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. We can use it with a
noun (as a determiner) or without a noun (as a pronoun). We can also use it with adjectives and
adverbs to form the superlative.

Adjectives consisting of three or more syllables form the superlative degrees by using “most”
before the adjective: beautiful, most beautiful; comfortable, most comfortable; dangerous, most
dangerous;
difficult, most difficult; successful, most successful; expensive, most expensive; important, most
important; intelligent, more intelligent, most intelligent; interesting, more interesting, most
interesting.

“Most” may have the meaning "very, extremely, highly". In such cases, a singular noun is used
with the indefinite article, and a plural noun is used without an article. In this meaning of “most”,
monosyllabic and disyllabic adjectives are used with “most”.
- She is a most beautiful woman.
- They are most interesting people.
- Yesterday I had a most strange dream.
- I'm most pleased to see you here.
- In most of such cases, the meaning will be clearer if you use "very" instead of "most": a very
beautiful woman; very interesting people; a very strange dream; very pleased.

Most two-syllable adjectives, including adjectives ending in the suffixes "al, ant, ent, ish, ive, ic,
ous, ful, less", form the superlative degrees with the help of “most”: active, most active; careless,
most careless; eager, most eager; tragic, most tragic; famous, most famous; foolish, most foolish;
formal, most formal; useful, most useful; modern, most modern; private, most private.
- He is the best dancer. He dances more beautifully than anyone else.

The most:
“The most” is the superlative form of many, much. We use “the most” to make the superlative
forms of longer adjectives and the majority of adverbs:
- They’re using the most advanced technology in the world. (+ adjective)
- Scafell Pike is the most easily identifiable peak in the Lake District. (+ adverb)

The most with a noun:

We use the most with a noun to mean ‘more/less than all of the others’:
- Ian earns the most money in our family.

The most with a verb:

We use the most with a verb as an adverb:
- They all cried, but Claire cried the most. (Cambridge dictionary)

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The most + adjective:
“The most + adjective” is not always the superlative degree. İkiden fazla heceli sıfatlarda “the
most” kelimesi sıfatlardan önce gelir. Present Perfect Tense yapısında kullanılan sıfatların en
üstünlük dereceleriyle kullanılır.
Important - the most important, Intelligent - the most intelligent, Famous - the most famous.
- This book is the most interesting of all the books that I have read recently.
This is the most interesting book I have ever read.
- The most difficult task will be discussed tomorrow.
- You are the most beautiful girl I have ever met. Sen, hayatımda tanıdığım en güzel kızsın.
- She is the most beautiful girl in our class. (Sınıfımızın en güzel kızıdır.)
- Her story is the most unbelievable one I’ve ever heard. (Onun hikayesi şimdiye kadar
duyduğum en inanılmaz olandır.)
- He is the most careful driver in the family.
- Do you like Australia? Oh yes! I think it is one of the most beautiful places in the world.
- Today, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, in which the Soviet Union demanded that Western powers
cut their ties with Berlin, may be the most forgotten crisis in the annals of the Cold War.
- The company is one of the most successful companies of the last five decades.

Most + Noun:
“Çok, Çoğu, pek çoğu, çoğunluğu “ anlamına gelir ve hem sayılabilen çoğul isimlerle hemde
sayılamayan isimlerle kullanılabilir.
- Most children love toys.
- Most people like chocolate. Çoğu insan çikolatayı sever.
- Most people work for a minimum wage in Turkey. Türkiyede çoğu insan asgari ücrete çalışır.
- The way to Damascus is most dangerous; the Sun rises magnificent over Baghdad.

Most of + Pronoun /definite noun:

Most of /some of /none of: + pronoun /definite noun
Bir iyelik zamiri (pronouns) yada belirteç (determiner) dan önce most yerine “most of” formu
kullanılır.
With pronouns (My, his, her, its ,our their):
- Most of my shirts are old - Gömleklerimin çoğu eskidir.

With determiners (the, this that, these, those ):

- The students are poor – Most of the students are poor. Öğrencilerin çoğu fakirdirler.
- Most of this website is written in Turkish. Bu sitenin çoğu kısmı Türkçe yazılmıştır.
- Most of these books belong to my sister. Bu kitapların çoğu kız kardeşime aitdirler.
- Most of those shoes are artificial leather. Şu ayyakabıların çoğu yapay deridirler.

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 7.6.2. Of all
Most of all: en önemlisi
of greatest importance; more than any other. (Compare this with least of all.)
- I wanted to go to that museum most ofall. Why can't I go?
- There are many reasons why I didn't use my car today. Most of all, it's a lovely day for walkin
g.

Of all the most difficulty,

Among all the most difficulty: ... şey içerisinde, … şey arasında
- Of all the inventions in medicine, microscope is surely the most difficult.
- Of all the students she ran the most quickly.

Of all ….. the most: ___ olanlardan, … olanı en … olandır.

- Of all the political ideologies of the early nine-teenth century, nationalism is the most difficult
to grasp. 19. yüzyıl başlarında ortaya çıkan siyasi akımlardan milliyetçilik olanı anlaşılması en
zor olandır. [grasp: kavramak, sımsıkı sarılmak]
- Of all the decisions a free people must face, the question of war or peace is the most crucial.
Özgür bir toplumun yüzleşmesi gereken kararlardan, savaş ya da barış mı sorusu en kritik
olandır.

One of + superlative adj + Plural Noun:

A more distant object seems to be smaller than a closer object.
- The Taj Mahal is one of the most famous buildings in the world.
- Martin is one of my best friends.
- The Golden Gate Bridge is one of the longest bridges in the world.
- You are one of the most important people in my life.

The first, the second (time/person...) to do sth:

- Earl was one of the first American Artists to paint landscapes.

Of all + noun: içerisinde, arasında

Among + noun: arasında
- Of all our students, Mary is the only one who has achieved national recognition.
- Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.
- Of all the buildings in Paris: Paris’deki binaların arasında
- Of all the political ideologies of the early nineteenth century, nationalism is the most difficult to
grasp.
- Of all these changes, perhaps the most important one was to be seen in energy.

No + comperative = superlative=V3
- No other city is more beautiful than Istanbul = Istanbul is the most beautiful city.

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 7.6.3. Lower degree: Less and Least

Lower degree: “less” and “least”

The least: (little, less, the least)

Not in the least: en azından değil
In the least: zerre
At the least: en azından
The least bit: az biraz

Less + adj /noun + than: Less “more” un tam tersi anlamda dır. “ daha az” anlamına gelir.
- This car is less expensive than that car.
- The book that I read was less interesting than the one I read last month.
- This year the factory has produced less steel than they did last year.

“less” and “least” are used with adjectives and adverbs in the same way as “more” and “most”.
“Less” indicates a lower degree; “Least” indicates the lowest degree. “Less” with adjectives and
adverbs is used more widely than “least”. “Less” and “least” are rarely used with monosyllabic
adjectives and adverbs.

“Less, least” with adjectives: common, less common, least common;

costly, less costly, least costly; difficult, less difficult, least difficult;
important, less important, least important;
interesting, less interesting, least interesting;
- The first question is less difficult than the second.
- The last exercise is the least difficult of the four exercises.
- I am less interested in football than he is.

“Less, least” with adverbs: clearly, less clearly, least clearly; easily, less easily, least easily;
efficiently, less efficiently, least efficiently; formally, less formally, least formally;
often, less often, least often; sincerely, less sincerely, least sincerely;
typically, less typically, least typically; willingly, less willingly, least willingly;
wisely, less wisely, least wisely.
- She remembers the day of the car accident less clearly now. She remembers least clearly
what happened after the accident.
- He does his work less willingly and less efficiently than before. He works least efficiently
when he is alone.

“The least” is used before uncountable nouns. It is the superlative of “little”.

- This is the least interesting book I have ever read.
- I think Amanda is the least attractive girl in the entire world!

“The least” can be used without a noun if the meaning is clear from the context.
- Jane does the most work in this office. Jack does the least.

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The expression “least of” can be used before plural abstract nouns.
- ‘She will be really upset when she hears about this.’ ‘That’s the least of my worries.’

In questions and negative clauses, “the least” can be used with the meaning ‘any…at all’ before
singular abstract nouns.
- ‘What’s the time?’ ‘I haven’t got the least idea.’
- I’m not the least bit afraid of dogs.

“The least” can be used before adjectives. It is the opposite of “the most”.
- The least expensive picnics are often the most enjoyable.
- The most expensive things aren’t always the best.

At least: en az, en aşağı

“At least” means ‘not less than’.
- She is at least forty years old. (= She is not less than but more than forty years old.)
- He interviewed at least four times this month.
- I have seen that film at least ten times.
- She has been in love at least six times.
- You must read at least ten pages every day. Her gün en aşağı on sayfa okumalısınız.
- She waited for you at least two hours. Seni en aşağı iki saat bekledi.
- I must sleep at least eight hours. En aşağı sekiz saat uyumalıyım.

Not in the least: en azından değil

“Not in the least” means ‘not at all’. It is used in a formal style.
- I was not in the least impressed by her manners. (= I was not at all impressed by her
manners.)

The fewest:
“The fewest” is the superlative form of “few”.
- The essay with the fewest grammatical mistakes isn’t always the best.

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 7.7. Emphasis

The emphasis structures are used to give strong advice, to express opinions clearly, to disagree,
to show concern, to entertain.

Rather, fairly, quite, and pretty are all used to say that something is true to some degree, but not
completely or extremely. “Rather” is fairly formal but can be used in spoken English, especially
British English. In American English it is more usual to use “pretty.”
Noun phrase: (a) adj + noun

How + adj/adv:
This is used to emphasize the quality you are mentioning.
- How slowly the baby is learning to talk and walk. Bebek konuşmayı ve yürümeyi ne kadar
yavaş öğreniyor.

much + adj,
more + adj,
far + adj,
rather + adj,
a little + adj,
a bit + adj,
a lot + adj: to emphasize adj
Higher, more...than + number + times
- Lisa looks much older than she really is. Lisa gerçekte olduğundan daha büyük görünüyor.
- It is a lot more exciting to travel by air than by water.

Very + adj/adv/Ving:
This is used to emphasize an adjective, adverb, or phrase
- I am very willing to give you a hand. Sana bir el vermek için çok istekli değilim.

That (adv) + adj/adv:

This structure is used to say how big, how much etc, especially when you are showing the size,
amount etc with your hands
- The sea is not that calm.

Fairly+ adj/adv: oldukça, dürüstçe

More than a little, but much less than very. Positive adjective ve adverb’ lerle kullanılır.
- It is difficult to complete the project in time.
- The exercises were fairly easy.
- It was fairly hot today.

The more + noun: used to emphasize the noun

- Tracy made the more mistakes in the dictation exercises.

More + adj/noun
- A politician can make a legislative proposal more understandable by giving specific examples
of what its effect will be.

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 7.7.1. So
So / that: used when emphasizing the degree or amount of something by saying what the result is
So + adj + that
“So” dan sonra muhakak sıfat gelir: “so + adj + (that)” or “so + much /many /few /little + noun”

So + adj, (so + Ving, so + V3):

so interesting, so nice, so patient to be nurse
- They were so tired.
- The exam was so difficult.
- She is so young.
- This child is so big.
- She is so cool. It looks so nice.

So much + noun, so many + noun:

so much paper, so many problems
- There were so many people there!
- I never knew you had so many brothers

Main Clause, So + Clause: bu yüzden (Sonuç)

“So” is used to say that someone does something because of the reason just stated.
- She hadn’t studied, so he failed.
- The play was very boring, so they walked out.
- She woke up late, so she missed the bus.

So + adv:
so funny; so fast, so ill
- They did it so well
- You mustn’t drive so fast on this road!
- So far so good. Şimdiye kadar çok iyi.

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So + adj/adv + (that) + Clause: o kadar … ki, öylesine … ki (So /that)
This is used when emphasizing the degree or amount of something by saying what the result is.
Note: Cümlenin fiili sağ taraftadır. Bu yapıda that kullanılmasa da anlam bozulmaz:
- He speaks so fast that I cannot understand him.
Öylesine hızlı konuşur ki onu anlayamıyorum.
- That water is so cold that I can’t drink it.
- The book was so boring that I only could read.
- It rained so much that the fields were flooded.
- She got up so early that it was dark yet.
- She works so hard that she she isn’t usually aware of what time it is.
- I was so hungry (that) I couldn’t wait for dinner.
Karnım öyle açtı ki yemeği bekleyemedim.
- I worked so hard that I couldn't rest all night.
O kadar çok çalıştım ki tüm gece uyumadım.
- She speaks German so fluently that you cannot distinguish him from a German.
- The exam was so difficult that nearly all the students failed.
- The heels of her shoes are so high that she looks much taller.
- The hall so crowded that I couldn’t find a seat.
- The wind was so strong that it was difficult to run.

So much + verb + as + verb:

- It does not so much find as make new things.
Yeni şeyler yapacak kadar pek birşey bulunmaz.

“So much” before verb

- I so much enjoyed. I really enjoyed

So many/few + (noun) + that + Clause: o kadar … ki, (So /that)

“So" can be combined with "many" or "few" plus a plural noun to show extremes in amount. This
form is often used in exclamations.
- There were so many apples that we didn’t know where to put them all.
Öyle çok elma vardı ki hepsini nereye koyacağımızı bilemedik.
- There were so many that we didn’t know where to put them all.
Öyle çok vardı ki hepsini nereye koyacağımızı bilemedik.
- There is so few good jobs that people are looking for jobs in other states.

So much / little+ (noun) + that + Clause: o kadar … ki, (So /that)

So" can be combined with "much" or "little" plus a non-countable noun to show extremes in
amount. This form is often used in exclamations.
- Everything has changed so much that I can scarcely recognize the place.
Her şey öyle çok değişmiş ki yeri güçlükle tanıyabildim.
- He had so much money that he didn’t know what to do with it.
- James has so much money that he could actuaaly buy that Ferrari.
- I know so little English that I can't make myself understood.
- There was so much smoking the room that I could hardly breathe.

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…, so that …: mek/mak için, olsun diye (Conjunction in Purpose Clauses)
- He studied very hard so that he could pass the exam.

So + adj. + a/an + Singular Countable Noun + (that) + clause: O kadar … ki, (So /that)
- She is so beautiful a girl (that)
- He is so good a student that he is going to win a scholarship.

So + Auxiliary + Subject (pronoun): _de / _da (ekleme)

The Auxiliary needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.
Çoğunlukla ikinci cümle “so” ile başlar ve cümle devrik olur.
- Just as I feel pessimistic, so does my mom.
Ben tam kendimi kötümser hissediyorum annem de öyledir.
- I liked the movie, so did you.
- They have been to New York several times, so have I.
- He is an English teacher, so is his wife. (His wife is, too)
- Neptune is an extremely cold planet, so is Uranus.

So + adj/adv + as to V: yapacak kadar

As + adj/adv + as to V: yapacak kadar
- He isn’t as qualified as to get the post without having some additional training. Biraz ek eğitim
almaksızın işe alınacak kadar kalifiye değil.

So + adj/adv + as: … kadar

- Living in the country doesn’t cost so much as living in big cities.
- You won’t get so much as a peny from me as long as I live.
Yaşadığım sürrece benden bir kuruş bile alamayacaksın.

So long as: _dığı sürece, eğer

- So long as you don’t break rules, you will not be penalized.
- You can work here so long as you obey the rules and the regulations.

So as to: _mek için, _mak amacıyla, (In order to + V, to V)

- They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of his wife.
- We have art so as not to die of the truth. (Friedrich Nietzsche)
- He did that so as to annoy me. O beni kızdırmak için yaptı.

So well: çok iyi

- The party was so well organized that everybody had a great time.

So called: sözde, sözümona

So called describes something that is alleging to be something you are not sure it is.
Tam emin olmadığınız bir iddiayı tanımlamada kullanılır.
- Indigo is a vat color, so called because it does not dissolve in water.

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To do so: öyle yapmak (Verb+ so)
- China’s art market is growing bigger all the time, and it is doing so at the expense of America
and Britain.
- If we want to do so. Öyle yapmak istersek.
- He actually managed to do so. O aslında böyle yaparak başardı.

So: böyle, öyle, şöyle (Cümlenin sonunda)

- If that if so. I’ll have to go. Eğer öyleyse gitmeye mecburum.
- She promised to buy me a present and she did so. Bana bir hediye alacağına dair söz Verdi
ve öyle yaptı.

So what: Ne olmuş, Ne farkeder, Ne yani?

So why: peki neden

- So why does one third of the world’s population still lack access to proper healthcare?

I hope so: Umarım

Even so: Yine de

Or so: falan, filan, öyle birşey (approximately, some, more or less, about, close to, just
about, around, roughly)

In Ving so= böyle yapmada

By Ving so= böyle yaparak

Upon /on doing so: böyle yapar yapmaz

In so doing: Bu sayede
- He created his first electric lamp, and in so doing, received much praise.

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 7.7.2. Such
Such + adj + noun:
such informal language, such good advice, such high mountain, such strong prices
- You have such beautiful eyes.
- It was such good news.
- You have such nice furniture in your house.
- There were such huge trees.

Such + adj/adv + that

Such + plural/uncountable noun + that
Such + noun phrase + that:
- It was such nice coffee that I had two cups.
- She gave him such good advice that he was very grateful to her.
- It takes such patience to learn to play chess properly.
- It was such cold weather that nobody coulg go outside.
- He was talking such rubbish that nobody was listenning him.
- The lake had such dirty water that I decided not to swim.
- She has got such beautiful eyes
- The lake had such dirty water that I decided not to swim.
- You’d better not drive in such awful weather.
- I had to pay $140 for books for my new Spanish class. I don’t know why my professor has to
choose such expansive books for her course.
- The analysts were surpised by such strong prices in the market.

Such + Noun /Noun Pahrase: bu tür…, böyle

“such” dan sonra “noun” ya da noun phrase gelir.
- Such new methods are …: bu tür metotlar
- Such people: bu tür insanlar
- You can consult me about such matters. Böyle meselelerde bana danışabilirsiniz.

“Such” daha önce bahsi geçen bir durumun yerine zamir olarak kullanıldığında “öyle” anlamı
alır.
- It appears to be such. Öyle görünüyor.

Such + adj + noun + as: … kadar, (Such /as)

- I haven’texpected such awful result as this. Bu kadar kötü bir sonuç beklemiyordum.

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Such a/an + adj/adv + singular noun: + (that) öylesine …
Such + (a/an) + adj + noun; such a horrible day, such a good cook, such a lot of money
- He is such an unfriendly guy. Öylesine dost olmayan birsiydi.
- Why did you give me such a large serving potatoes?
- I had not expected such a radical change in his behavior.
- It was such a lovely day.
- He is such a dark.
- I have got such a headache.
- He has such a big house that I actually got lost on the way to the bathroom.
- She is such a good girl that everybody likes her.
- It was such a cold evening that we stopped playing football.
- It is such a good news that everybody will be glad to hear it.
- It was such a lovely day that we couldn’t help going on a picnic.
- She is such a busy woman that she has no time for entertainment.
- They are such rough and step mountains that it is impossible to climb up them.
- He gives such good examples that you understand the subject. O kadar güzel örnekler verir
ki konuyu hemen anlarsın.
- It was such a difficult exam that nearly all students failed.
- It was such an interesting book.
- I have never seen such a strange building.
- It was such a nice piece of furniture.

Such + Noun + as: give example to something

- Elementary schools in the United states provide formal education in such basic subjects as
arithmetic, science, social science, and communication skills that including reading, writing ,
spelling, and speaking.

Such as: gibi

“Such as” has the same meaning as 'like' or 'for example' (but not exactly the same grammar,
so be careful there!).
- I like fruit suc as apple and pear.
- Many countries in Europe, such as France and Germany, use Euros.
- Supersonic transport such as the Concrde will probably be widely accepted as soon as
problems of noise and atmospheric pollution are resolved.

Q.1. Some people believe vaccines overload our immune system, making it less able
to react to other diseases — meningitis or AIDS, which are now threatening our health.
A. but for
B. lest
C. with the aim of
D. whereas
E. such as
İsimden önce boşluk var, prepositional phrase gelir. Şıklardan hangisi prepositional phrase
bilinmesi gerekmektedir.
Lest: Adverbial, purpose clause, ( Lest, For fear that: Olmaz ise, olmaz diye, olmaması
halinde) B Şıkkı olamaz.
Whereas: Adverbial clause (whereas, while: oysa, halbuki) D Şıkkı olamaz.

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 Lest ve whereas prepositional phrase değil.

But for + noun: devamındaki cümle type-2: would + V1 ya da type-3: would have + V3 yapısı
olmak durumundadır. A şıkkı olamaz.

With the aim of + Ving

Such as + noun, doğru şık: E

As such: aslında
- This is not a medicine as such. Bu aslında ilaç değil.

As such: öyle, böyle, şöyle

“As such” have two meanings. The first is quite difficult to explain, so let's look at an example.
- He is a teacher and is known as such. O öğretmendir ve öyle tanınıyor.
- I'm an English teacher, and because I'm an English teacher I hate to see grammar mistakes.
I'm an English teacher, and as an English teacher I hate to see grammar mistakes.
However, in this sentence I'm saying the words “an English teacher” twice. An easier way to
say it is like this: I'm an English teacher, and as such I hate to see grammar mistakes.
In this example, we use the word such to represent the words 'an English teacher', the
second time it appears.
- She's an athlete, and as such she has to train very hard.
- The film was a romance, and as such it had the usual happy ending.

It can be also used “as such” to mean something like 'exactly' in a sentence like this:
- The shop doesn't sell books as such, but it does sell magazines and newspapers.
Magazines and newspapers are similar to books, but they are not exactly books.
- He isn't American as such, but he's spent most of his life there.
Spending most of your life in America is similar to being American, but it isn't exactly the
same as being American.

And such: ve benzerleri

- Orange trees, palms, and such should be kept under glass in winter. Kışın portakal ağaçları,
palmiyeler ve benzerleri serada tutulmalıdır.

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 7.7.3. Quite, Too, Enough, Well

Too

“de/da” anlamı vermesi için arda arda ikinci cümlenin sonuna kullanılır.
- She liked the movie. I liked the movie, too.
- You too can learn how to make the cake

“Too”, “Aşırı, çok” anlamıyla bir sıfat ya da zarfı niteler. “Too adj /adv” is used with a
negative to mean 'not very'.
- He was driving too fast.
- Mark, don’t take a taxi. It is too expensive!
- The exam was too difficult.
- That's too bad.
- If it is the best thing to do, it cannot be done too soon.

We use “too much” with uncountable nouns.

To a higher degree than is desirable, permissible, or possible; excessively.
- You have given me too much change.
- Don’t eat too much.
- Wearing too much jewellery can be dangerous. If I were you, I would just wear a few rings.

“too … to V” kalıbının kullanıldığı cümlelerde “…mesi için çok..” anlamını vermede

kullanılır.
- It is too late for us to buy a ticket for the concert.
- She is too young to get married.

Explanation: “too … to” ifadesindeki “too”, 3 şekilde nitelenebilmektedir;

1- Much too
2- For too
3- As get too
Not: “that” li ya da “that” siz full cümle için “so” ya da “such”; for somebody’li ya da somebody’
siz “too” ya da “enough” önceliklidir.

too: as well, In addition, also

Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means “as well”.
- They were concerned too.
- I, too, was concerned.
- Is he coming too?

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Too+ adj to do sth: impossibe to do sth
- When Franklin Roosevelt decided to run for a fourth term, the opposition said that he was too
old.
- The ceiling is too high. I can't touch it.
- The ceiling is too high for me to touch. Tavan dokunabilmem için çok yüksek.
- This box is too heavy for me to lift. Bu kutu benim kaldırmam için çok ağır.

Too adj (for sbd) to do sth:

- He is too shy a child to speak out.

Too + adj + Enough: (Too + Sıfat + Enough)

- The castle was so heavily fortified (that) no enemy could breach its walls, let alone capture it.
Kale öylesine ağır şekilde güçlendirilmiştiki,bırakın fethetmek (ele geçirmek) şöyle dursun
hiçbir düşman duvarları delemiyordu.
The castle was too heavily fortified for the enemy to even consider on attack. Kale düşmanın
bir saldırı bile düşünemeyeyeceği kadar ağır şekilde güçlendirilmiştir.

Well

So well: Çok iyi

As well as
As well as + N /NP + (... Also): _nın yanı sıra, … ek olarak (... ayrıca)
as well as = and

So well as: yanı sıra

As well
Also, As well, Too: üstelik, keza, dahi, de, da

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 Enough
Enough means the number or amount you need of something. Enough gooes before a noun,
after an adjective or adverb.

Enough + noun (for sbd) to do sth:

Enough goes before a noun.
- Russia has not done enough to stop doping.
- There is enough food for everyone. Burada herkese yetecek kadar yiyecek bulunuyor.
- He earns enough money to support his family. O ailesini geçindirebilecek kadar yeterli para
kazanıyor.
- There aren't enough chairs for the guests. Misafirlere yetecek kadar sandalye yok.
- If I had a long enough holiday, I would visit Florida.

Adj/adv + enough (for sbd) to do sth: … meye yetecek kadar

Adverb/adj + enough: fast enough
- I am not strong enough to lift this box.
- He is not tall enough to reach the shelf. O rafa ulaşmasına yetecek kadar uzun boylu değil.
- If we finish this job soon, we can get home early enough to catch the beginning of the match.

Quite
Quite: oldukça, epeyi
It is used before a noun to emphasize that something is very good, large, interesting.
- This aboriginal language is quite a difficult one to learn. Bu yerli dil öğrenmek birisi için
oldukça zordur.
• Sıfatlardan den önce: My French is quite good.
• Zarflardan önce: He can speak French quite well now.
• Nadiren bazı isimlerle: Mr. Chalmers is quite an authority on playing darts.
• “Completely” anlamında bazı fiillerle: I couldn’t quite understand what you.
• Superlative form ile: it’s quite the worst match I have ever watched.

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 7.7.4. Introductory phrases that add emphasis
A phrase is a group of words that does not have a subject or a verb. On the other hand, a clause
is a group of words that does have both a subject and a verb.
- Under the teacher’s desk
- After seeing the Taj Mahal

Identify these as either phrases or clauses:

- Picking some apples
- Before he lit the candle
- Alice wants to be an astronaut
- When I return from school
- While juggling avocados

After using an introductory phrase to begin a sentence, you may or may not need to add a
comma. Common introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases,
participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases. If the introductory phrase is a short
and simple prepositional phrase, you probably do not need a comma.
- Under the bridge I met a kindly troll.
- After dinner we went for a walk.
- In France the students toured museums.

However, if the introductory phrase is a longer prepositional phrase, or if a comma will make the
sentence clearer, use a comma.
- After getting stung by a bee, Janice cried for hours.
- In fact, facts provide useful information for research papers.

If the introductory phrase is any other type of phrase, use a comma.

- To buy a new phone, David first needed to get a job.
- Preparing to ride the giant rollercoaster, I took a deep breath.

We usually use a noun or a pronoun after “about”. (that is) is usually followed by a clause
(subject + verb + ...)

The thing (don’t) like

One thing I Love /hate about + noun + is + noun /Clause
What admire /pronoun

The thing that Amazes /annoys

One thing that /worries/ upsets me about + is + Clause
What

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Examples:
- The thing I don’t like about this flat is the kitchen.
- One thing I love about you always laugh at my jokes.
- The thing that amazes me about your mother is she still can’t read a map.
- One thing that annoys me about you is you never give me time to look at a map.
- What I like about the flat is it is so light.
- What worries me about the size of the kitchen is I can’t help Polly with the cooking
- I like the food that she cooks because it is really health.
- The thing I like about the food that she cooks is really health.
- I love Matt’s sense of humour.
- One thing I love about Matt is his sense of humour.

7.7.5. Rather
Rather: oldukça, epeyce, bir hayli
Zarf olarak kullanılıp sıfatları ya da zarfları niteler. Olumsuz anlamı pekiştirmek için olumsuz
sıfatlar ile kulanılır. Rather: idare eder. (Anlamı Amerikan İngilizce’sinde yoktur.)
- The film was rather good. Film iyiceydi. /Film fena değildi.
- I had a rather difficult day.
- It is rather cold today.
- It’s rather warm in here. Let’s open a window. Burası oldukça sıcak. Pencere açalım.

 Bazı fiillerle: My father rather likes raw meat.

 Comparative form ile olumsuz anlamı güçlendirmek için: She is rather taller than her sister.
 Positive adjective’ ler ile (beklenmeyen bir şekilde): Though I hadn’t studied, my grades are
rather good!
 Bazı isimlerle: It is rather a pity.
 “Too” dan önce: The car was rather too expensive.

Rather, genellikle a/an ve the kelimelerinden önce gelir ancak sıfat varsa a/an kelimelerinden
sonra da gelebilir.
- He’s rather a fool. Oldukça aptal biri.
- Jane’s had rather a good idea. Jane’in oldukça iyi bir fikri vardı. (Jane’s had a rather good
idea.)

Rather, sıfat olmaksızın çoğul bir isimle normal olarak kullanılmaz. (“They’re rather
fools”, denmez.)

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 8. Conditional Sentences
A conditional sentence is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of condition that usually
begins with a conjunction.

8.1. If clauses

If-clause indicates the conditions under which the action in the main clause may be realized. If
Conditional sentences are usually divided into four main types:
• General or scientific conditions
• Real condition (first type of conditional sentences)
• Unreal condition referring to the present or future (second type of conditional sentences)
• Unreal condition referring to the past (third type of conditional sentences).

Type-0: General or scientific conditions

Formulation: If + Simple present, Simple present.

o
- If water is heated to 100 C, it boils.
- Jill always answers the phone if she is in office. [Genel yapılan bir davranıştan bahsedilyor.]
- If you park your car on double yellow lines, you pay a fine.
- If you select reverse gear, the car goes backwards.

“Zero conditional”, is also possible to use “when” instead of “if”.

- When demand for a product rises, its prise rises too.
- When we exercise, our body naturally produces heat.

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 Type-1: Real condition

Conditional sentences with real condition express real, true to fact / factual conditions under
which the action in the main clause can be realized. In most cases, conditions in the future are
expressed, but other situations and tenses are also possible. Note that the future tense with the
verb “Will” is not allowed after “if” in clauses of condition. The future idea is usually expressed by
the Simple Present in the if-clause of condition. Şu an veya gelecekte olabilecek durumlar için
kullanılır. Present or Future, 50% Probability.

Present tenses.
If + present tense, s + will /may /can /should + Verb.
If + subject + can /should + V, s + must /have to /has to + Verb.
+
Should + subject + V, s + would rather / had better + Verb.
If + Present Perfect Tense, s + could /might + Verb.
imperative (don’t) sentences.

Example:
- If he studies hard, he will /may /can /should pass the exams.
- If you call him, he will come here.
- If you come, I can see you.
- If it is fine, we will go for a swim.
- If I have enough time tonight, I will help you.
- They will bring his book if they find it.
- If you want to pass your exams, you must /have to study.
- You may go home if you finish your work.

“Will” and “Would” after “if”

“Will” can be used after “if” to make a polite request to do something.
“Would” can be used after “if” to express a very polite request to do something, especially in
formal style.

Though such constructions are in the form of conditional sentences, there is actually no condition
in them, and the verb “will” (or “would”) after “if” in such constructions expresses volition to do
something, i.e., if you will / if you would = if you wish, if you want.
- If you will wait here, the doctor will see you as soon as he is free.
- If you would kindly wait here, I would be very much obliged to you.
- I would be very grateful if you would send me your catalogue.

Also, “will” can be used after “if” in such constructions to insist strongly on doing something, to
refuse to do something, or to emphasize the result of the future action.
- If you go on smoking so much, you will ruin your health.
If you will go on smoking so much, you will ruin your health.
- If Mike doesn't help her, Tom will help her.
If Mike won't help her, Tom will.
- I can make your favorite cherry pie for you if you buy sugar on your way home.
I can make your favorite cherry pie for you if it will make you feel better.

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Special Note: We do not use “will” in an “if clause” to describe future activities (compare it to time
clauses). If clause’ın bulunduğu cümlede genelde “will” kullanılmaz. “Will” yerine günlük
İngilizce’de “going to”; resmi İngilizce’de ise “to be to” kullanılır.

Should:
“Should + Subject + V” yapısında soru işaretine bakılır. Soru işareti yoksa Type-1 söz konusudur.
“Should” yapısında, iki cümle olduğu unutulmamalıdır.
- If you should decide to join us, please give me a ring.
Should you decide to join us, please give me a ring.
- Should anyone call, please take a message.
- Should the pains come again, don’t hestitate to phone me.
- Should it rain, there will be no picnic today. (= If it should rain, there will be no picnic today.)
- Should she arrive, ask her to wait.
- Should she fail the test, she will lose her job. (= If she should fail the test, she will lose her
job.)

To be to V – in Type-1
Is to, is to be; are to, are to be
If claueses may contain “Be + to + infitive.” (am to, is to, are to) This structure is used to indicate
purpose.
- A student must study hard if he is to succeed. [Başarılı olacaksa]
A student must study hard if he wants to succeed. [Başarılı olmak istiyorsa]
A student must study hard in order to succeed. [Başarılı olması için]

- Tough new measures are necessary if inflation is to be brought under control.

[Enflasyon kontrol altına alınacaksa; … alınması isteniyorsa, alınması için]
Tough new measures are necessary in order to bring inflation under control.

- New jobs must be created if poverty is to be eliminated.

New jobs must be created in order to eliminate poverty.

- Family planning is essential if population growth is to be curbed.

[Nüfuz artışı dizginlenecekse, dizginlenmesi isteniyorsa, dizginlenmesi için]
Family planning is essential to curb population growth.

We can have a modal verb, typically “can, may or should”, in the if-clause or main clause, as well
as going to future or present continuous future. Present perfect is also possible in the if-clause.
- If you can't understand the instructions, you'll never be able to assemble the wardrobe.
- If I give you ten pounds, could you get me some wine at the supermarket?
- If you've finished the work I gave you, you may go home now.
- If the weather's good on Sunday, we're going to have a picnic in Hyde Park.
- If you're going to write him a cheque, make sure there's enough money in your account to
cover it.
- If you're coming clubbing with us tonight, you'd better get ready now.
In this final example, note that “had better” is not a past tense. It refers to the immediate
future and we use it to give strong advice as the preferred alternative to must, ought to or
should.

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 Type-2: Unreal condition in the present or future

There are various types of supposition, for example, hypothesis, assumption, possibility,
probability. Also, suggestions, offers, and polite requests are often made in suppositional form.
Conditional sentences with unreal condition in the subordinate clause of condition (if-clause)
express hypothetical, unlikely, improbable, unreal, contrary to fact conditions under which the
action in the main clause might be realized. The Past Subjunctive is used in the subordinate
clause to express unreal condition in the present or future. Şu an veya gelecekte olmayacak
şeyler için kullanılır. Present or Future, 0% Probability, Unreal.

The construction would + simple infinitive (without "to") is used in the main clause. In speech,
“Would” may be contracted to 'd.
would
If + past tense
+ Subject could V
If + subject + could + Verb
might

- If he studied hard, he would pass his exam.

- If I had some time, I would tidy up my office. (I don’t have any time this week.)
- If she came tomorrow, we might have a good time.
- I would call him now if I knew his telephone number. (I don't know his telephone number.)
- If she had friends, she would not feel so lonely. (But she doesn't have friends.)
- If I had enough time tonight, I'd help you. (If I had enough time tonight, I would help you.)
- If he repaired his car tomorrow, he would go to the summer house on Friday.
- Ella would be disappointed if we didn't come to her party tomorrow.
- What would you do if you found a thousand dollars on the street?
- If I found a thousand dollars on the street, I would buy presents and sweets for all the
children in our apartment house.
- If you could build a time machine and go back to Earth's distant past, you'd get a nasty
surprise. You wouldn't be able to breathe the air. Unless you had some breathing apparatus,
you would asphyxiate within minutes.
- If I could go back in time, I would tell her that she was so beautiful and perfect.

Note: We can substitute “could or might” for “would” (“should, may or must” are sometimes
possible, too)

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The verb “be” (were) in the Past Subjunctive
The verb “be” in the if-clauses with unreal condition referring to the present or future is used in the
form “were” for all persons. “Were” is the form of the verb “be” in the Past Subjunctive. The
correct form of the verb “to be” to use in Type-2 is “were” for all pronoouns. In some cases “was”
is acceptable, but it is better to keep it to “were” to ensure you are always correct. The form “was”
may be used in informal everyday speech for the first and third person in the singular, especially
in British English.
- If I were rich, I would take a trip around the world. (But I'm not rich.)
- If she were at home, she would pick up the phone.
- If I were you, I'd do it. (If I were you, I would do it.)
- What would you do if you lost your job? – What would you do if you were to lose your job?
- If it weren’t so cold, we would not go playing football.
- If I were to meet him again, I would tell him the truth.

If I were you __= were I you__ [ Soru işareti olmayan soru cümlesi if cümlesidir.]
- Were I to meet him again, I would tell him the truth.
- Were he to do it = if he were to do it. [onu yapacak olsa]
- Were he to have done it = if he we to have done it.
- I don’t have a pen, but if I …, I would lend it to you. [did]
- The wheather is cold today, but if it weren’t, I would go swimming.

The phrase "If I were you" which is often used for giving advice is the same in the second and
third types of if-clauses with unreal condition.
- If I were you, I would buy a new car.
- If I were you, I would have bought a new car a long time ago.

Note: if I were in your shoes. Sizin yerinizde olsam.

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 Type-3: Unreal condition in the past

The third conditional sentences always refer to the past. A past situation is too late and zero
possibility. Geçmişte olmayacak şeyler için kullanılır. To show unreal condition in the past, the
verb in the subordinate clause is used in the Past Perfect Subjunctive, which is the same in form
as the Past Perfect (e.g., had known, had wanted). The construction would + perfect infinitive
(i.e., would + have + past participle) is used in the main clause. “Had” and “would” may be
contracted to “ 'd “ in speech.

If + past perfect,
Had Subject V3 ,
s + would have
If + past perfect continuous, + s + could have V3
Had Subject been Ving , s + might have

If Subject could have V3 ,

Example:
- If you had locked your bike, it wouldn’t have been stolen.
Had you locked your bike, it wouldn’t have been stolen.
- If I hadn't been looking at the trees, I wouldn’t have fallen off the bike. (I was looking at the
trees when I fell off the bike.)
Hadn't I been looking at the trees, I wouldn’t have fallen off the bike.

- If you had told the truth, perhaps, she wouldn’t have been so angry
- If we hadn't practised, we wouldn't have won the match. (But we practised and won.)
- If we had saved some money, we might have bought the house. (We didn't save any money.)
- If you had studied more, you would have passed your exam.
- If you had eaten to much, you would have been ill
- It would have been better if they had been invited.
- George would certainly have attended the meeting had he not had a flat tire.
- If I had known his telephone number then, I would have called him. (But I didn't know his
telephone number then, and I didn't call him.)
- If she had wanted to visit us yesterday, she would have found the time for it.
- If he had asked her to help him before his exam, she would certainly have helped him.
- If you'd asked him, he'd have helped you. (If you had asked him, he would have helped you.)
- If I'd had enough time yesterday, I'd have done it. (If I had had enough time yesterday, I
would have done it.)
- What would he have done if he hadn't been sick last week?
- If he hadn't been sick last week, he would have gone to the lake with his friends.
- We would have gone to the park yesterday if it had not been raining so hard.

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 Open conditional

This usually refers to a future event which is conditional on another future event.
We can use the open conditional to talk about cause and effect. We can use “if” and “when” in
open conditional. In open conditionals, the main clause can come first. In open conditionals, one
verb is in the present tense.

The open conditional statement:

- If I go to London, I can visit the British Museum.
- If you visit Scotland, you should visit Edinburgh Castle.

The open hypothetical conditional statement:

- If I went to London, I would / could visit the British Museum.
- If you visited Scotland, you could see Edinburgh Castle.
- Unless the directors increased sales, we'd have to close this shop.

The unfulfilled hypothesis

- If you had eaten too much, you'd (you would) have got fatter.
- You'd have got fatter if you'd eaten too much.
- If everyone had worked fast, we'd have finished in time (but we didn't).
- We wouldn't have finished in time unless everyone had worked fast (but we did).
- If I had gone to London, I could have visited the British Museum (but I didn't).
- If you had visited Scotland, you could have visited Edinburgh Castle (but you didn't).

- If we have calculated correctly, the answer is 569.

- If it was raining that day, the wedding was sure to be spoiled.
- If what Geoge said was true, Marilyn had almost certainly left town last night.
- If the prisoner escaped, he did so with the help of a guard.
- If it rains, we will cancel the outing. (Type 1.)
- If you're sure he'll soon be here, I'll wait a little longer. (Type 1.)

Ambiguity is possible between the two types:

- If he lost the key to the car, he would have his wife bring the copy from home.

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 “Could” and “Might” in conditional sentences

Modal verbs “Could” and “Might” are often used in the main clause of conditional sentences with
unreal condition, and “Could” is sometimes used in the if-clause with unreal condition. The verb
“May” is generally not used in conditional sentences with unreal condition.
- If we left before five, we could catch the six o'clock train.
- If we had left before five, we could have caught the six o'clock train. (We didn't leave before
five, and we didn't catch the six o'clock train.)
- If he hadn't met Maria, he might have remained a bachelor.
- If I could ask him about it, I would certainly do so.
- She might get a better job if she could speak English.

“Should” after “if”

“Should” can be used after IF in clauses with real or unreal condition referring to the future to
show that the indicated action is even less likely to happen. “Should” adds more uncertainty to
the supposition about the indicated condition.
Real condition (first type):
- If he comes before five o'clock, I will ask him to wait for you.
If he should come before five o'clock, I will ask him to wait for you.

Unreal condition (second type):

- If he came before five o'clock, I would be very surprised.
If he should come before five o'clock, I would be very surprised.

“Should” in the main clause:

Constructions like "If you asked me, I would help you" (unreal condition in the present or future)
and "If you had asked us, we would have helped you" (unreal condition in the past) are standard
constructions used in conditional sentences with unreal condition.

Constructions like "If you asked me, I should help you" and "If you had asked us, we should have
helped you" are also used in British English. In such constructions, “Should” after the pronouns I
and WE in the main clause has the same meaning as “Would”.

If you should… / if you happen to…

Note that we use should in the if-clause in the first conditional if we want to suggest that
something is very unlikely. We can use happen to in a similar way or even combine them:
- If you should / (happen to) change your mind about coming to the beach tomorrow, give me
a ring.
- I don't expect him to, but if he should /(happen to) show up, whatever you do, don't let him in!

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 Absence of “if”

The conjunction “if” is sometimes omitted in the conditional sentences in which the if-clause
contains “Should”, “Were” or “Had”. In such cases, “Should”, “Were” or “Had”. is moved to the
beginning of the sentence and stands before the subject of the if-clause. In the negative
sentences without “If”, the negative particle “Not” is not contracted with the auxiliary verb and
stands after the subject of the subordinate clause. Examples of conditional sentences with and
without the conjunction “If”:

Real condition (first type):

- If Mr. Rox should call, ask him to call me again after five.
- Should Mr. Rox call, ask him to call me again after five.

Unreal condition (second type):

- If you should want to go to a restaurant, I would be glad.
- Should you want to go to a restaurant, I would be glad.
- If I were younger, I would go to the mountains with you.
- Were I younger, I would go to the mountains with you.

Unreal condition (second type, negative form):

- If I weren't so tired, I would help you.
- Were I not so tired, I would help you.

Unreal condition (third type):

- If he had known about it, he would have refused to go there.
- Had he known about it, he would have refused to go there.

Unreal condition (third type, negative form):

- If he hadn't known about it, he would have agreed to go there.
- Had he not known about it, he would have agreed to go there.

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 8.2. Mixed forms

Generally, both parts of conditional sentences with unreal condition refer to the same time. But
there may be cases in which one part refers to the present or future, and the other part refers to
the past. Such constructions are called mixed conditionals.

Past to Present

When the condition refers to the past, but the consequence refers to the present. With this
combination we are contrasting an imagined or real event in the past with the present result of
that.
- If I hadn't married Kelly, I wouldn't be living in Scotland now.
- Isn’t it good luck? Had I caught the plane that evening, I wouldn’t be alive now. (Had … ile
başlayan cümlenin sonunda soru işareti olmadığından conditional cümledir.)
- If you had done your job properly, we wouldn't be in this mess now.
- If I had taken French in high school, I would have more job opportunities.
But I didn't take French in high school and I don't have many job opportunities.
- If she had been born in the United States, she wouldn't need a visa to work here. But she
wasn't born in the United States and she does need a visa now to work here.
- If we had built a subway 10 years ago, the traffic wouldn’t be so bad today.
- If had passed my exams last year, I would not have to follow this course now.
- If he'd taken the medication as prescribed, he wouldn't still be lying sick in bed now.
- If she'd taken reasonable precautions, she wouldn't be pregnant now.
- If he hadn't run after the car thief and suffered a heart attack, he'd probably be alive today.

Note that we can also convey the same idea of past event and present result by using type 3
conditional (if + past perfect, would've + past participle) in both clauses
- If he'd taken the medication as the doctor ordered, he would've recovered by now.
- If she'd taken reasonable precautions, she wouldn't have got herself pregnant.
- If he hadn't run after the car thief and suffered a heart attack, he wouldn't have collapsed and
died.
Note that we use this type of conditional when we regret past action or inaction.

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 Present to Past

The other possibility, though I think this is less common, is when we have a type 2 conditional in
the if-clause (if + past simple) followed by a type 3 conditional (would've + past participle) in the
main clause. With this combination, we are describing ongoing circumstances in relation to a
previous past event.
When the condition refers to the present, but the consequence refers to the past.
- If he were your real friend, he would have helped you yesterday.
- If I didn't have to work so much, I would have gone to the party last night.
But I have to work a lot and that is why I didn't go to the party last night.
- If you weren't such a poor dancer, you would've got a job in the chorus line in that musical.
- If you weren't so blind to his faults, you would've realised that he was out to swindle you.
- He's old enough to come home by himself, but can you just see him across the busy road?

Past to Future

When the condition refers to the past, but the consequence refers to the future.
th
- If the old bridge over the river hadn’t collapsed last spring, we would celebrate the 200
anniversary of its construction next week.
- If Mark had gotten the job instead of Joe, he would be moving to Shanghai.
But Mark didn't get the job and Mark is not going to move to Shanghai.
- If she had signed up for the ski trip last week, she would be joining us tomorrow.
But she didn't sign up for the ski trip last week and she isn't going to join us tomorrow.
- If Darren hadn't wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas, he would go to Mexico
with us next month.
But Darren wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas and he won't go to Mexico
with us next month.

Future to Past

When the condition refers to the present, but the consequence refers to the future.
- If my parents weren't coming this weekend, I would have planned a nice trip just for the two of
us to Napa Valley.
But my parents are going to come this weekend, and that is why I didn't plan a trip for the two
of us to Napa Valley.
- If I weren't going on my business trip next week, I would have accepted that new assignment
at work.
But I am going to go on a business trip next week, and that is why I didn't accept that new
assignment at work.
- If Donna weren't making us a big dinner tonight, I would have suggested that we go to that
nice Italian restaurant.
But she is going to make us a big dinner tonight, and that is why I didn't suggest that we go to
that nice Italian restaurant.

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 Present to Future

When the condition refers to the present, but the consequence refers to the future.
- If I didn't have so much vacation time, I wouldn't go with you on the cruise to Alaska next
week.
But I do have a lot of vacation time and I will go on the trip next week.
- If Cindy were more creative, the company would send her to New York to work on the new
advertising campaign.
But Cindy is not creative and the company won't send her to New York to work on the new
campaign.
- If Dan weren't so nice, he wouldn't be tutoring you in math tonight.
But Dan is nice and he is going to tutor you tonight.

Future to Present

When the condition refers to the future, but the consequence refers to the present.
- If she didn't come with us to the desert, everyone would be very disappointed.
But she will come with us to the desert and that is why everyone is so happy.
- If I were going to that concert tonight, I would be very excited.
But I am not going to go to that concert tonight and that is why I am not excited.
- If Sandy were giving a speech tomorrow, she would be very nervous.
But Sandy is not going to give a speech tomorrow and that is why she in not nervous.

But: Fakat

Subject would /could /might V , but Present /Future

Subject would /could /might + have V3 , But Past

- I could help you, but I am busy. Size yardım ederdim fakat meşgulüm.
- I could help you if I weren’t busy.
- I would have helped you, but I was busy.
- I would have helped you if I hadn’t been busy.
- I would have gone, but I had to study.

Otherwise: Aksi takdirde

Present /Future . Otherwise Subject would /could /might + Verb

Past . Otherwise Subject would /could /might + Verb

- I was busy. Otherwise I would have helped you.

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 8.3. Inversion of If Clauses (Omitting If)

Had

We use inverted word order to express unreal or impossible condition in the past. Instead, we are
obliged to use the full form of not:
- Had it not rained last Saturday, we would've celebrated Tom's birthday with a barbecue in
the garden.
- Had you not refused my invitation, you would've had the best holiday ever.

Of course, “had” we used the more normal if-clause to express this conditional idea, the
contracted negative form would have been the norm:
- If only it hadn't rained last Saturday, we would've had a wonderful holiday in the garden.
- If you hadn't been so stupid as to refuse my invitation, you could've travelled to see all the
wonders of the world.

Note that we use these tense forms to talk about something that might have happened, but
didn't:
- If it had stayed fine, they would've celebrated the birthday in the garden.
- If she had accepted the invitation, she would've seen all the wonders of the world.

Type III yapısında devrik cümle yapabilmek için “Had +Özne” kullanılır
- If the teacher had helped me, I wouldn’t have had to go the library.
Had the teacher helped me, I wouldn’t have had to go the library.
- If they had informed me before, they wouldn’t have still been waiting there.
Had they informed me before, they wouldn’t have still been waiting there.

Should

We can also use the inversion structure with “should” when we are talking about present and
future conditions and, again, negative forms are not contracted:
- Should you not wish to sign the contract, you must let them know before the end of June.
- Should you change your mind about selling the car, I'd be happy to buy it from you.
Note that use of should here has nothing to do with obligation, but is simply an alternative to the
present

simple in the more normal if-clause:

- If you don't want to go ahead and sign the contract, please try to let them know before the
end of this month.
- If you (do) change your mind about selling the car, I'd be happy to buy it from you.

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Type I yapısında devrik cümle yapabilmek için “Should +Özne” kullanılır. Anlamda bir değişiklik
olmaz.
- If we go by train, it will be cheaper. Should we go by train, it will be cheaper.
- If he doesn’t hurry, he will be late. Should he not hurry, he will be late.
- If the weather is rainy, we will stay at home. Should the weather be rainy, we will stay at
home.

Were

Finally, inversion is possible, though I think less common, with this form of the conditional when
we are talking about the improbable future. Again negative forms are not contracted:
- Were we to have children, we'd need to move to a bigger house.
- Were she not my daughter, I'd have no hesitation in phoning the police.

The more normal if-clause is here quite straightforward:

- If we were to have children, we'd certainly need to move to a larger house.
- If she weren't my daughter, I'd have no hesitation in phoning the police and telling them
about the crime that has been committed.

Type II yapısında devrik cümle yapabilmek için “be” fiili için “were +Özne” ya da diğer fiiller için
“were +Özne + to do” kullanılır.
- If I were a carpenter, I would build my own house. Were I a carpenter, I would build my own
house.
- If I had a map I would lend it to you. Were I to have a map I would lend it to you.

But for

But for..., meaning Except for?, as an alternative to Had it not been for? or Were it not for?:
- Had it not been for his foresight in ensuring everybody had lifejackets, everyone on board
would have drowned.
- But for his foresight, everyone on board the yacht would have drowned.
- Were it not for your kindness, I'd still be living in that tiny bed-sit in the town centre.
- But for your kindness, I'd still be stuck in that tiny flat in the town centre.

Summary

Should he do it, ___. = If he does it, ___.

Were he to do it, ___. = If he were to do it, ___.
Were he to have done it, ___. = If he were to have done it, ___.
Had he done it, ___. = If he had one it, ___. If you did it, ___. pasif yapısı If it were done, ___
Have he been doing it, ___.= If he have been doing it, ___.
Should he have done it, ___. = If he should have done it, ___

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 8.4. Case conditions

If, as long as so long as : olursa, olduğu sürece

Only if, Provided (that), Providing (that) : Olduğu takdirde, ancak … olursa (tek şart)
Unless, If not : Olmadıkca
As if, As though : Sanki, olmuş gibi
Suppose that, Supposing that : Varsayalım ki oldu, farzedesek oldu ( if )
Just as : tam olurken
Just as : Tıpkı … gibi, tam … gibi, tam … yaparken
What if : Farz edelim oldu, olmaz ise, ne olur (Soru cümlesi)
On condition that : Olması şartıyla
If only : keşke, eğer sadece
Once : olur olmaz, hemen (as soon as),
While : olurken,
After : olduktan sonra,
When : olduğunda
…, so that … : olsun diye

But for + noun /pronoun, If not for + noun /pronoun: Olmasaydı, olmaz ise
In condition of + noun: koşuluyla

We can use the alternatives to “if” to emphasize the conditions surrounding the action, i.e. one
thing will happen only if another thing happens.

If: Olursa
As long as: Olduğu sürece, şartıyla, yeter ki
So long as: Oldukça, olduğu sürece
Note: “as long as: medikce” anlamı da mevcuttur. Olumlu anlam ifade eder. “So long as” ise
olumsuz anlam belirtir.
- I’ll never forget today as long as I live. Yaşadığım sürece bugünü hiç unutmayacağım.
- I am happy as long as you are with me.
- You shall never enter this house as long as I live in it. Yaşadığım sürece bu eve asla
girmeyeceksin.
- You can pass the exam so long as you study hard. Sıkı çalıştığın sürece sınavı geçebilirsin.
- Ford famously said of his cars: “You could have any colour you wanted so long as it was
black.
- Export cannot gain momentum so long as the dollar cannot be held in control. Dolar control
altında tutulmadıkca ihracat hız kazanamaz.

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Only if,
Provided (that),
Providing (that): Olduğu takdirde, ancak … olursa (tek şart)
“Only if” cümle başına geldiğinde basit cümlede kendi bulunduğu Claues’u; kompleks cümlede
diğer Clause’u devirir.
By + Ving ___: tek yollu olarak “only if” dir.
- You can pass the exam provided that you study hard. Sıkı çalıştığın takdirde sınavı
geçebilirsin.
- I will accept this job offer provided the salary meets my expectation. Bu işi ancak maaş
beklentilerimi karşılarsa kabul ederim.
- You can borrow the car provided that you promise to drive carefully.
- Providing (that) the weather is fine, we'll have a picnic on Saturday.
- We will lend you the money provided (that) you can repay it within 12 months.
- I don’t mind talking to the press, but only if my identity is protected.

Unless,
If not : Olmadıkca
Unless is used to say that something will happen or be true if something else does not happen or
is not true.
“Unless” olumlu cümleyi olumsuz yapar. Sınavda cümle tamamlama kısmında ya da grammar
sorusunda olumsuz bir “clause” ile aşağıdaki bağlaçların önceliği vardır;
- They can’t pass the exam unless they study. They can’t pass the exam if they don’t study.
- Unless you leave home at once, you will be late for work. Derhal evden çıkmazsan, işe geç
kalacaksın.
- Germany led the way, along with other richer eurozone members, and refused to give Athens
more financial aid unless it agrees to more reforms.

- Unless international cooperation is ensured to ban the non-essential uses of some chemicals,
the depletion of the ozone layer will continue to pose a serious threat to human health.
Bazı kimyasalların gereksiz kullanımlarını yasaklamak için uluslararası iş birliği sağlanmazsa
ozon tabakasının incelmesi, insan sağlığı için ciddi bir tehdit oluşturmaya devam edecektir.

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As if,
As though: Sanki, olmuş gibi
“As if” veya “as though” kullanarak birinin ya da birşeyin nasıl göründüğü (look), nasıl hissedildiği
(feel), nasıl ses verdiği (sound) anlatılabilir. Birlikte kullanılan diğer fiiller ise appear, act, behave,
and pretend, look, seen. “as if” ve “as though” kendinden önce bir takım davranış ve benzetme
fiilleri ister. “As if” den sonra geçmiş zaman kullanabilir, fakat anlam geçmiş zaman olmaz.
Düşüncenin gerçek olmadığı bu şekilde ifade edilmiş olur.
- The woman walks as though she were the queen. (Kadın kraliçeymiş gibi yürüyor.)
- It’s dark as though it were night. (Hava geceymiş gibi karanlık.)
- They stared at me as if I was crazy. Sanki çıldırmışım gibi bana hayretle baktılar.
- They looked at me as if I was mad. Deliymişim gibi bana baktılar.
- He behaved as if nothing had happened. Sanki hiç birşey olmamış gibi davrandı.
- The house looked as if nobody was living in it. Ev sanki hiç kimse yaşamıyormuş gibi
görünüyor.
- I have just come from holiday and I am very exhausted. I feel as if I haven't had a holiday.
Tatilden şimdi döndüm ve çok bitkinim. Sanki tatil yapmamışım gibi hissediyorum.
- I'm hungry as if I haven't eaten anything for days. Günlerdir hiçbir şey yememiş gibi açım.
- They behave well towards me as though they love me very much. Bana beni çok
seviyorlarmış gibi iyi davrandılar.
- The baby looks as though it is going to cry. (Bebek sanki ağlayacak gibi görünüyor.)
- The music is too loud. It sounds (as though) they are having a party. Müziğin sesi çok
yüksek. Onun sesi sanki parti yapıyorlarmış gibi geliyor. Bu yapıda cümle “it” öznesiyle başlar
ve it looks, it sounds, it smells “as if/though” gibi kullanabilir.
- It smells as though you have smoked here. Sanki burada sigara içmişsin kokuyor.
- John is 20 years old. Why do you talk to him as if he were (was) a child. John 20 yaşında.
Neden onunla çocukmuş gibi konuşuyorsun.
Bu tür cümlelerde çoğunlukla “was” yerine “were” kullanılmaktadır. “Was” daha çok konuşma
dilinde kullanılır.

Note: “As if” yerine “like” kullanılabilir. Example: it looks like, it smells like, it sounds like gibi.

Suppose that,
Supposing that: Varsayalım ki oldu, farzedesek oldu ( if )
- Suppose (that) you won the big prize, what would you do? Farzedelim ki büyük ödülü
kazandın, ne yapardın?
- Supposing (that) we miss the train, what shall we do? Varsayaılım ki treni kaçırdık, ne
yapacağız.
- Supposing you had a flat tyre, could you repair it?

Just as: tam olurken

Just as: Tıpkı … gibi, tam … gibi, tam … yaparken
While anlamına gelen “as” bağlacının önüne başına sadece just ekleyerek vurgulu bir anlatım
elde edilir.
- Just as I was leaving, the phone rang. Tam çıkarken telefon çaldı.
- We got to the bank just as they were about to close. Bankaya, tam kapatmak üzerelerken
yetiştik.

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(Just) in case: Olur diye, olursa, olması halinde
- I always keep an extra battery in my pocket just in case my mobile phone has no charge. Cep
telefonumun şarjının bitmesi olasılığına karşı fazladan bir bataryayı daima cebimde taşırım.
- Just in case students don’t understand some topics, the teacher summarizes the lecture.
Öğrencilerin bazı konuları anlamama olasılığına karşı, öğretmen dersi özetliyor.
- I had better buy some bottle of drinks just in case my friends visit me tonight.
- Just in case anyone was following me, I made an extra tour on purpose. Birisi beni izliyordur
diye bilerek bir turd aha attım.
- I can work late (just) in case it is necessary. Gerekli olması halinde geç vakte kadar
çalışabilirim.
- Just in case a fire breaks out, we should have several fire distinguishers. Yangın olur diye
birkaç yangın söndürücümüz olmalıdır.

What if: Farz edelim oldu, olmaz ise, ne olur (Soru cümlesi)
After "What if; Suppose that; Let's suppose that; Supposing that", either real condition (indicative
mood) or unreal condition (subjunctive mood) can be used, depending on the meaning and
context. (The conjunction "that" is often omitted after Suppose / Supposing.)
- What if he decides to go there? What will you do?
- What if she lost your diamond ring? Would you forgive her?
- Suppose he refuses to help us? – In that case, we will ask someone else.
- Supposing it rained tomorrow. What would you do? – In that case, we would stay home.
- Suppose that he had told her about his past before their wedding five years ago. Do you think
she would have married him?

“What if…?” yapısı “what will happen if…?”, “what would happen if…”, “what would have
happened if…?” yapılarının kısaltılmış halidir.
- What if your pay check doesn't arrive in time? Ya çek ödemen zamanında gelmezse?
- What if she learns the truth? (What will happen if…?)
- What if you were the President of this country? (What would happen if…?)
- What if the reserves had not been there?

On condition that: Olması şartıyla

- You can take my dictionary on condition that you bring it back by Friday. Sözlüğümü, cuma
günü geri getirmek şartıyla alabilirsin.
- I will go with you on condition that I pay the bill. Hesabı benim ödemem şartıyla sizinle
gelirim.

In condition of + noun:
- There were wide variations in the conditions of observation. Gözlem koşullarında geniş
farklılıklar vardı.

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If only: keşke, eğer sadece
Constructions with "If only" express wishes in the form of regret more emotionally than
constructions with the verb “wish”. Constructions with "If only" are used in the same way as
constructions with the verb “wish”.
- If only he were here with me now!
- If only she could visit us more often!
- If only I had known the truth at that time!
- If only he had listened to me then!

“If only” bağlacı basit cümlede “I wish”; kompleks cümlede ise “If Clause” olarak işlev görür.
- She is not coming. If only she were coming.
- If only man had been a bit less greedy, more bird and animal species might have avoided
extinction.

“Wish” with Past Tense and Past Perfect is used in a similar way to conditional sentences and
that “if only” can sometimes be used as an alternative to wish:
- If only I had worked harder at university, I would've got a better job.
- I wish I had done more travelling in my youth. If I had travelled more widely, I am sure I would
be more open-minded now.
- I wish you could come with me to Cancun this summer.If you could only come with me to
Cancun, that would make it a perfect summer.

But for + noun /pronoun,

If not for + noun /pronoun: Olmasaydı, olmaz ise
Sometimes, “if-clause” of unreal condition is replaced by the construction “But for /(if not for)+
noun /pronoun”. Such structures can be used in situations referring to the past or present.

Açıklama: type-2: would + V1 ya da type-3: would have + V3 yapısı olmak durumundadır.

Compare these pairs of conditional sentences:

- But for the children, they would have divorced years ago. – If it hadn't been for the children,
they would have divorced years ago.
- But for the traffic jams, I'd like it here very much. – If it weren't for the traffic jams, I'd like it
here very much.
- If not for her, he would never have become such a good doctor. – If it hadn't been for her, he
would never have become such a good doctor.

We can use "but for + noun" with a similar meaning to "if it weren't for + noun" or "if it hadn't
been for + noun". Not sure if it can be used in the second conditional though...
- But for you, I wouldn’t go on. Sen olmasaydın yaşayamazdım.
- The country would now be self-sufficient in food but for the drought last year. (= if there hadn't
been the drought...)
- But for the leg injury he suffered last year, he would probably have been picked for the
national team by now. (= if he hadn't injured his leg...)
- But for his meticulous appear, we would never successful.

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Once: olur olmaz, hemen (as soon as),
While: olurken,
After: olduktan sonra,
When: olduğunda
Both "if" and "when" are used in the Present Real Conditional. Using "if" suggests that something
happens less frequently. Using "when" suggests that something happens regularly.
- When I have a day off from work, I often go to the beach.
- What do you do when it rains?
- When I die, I’ll leave all my money to charity.

…, so that …: olsun diye

- He studied very hard so that he could pass the exam

Even, Even if, Even though, and Even as

Herhangi bir bağlacın önünde kullanılan “even” vurgu yapar, bağlacın kullanımı değişmez (even
after, even when).

Even:
“Even” is used to emphasize something surprising or extreme. “Even” can be used as an
adjective or an adverb. “Even” can emphasize a word, a phrase or a clause beginning with a word
like “if, as or though”.
Even (adj): flat and smoth; düz, sakin, çift.
Even up (v): eşitlemek, denklemek

Even (adv): bile, hatta, üstelik.

- Almost all the students have passed the exam. Even Jack was successful.

Position of even:
If there is no auxiliary verb, “even” goes before the main verb.
- She even called me with my name. (It is not used in the form of, “She called even me with my
name.”)

If there is an auxiliary verb, even goes after it.

- I don’t even know his name. (It is not used in the form of, “I even don’t know his name.”)

If the main verb is a form of be (is, am, are, was, were), even goes after it.
- China is even larger than India. (It is not used in the form of, “China even is larger than
India.”)
- She is even taller than her husband.

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Even now: şimdi bile
Even now is used for saying that it is surprising that something still continues.
- Even now the practice of dowry exists in many parts of Asia.
Şimdi bile çeyiz uygulaması Asya'nın birçok yerinde var.

Even then: hatta daha sonra

This phrase is used for saying that something is surprising because it was supposed to be
different.

Even as: yaparken, olurken; bile (just as)

This phrase is used to talk about two actions or events that are happening at the same time.
- Even as they discussed the merits and demerits of the project, people were protesting in the
streets.
Onlar projenin temel ve dezavantajlarını tartışırken insanlar sokaklarda protesto yapıyorlardı.
- During the Cold War, even as they prepared to destroy one another, the West and the Soviet
Union struck deals and traded in energy.
Soğuk Savaş sırasında, birbirlerini yok etmeye hazırlandıklarında bile, Batı ve Sovyetler
Birliği fırsatlar buldu ve enerji ticareti yaptı.

Even if: Olsa bile, olmasına rağmen (zıtlık)

Even if is used in a supposition or hypothesis. This phrase is used for emphasizing that a
particular situation will remain the same no matter what happens.

Even if + S + V+ O
- Even if we had been invited, we couldn’t have gone.
- Even if Caroline earned a big salary, she would not buy a fast car. (Caroline doesn't like fast
cars.)
- Even if I had time and money, I wouldn't go on a cruise. (It's not because I have no time or no
money that I won't go on a cruise. I have other reasons for not going.)
- We have decided to go on a picnic even if it rains. (Yağmur yağsa bile, biz pikniğe gitmeye
karar verdik.)
- I’m determined to prove my innocence even if that means going to the highest court in the
land.
- I’ll go even if you forbid me to.
- I will not go to her wedding even if she invites me.
- Even if the unemployment rate drops sharply, the drop may still be temporary.

Even though: …e rağmen, …sa bile (zıtlık)

- I’ll go even though you forbid me to.
- Even though he studied hard, he couldn’t pass the exam.

Even so: fakat, yine de, buna ragmen, böyle olsa bile (zıtlık)
Even so means in spite of that. This expression is used for introducing a statement that might
seem surprising after what you have said before.
- The tickets were expensive, but, even so, the match was worth watching.

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 Examples

If space weather forecasters ---- timely warnings of storms, telecommunications companies ---- to
take steps to protect their satellites.

A) could have provided / had been able

B) could have provided / should be able
C) can be provided / should be able
D) can provide / will have been able
E) could provide / would be able

A ve B şartlı cümle koşullarını sağlamadığından olamaz. C şıkkı ilk cümlenin pasif olacağını
belirtmektedir. İlk cümle pasif olamaz. D şıkkındaki “will have been able” süreç içermesi gerekir.
Bu nedenle doğru yanıt: E

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 9. Noun Clauses
İp uçları

The following conjunctions are used to form Noun Clauses in English:

• That / the fact that
• whether / if
• Question Words: why, where, when, how, how long, how much, how often, what, whose,
which

 İsim cümlecikleri cümlenin öznesi veya nesnesi olur.

 Cümle tamamlama sorularında fiil’den sonra boşluktan sonra cümle geliyorsa “that” veya
fiiline göre “QW”’li bir bağlaç aranmalıdır. (I know that he didn't come. I wondered why he
didn't come) Diğer bir deyişle, noun clause’larda bağlaçlardan önce fiil gelir.

 İsim cümlecikkleri ile ana cümlede zaman uyumu olması şart değildir. Zaman uyumu sadece
“reported speech” yapısında kullanılır.
- It is seen that he have gone.

 Preposition + noun cümleciği: Preposition yapısından sonra bir isim gelir. İsim cümlecikleri
ismin yerine kullanıldıkları için “preposition” dan sonra noun clause gelebilir.
- My boss is interested in what I can do for the company.

 Fiil grubu + İsim cümleciği: Fiilden sonra zarf, yer tamlaması, ek açıklamalar veya bir
zaman gibi ek ifadeler kullanıldığı fiil grubundan sonra Noun clause gelebilir.
- It has been claimed, but never confirmed by the US Federal Reserve, that the reasons for
introducing the new-design dollar bills were the persistent reports of high quality
counterfeits circulating in the Middle East.

 Eğer “that” ile verilen cümlecik fiilin önünde veya sonunda ise bu bir isim cümleciğidir. Eğer
“that” ile verilen cümlecik içerisinde özne ve nesne var ise nesne var ise bu bir isim
cümleciğidir.

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 9.1. Noun clause as subject of a sentence

“The fact that” clauses are similar in meaning to “that” clauses; however, they are generally
considered less formal. ''The fact that'' cümledeki eylemin kesin, doğru ve ispatlanabilir olduğunu
vurgular.

- That he studies lesson is important. It is important that he studies lesson.

- Why / where / when / how he studies lesson is important.
- What he studies is important.
- Which book he studies is important.
- Whether he studies lesson or not is important.

The belief + that + Clause + is not true.

The idea + that + Clause is a fallory.
The opinion + that + Clause is not a fallory.
The assumption + that + Clause is a misconception.
The theory + that + Clause is not a misconception.
The hypothesis + that + Clause is without foundation.
The thesis + that + Clause is not without foundation.
The wide spread opinion + that + Clause
- Kara kedinin uğursuzluk getirdiği inanışı asılsızdır.
The belief that a black cat brings misfortune is without foundation.

That / The fact that + Noun Clause + is/was + adjectives / Ving:

- It is very important that she should see a doctor.
The fact that she should see a doctor is very important.
That she should see a doctor is very important.
Her be seeing a doctor is very important.
- It is clear that he will confess to his guilt. Suçunu itiraf edeceği açıktır.
That he will confess to his guilt is clear.
- It was not known how he had committed the crime. Onun suçu nasıl işlediği bilinmiyor.
- It was very hard that we overcame this issue. Bu meselenin üstesinden gelmemiz çok zordu.
That we overcame this issue was very hard.
- It is expected that they will resume peace talks. That they will resume peace talks is
expected. Onların barış görüşmelerine devam edecekleri beklenilmektedir.
- It is a fact that earth goes around the sun.
That earth goes around the sun is a fact.
- It is known that our world is round.
That our world is round is known. Dünyamızın yuvarlak olduğu biliniyor.
- The fact that she couldn’t pass the exam dissappointed us. Onun sınavı geçememesi bizi
hayal kırıklığına ugrattı.
- Yesterday in class we discussed the fact that the war of independence was won with great
difficulty. Dün sınıfta bağımsızlık savaşının büyük zorluklarla kazanılması(olayını)nı tartıştık.
- It has long been known that bats use ultrasonic beams to follow insects through the dark.

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 9.2. Noun clause as object of a sentence

I know that he studies English.

I know why he studies lesson.
I know where he studies lesson.
I know how he studies lesson.
I know what he studies.
I don’t know whether/if he studies lesson (or not).

“Neyi/ Neye”, “Kim/ Kimi/ Kime” gibi sorular yanıtlanır.

Verbs that permit or require tensed “that” complements as objects: believe, claim, expect,
know, assume, discover, explain, find, find_out, imagine, learn, perceive, prove, see, point out,
promise, show, think, and understand.
- No one knows how speech began.
- I know that he is a capable teacher.
- I am sure that you will succeed.
- The judge decided that the suspect was innocent. (Hakim zanlının masum olduğuna karar
verdi.)
- In 1978, scientists discovered that the planet Pluto has a satellite.
- The dealer promised that I would receive a $500 rebate.
- We learnt that they had agreed on the matter. (Onların mevzuda hemfikir olduklarını
öğrendik.)
- I don’t believe that he helps anybody.
- Did you say that London is a noisy city?
- I think that he is he is a good dentist.
- It seems obvious that the weather will be rainy.
- The scientists believe that the auroras are caused by the action of the earth’s magnetic fields
on electrons from the sun.
- Many scientists believe that our sanitized surroundings are fostering allergic disorders in
children, which have doubled in the last decade.
- They told me that they had no problem with me as personally, they had a problem with my
country.
- The two sides announced that they had signed an aggrement. (Her iki taraf bir anlaşma
imzalamış olduklarını bildirdiler.)
- We feared that the results could be negative. (Sonuçların negatif olabileceğinden korktuk.)
- No one knows how this problem can be resolved. (Kimse bu problemin nasıl çözülebileceğini
bilmiyor.)
- The rescue team suggested that the disaster area (should) be evacuated immediately.
(Kurtarma ekibi felaket bölgesinin derhal boşaltılmasını önerdi.)
- For decades, scientists have worked to understand how and why the first oxygen was
pumped into the air. They have long suspected that life itself was responsible for creating the
air that we breathe.
- The industrialists entering this market claim that a fierce competition will occur in the month
ahead.
(Bu piyasaya giren sanayiciler, önümüzdeki aylarda acımasız bir rekabetin meydana
geleceğini iddia etmektedirler.)
- The scientists aren’t sure certain whether this treatment can achieve the result desired.

477
 Bilimadamları, bu tedavinin arzulanan sonuçları gerçekleştirip gerçekleştiremeyeceğinden
emin değiller.
Note: Aktif cümleler için “gerund”, pasif cümleler için “V3” kullanılır ve bunlar bir sıfat sözcüğü
gibi niteledikleri ismin önüne yazılabilir.
- We aware that it is rather dificult to draw some conclusion from the data. Verilerden bazı
sonuçlar çıkarmanın oldukça zor olduğunun farkındayız.
Note: Noun Clause’larda “to be aware of”un “of” edatı yazılmaz. Çünkü, Noun Clause’larda
sadece “that”in önüne edat gelmez, diğer tüm “Noun Clause” lar başlarına edat alırlar.
- He was rather reluctant to tell us how long the experiment he was conducting would last.
O yapmakta olduğu deneyin ne kadar süreceğini bize söylemeye oldukça isteksizdi.
Note: Bu cümlenin, “us” ve “how long the experiment he was conducting would last” olmak
üzere iki nesnesi vardır. Dikkat edilirse ikinci nesne bir Noun Clause cümleciğidir. Böyle iki
nesneli cümlelerde karışıklığı önlemek için “Noun Clause” nesnesi sonra söylenir.
- They said that there were other methots which we could resort to. Onlar, bizim
başvurabileceğimiz başka metotların olduğunu söylediler.

Hint: Böyle cümleler de zaman uyumuna da özellikle dikkat etmek gerekir.

- We are unable to convince the patient that he could recover soon. Biz hastayı kısa sürede
iyileşebileceğine inandıramadık.

Test results suggest / imply / indicate that + Clause:

Test results suggest that + Clause: Test sonuçları …olduğunu öne sürmektedir.
- The test results suggest that Asian students are dominating the world academically.
Test results imply that + Clause: Test sonuçları …olduğunu ima etmektedir.
- The Goodyear test results imply that tire inflation can have a significant impact on stopping
distance.
Test results indicate that + Clause: Test sonuçları …olduğunu belirtmektedir / göstermektedir.
- Test results indicate that the proposed reflector structure can effectively improve the
directivity pattern of stacked antenna and aperture coupled antenna, promote the front-to-
back ratio, and reduce the thickness of the antenna.

Test results implicate that + Clause: Test sonuçları …olduğunu kapsamaktadır / içermektedir.

Require/ suggest/recommend ...+ that + S + Infinitive (without to) + O

- Some executives require that the secretary be responsible for writing all reports as well as for
balancing the books.

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 9.3. Noun clause as complement

Tümleçler; özne, yüklem ve nesne dışında cümleyi tamamlayan yapılardır.

Note: İngilizce’de “be” ve “become” (olmak) fiillerinden sonra gelen kelimeler de tümleçtirler.
- The most fundamental reason was that Italy in the later Middle Ages was the most advanced
urban society in all of Europe.
- My belief is that you will get over this problem. Inancım sizin bu sorunu aşacağınızdır.
- John’s mistake was that he refused to take his friend’s advice.
- Our doubt is who killed the man. (Şüphemiz adamı kimin öldürdüğüdür.)
- The question is why / where / when / how long / how / whether he studies lesson.

- What amazes me is that he studies lesson.

- The reason for his interest is that he studies lesson.
- What is suprising is that he studies lesson.

That is why + clause: “because of this” or “therefore.”

- That's why people admire you.
- That's why she appears so happy.
- That is why you lock your doors when you leave home.
- That is why big companies spend millions of dollars choosing the right name.

Noun clauses can be used in subject complement position in response to some statements as the
following:
- Whenever I go to Malatya, I stay at hotel. That is where I stay, too.
- I was late because I missed the bus. That is why I was late, too.
- I learned typing by practicing a lot on my own. That is how I learned typing, too.
- I like fish best of all. That is what I like, too.

The fact is that …: Gerçek şu ki …

Note: … is a fact: … bir gerçektir.
The truth is that + Cause: Gerçek şu ki …
The problem is that + Clause: Problem şu ki …
The trouble is that + Clause
- The trouble is that we are short money.

Not: Bu yapıda “that” yerine “the fact that” gelmez.

Most + journalists are of the opinion + that + Clause

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 9.4. Whether /if

Gramatik olarak isim cümleciklerinde bağlaçlardan sonra daima bir özne vardır. Cümlede özne
konumunda olan isim cümleciği başa alınırsa bu kullanımda bağlaç olarak “If” kullanılamaz.

Cümle başında “whether” kullanılır, if kullanılmaz. [subject compliment]

Whether /or …: ister o ister öbürü / ya o ya da öbürü

Whether or not: olsada, olmasada
Whether /or not: olsada, olmasada

Whether /if: olup olmadığı, ister … olun, ister … olun

“Whether”....yapıp ....yapmadığı anlamında olup, olaya iki yönlü bakan bir bağlaçtır.
Yardımcı fiille başlayan bir soruyu noun clause'a dönüştürürken, noun clause'un başına "whether"
ya da "If” getirilir ve soru cümlesi, düz cümle biçimine çevrilir. Whether bağlacı bazen “or not” ile
de kullanılabilir. Genellikle “or not” ifadesi parantez içinde verilir. “That clause” olgu, yargı;
“Whether Clause” ise şüphe, kuşku belirten isimlerden sonra sıklıkla kullanılır. Whether clause’da
hep belirsizlik vardır.
- Whether you are a confident first-born or a resourceful middle child, your position in the
family can affect everything from your choice of career to how successful your marriage is.
İster kendinden emin büyük çocuk, ister çok yönlü ortanca çocuk olun, aile içindeki
konumunuz iş seçiminizden evliliğinizin ne kadar başarılı olduğuna kadar her şeyi
etkileyebilir.
- Whether you are interested in the ancient, medieval, or modern world, you can find art and
architecture from each time period anywhere people resided in the Middle East.
- I wonder whether he’s passed the exam. (Sınavı geçip geçmediğini merak ediyorum.)
- Whether he’s passed exam is still unknown. (Sınavı geçip geçmediğini hala bilinmiyor.)
- I don’t know whether Terry met Jane at the air port on Monday.
- I don’t know if he speaks English. I don’t know whether he speaks English.
- I wonder whether she is studying at the moment. I wonder if she is studying at the moment.
- It is not known whether he has ratified the bill. Onun yasa tasarısını onaylayıp onaylamadığı
bilinmiyor. Whether he has ratified the bill is not known.
- I am not sure whether he has accepted the offer. Onun öneriyi kabul edip etmediğinden emin
değilim.
- In the early years of the global warming debate, there was great controversy over whether
the planet was indeed warming.
- In the last century, much attention was given to the language of literature and the question of
whether there was in fact a separate literary language.
Geçen yüzyılda, edebiyat diline ve gerçekte ayrı bir edebî dil olup olmadığı sorusuna çok ilgi
gös-terilmiştir.

Whether or:
- it is still not clear whether or not he realizes

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Whether … or … : ister o ister öbürü / ya o ya da öbürü
- He doesn't know whether to apologize or walk away.
- Someone's got to tell her, whether it's you or me.
- Let's face it - you're going to be late whether you go by bus or train.
- He seemed undecided whether to go or stay
- Whether it is a stone or rock …
- He doesn't know whether to apologize or walk away.

Whether or not : olsada, olmasada

'Whether or not' alternatif koşulları sunmak için kullanılmaktadır. Her iki durumda da sonucun
değişmeyeceğini göstermektedir.
- It is still not clear whether or not he realizes.
- The meeting will hold whether or not she comes.

Whether … or not… : olsada, olmasada

- I will go to the party whether they invite me or not. Onlar beni davet etse de etmese de,
partiye gideceğim.
- No one knows whether they live in the country or not. Onların ülkede yaşayıp yaşamadıklarını
kimse 2bilmiyor.
- My doubt is whether they will stay or not. Benim kuşkum onların kalıp kalmayacağıdır.
- Is she coming to the party? I wonder whether she is coming to the party or not.
- I will go to the theatre whether he comes with me or not. (Conditional) O gelse de gelmese
de, tiyatroya gideceğim.
- I'm going, whether she likes it or not.
- No one knows whether they live in the country or not. Onların ülkede yaşayıp yaşamadıklarını
kimse bilmiyor.
- My doubt is whether they will stay or not. Benim kuşkum onların kalıp kalmayacağıdır.
- Is she coming to the party? I wonder whether she is coming to the party or not.
- I will go to the theatre whether he comes with me or not. (Conditional) O gelse de gelmese
de, tiyatroya gideceğim.
- I'm going, whether she likes it or not.

'Whether' and 'if' are used as follows:

To express alternatives:
- I don't know whether/if I'll go to the party on Saturday (or not).

To report a question:
- Are you going to the party?
- She asked me whether/if I was going to the party (or not).

Yüklemden sonra ‘whether’ veya ‘if’ kullanabilir. [object of a verb]

- I don’t know whether/if she’ll be admitted to the university.

Sıfattan sonra ‘whether’ veya ‘if’ kullanabilir. [adjective compliment]

- It is doubtful whether/if she’ll be admitted to the university.

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Only “whether” can be used in the following cases:
When followed by an infinitive: I don't know whether to go to the party or not.
After prepositions: It depends on whether I get home early or not.
When whether begins a clause which is the subject of a sentence:
- Whether I go to the party or to the cinema makes no difference to me.

When followed directly by 'or not':

- I'll be happy whether or not I go to the party.

Whether is used when talking about a choice you have to make or about something that is not
certain.
- Whether she’ll be admitted to the university is not known yet.
- Whether we will go mountain climbing tomorrow depends on the weather.

to be fiilinden sonra whether kullanılır [if kullanılmaz] [subject]

- What she wants to find out is whether she’ll be admitted to the university.

İsimden sonra sadece whether kullanılır. [if kullanılmaz] [appositive]

- The question whether she’ll be admitted to the university is not answered yet.

Preposition’dan sonra ‘whether’ kullanılır, if kullanılmaz. [object of a preposition]

- Everything depends on whether she’ll be admitted to the university.
“If” kullanılmadığı durumlar:
- I wonder whether she will come or not.
- I wonder whether or not she will come. (if or not diye bir kullanım şekli yok)
- I am wondering whether to have the fish or the beef. (if to have olmaz, if+to infinitive yanlış)

“If” cümlecikleri bir adverbial clause olan if clause ile karıştırmamalıdır:

- I don’t know if she is old enough. [NC]
- You can marry if she is old enough. (=If she is old enough you can marry.)

Whether / if: olup olmadığı

If
Whether
He asked me Whether or not I was hungry
Whether ___ or not

- I want to know whether the boss called me. I want to know if the boss called me.
Incorrect: I must know if or not she likes fish. Not: or not kullanımına dikkat ediniz.
- He asked me whether I was hungry. Aç olup olmadığımı sordu. Cümlede özne konumunda
olan isim cümleciği başa alınırsa bu kullanımda bağlaç olarak “If” kullanılamaz.

Example: ___ we come on time is important to our boss.

a) What b) When c) The fact d) If e) Whether or not
“What” ve “when” sorusunun cevabı cümlede bulunmaktadır. Olup olmadığı sorgusunda
“If” cümlenin başına gelemez. Doğru cevap: E

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 9.5. Questions in noun clauses

Soru sözcükleri ile:

The policeman asked me ‘Where are you going?’ Polis bana ‘nereye gidiyorsun?’ diye sordu.
The policeman asked me where I was going. Polis bana nereye gittiğimi sordu.

Soru kelimeleri (Question Words) isim cümleciklerinde bağlaç olarak kullanılır. İsim
cümleciklerinde soru kelimlerinin kullanımını, normal soru cümleleri ve “ Interrogative Pronouns”
ile karıştırılmamaldır.

Normal soru cümleleri

- What can I do for you? (Sizin için ne yapabilirim?)
- Where are you going? (Nereye gidiyorsun?)
- When will you come back? (Ne zaman döneceksiniz?)
- How long will you be staying here? (Burada ne kadar süre kalacaksınız?)

Interrogative Pronouns: Which, Who, Whose, Whom, What, What if

- Which pencil is yours? Whose is this book?
- What do you want to buy? Whom have you seen today?
- Who broke my pen? Whom did you give the Money?
- What if the reserves had not been there?

QW + Tümcecik + Fiil + Tümleç:

- Where he went is still unknown.
- What you ought to say is important.
- What is she doing? [question]
I don’t know what she is doing. [Noun Clause]
- Where does she come from? [Question]
I know where she comes from. [Noun Clause]

Özne sorulduğunda; özne atılır yerine insan için “who”, cansız için “what” getirilir. Cümle “he,
she, it” gibi işlem görür.
- David likes John.
Who likes John?
Whome David likes.

Özne soruları hem soru hemde noun caluse olarak kullanılmaktadır.

- What happened? I don’t know what happened.
- Who is coming? Who is coming is important.
- An accident happened last night.
What happened last night?
When it happened?
- He told me that he was going to resign. Bana istifa edeceğini söyledi.
- Are you sure that they want to buy my car? Onların benim arabamı satın almak
istediklerinden emin misiniz?
- We're pleased to inform you that your account has been approved.
I don’t know who Tom was going to phone.

483
 - No one seemed to know when the festival was due to start.
- Who first reported the fire is still uncertain.
- Where the pilot finally managed to land is not known.

Question Words and Noun Clauses:

QW: Which, Whose, Who, Whom, Where, When, Why, How, What, Whether
- I have forgotten whose house that is.
- She forgets who had broken that window.
- I don’t remember to whom I have given it.
- He reminded me whom I had seen on the way to school.
- He asked me when I was born.
- She didn’t tell me when she had come back.
- I don’t know why they haven’t come.
- No one knows why he doesn’t work at all
- She won’t tell anybody why she is angry.
- That boy has forgotten why his father has sent him here.
- He didn't know how he should answer.
- We couldn’t learn how this event happened. Bu olayın nasıl oluştuğunu öğrenemedik.
- I don’t know how he makes his living.
- She forgot how many eggs she had bought.
- He asked me how far Chicago was to New York.
- She told me what happened at the cinema last night.
- I want you to tell me what time you will return.
- What did he say? I couldn’t hear what he said.
- I don’t remember where I have put my bag.
- They couldn’t tell me where they had spent last night.
- She asked me where I was last night.
- We told them where we had a picnic.
- I don’t know where he is working. Onun nerede çalıştığını bilmiyorum.
- She didn’t decide where we had to meet. O nerede buluşmamız gerektiğine karar veremedi.
- He asked her about whether he should go.
- It’s hard to explain what makes Hong Kong so exhilarating.
- How mountains obscured by Venus’s clouds reveal themselves

Question in Noun Clauses

Note: “Does, did,” and “do” are used in questions but not in noun clauses.
- Do you show me which window you have broken?
- Do you know which house they live in?
- Do you remember whose book it is?
- Tell me who that girl is?
- Do you know who has brought my pencil?
- Did you forget whom you met in the street?
- When do they arrive? Do you know when they arrive?
- Can you yell me? Where can I find stamps? Can you tell me where I can buy some stamps?
- Do you know? When will they arrive here? Dou you know when they will arrive here?

484
Indirect Question:
- Where are my keys? I wonder if you know where my keys are. [Indirect information question]
- Is he coming with us? I don’t know if he is coming with us. [indirect Yes/No question]
Explanation: Or not can also immediately follow whether, but cannot follow if.
Example: Do you know whether or not it’s going to rain tomorrow?
- What is she doing? I don’t know what she is doing. What she is doing is important. (S + V +
O)
- Who is coming? Who is coming is important. (S + V + O) I know who is coming. (noun
clause)
- I don’t know. Where does she live? I don’t know where she lives.
- I wonder it. Why didn’t you come to the party? I wonder why you didn’t come to the party.
- Who are those people? I wonder it. I wonder who those people are.
- Whose car is it? Do you know this? Do you know whose car it is?
- Who is he? I don’t know it. I don’t know who he is.
- Who killed this man? Nobody knows it. Nobody knows who killed this man.
- What happened? Do you know it? Do you know what happened?
- Who is responsible for this accident? I have no idea. I have no idea who is responsible for
this accident.
- How did the robbers open the safe? This must be investigated. How the robbers opened the
safe must be investigated. It must be investigated how the robbers opened the safe.
- Why did he resign from his post? It doesn’t concern me. Why he resigned from his post
doesn’t concern me. It doesn’t concern me why he resigned from his post.

No matter + (QW): …olursa olsun

No matter means ‘it doesn’t matter’. It is used with who, whose, which, what, when, where and
how. After no matter, we use a present tense with a future meaning. The conjunctions no
matter who/what etc., are used rather like whoever, whatever etc.
No matter + wh_ = Wh_ever
Whatever=no matter what
Whyever=no matter why: niçin olursa olsun.
- No matter whom phones, tell him I am out. (Kim telefon ederse etsin dışarıda olduğumu
söyle.)
- No matter where you go, I will follow you.
- No matter where he runs away, the police will eventually catch him. (O nereye kaçarsa
kaçsın, polis sonunda onu yakalayacak.)
- You will be welcome no matter when you come.
- No matter what you say, I won’t believe you. (Whatever you say, I won’t believe you.)
- Phone me when you arrive, no matter how late it is. (Phone me when you arrive, however
late it is.)
- No matter what he does, he can’t persuade us. (O ne yaparsa yapsın bizi ikna edemez.)
- No matter what happens, I will stand by you. (Ne olursa olsun seni destekleyeceğim.)
- No matter how good the food we eat is, if it is not well digested, absorbed into the blood and
assimilated into the cells, we can, in time, develop symptoms and nutritional deficiency.
- We have to get the car fixed, no matter how much it costs. (Kaç para tutarsa tutsun arabayı
tamir ettirtmemiz lazım.)

485
“What” ile “that / the fact that” arasındaki fark:
What she bought was expensive.
That / the fact that she bought me the car was wonderfull
Hints:
• boşluğun bulunduğu kısımda “ne” sorusun yanıtı var ise “that” ya da “the fact that”; “ne”
sorusunun yanıtı yok ise “what” kullanıır.
• “yaptığı şey” ise “what”, “___yaması” ise “that” ya da “the fact that” kullanılır.
• Eksiksiz full cümleye “the fact that” gelir.
• “Preposition” sonra, noun clause “that” gelmez.
• What amazes me= the thing which amazes me=the thing that amazes me=the thing
amazing me_. Beni şaşırtan şey.
• What makes for agree= the think which make for agree=the think that make for
agree=the think making for agree_.
• what is being discuss=the think (which is) being discuss= the think (that is ) being
discuss=the think being discuss

…Ever Words in Noun Clauses

“…ever” words are frequently used in noun clauses. Whatever, whoever, whenever, wherever,
- Since he is rich, he can buy whatever he wants. (noun clause)
Since he is rich, he can buy anything that he wants. (relative clause)
- It is not known where he hides.
Where he hides is not known? Onun nereye saklandığı bilinmiyor.
Is it not known where he hides? Nereye saklandığı bilinmiyor mu?
Is where he hides not known? Onun nereye saklandığı bilinmiyor mu?
It is not obvious what he will do. Onun ne yapacağı belli değil.
It was uncertain how long they would stay there. Orada ne kadar kalacağı belli değildir.
- Whoever comes first should turn on the main switch.
- We have the cars available for rent. You can rent whichever you wish.
- She can visit whenever she likes. She can visit us today, tomorrow, nex week,
- You can go wherever / anytime you want. You can go to London, Paris, New York, _.
- Whatever decision the government may take, the inflation seems to rise. (Hükümet hangi
kararı alırsa alsın enflsayonun yükseleceği görünüyor.)
- Whatever he does, he can’t please his wife. (Ne yaparsa yapsın karısını memnun edemiyor.)
- Whatever your ideas are, you have to explain them. (Fikirlerin her neyse, onları açıklaman
gerekir.)
- Whatever your problem is, you have to tackle it. (Problemin ne olursa olsun, onunla
halletmelisin.)

Whatsoever, whomsoever:
“Whatsoever, whomsoever” hiç anlamına gelir (at all) ve genellikle bağlı oldukları cümlenin
sonuna gelirler.
- The police have no evidence at all. The police have no evidence whatsoever.
Explanation:
The police: polis teşkilatı
Whatsoever=at all: hiç
- I didn’t see anybody whomsoever / at all.

486
 “Wh_(so) ever” vurgu amacıyla kullanılmaktadır.
What happened?
What ever happened?
What so ever happened happened. Her ne olduysa oldu.

9.6. The subjunctive form in noun clauses

The subjunctive mood expresses a hypothetical, suppositional action, wish, or unreal condition
contrary to fact. Bir cümlede bir sıfat bir ismi nasıl nitelendiriyorsa bir sıfat cümleciği de aynı
görevi yapar. [Subjunctive: dilek kipi]
It is / was + adj
It is / was of great + n That + Clause
It is / was V3

Adj: important, great, significant, vital , essential, mantotary

Noun: importance, significance
V3: suggested, recommended, required, urged
- It is very important that she should see a doctor.
- It was very hard that we overcame this issue. Bu meselenin üstesinden gelmemiz çok zordu.
- It is estimated that the economic sanction can not be lifted in the near future.
Ekonomik yaptırımların yakın gelecekte kaldırılamayacağı tahmin edilebilir.
- It was reported that the plain had taken off one hour later due to to lack of measure.
Önlemlerin yetersizliğinden dolayı uçağın bir saat geç kalkmış olduğu rapor edildi.
- It was reported that the plain had taken off one hour later due to the lack of taken measure.
Alınan önlemlerin yetersizliğinden dolayı uçağın bir saat geç kalkmış olduğu rapor edildi.
- It is reported that the election to be held next week may be postponed. Gelecek hafta
yapılacak olan seçimlerin ertelenebileceği bildirilmektedir.
- It is said that he can be detained. (Onun gözaltına alınabileceği söyleniyor.)
Modal’ların (Özellikle “can ve may”) bağlaç ile aktarıldığı zaman çevirisinde bir “...ecek,
...acak” anlamı katıldığına dikkat ediniz.
- It is expected that the embargo will lifted next year. (Ambargonun gelecek yıl kaldırılacağı
umuluyor.)
- It was climed that the minister had embezzled money. (Bakanın zimmetine para geçirdiği
iddia edildi.)

Subjunctive mood is represented by three forms: Present, Past, Past Perfect. The Subjunctive is
used after the following verbs: advise, ask, beg, command, demand, desire, insist, propose,
recommend, request, suggest, urge.

487
 Present subjunctive

The Present Subjunctive is used to express (and emphasize) urgency, importance, desirability,
demand, order, suggestion, request.

The form of the Present Subjunctive is the base form of the verb (without "to") for all persons: I
be, he be, she be, it be, we be, you be, they be; I go, he go, she go, it go, we go, you go, they go.

The Present Subjunctive is used in subject subordinate clauses in sentences with the formal
subject "It" after "it is necessary that; it is important that; it is imperative that; it is crucial that; it is
vital that; it is essential that; it is urgent that; it is required that; it is advisable that; it is desirable
that" and other similar expressions.

Structure:
It is important + that + S + V.
It's important that somebody do something.

- It is important that he try to study often. He tries to study often.

- It is necessary that he do it immediately.
- It is advisable that she consult a doctor.
- The doctor insisted that the patient stay in the hospital.
- It is advisable that she have some rest before the trip.
- It is important that you are the tallest boy in the team.
The fact that you are the tallest boy in the team is important for some reason.
- It is important that the contract be signed today.
- I move that the meeting be adjourned.
- I demand that I be allowed to call my lawyer.
- He suggested that the decision be postponed till next week.

- It is important that you be at the station before 6pm. (Subjunctive)

- It is imperative that we be present at the meeting.
- It is important that everything be ready by six o'clock.

After "It's time", either an infinitive or a verb in the subjunctive may be used.
- It's time to go to work.
- It's time to say good-bye.
- It is time to recall that the European Union was founded on the basis of human rights,
fundamental freedoms and the rule of law, including the right to a fair trial.
Avrupa Birliği’nin, insan hakları, temel özgürlük-ler ve, adil yargılanma hakkı dahil, hukukun
üs-tünlüğü temeli üzerine kurulduğunu anımsama-nın zamanıdır.

- It is time for us to leave.

- It's time the children were in bed.
- It's time we went home.

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Constructions "It's high time someone did something" and "It's about time someone did
something" express the same meaning emphatically. Such constructions often express criticism
or complaint.
- It is high time you stopped smoking.
- It's about time he became more responsible.

“The Present Subjunctive” does not indicate the time of the action and remains in the same form
irrespective of the tense in the main clause.
- She asks that the report be ready tomorrow.
- She asked that the report be ready tomorrow. She asked that the report be ready yesterday.

“The Present Subjunctive” expressed by the base form of the verb is also found in a number of
fixed phrases which to some extent have kept their Old English form. Examples: so be it; far be it
from me; if need be; the powers that be; come what may; suffice it to say; till death do us part;
God help you; God forbid; God save the Queen; long live the King.
- come what may (whatever happens): Come what may, I will always be your true friend.
- far be it from me (I have no intention of): Far be it from me to interfere in your affairs, but it
seems to me that you don't really understand the situation.
- Long live the King!
- suffice it to say: I'm not going to tell you about his amazing and dangerous adventures.
Suffice it to say that our hero is alive and well.

It is often difficult to distinguish the Present Subjunctive from the Simple Present of the indicative
mood. The Present Subjunctive differs from the Simple Present only in the following cases:
1) forms of the verb “be”;
2) absence of the ending s/es that is used in the third person singular in the Simple Present;
3) negative verb forms.
- It is necessary that he be in his office in the morning. (Present Subjunctive; the verb BE is in
the form "be" for all persons.)
He is in his office in the morning. (Simple Present; the verb BE is in the form "is" for the third
person singular.)
- It is required that we work on Saturdays. (Present Subjunctive; the verb “work” is in the form
"work" for all persons.)
We work on Saturdays. (Simple Present; the verb “work” is in the form "work" for the first
person plural.)
- I suggested that she go there every week. (Present Subjunctive; the verb “go” is in the form
"go" for all persons.)
She goes there every week. (Simple Present; the verb “go” is in the form "goes" for the third
person singular.)
- I suggested that she not go there every week. (Present Subjunctive; "not go" is negative form
of the verb “go” for all persons.)
She does not go there every week. (Simple Present; "does not go" is negative form of the
verb “go” for the third person singular.)

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The Present Subjunctive is not used very often. It is necessary to understand the use of the
Present Subjunctive, but you can always use simpler constructions in the indicative mood in your
own speech and writing. In the examples below, compare the sentences containing the Present
Subjunctive or the construction “should + infinitive” with similar sentences in the indicative mood.
- It is necessary that he sell the house. Tell him that it is necessary to sell the house.
He must sell the house. It is necessary for him to sell the house. I want him to sell the house.
- It is important that the report be sent without delay.
It is important to send the report without delay. Please send the report without delay.
- It is advisable that she stay home today. She should stay home today.
It is advisable for her to stay home today. I advise her to stay home today.
- I suggest that we wait here. I suggest that we should wait here.
Let's wait here. I suggest waiting here.
- She asked that he help her. She asked that he should help her. She asked him to help her.
- I am surprised that she should say it. I am surprised that she says it. I am surprised that she
said it.
- I'm sorry that you should think so badly of him. I'm sorry that you think so badly of him.
- Why should you think so? Why do you think so?

Should + Verb

“Should + Verb” is used in the same situations as the Present Subjunctive, in all styles of
speech and writing, including formal and everyday styles, more often in British English than in
American English.
- It is necessary that he should go there as soon as possible.
- It is important that the report should be sent without delay.
- It is advisable that she should move to another apartment.
- It is necessary that he should do it immediately.
- It is important that everything should be ready by six o'clock.
- It is advisable that she should stay in the hospital.
- It is surprising that he should say such things.

“Should + Verb” is used for expressing regret, annoyance, surprise after "I am sorry that; I regret
that; I am surprised that; it is surprising that; it is strange that; it is annoying that", and also in
special questions after "why" to express strong surprise.
- I suggested that we should wait for him.
- She insists that you should see a doctor.
- He demanded that I should tell him everything.
- He suggested that we should meet at the library.
- The doctor advises that they should stop eating fat food and fried food.
- I am sorry that you should think so.
- It is strange that he should ask about it.
- I am surprised that she should want to sell her house.
- Why should you think so?
- Why should he be so angry?
- If I should see him, I will tell him.
- If I see him, I will tell him. (Americans are more likely to say).
- I suggest that the meeting be postponed.

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“Should + have + V3” is used to express a preceding action.
- It is surprising that she should say it.
It is surprising that she should have said it.
- It was surprising that she should say it.
It was surprising that she should have said it.

The Present Subjunctive and “Should + Verb” are also used in subordinate clauses of purpose
after "lest", a rather bookish conjunction. The conjunction "so that" is much more common in
subordinate clauses of purpose than "lest". Clauses of purpose with "so that" are generally used
in the indicative mood, usually with the modal verbs "can, could, may, might".
She wrote down the address lest she should forget it.
She wrote down the address so that she might not forget it.
- He stepped aside so that she could pass.
- I will wait for you so that we may go there together.

The verb “may” be able to be used to express a wish:

- May you live long and prosper?

Past Subjunctive in the if-clause

“would + Verb” in the main clause

- (I don't know her telephone number.) If I knew her telephone number, I would call her.
- (It's unlikely that I will see him tomorrow.) If I saw him tomorrow, I would ask him about it.
- (She is not here.) If she were here, she would help us.
- He wouldn't have to go there by bus if he had a car.
- If I were you, I would go to Spain.
- I would buy a new car if I were you.
- What would you do if you had a million dollars? – I would quit my job and go travelling around
the world.
- What would you do if you lost all your money? – If I lost all my money, I would probably have
to sell my house.
- What would happen if someone pressed this button accidentally?
- Where would you like to live if you had the choice?
- How would you feel if someone said such a thing about you?

“could/might + verb” in the main clause

- (She doesn't speak English.) If she spoke English, she could get a good job at a travel
agency.
- (It is unlikely that he will repair his car soon.) He might give us a ride to the train station if he
repaired his car soon enough.
- If she weren't busy now, she could go to the movies with us.
- If it were a little warmer (now), we might go for a walk.

491
“would + past perfect” in the main clause
- If I had seen him yesterday, I would have talked to him about it. (I didn't see him yesterday.)
- He would have given us a ride to the train station if his car hadn't broken down. (His car broke
down yesterday.)
- If she had studied harder before her examinations, she would have passed them. (She failed
her exams.)
- If he had had more money, he would have bought new toys for his children. (He didn't have
much money.)
- If he hadn't been so busy, he would have spent more time with his children yesterday.
- What would you have done if he had told you the truth on that day? – I would have done
several things differently if he had told me the truth on that day.
- What would she have done if she had known about his problems at that time? – If she had
known about his problems at that time, she would have helped him.
- Who(m) would he have asked for help if he had needed help at that time? – If he had needed
help at that time, he would have asked his older brother.
- What would have happened if you you had not found the missing papers? – I think my chief
would have fired me.
- If he had known her address, he would have visited her yesterday.
- If I had known her telephone, I would have called her.
- He would buy a new car if he had enough money.

“could/might + past perfect” in the main clause

- (I was in Rome on business.) If I had had more free time, I could have gone sightseeing.
- If it had been warmer yesterday, the children could have played in the yard.
- (I knew the truth.) If I hadn't known the truth, I might have believed him.
The verbs “were” can also indicate the use of the subjunctive:
- If I were you, I wouldn’t keep driving on those tires.
- If he were governor, we’d be in better fiscal shape.

Other cases of unreal condition:

- Omission of “if”: Were I not so busy now, I would help him. Had I not been so busy at that
time, I would have helped him.
- Implied condition: Why didn't you tell me? I would have helped you.
- Mixed conditionals: If I knew how to repair it, I would have done it a long time ago. If I had
eaten dinner before leaving, I wouldn't be so hungry now.
- Constructions But for; If not for; If it weren't for: If it weren't for the traffic noise, I would like
this apartment. But for the rain, we would have gone for a walk. If not for her, we would have
stayed at home.

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 Past Subjunctive and Past Perfect Subjunctive

Past Subjunctive and Past Perfect Subjunctive are used in conditional sentences with unreal
condition and in constructions with the verb “wish”.

Past Subjunctive in the subordinate clause

- I wish I were rich.
- I wish I knew the answer.
- I wish I spoke Spanish.
- She wishes she had a car.
- He wishes he didn't have to work tomorrow.
- Do you wish you didn't have to study so hard?
- What do you wish you were doing now instead of studying?
- I wish she were here now. I wish I were in Italy now.

Could + Verb in the subordinate clause

- I wish I could speak Spanish.
- I wish he could come to the party.
- She wishes she could buy a new car.
- He wishes he could help her.
- Do you ever wish you could swim like a fish?

Would + Verb in the subordinate clause

- (He is leaving.) I wish he would stay with us.
- (You are speaking very loudly.) I wish you wouldn't speak so loudly.
- I wish it would stop raining.
- Does he wish his ex-wife would come back to him?
Past Perfect Subjunctive in the subordinate clause
- I wish I had known it before my trip.
- I wish you had told me about your plans.
- I wish he had bought a different TV set.
- She wishes she had not married him.
- He wished he had gone to college.
- Does she wish she hadn't sold her cottage in the country?
- What do you wish you had done differently two years ago?
- Why do they wish they had never got married?

“Could + have +V3” in the subordinate clause

- I wish I could have talked to her yesterday.
- He wishes he could have helped her.

Other wishes and preferences expressing supposition and unreality

- Construction If only: If only she were here now! If only I had known about it before!
- Construction I'd rather: I'd rather you didn't smoke here. I'd rather she stayed home today.
But: I'd rather stay home today. I'd rather not go there.
- Construction It's time: It's time we went home. / It's time to go home. It's high time you visited
a dentist.

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 Comparison: Real and unreal

Reality (Indicative mood) – Supposition and unreality (Subjunctive mood)

Compare the sentences below: the verbs in the sentences before the dash are in the indicative
mood; the verbs in the sentences after the dash are in the subjunctive mood.
In some constructions, for example, after "said" (told, answered, etc.) in reported speech or after
"as if, as though", the forms of the verb in the indicative and in the subjunctive may be the same,
but their meanings are different.

"wish":
- He wants to be a banker.
(a) He wishes he were a banker. (b) He wishes he had become a banker.
- She wants to go home. – She wishes she could go home.
- I want you to stay with me. – I wish you could stay with me.
- He wanted her to stay with him, but she left. – He wished she had stayed with him. / He
wished she hadn't left.

"as if, as though":

- He speaks about her as if he knows her. (It seems to me that he knows her.)
He speaks about her as if he knew her. (I doubt that he knows her.)
- He spoke about her as if he knew her. (It seemed to me that he knew her.)
He spoke about her as if he knew her. (I doubted that he knew her.)
- It looks as if it is going to rain. (I think that it will rain.)
She often looks as if she were going to cry. (I don't think that she will cry.)
- It looked as if it was going to rain. (I thought that it would rain.)
She often looked as if she were going to cry. (I didn't think that she would cry; she just looked
that way.)
- He sounds as though he has a cold. He sounds as though he had a cold.
- She thought that he was crazy. She looked at him as if he were crazy.

Conditional sentences:
- If he calls me tomorrow, I will ask him about it. – If he called me tomorrow, I would ask him
about it.
- If she leaves today, she will return on Friday. – (a) If she left today, she would return on
Friday. (b) If she had left last week, she would have returned yesterday.
- If he is at home now, we can ask him to help us. – (a) If he were at home now, we could ask
him to help us. (b) If he had been at home yesterday, we could have asked him to help us.
- What if he sees us now? What will we do? – (a) What if he saw us now? What would we do?
(b) What if he had seen us yesterday? What would we have done?
- Suppose you are elected. What will you change first of all? – (a) Suppose you were elected.
What would you change first of all? (b) Suppose that you had been elected two years ago.
What would you have changed first of all?
- She said, "If I find your book (tomorrow), I will bring it." – (a) She said, "If I found your book
(tomorrow), I would bring it." (b) She said, "If I had found your book (yesterday), I would have
brought it."

494
 - She said that if she found my book (tomorrow), she would bring it. – (a) She said that if she
found my book (tomorrow), she would bring it. (b) She said that if she had found my book
(yesterday), she would have brought it.

9.7. Preferences

9.7.1. Wish
“Wish” express hypothetical, unlikely, or unreal wishes. The Subjunctive Mood is used in the
subordinate clauses after “the verb wish” to express wishes about the situations that exist at the
present time (I wish you were here) and about the situations that existed in the past (I wish you
had done it).

The verbs “could, would” are often used in subordinate clauses after “the verb wish”. The verbs
“may, might, should” are generally not used after “the verb wish” in such constructions.
- I wish I could fly.
- I wish it would stop raining.

The conjunction "that" introducing object clauses after “the verb wish” is often omitted:
- I wish (that) I knew the answer.
- I wish (that) I had known about it before.

Do not use such constructions when you want, would like, or hope to do something, or want to
ask someone to do something. Compare these examples:
- She wishes she were an actress.
She wants to be an actress. She wants to become an actress.
She would like to become an actress. She hopes to become an actress.
- As thoughI wish I could buy a new car.
I want to buy a new car. I would like to buy a new car. I hope to buy a new car.
- I wish you wouldn't go there.
Please don't go there. I don't want you to go there.
I hope that you won't go there. Would you mind not going there?

But sometimes the verb “wish” is used as an ordinary main verb:

- I wish you luck.
- We wish you all the best.
- You can stay, if you wish.
- She wishes to go to the cinema.

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Wish + Past Subjunctive:
The speaker expresses regret about the existing situation in the form of a wish that the situation
were different. The verb in the subordinate clause after “wish” is used in the Past Subjunctive,
which is the same in form as the Past simple for main verbs (e.g., asked, did), and the verb “be”
has the form “were” for all persons. The examples below show the existing situations and the
wishes for changing these situations.

- “I don't know his address.” I wish I knew his address.

Meaning: I would like to know his address, but I don't know it, and I can't find it out now. It's a
pity that I don't know his address.

- “I have an old car.” I wish I had a new car.

Meaning: I would like to have a new car, but it's not possible now. It's a pity that I don't have a
new car.

- “She has to work on Saturday.” She wishes she didn't have to work on Saturday.
Meaning: She would like not to have to work on Saturday. She is sorry that she has to work
on Saturday.

- “He is not here.” I wish he were here.

Meaning: I would like him to be here, but he isn't here. It's a pity that he isn't here.

- “His parents are poor.” He wishes his parents were rich.

Meaning: He would like his parents to be rich, but to his regret, they are not rich.

Were and was:

The verb “be” is sometimes used in the form “was” instead of “were” for the first and third person
singular in constructions with “wish” in informal speech, especially in British English.
- It is very cold now. I wish it were warmer now.
- His apartment is small. He wishes his apartment were larger.
- Do you wish you were rich and famous?

Wish + could + Verb:

Such constructions express regret about the existing situation and a wish for changing this
situation.
- I can't sing. I wish I could sing.
- I can't speak Chinese. I wish I could speak Chinese.
- I can't stay. I have to go. I wish I could stay, but I can't.
- I can't help her. I wish I could help her.
- She sneezes and coughs a lot. She wishes she could stop sneezing and coughing.
- My friend bought a very nice coat. I wish I could buy a coat like that.
- You can't come to my birthday party tomorrow. I wish you could come to my birthday party
tomorrow.
- Do you ever wish you could fly like a bird?

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Wish + would + Verb:
The verb “would” with the simple infinitive is used after “wish” to express a wish that someone
would do something to change the existing situation. The wish is usually a combination of a
request to do something and a complaint about the existing situation or about someone's actions.
Since the speaker addresses his wish to someone else, “would” is used with the pronouns "he,
she, it, you, they", but not with "I, we".
- You use my computer without my permission.
Wish: I wish you wouldn't use my computer without my permission.
- You interrupt me all the time.
I wish you wouldn't interrupt me.
- You won't come to my party.
I wish you would come to my party.
- My neighbors are fighting and shouting again.
I wish they would stop fighting and shouting.
- He smokes too much.
She wishes he would stop smoking.
- She wants to go to France with her friends.
Her parents wish she would stay home and study for her entrance examinations.
- It has been raining since morning.
He wishes it would stop raining.

Wish + Past Perfect Subjunctive:

The situation existed in the past. The speaker regrets that something happened (or didn't
happen) in the past. Though changing the past situation is impossible, the speaker expresses
regret in the form of a wish that the situation in the past had been different. The verb in the
subordinate clause after “wish” is used in the Past Perfect Subjunctive, which is the same in form
as the Past Perfect (e.g., had asked, had done). The examples below show the past situations
and wishes / regrets about them.
- I forgot to call her yesterday. I wish I hadn't forgotten to call her yesterday.
- I didn't help her. I wish I had helped her.
- I didn't buy that book. I wish I had bought that book.
- She bought an expensive rug. She wishes she hadn't bought such an expensive rug.
- He didn't come to the party. I wish he had come to the party.
- You didn't tell me the truth. I wish you had told me the truth.
- She didn't know about his plans. She wishes she had known about his plans.
- He didn't go to the concert with us. We wish he had gone to the concert with us.
- They asked him to leave. They wish they hadn't asked him to leave.
- It was very cold last night. I wish it hadn't been so cold last night.
- Does she wish she had become a teacher?

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Wish and Wished:
If the wish was made in the past, “the verb wish” is used in the past tense, i.e., “wished”. Past
Subjunctive and Past Perfect Subjunctive are used after “wished” in the same way as after “wish”.
- She wishes she knew his address. She wished she knew his address.
- She wishes she could play chess. She wished she could play chess.
- He wishes they had told him the truth. He wished they had told him the truth.
- They wish they hadn't asked him to leave. They wished they hadn't asked him to leave.

Wish + could + have + V3:

The verb “wish + could + have + V3” is used to express regret about the past situations in which
ability to do something was indicated.
- She couldn't come to the party. I wish she could have come to the party.
- I couldn't visit her yesterday. I wish I could have visited her yesterday.
- I couldn't help her. I wish I could have helped her.
- I couldn't buy that book. I wish I could have bought that book.

Wish + could + had + V3:

The verb “could” with the perfect infinitive has several meanings and is rather difficult to use. It is
advisable for language learners to limit the use of the verb “could” with the perfect infinitive in
constructions with “wish”. Use such constructions only in the most obvious cases. In a number of
cases, you can use the Past Perfect Subjunctive instead:
- I wish I could have helped him. I wish I had helped him.

Wish + would + have + V3:

The verb “would + have + V3” is not used after “wish” in standard speech and writing to express
wishes about the past. You may sometimes hear this construction in informal speech (with the
same meaning as in the construction Wish + + would + have + V3):
- I wish she would have come to the party.
- I wish you would have told me the truth.

It is advisable for language learners to avoid using such constructions. Use the Past Perfect
Subjunctive in such situations:
- I wish she had come to the party. I wish you had told me the truth.

Shortened constructions:
To avoid repetition, one part of such sentences is usually shortened. It is not always easy to
choose the auxiliary verb for the shortened construction.
- I wish he were here, but he isn't. He isn't here, but I wish he were.
- I really wish I had a car, but I don't. I don't have a car, but I really wish I did.
- I wish I didn't have to go, but I do. I have to go, but I wish I didn't.
- I wish he would listen to me, but he won't. He won't listen to me, but I wish he would.
- I wish I had studied for my exam, but I didn't. I didn't study for my exam, but now I wish I had.
- I wish she hadn't invited him, but she did. She invited him. I wish she hadn't.

To make such sentences easier, you can usually omit the shortened part containing the
auxiliary verb in the Indicative Mood.
- I wish he were here, but he isn't. I wish he were here.

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 In other cases, you can divide such sentences into two full sentences.
- I have to go, but I wish I didn't. – I have to go. I wish I didn't have to go.

Wish + infinitive:
We sometimes use “wish + infinitive” as a formal alternative to want or would like with reference
to present and future wish situations:
- I wish to make a complaint and would like to see the manager.
- I do not wish to renew my subscription and would be grateful
- I don't ever wish to see you again! She said and stormed out of the restaurant.

Wished + infinitive:
“Wished to + infinitive” is not so often used to describe past wishes.
- We wanted to see the Crown Jewels but couldn't because the Tower of London had already
closed.
- I wanted to work from home last Friday but my boss wouldn't let me. [Wished to + infinitve is
possible in these examples, but it sounds a bit stilted.]

Wishing for the impossible: wish that + past tenses:

To express wishes for unlikely or impossible situations and to express regrets, we use “wish that
+ ” constructions with “would, could, was, were or past tenses.” Although we are using past tense
forms, we are talking about present and future situations. Compare the following:
- I don't speak any foreign languages, but I wish (that) I could speak Spanish.
- I'm hopeless at foreign languages, but I wish I spoke Spanish and French.
- I'm not hard-working at all - I'm really lazy - but I wish (that) I weren't.
- It's only Tuesday today, but I wish it was Saturday.

Note that was and were are fully interchangeable with first, second and third person pronouns,
singular and plural. Arguably, were sounds more formal than was. Note also that that is optional
in all these that-clauses.
- My wife has to work such long hours, but I wish she didn't (have to).
- I have to prepare all the meals. I wish (that) I didn't.
- And now the dishwasher doesn't work. I wish it did.

Note also that we use “wish that + could” when we are talking about people's ability to do things
and “wish that + would” when we are talking about things that we would like people to do or not to
do.
- I can't eat anything with nuts in - I'm allergic to them - but I wish I could.
- I know your parents won't let you come to the nightclub, but I wish you could.
- I know you don't really want to come to the nightclub, but I wish you would.
- He keeps sending me text messages, but I wish he wouldn't.

Past regrets: wish + past perfect:

To talk about wishes and regrets about past situations, we use wish with the past perfect:
- I didn't ever receive the parcel from my granny, but I wish I had (received it).
- The parcel never arrived. I wish (that) it hadn't got lost in the post.

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 9.7.2. Hope

Hope (that) + present / future

Note that for wishes about things that are positive and seem likely in the future, we normally use
“hope + that-clause” with present simple or future will forms:
- I hope you'll get top marks in your English test (NOT: I wish you'll get…)
- I can see you're not well now, but I hope you recover in time for the match. (NOT: I wish you
recovered… OR I wish you'd recovered… OR I wish you'll recover…)
- I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow, I'm going for a picnic.
- I hope to be a manager there in two years.(I hope that I will be a manager there in two years.)

“hope so, think so, afraid so, say +so” are used to refer back to an idea, action, quality,
situation etc. that has just been mentioned.
• I hope not: used to say that you hope something that has been mentioned does not happen
or is not true.
- Is she coming? I hope not.

• I hope so: umarım

spoken used to say that you hope something that has been mentioned happens or is true.
- Will your sister come for Christmas? I hope so.
- Is she there? I am afraid so.

• I am afraid not: used to say that you are afraid something that has been mentioned does not
happen or is not true.
- Will you come with me? I am afraid not.

• Make: use the verb 'make' for constructing, building or creating.

- All right, girls, make some coffee.

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 9.7.3. Would rather
Constructions with "I'd rather" (i.e., I would rather) express preference. Use the infinitive after "I'd
rather" when you speak about what you would prefer to do. Use the verb in the Past Subjunctive
after "I'd rather" when speaking about what you want someone else to do.

Would rather + V: …yı tercih etmek

Would sooner + V: …yı tercih etmek
- I'd rather stay home tonight.
- I'd rather read a book than watch a film.
- I'd rather you stayed home today.
- I'd rather you didn't smoke here.

Would rather sooner + V: … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih etmek

Tercih göstermek için would ile kendisinden sonra fiilin yalın hali gelir:
- I would rather walk than take a taxi.
- I'd rather/sooner drink coffee than (drink) tea.
- I would rather stay at home than go out.
- Would you rather stay here or go home? Burada kalmayı mı tercih edersin yoksa eve gitmeyi
mi?

Would just as soon + V: … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih etmek

- I would just as soon die as marry you. I would rather die than marry you

Would rather be Ving/N:

Bir durumu başka bir duruma tercih ettiğimiz zaman “than + (be) Ving” yapısı kullanılır. İkinci
kısımda “be” tekrar edilmeyip sadece “Ving” de yazılabilir.
- I'd rather be walking by the seaside than (be) studying here now.
- I would rather be sleeping at home than (be) working in here now.

Olumsuz hali “would rather not”

- I’d rather not go out tonight. Bu gece dışarı çıkmayı tercih etmiyorum. (I wouldn’t rather …
denmez)

Bununla birlikte bu tip fikirler çoğunlukla I wish yapısı ile anlatılır.

- I wish you hadn’t done that. Keşke öyle yapmasaydın.

Or rather: daha doğrusu

- He’s a psychologist or rather, a psychoanalyst. O bir psikolog daha doğrusu psikanalist.

Would rather have done,

Would sooner have done:
Geçmişteki tercihlerden bahsedilecek ise “present/past perfect tense” kullanılır.
- I’d rather you hadn’t done that.Öyle yapmamış olmanı tercih ederim.
- I would rather have listened to him carefully. Now, I can’t answer the questions.
- I'd rather have stayed home than (have) gone to the cinema last night. (But I went to the
cinema.)

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 Dün akşam sinemaya gitmek yerine evde kalmayı tercih ederdim.
- I want to attend a university abroad, but my parents would rather I studied in Turkey. Ben
üniversiteyi yurt dısında okumak istiyorum ama, ailem benim Türkiye'de okumamı tercih
ediyor.
- Did you enjoy the picnic? I was okey, but I would rather have gone to a movie. [reference-
tercih]
- I'd rather she had gone to Ankara by train, but she went by bus. Trenle gitmiş olmasını tercih
ederdim, ama ........
Note: "would rather /sooner" ın öznesiyle, eylemi yapacak olan kişi farklıysa, "would rather +
subject + past tense" kalıbı kullanılır. Cümlede Past Tense kullanılmasına rağmen, anlam
present ya da future'dur.

Would rather yapısında geçmiş zaman kullanılır ama cümlenin anlamı geniş ya da şimdiki
zamandır.
- My wife would rather we didn’t see each other anymore. Eşim, birbirimizi artık görmememizi
tercih ediyor.
- Shall I open a window? ~ I’d rather you didn’t. Pencere açayım mı? ~ Açmamanı tercih
ederim. /Açmasan daha iyi.

Had sooner:
- She had sooner be teacher then a nurse.

Instead: Bunun yerine

- Mary did not answer. Instead, she looked out of the window.

Instead of: … nın yerine

- Give me the red book instead of the blue one.
- I will do it instead of you

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 9.7.4. Rather than
Bir durum başka bir duruma tercih edilirken ikinci tarafta “rather than” kullanılır. Benzer biçimde
memnuniyetsizliğimiz anlatılacaksa “(to be) working” yapısı kullanılır.
- They would prefer to go to the zoo rather than visit the art gallery.
- I would prefer to be sleeping at home rather than (be) working in here now.
- I would prefer not speek at work.

“Would prefer” başka biri için tercih yapılırken ardına “ object (nesne)” gelir, devamında ise
present: “to + V” ya da past: “to + have + V3” yapısı gelir.
- I would prefer her not to smoke, but she smokes heavily. Onun sigara içmemesini tercih
ederim fakat aşırı içiyor.
- I would prefer them to have accepted the offer, but they refused to work. Teklifi Kabul
etmelerini beklerdim, fakat çalışmayı ret ettiler.

Rather than + N/Ving/V : …ziyade, …mektense

“Rather than” ifadesi paralel yapılarla kullanılır. Yani, iki sıfat, iki zarf, iki isim, iki mastar ya da iki
–ing yapısıyla kullanılır.
- I prefer starting early rather than leaving things to the last minute. İşleri son ana
bırakmaktansa erken başlamayı tercih ederim.
- Rather than use/using the last of my cash, I decided to write a cheque. Son paramı
kullanmak yerine çek yazmaya karar verdim.
- We ought to invest in machinery rather than buildings. İnşaat yerine makineye yatırım
yapmamız lazım.
- In art history, primitivism is a notion crucial to 20th-century art and modern thinking ---- a
specific movement or group of artists. [rather than]
- Patriarchy originally meant superiority of the father and used to be employed by sociologists
to describe family structures where the father rather than the mother was dominant.
Ataerkillik, başlangıçta babanın üstünlüğü anlamına gelmekteydi ve toplum bilimciler
tarafından anneden ziyade babanın baskın olduğu aile yapılarını tanımlamak için kullanılırdı.
- Contrary to perceptions outside Canada, the majority of Canadians are descended from the
English, the Scots, and the Irish rather than from the French.

Ana cümlede to-mastar yapısı varsa rather than’den sonra genellikle to’suz mastar ya da Ving
gelir.
- I decided to write rather than phone/phoning. Telefon etmek yerine yazmaya karar verdim.
- Rather than use/using the last of my cash, I decided to write a cheque. Son paramı
kullanmak yerine çek yazmaya karar verdim.
“Mostly” anlamında kullanılır: The society should be accused rather than him.

Rather ... then: …dan ziyade …. Oldu

- I would rather go swimming than go to the library.

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Prefer:
İki isim arasında tercih ederken kullanılır. Iki isim arasına “to” eki alr.
I prefer tea to coffee. Çayı kahveye tercih ederim.

Prefer + to + V1: … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih ederim.

Prefer + Ving : … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih ederim.

- He prefers to drink a cup of tea rather than to eat a sandwich.
- I prefer drinking a cup of tea to eating a sandwich.

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 10. Reported Speech
(Direct - Indirect)
Reported speech means that someone's words (direct speech) are reported in the form of indirect
speech. The conjunctions "if, whether" are used in reported general questions, while reported
special questions keep as conjunctions those interrogative words (what, who, when, where, why,
how) which they had in questions in direct speech.

Difference between “say” and “tell”

“Say” is the standard verb which is used to indicate direct speech in any narrative - anecdotes,
short stories, novels, etc. It is often used with other 'reporting' verbs, which may be more
descriptive or more colourful than the all-purpose say and therefore preferred. If we use “tell” to
report statements like those above in indirect speech, we must remember that tell has to be
followed by a direct personal object.

You say something.

You tell someone something.
He said that ___. He said me that ___. He said to me that ___ .
He told that ___. He told me that ___. He told to me that ___.

Examples:
- He told me that he was going into hospital for a major operation.
- He said that he expected to be kept in for about six weeks.
- He told me that his mother was writing the letter.
- He said to me that his mother was writing the letter.

If the verb in the main clause is used in the past tense (usually, the Past simple of the verbs "say,
tell, ask, answer"), the verb in the object subordinate clause in indirect speech should also be
used in one of the past tenses.

Examples:
- He said to me, “I do not believe you.”
She said to him, “I do not believe you.”
She said to him that she did not believe him.
- I said to him that I did not believe him.
I said to you, “I do not believe you.”
I said to you that I do not believe you.
- “They don’t know you.” He told me that they didn’t know me.

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 How to change Direct to Indirect Speech?

i. We have used the conjunction “that” before the Indirect Statement.

ii. Pronouns can change in reported speech depending on who the reported speech is
directed to.
The pronoun “I” is changed to “He”. (The Pronoun is changed in person)
iii. The tense changed to next past of own form
iv. The adverb “now” is changed to “then”.

Active: S + V3 + that + clause

Passive: It's + V3 + that+ clause
Someone is V3 + to be… : The coins are said to be over a thousand years old.
Verb: think, say, suppose, believe, consider, report.
V3: thought, said, supposed, believed, considered, reported.

Direct: He said, “My mother is writing the letter.”

Indirect: He said that his mother was writing the letter.

Direct: Clinton said, “I am very busy now.”

Indirect: Clinton said that he was very busy then.

Change of tenses:
Direct Indirect / Reported
Present Simple Past Simple
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Past Simple; Present and Past Perfect Past Perfect
Past Continuous
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Continuous
Future Tense Future in the past (i.e., "will" is changed to "would").

Examples:
- She said, "I'm teaching English."
She said that she was teaching English.
- She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."
She said that she had been on the web since 1999.
- She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."
She said that she had been teaching English for seven years.
- She said, "I was teaching earlier."
She said she had been teaching earlier.
- She said, "I taught online yesterday."
She said she had taught online yesterday.
- She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."
She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
- She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."
She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

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 - “I broke the window.”
He said that he had broken the window.
- “They were shopping when I saw them. “
He said that they had been shopping when I had seen them.
- “I have passed the examination.”
He said that he had passed the examination.
- “His horse died in the night.”
He said that his horse had died in the night.

Change of Pronouns:
The pronouns of the “Direct Speech” are changed where necessary, so that their relations with
the reporter and his hearer, rather than with the original speaker are indicated.

Direct Indirect / Reported

I he, she
You he, she, they
We They
They They
he, she, it he, she, it
My his, her
You My
Our Their
Me him, her
Us Them
his, her, its his, her, its

Note: Personal pronouns change depending on the sense of the sentence, and the
demonstrative pronouns "this, these" are changed to "that, those".
Examples:
- Anna said, "I know your sister." – Anna told me that she knew my sister.
- She said, "I know this man." – She said that she knew that man.

Change of modals or auxiliary verbs:

Direct Indirect / Reported
is, are, am was, were
Will Would
is / are going to was / were going to
Shall usually; “would”; in reported questions; “should”
Can Could
May possibility; “might”; permission; “could”
Must obligation; “had to”; speculation; “must”
could, should, would could, should, would
Might Might
Need Need
have to had to

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“Must” changes to “need to” or “had to” in past tense. If the tense reflects "general truth", it does
not change to past form.

Examples:
- “I can speak perfect English.” She said that she could speak perfect English.
- "I may buy a new car." He said that he might buy a new car.
- "I'll teach English online tomorrow." She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
- "I must have a computer to teach English." She said she had to have a computer to teach
English.

Change of Times:
Direct Indirect / Reported
now (şimdi) then, at that time
now (hemen) at once
Ago before
Today (on) that day
tomorrow the following day, the next day, a day later
yesterday the previous day, the day before
next month the following month, the next month, a month later
next week the following week, the week after
last month the month before, the previous month, the preceding month
last week the week before / the previous week
last night the previous night
the day after tomorrow in two days’ time
last year the year before, the previous year, the preceding year
in two days weeks two days from then, two weeks from then
five days ago five days before, five days earlier
five weeks ago five weeks before, five weeks earlier

Examples:
- He said, “I was here yesterday.” He said that he was there the day before.
- “I am coming today.” He said he was going the next day.
- “We'll leave tonight.” They replied they would leave that night.
- “We're going to do it the day after tomorrow.” We said we were going to do it in two days'
time.
- “These streets will be completed next year.” The mayor said the roads would be compleded
the following year.
- “We had a very large dinner yesterday. He said they had had a very large dinner the day
before.
- “I painted all the walls the day before yesterday. His father said he had painted all the walls
two days before.

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 Words expressing nearness in time or places are generally changed into words expressing
distance.
- He said, “I am glad to be here this evening.”
He said that he was glad to be there that evening.

Adverbs of time and place that are usually replaced.

Yer tanımları, bazı fiiller ve zamir bağlaçları da, aktarılan cümlenin anlamına bağlı olarak
değişebilir. Fakat bunlarla ilgili kesinlikle değişir denemez. Cümlenin anlamına bakarak karar
verilir.
"This morning, this afternoon, tonight" are replaced with "that morning, that afternoon, that
night";
"In a few days" is replaced with "a few days later"; "Here" is replaced with "there".

In the subordinate clause (if the verb in the main clause is in the past tense) is required by the
rules of the sequence of tenses, but the changes also depend on the context and do not take
place in all cases. Compare:
- He said, "I will visit her tomorrow." He said that he would visit her the following day.
(If "tomorrow" was in the past at the moment of speaking, it is replaced with "the following
day".)
He said that he would visit her tomorrow.
(If "tomorrow" was still in the future at the moment of speaking, it stays in the sentence as
"tomorrow".)
- He said, "I went to the park yesterday." He said that he had gone to the park the day before.
("Yesterday" was no longer "yesterday" at the time of speaking.)
He said that he went to the park yesterday.
(If "yesterday" was still "yesterday" at the time of speaking, the Past simple and "yesterday"
remain unchanged.)
- She said, "I like this town." She told me that she liked that town.
(The speaker is in some other town at the moment of speaking.)
She told me that she liked this town. (The speaker is in this town at the moment of speaking.)

The Past simple usually remains unchanged in the subordinate clause. This is also true of the
other object clauses, not only of those in reported speech.
- I knew that she left for Tokyo two weeks ago.
- I was sure that he came back last month.
- He said, "I visited Paris in 1995." – He said that he visited Paris in 1995.
- He said, "I was watching TV when the telephone rang." – He said that he was watching TV
when the telephone rang.

In some cases, the Past simple may remain unchanged in the subordinate clause if a completed
action in the past is meant.
- She said that Mike told / had told her about it.
- He said that he bought / had bought a car at that car dealership.
- He said that he built / had built a house for his son.
- He said that he didn't find / hadn't found them.

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In everyday speech, if the speaker feels that the action in the subordinate clause is still relevant
to the present, the present tense may be used in the subordinate clause despite the fact that the
past tense is used in the main clause.
- Anna said that she feels tired. Let's go home.
- He wrote in his letter that he is going to see Dr. Crosby tomorrow, so we will be able to find
him at the clinic.
- She repeated several times that she wants to talk to you tonight. Do you know what it is
about?

Examples of indirect speech in different types of sentences

The examples below show how different types of sentences in direct speech are changed to
indirect speech if the verb in the main clause is in the past tense.

Statements:
- She said, "I live here."
She said that she lived there.
- She said, "I am writing a letter now."
She told me that she was writing a letter then.
- She said, "I have already written three letters."
She said that she had already written three letters.
- He said, "They will be disappointed when they learn that she has sold her house."
He said that they would be disappointed when they learned that she had sold her house.
- He said, "She was fired last week."
He said that she had been fired the week before.

General questions:
- He asked, "Do you know this man?"
He asked me whether I knew that man.
- She asked him, "Have you finished your work?"
She asked him if he had finished his work.
- He asked her, "Did you go there alone?"
He asked her whether she had gone there alone.
- He asked, "Did you go to Spain in 2005?"
He asked whether she went to Spain in 2005.

Special questions
- He asked, "What's the matter?"
He asked what the matter was.
- He asked me, "What are you doing?"
He asked me what I was doing.
- He asked her, "How long have you been in Moscow?"
He asked her how long she had been in Moscow.
- I asked, "When did you visit New York?"
I asked him when he visited New York.

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Commands:
- She said, "Go to your room."
She told me to go to my room.
- She said, "Buy some bread, please."
She asked me to buy some bread.
- He ordered, "Stay where you are!"
He ordered them to stay where they were.

Suggestions:
- He said, "Let's go to the lake."
He suggested that we go to the lake. / He suggested going to the lake.
- She said, "Why don't you watch a movie?"
She suggested that we watch a movie. / She suggested watching a movie.

Sentences with modal verbs:

Modal verbs in the subordinate clause agree with the past verb in the main clause in the following
way: "can" is changed to "could", "may" is changed to "might", "will" is changed to "would". "Must"
is usually replaced with "had to" but may remain unchanged in some cases. "Could, might, ought
to, should, would" do not change.
- She said, "I can't find your book."
She said that she couldn't find my book.
- She said, "I must go to the bank."
She told me that she had to go to the bank.
- She said, "He may refuse to do it."
She said that he might refuse to do it.
- She said, "You should call him."
She said that I should call him.
- She asked him, "Could I see Miss Robinson, please?"
She asked him whether she could see Miss Robinson.

Exception from the rule

When a sentence is made and reported at the same time and the fact is still true.
- Michael: "I am thirsty." Michael said he is thirsty.
- “I am hungry.” He says (that) he is hungry.
- The teacher said that water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
- The teacher said that water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit.

The tenses will not change if the statement is still relevant or if it is a universal truth.
We can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them. In this Indirect
Speech, both the past tense and the present tense make the sentence a correct one.
If the reporting verb is in the present tense:
- The teacher said, “The earth goes round the sun.” The teacher said that the earth goes round
the sun.
- She said, “German is easy to learn.” She said that German was/is easy to learn.
- He said to us, “American schools begin in September.”
He told us that American schools begin in September.

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- Sandy: "I will never go to work."
Sandy says she will never go to work.
- Joanna: “I have just arrived in Hanoi.”
Joanna says she has just arrived in Hanoi.

The reported words are true at the time of reporting:

- George: I'm meeting Karen tomorrow.
George said he is meeting Karen tomorrow. (reported on the same day, tomorrow still refers
to tomorrow)
Compare:
George said he was meeting Karen the following day. (reported days later, the meeting has
already happened)

The reported words express a general truth:

- Copernicus: The planets revolve around the sun.
Copernicus stated that the planets revolve around the sun. (it is a general truth)
Compare:
Once, people believed that the earth was flat. (The reported words are no longer true; people
do not believe that the earth is flat)
- Dan: "Asia is the largest continent."
Dan said Asia is the largest continent.
- Emma: "People in Africa are starving."
Emma said people in Africa are starving.

The reported words refer to an unreal situation:

- Mike: I wish I was a year older; then I could enter the race.
Mike wished he was a year older, so he could enter the race. (he is not older)

With modal verbs would, might, could, should, ought to, used to:
- "I would try it." He said he would try it.
- "I might come." Mimi said she might come.
- "I could fail." Steve said he could fail.
- "He should stay in bed." Linda said he ought to stay in bed.
- "I used to have a car." Mel said he used to have a car.

After “wish, would rather, had better, it is time.”

- "I wish they were in Greece." Margo said she wished they were in Greece.
- "I would rather fly." Matt said he would rather fly.
- "They had better go." Betty said they had better go.
- "It is time I got up." Paul said it was time he got up.

In “if clauses.”
- Martha: "If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy."
Martha said that if she tidied her room, her dad would be happy.

In “time clauses.”
- Joe: "When I was staying in Madrid I met my best friend."
He said that when he was staying in Madrid he met his best friend.

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 We do not change the past tense in spoken English if it is clear from the situation when the
action happened. The Past simple tense ile anlatılan, özellikle tarihte yaşanmış olaylar, dolaylı
anlatımda zaman değişikliğine uğramazlar:
- "She did it on Sunday," I said. I said she did it on Sunday.
- The teacher said ‘The Second World War broke out in 1939.’
The teacher said (that) the Second World War broke out in 1939.

We must change it, however, in the following sentence, otherwise it will not be clear whether we
are talking about the present or past feelings.
- "I hated her," he said. He said he had hated her.

We do not usually change the modal verbs must and needn't.

But must can become had to or would have to and needn't can become didn't have to or
wouldn't have to if we want to express an obligation.
- "I must wash up." He said he must wash up/he had to wash up.
- "I needn't be at school today." He said he needn't be/didn't have to be at school that day.
- "We must do it in June." He said they would have to do it in June.

If the modal verb must does not express obligation, we do not change it.
- "We must relax for a while." (suggestion)
He said they must relax for a while.
- "You must be tired after such a trip." (certainty)
He said we must be tired after such a trip.

Atasözleri, ünlü kişilere ait özdeyişler ya da değişmeyen gerçekler zaman değişikliğine

uğramazlar:
- The scientist said ‘Man cannot live without water.’
The scientist said (that) man cannot live without water.

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 10.1. Reported question

Reported “Yes-No” question

In a “yes-no” question, the quoted question begins with an auxiliary verb form such as “is, are,
am, do, does, has, have, can, will, must”. The expected answer is either “yes or no” (+ or -).
A reported “yes-no” question also begins with the main clause, but is followed by the content of
the quote as it relates to the speaker in time, person, place, and direction, at the moment of
speaking. A subordinating marker “if or whether” links the reported speech to the main clause.
This type of question is reported by using “if / whether + clause”.

• Ask: request information. My father always asks if I am well. (Most commonly used!)
• Inquire: request information (formal). Mr. Smith inquired whether my family was well.
• Question: settle doubt, challenge someone's answers. My father questioned if we were being
truthful. (not be used with quoted speech)
• Request: ask for. Mr Jones requested information about whether we were hiring or not. (not
be used with quoted speech)
Asked
Wondered / inquired
Wanted to know / to learn / to find out
Was / were anxious to know
Was/ were eager to learn
Was / were curious to find out
[Anxious: endişeli, kaygılı, istekli; Eager: istekli, hevesli; Curious: meraklı, ilgili ]

- "Are you tired?" She asked whether I was/were tired.

- "Do you live here?” She inquired if I lived there.
- "May I come too?" She asked whether she might come too.
- "Can I help?" She asked if she could help.
- "Will you leave soon?" She inquired whether we would leave soon.
- "Must you do that?" She questioned if I had to do that exactly then.
- "Are you working?" She asked whether I was/were working.
- "Were you married?" She asked whether I had been married.
- "Did you get married?" She asked if I had gotten married.
- "Were you calling?" She asked whether I had been calling.
- "Have you called yet?" She asked if I had called yet.
- "Have you been calling me?"She asked if I had been calling her.
- "Do you like dancing?" *She asked whether I like dancing.
- "What shall we learn today?" She asked what we should learn today.
- "May I open a new browser?" She asked if she might open a new browser.

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Examples:
- “Do you like English?” He asked me if I liked English.
- Are you going to Tom’s wedding? She asked me if I was going to Tom’s wedding.
- "Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had come by train.
- Have you bought a new outfit for it? She wondered whether I had bought a new outfit for it.
- “Do you suppose you know better than your father?” His angry mother jeered and asked if he
supposed that he knew better than his father.
- "Do we have enough money for gas?" My friend wanted to know whether we had enough
money for gas.
- "Is your brother coming too?"My friend asked if my brother was going too.
- "Can you drive us?” My friends ask whether I could drive them.

Reported Question Words

When we are reporting questions is that there is no inversion (or change of the word order) of
subject and verb in reported speech and no do/does/did when the question is reported. “Bana,
ona” sordu durumunda “ask” kullanılır.

- "How are you now?" She asked how I was then.

- "Where are you going today?" She asked where I was going that day.
- "Whom did you call yesterday?" She asked whom I had called the day before.
- "Whom were you calling last week?" She asked whom I had been calling last week.
- "Where have you been recently?" She asked where I had been recently.
- "How have you been doing so far?" She asked how I had been doing up until then.
- What’s the matter? She asked me what the matter was.
- How do you feel today? The doctor asked her how she felt.
- Where are you going? I wanted to know where she was going.
- Who is that girl in the red dress? I wondered who that girl in the red dress was.
- How did you make this salad? I wondered how she’d made that salad.
- “How much does that cost? He asked me how that cost.
- “When will you come back? He wanted to when I should come back.
- “How did you do it? I asked him how he had done it.
- “What time is it? He asked me what time it was.
- “Where can I find him? He wondered where he could find him.
- “Whom did you see at the station? He asked me whom I had seen at the station.
- “What are you doing here?” He asked me what I was doing there.
- “Where are you going?” The Policemen asked us where we were going.
- “Will you listen to such a man?” He asked them if they would listen to such a man.

Note: “would like to find out” ifadeleri ile 1. Dereceden past almaz.
Example: “where have you been?” They would like to find out where I have been.

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 10.2. Requests, Advice, Promises or Instructions

If you want to report “requests, advice, promises or instructions”, it can sometimes be done fairly
simply by using this construction.
Formulation: Subject + Reported verb + pronoun (somebody) + (not) to + infinitive + something
Reported Verbs: told, advised, asked, warned, ordered, promised, requested, shouted,
commaned
- Could you show me where the shops are?
He asked me to show him where the shops were.
- Can you lend me $50? Then he asked me to lend him $50.
- Don’t come and visit me yet. I’m infectious!
She advised me not to come and visit her as she was still infectious.
- Don’t go too near the edge of the cliffs. It’s too dangerous.
They warned us not to go too near the edge of the cliffs as it was too dangerous.
- Turn the music down! I’m trying to get to sleep.
He told us to turn the music down as he was trying to get to sleep.
- I told them to turn the music down as I was trying to get to sleep.
- I think you should leave now. It’s very late.She ordered us to leave as it was very late.
I ordered them to leave as it was very late.
- I’ll write to you as soon as I get back home.
- She promised to write to me as soon as she got back home.
I promised to write to her as soon as I got back home.
- He said to Mary, “Please wait here till I return.” He requested Mary to wait there till he
returned.
- “Call the first witness”, said the Judge.
The Judge commanded them to call the first witness.
- He shouted, “Let me go.” He shouted to them to let him go.
- He said, “Be quite and listen to my words”. He urged them to be quite and listen to his words.

Orders, instructions, directions, imperatives:

Order: sipariş, instruction: talimat, direction: direktif, imperative: emirler
- “Sit down!” He told me to sit down.
- “Don’t smoke, children.” The teacher told the children not to smoke.
- “Don’t drive too fast!” My mother told me not drive too fast.
- Raja said to John, “Go away.” Raja ordered John to go away.

Exclamation and the wishes:

“The Indirect Speech” is introduced by some verb expressing “Exclamation” and “Wishes”.
- He said, “Alas! I am undone”. He exclaimed sadly that he was undone.
- Alice said, “How clever I am?” Alice exclaimed that he was very clever.
- He said, “Bravo! You have done well.” He applauded him, saying that he had done well.
- “So help me, Heaven!” he cried, “I will never steal again”.
He called upon Heaven to witness his resolve never to resolve.

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Reporting suggestions and commands:
There are a few verbs like “suggest” or “insist” that require the subjunctive when they are used in
reported speech. This is very difficult to get right, so if you want to impress your friends, learn it!
- Let’s go to Brighton for the weekend.
Why don’t we go to Brighton for the weekend?
I suggested that we should go to Brighton for the weekend.
I suggested we go to Brighton for the weekend.
- You must do the washing up before you go out.
I insisted that she should do the washing up before she went out.
I insisted that she do the washing up before she went out.
I commanded her to do the washing up before she went out.

10.3. Special forms (parahrave) in reported speech

Reporting verbs: claim, accuse, boast, threaten, advise, exclaim, inquire, deny, insist, suggest,
shout, wonder, remind, beg, admit, whisper, protest, complain, inform, agree, instruct, demand,
apologize, accept, offer, greet, refuse, decide. Okey, All right gibi ifadelerle başlayan tırnak içi
ifadelerin aktarımı, rapor edilmede kullanılır.

“Thank you.” He thank me

“Hello.” He said. He greeted me. He hailed the army.

Apologize to sbd for + Ving sth: özür dilemek

Apologize to sbd for having + V3 something: özür dilemiş olmak
- “I am sory. I broke your glass.” He apologized to me for having broken my glass.

Offer sbd sth: önermek

Offer to do sth for sbd: önermiş olmak
- “Would you like a cup of coffee?” she asked. She offered him a cup of coffee.
- “Shall I carry it for you?” he asked. He offered to carry it for me.

Complain about sth: Şikayet etmek

Complain to do sth: Şikayet etmiş olmak
- “There is too much noise here.” she asked. She complained about the noise.
- How to complain about human rights treaty violations. İnsan hakları antlaşması ihlalleri nasıl
şikayet edilir.

Promise to do sth: Bir şey yapmaya söz vermek

Decide to do sth: Bir şey yapmaya karar vermek
- “I will help you with the washing up.” She said. She promised to help me with the washing
up.

Accept to do sth: Çay, kahve, süt kabul etmek (X refuse, turn down, reject)
Admit doing sth: Suçunu kabul etmek (X deny doing something)
Admit having + V3 : Yapmış olduğunu kabul etmek (X deny having done something)

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 Agree to do sth g: Öneri, işi teklifi kabul etmek
- “Yes, I broke the glass,” he said. He admitted having broken the glass. [Kırmış olduğunu …]

Denied having + V3 :
- “I didn’t steal the necklace,” he said.
He denied having stolen the necklace. [çalmış olduğunu …]

Accuse sbd of doing sth: birşeyi yapmakla suçlanmak

Accuse sbd of having done sth: birşeyi yapmış olmakla suçlanmak
Charge sbd with doing sth: birşeyi yapmakla suçlanmak
Charge sbd with having done: something birşeyi yapmış olmakla suçlanmak
Blame sbd for doing sth: birşeyi yapmakla suçlanmak
Blame sbd for having done sth: birşeyi yapmış olmakla suçlanmak
- “You have stolen the money.” He accused me of having stolen the money.
- He accused me of stealing a car.
- He accused me of having stolen a car.

Remind sbd to do sth: birisine birşey yapmasını hatırlatmak.

Remind me to V: birisine birşey yapmasını hatırlatmak.
Don’t forget to V: birisine birşey yapmasını hatırlatmak.
Informed (sbd) that + 1.past: bilgilendirmek, haberdar etmek.
- “don’t forget call me.” He reminded to call him.
- He told me not to forget to call him. [Orders, Instructions, Directions, Imperatives
bölümünde anlatılan emir ile aktarım]
- “The minister will arrive at the station at exactly 9:30.” He informed.

Put the blame on sbd: suçu birinin üzerine atmak

Blame it on sbd: suçu birinin üzerine atmak

Threaten to do sth: bir şey yapmak ile tehdit etmek.

Exclaim: bağırmak. [direct cümlede kullanılır.]
Shout: bağırmak
Protested that + clause: pretesto etmek

Whisper: fısıldamak – direct cümlede kullanılır.

Wonder: merak etmek, sormak, acaba
- “Hey, can you hear me?” “Hey, you can hear me, ” he exclaim.
- “I will tell you a secret.” whisper
- “didn’t you see the red light?” shout
- “Somebody forgot this hat. I wonder whose hat this is.”

Beg sbd to (not) do something: birisine birşey yapmak için yalvarmak, rica etmek.
- I beg you to believe that I care very deeply for your daughter.
Boasted that + 1.past: öğünmek

Eager to V: Istekli olmak

- He boasted that he could speak even Arabic.
- “Why are they crying?” She was eager to learn why they were crying.

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 Claim that + 1.past: iddia etmek, talep etmek
Claim to V
Claim + noun

Insist: ısrar etmek. [1 ve 2 çekimsiz, 3. Ise on preposition ile kullanılır.]

- She insisted that I go to her party. She insited that I should go to her party.
She insisted on my going to her party.

Suggest, recommend, advise

- He suggested that we (not) go to the cinema. [çekimsiz]
He suggested that we should (not) go to cinema. [çekimsiz]
He suggested going to the cinema.
He suggested us to go to the cinema.
Note: Yukarıdaki fiillerden sonra somebody gelirse sonra “to” gelir.
Note: advice: öneri [noun], advise: önermek [verb]
- The Prime Minister highly recommended that every one use less electricity at home and that
people not waste water.
- “You should stop smoking.” The doctor advises me to stop smoking.

Example:
A: “What time should she start to work?”
B: I suggest that she should be here about 8:30. I suggest that she be here about 8:30.
I suggest being here about 8:30. I suggest her to be here about 8:30.

Consider: dikkate almak, gözönünde bulundurmak, düşünmek

- I consider that she is intelligent. I consider her to be intelligent.
- I consider her as an intelligent person. I consider her intelligent.
- She is considered as being intelligent. She is considered as an intelligent person.
- She is considered an intelligent person. It is considered that she is intelligent

Regard: saymak, bakmak, göz önüne almak

- I regard that she is intelligent.

View: görünüm, incelemek, seyretmek, görüş alarak görmek

- I view that she is intelligent.

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Examples

- Your daughter is upset because there is a lot of unpleasantness going on in her class. She
says that one girl in particular has been telling lies and trying to manipulate the other girls in
the class. You know that this girl’s parents were recently divorced, and you think that this may
be the reason for the girl’s behaviour. You want your daughter to understand this, so you say:
Have you thought about the possibility that this girl is acting this way because she feels
insecure after her parents’ divorce?

- Your friend, who was recently widowed, tells you that he has made plans to get married. You
think it is still far too early for your friend to be thinking about re-marriage as he hasn’t yet had
time to recover from the loss of his wife. You want to tell him this in a gentle manner so as not
to make him angry or hurt his feelings. You say: Are you sure you’re ready to take such a big
step? Why not wait a while?

- The FBI said that although she had sent and received sensitive material there was no
evidence of intent.
- The Cuban foreign ministry said (that) the ship was carrying obsolete Soviet-era arms from
Cuba for repair in North Korea.
- He says that if any such evidence existed, it would have been published in a scientific journal.

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 11. Relative Clauses
İsimleri niteleyen sıfat cümlecikleri ilgi zamirleri (relative pronouns) kullanılır.
Niteleme, tanımlama zamirleri: that, which, who, whom, whose.
Relative Clause’da tekil ismi tanımlayan cümlede fiil “es” takısı alır. Noun clause’da yan
cümle tekil olsa bile fiil “es” takısı almaz.
- It is earth’s gravity that gives people teir wight.

Relative clause:
• That: tanımlayıcı (defining) sıfat cümleciklerinde who, whom yerine de kullanılır.
• Which: replaces for things. Canlı olmayan varlıklar ya da insan dışındaki canlılar niteleneceği
zaman relative clause, “which” ya da “that” kullanılır.
• Who: replaces person in subject to ask which person does an action or which person is a
certain way.
• Whom: replaces person in object. Whom" is an object pronoun like "him," "her" and "us." We
use "whom" to ask which person receives an action.
• Whose: Özneleri farklı olan iki cümlede tanımlanan isimli cümle tanımlayan cümlede sahiplik
içeriyorsa, hem insanlar hem de nesneler için whose kullanılır. Nesneler için nadiren “of
which” de kullanılır.

Sınavda gramer sorularında bir isimden sonra boşluk verilmişse, aranacak ilk seçenek sıfat
cümleciği olmalıdır. İndirgemeye dikkat edilmelidir. Cümle tamamlama sorularında isimle fiil
arasında boşluk var ise seçeneklerde “who, whose, which (that)” aranmalıdır. Sıfat cümlecikleri
niteledikleri ismin sonuna gelir, bundan dolayı sıfat cümmleciğinden önce isim gelir..
 “, ___.” yapısında boşluğa “that, in, at” gelmez.
 “The belief, idea, fact, reality, view” den sonra which gelmez, that gelmelidir.
 “___fiil / yardımcı fiil” var ise bu boşluğa “who, which, that” gelir. Diğerleri gelmez.
 N + preposition (in, on, at, during..) + “which or whom” uyumuna dikkat edilmeldir.
Preposition’dan sonra bağlaç “that” gelmez.

Sıfat cümleciklerinde noktalama:

Ek bilgi veren sıfat cümleciklerinden sonra virgül “,” gelir.
… , which /when /where /whose + cümle
… , preposition + which + cümle
… , miktar belirteci + which + cümle
…, Ving ( sadeleşen aktif sıfat cümleciği )
…, V3 ( sadeleşen pasif sıfat cümleciği )
“That” den önce asla virgül gelmez. Çünkü “that” ek bilgi veren sıfat cümleciklerinde
kullanılmaz.

“Coordinator which” tekil fiil alır. “Coordinator which” bir cümleden sonra gelir. Bir cümle
indirgenmiş yapının önünde bulunur.

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 11.1. Defining relative clauses

Özneyi niteleyen sıfat cümlecikleri

Özneyi tanımlayan ya da niteleyen sıfat cümleciklerinde “who, whom, that” kullanılması:

Cümlenin öznesi hakkında tanım ya da niteleme yapılır. İki cümlede de aynı özne söz
konusudur. İsim ile fiil arasına girer.
- A man studies. A man will learn quickly. A man who studies will learn quickly.
- All that she said is true.
- The man who visited you on Sunday was a teacher.
- The man who speaks is a teacher.
- The boy who passed the exam is happy.
- The woman who is a nurse is sitting in the back of the train.
The woman who is sitting in the back of the train is a nurse.
- The man who/that is wearing a blue hat wants to go to hospital.
- The people who were standing in the line to get into the theater were cold and wet.
- The teacher who teaches us English is in the classroom.
- The woman whom we saw at the zoo last night is a doctor. (Dün gece hayvanat bahçesinde
gördüğümüz kadın doktordur.)
- The boy whom you like very much is my friend's brother. (Çok beğendiğin erkek, arkadaşımın
kardeşidir.)
- The woman that/whom my mother is talking to is a pilot. Annemin konuştuğu kadın pilottur.
- The boy whom you have got this book from is my brother.
- Some years ago when I went to Auckland, New Zealand, for the first time, my hosts were a
couple, about my age, whom I had met while travelling in Europe.
- The woman that was sitting in front of me at the movie was wearing a big hat.
- Even most Berliners who lived through the event remember little about it.

- In 1915 the German scientist Alfred Wegener, who had noted a similarity between the
geographical shapes of South America and Africa, proposed that all the land masses had at
one time been joined into one huge supercontinent.

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Özneyi niteleyen sıfat cümlecikclerinde “which / that” kullanılması:
- The book is on the table. The book is mine.The book which is on the table is mine.
- The data that gathered during the experiment are observations.
- The car which is on the left belongs to my father.
- The film which I watched last night was good.
- The apples which we bought from the market were too sour.
- The horse that I ride is white.
- The bridge that (which) they have built is not safe.
- The table which my boy likes has a very hard surface. Oğlumun sevdiği masanın çok sert bir
yüzeyi var.
- The cat which/that my sister likes much is my friend's cat.
- The diamond which/that we are looking for is very valuable. Aradığımız elmas çok değerlidir.
- The table which has very thin legs is very sensitive. Çok ince bacakları olan masa çok
hassastır.
- During the wars that followed the French Revolution, Belgium was occupied by France and
later annexed.
- During the 1990s, the country that was viewed by American leaders and many others in the
West as the most important challenge for a transition to democracy was Russia. (Cümlenin
basit olarak ifadesi: “During the 1990s, the country was Russia.” Adjective Clause kullanılarak
isim “the country” nitelendirilmiştir.)
- The global ocean is a huge body of salt water that surrounds the continents and covers
almost three – fourths of earth’s surface.

Those that,
Those who …: … olanlar, … yapanlar
“Those who …” kalıbı insanlar için zamir ile çoğul alarak “… olanlar / yapanlar” anlamına gelirler.
- The people who came late ... Geç gelen insanlar
Those who came late … Geç gelenler
- Those of you who would like to answer the question their hands.
- People who exercise frequently have greater physical endurance than those who don’t.
- Of the thousands of varieties of bird species in North America, those that have bright red
plumage, like the cardinal, are most often designated as state bird.

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 Nesneyi ve Tümleci niteleyen sıfat cümlecikleri

Nesneyi ve Tümleci niteleyen “who, whom, that” sıfat cümleciği (Object-Complement). Özneler
farklı olabilir.
- Do you remember the boy that I was talking about?
- He is a man whom we all admire.
- I saw the boy who was running.
- This is the man whom I saw yesterday.
- I met a man who was 115 years old.
- He was an archeologist, who lived in the nineteenth century.
- Africa Report is a weekly TV programme that focuses on business and investment in Africa.
- The Caucasus is a strategically vital region that could play a critical role in the European
Union’s future energy security.
- Many parts of rural America continue to reflect the values and traditions of the European
immigrants who arrived in the country during the nineteenth century.
- An old friend of yours, whom you haven’t seen for years, wishes to see you as soon as
possible and, on the telephone, asks for an appointment.
- Lately, there has been quite the confusion around the International Tribunal that indicated
Yugoslavian President Slobodan Miloseviç and other Yugoalavian leaders on war crimes.
(Cümle analizi: “Lately”, Present Perfect tense olduğunu; “ has been” o günlerde bir karışıklık
olduğunu; “that” bağlacı who/whom yerine kullanıldığı görülmektedir.)

Nesneyi veya tümleci niteleyen “which / that” sıfat cümleciği (Object or complement)
- I stayed at a hotel which was in the center of the city.
- That is the picture which caused a lot of sensation.
- Children like the stories which he writes.
- You can't sit on the chair which the legs are broken. Ayakları kırık olan sandalyeye
oturmamalısın.
- Water is a chemical compound that consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

Belirsiz Zamirlerin (Indefinite Pronouns) nitelendirilmesi ya da tanımlaması:

Belirsiz zamirler, adların yerini tuttukları açıkça belli olmayan zamirlerdir.
One / Two
whom (insan)
Both / Some
+ of which (cansız)
All
whose
Neither / None

- There were severel girls. None of whom seemed good enough for him.
- Mary is one of the students who have done honor to the college.
- (Explanation: Adjective clause modifies the plural noun "students." "Students" is the
antecedent of "who." In the above sentence Mary is just one of the students. So at least two
students have done honor to the college.)
- Mary is the only one of our students who has achieved national recognition.
(In this case, "one," not "students," is the antecedent of "who.")
- Of all our students, Mary is the only one who has achieved national recognition.
(Of all + noun: içerisinde, arasında)
- He is only one who understands me.

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 Whose: kimin

Özneler farklıdır. Tanımlama ya da nitelik eki gösteren ilgi zamiridir. Whose’dan sonra gelen isim,
tekil ya da çoğul olsun, yalın halde olmak mecburiyetindedir. “whose” dan sonra “a, an, the, my,
..” kullanılmaz.
"Whose" is a possessive pronoun like "his," "her" and "our." We use "whose" to find out which
person something belongs to. “Whose” yerine sahiplenme zamirleri kullanıldığında, iki cümle
ortaya çıkar ve anlam dğişmez.

- I know the girl whose brother is a movie star.

I know the gril.
The girl’s brother is a movie star.

- The man whose car was stolen called the police.

The man called police.
The man’s car was stolen.

- The boy whose pencil you are using is my friend.

You are using the boy’s pencil. Whose pencil are you using?
The boy is my friend.
- This is the man whose son is so clever.
This the man.
The man’s son is so clever.

- The people whose house we bought were friendly.

We bought the people’s house. The people whose house we bought.
The people were friendly.

- The dog whose tail is very long eats more than the others.
Kuyruğu çok uzun olan köpek diğerlerinden daha çok yiyor.
The dog’s tail is very long.
The dog whose tail is very long. Kuyruğu çok uzun olan köpek

- The man whose dog bit me last week called me to say sorry.
Geçen hafta köpeği beni ısıran adam özür dilemek için aradı.

- The person whose money you have stolen must not be worried!
- The boy whose friends will meet here at nine O’clock is Tom.
- I saw the man from whose son you bought the car.
- The policeman whose watch a thief stole last week is very sad.

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Explanation:
whose + noun
whom
whose + adj. + noun = the noun of +
which (cansızlar, hayvanlar)
whose + adv. + adj. + noun

Exam questions:
- A woman whose son came back to Turkey after working in Germany says returning workers
need more support.
- The technology that truly promises to end the tyranny of distance is high-speed broadband,
whose benefits we are still only beginning to understand though it has already been a decade
since the frenzied dotcom era.
- The social sciences are a range of disciplines within the arts and humanities whose principal
concerns are the study of various aspects of society. Bu cümlede”whose” kaldırılıp yerine
nokta ve sonra Their kullanıldığında iki cümle ortaya çıkar ve anlam değişmez.
The social sciences are a range of disciplines within the arts and humanities.
Their principal concerns are the study of various aspects of society.

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 11.2. Coordinators

Coordinators (which,who, whose) are used, after a comma in writing, to add more information
about the thing, situation, or event you have just mentioned. Türkçesi “ve bu da ki / ve buda olup
ki” indirgenmiş hali “to be” fiili hariç “Ving” dir.
Remark: “Coordinator which” tekil fiil alır. “Coordinator which” bir cümleden sonra gelir. Bir cümle
ya indirgenmiş yapının önünde bulunur.

- A well-known large naturel lake is Lake Tahoe, which straddles the California-Nevada border.
- He passed the test, which was wonderfull. He passed the test, which made us happy.
- The engine accumulated dust, and this impaired its function.
The engine accumulated dust, which impaired its function.
The engine accumulated dust, impairing its function. (İndirgeme, Participle)
- We used to go into dark house when we were children, which was very stupid. Çocukken
karanlık evlere girerdik, ki bu çok aptalcaydı.
- My doctor lent me some money, which pleased me a lot. Doktorum bana borç para verdi, ki
bu beni çok memun etti.
- It was raining heavily, which made it difficult to walk. Şiddetli bir yağmur yağıyordu, ki bu
yürümeyi zorlaştırıyordu.
- Several demonstrations were held, which caused the police a lot of trouble.
Several demonstrations were held, causing the police a lot of trouble.
Note: I like Istanbul, which is the most populous city in Turkey. Cümlesi Coordinator which
değildir.

Test Questions:
- Héviz is Europe’s largest warm-water lake and visitors can swim there even in winter, which
helps extend the tourist season.
- Missions to the Moon’s previously unvisited mountains and polar regions will aid the search
for water, which is vital to any future lunar base to be setup by NASA.
- The Bermuda Triangle, which is off the southeastern Atlantic coast of the US, is noted for a
high incidence of unexplained losses of ships, small boats and aircraft.(Explanation: off the
southeastern Atlantic coast to describe something that is situated near or next to land, but
which is not exactly on the coast. )
- While some argue that the Elgin Marbles, which are kept in the British Museum in London,
are more carefully preserved there, the Greek government does not accept the legality of the
sale that took place in 1816 and believes they belong in Athens.
- The Kaesong complex, which is located just inside North Korea, is home to more than 120
South Korean factories which employ some 53,000 North Korean workers.
- The earth, which is the fifth largest planet in the solar system, is the third planet from the sun.
- Linguistics is a young social science, which has recently had a massive expansion in almost
all areas.
Dilbilimi, son zamanlarda hemen tüm alanlarda muazzam bir genişleme sağlayan, genç bir
sosyal bilimdir.

Non-defining clauses give extra information about the noun, but they are not essential.

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“Non-defining relative clause” cümleden atılsa bile cümlenin anlamı değişmez, sadece ek bilgi
verilmemiş olur. Bu nedenle “non-defining relative clause” kesinlikle iki virgül arasına alınır.
- The American Academy of Poets, which was founded in the1930’s, provides financial
assistance to support working poets.
- The children who don't want to go to the doctor are making a lot of noise. (Doktora gitmek
istemeyen çocuklar çok gürültü yapıyor.) Burada “defining relative clause” tarafından
nitelenen, sadece, “Doktora gitmek istemeyen çocuklar çok gürültü yapmaktadır, diğerleri ise
gürültü yapmamaktadır.”
The children, who don't want to go to the doctor, are making a lot of noise. (Çocuklar ki
doktora gitmek istemiyorlar, çok gürültü yapıyorlar.) Bu cümlede anlaşılan; bütün çocuklar
doktora gitmek istememektedir ve istisnasız hepsi gürültü yapmaktadır.
- The desk in the corner, which is covered in books, is mine.
- I used to like my grandmother, who was always whale to me. Çok severdim büyükannemi, ki
bana hep sert davranmıştır.
- The police towed my car, whose tires were flat, to the police station. Polis arabamı çekici ile
çekti ki, tekerlekleri patlaktı.
- The Suleymaniye, where I've prayed many times so far, is the most magnificent mosque in
the world. Süleymaniye, ki orada ben çok defa namaz kıldım, dünyadaki en muhteşem
camidir.
- Our's Mats teacher's bag, which was stolen last week, was in a shop this morning.
Matematik öğretmenimizin çantası, ki geçen hafta çalınmıştı, bu sabah bir dükkandaydı.

“Some, all, most, both, none, either, neither, half” türü kelimelerden sonra “of” ve relative
pronounlardan “whom” ve “which” tercih edilerek non-defining relative clause'larda
nitelenen ismin bir kısmı, tamamı, ikisi,… yarısına parmak basılır. If a preposition is used
with the relative pronoun, this preposition can either precede the pronoun or follow the verb.

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 11.3. Prepositions in adjective clauses

Eylemlerin aldığı preposition’lar ilgi zamirlerinden önce de kullanılabilir. Nitelenen isim kendisini
niteleyen cümlenin öznesi ya da nesnesi olsun bir şey değişmez.
Preposition + whom (insan)
Preposition + which (cansız / hayvan)
Preposition + whose + noun (possessive)

Kullanılmayan yapılar:
Preposition + that + clause
Preposition + that in + clause
Preposition + who / where / when …

We use relative pronouns after a noun, to make it clear which person or thing we are
talking about:
- the house that Jack built
- the woman who discovered radium
- an eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop

to tell us more about a person or thing:

- My mother, who was born overseas, has always been a great traveller.
- Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
- We had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal.

The relative pronoun can also refer to the object of a preposition. In informal styles, the
preposition comes after the verb:
- The house which Mozart was born in is now a museum. (defining relative clause)
The house that Mozart was born in is now a museum. (defining relative clause)
The house Mozart was born in is now a museum. (defining relative clause)
- Mr Pierce, who I talked to just now, sends you his regards. (non-defining relative clause)

We use relative clauses and relative pronouns like who, which, where to introduce them in
order to identify people and things or to give more information about them.
- That boy who is standing at the bus stop over there is my little brother.
- My new camera which I bought on the internet last week is broken.
- The High Street jeweller's which bought and sold silver and where you could get a good price
by bargaining has closed down.

The preposition is placed before the pronouns whom:

- That is the teacher. I studied with teacher last year.
That is teacher whom I studied with last year.
That is teacher that I studied with last year.
That is teacher I studied with last year.
That is the teacher with whom I studied last year.

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 - The man is over there. I told you about him.
The man whome I told you about him is over there.
The man I told you about him is over there.

- The boy from whom you have got this book is my brother.
The boy whom you have got from this book is my brother.

- Mr. McHugh, to whom I spoke on the phone yesterday, is coming tonight.

- Mr Pierce, to whom I talked just now, sends you his regards. (non-defining relative clause)

Mekan isimleri niteleneceği zaman “at which” veya “in which” yerine “where” tercih edilir.
- The house where we live is quite convenient.
The house in which we live is quite convenient.
The house which we live in is quite convenient.
- The house where the actor stays is the most great house in the city. Aktörün kaldığı ev
şehirdeki en büyük evdir.
- The room where I was born has at least a fourty bouses. Doğduğum hastane en azından kırk
tane oda vardır.
- A library is a place in which we can study. A library is a place where we can study.
- Crocodiles are found near swamps, lakes, and rivers in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Central
America, where they are often seen floating in the water like logs, with only their nostrils,
eyes, and ears above the surface.

The preposition is placed before the pronouns which:

Preposition’lar bazı durumlarda relative clause'ın sonunun yerine başlangıçta yazılabilir. İşte bu
hallerde yalnızca “which” tercih edilir, that tercih edilmez.
- I have been much interested in the social history of the marketplace in medieval England, on
which I plan to write a book.
- The movie was interesting. We went to it.
The movie that we went to was interesting.
The movie which we went to was interesting.
The movie to which we went was interesting.
The movie we went to was interesting.

- I know the street on which you live.

I know the street which you live on.

- I want to tell tell you about the party. I went to it last night.
I want to tell tell you about the party which I went to last night.
I want to tell tell you about the party to which I went last night.
I want to tell tell you about the party where I went last night.

- The country about which I am studying is France.

The country which I am studying about is France.

- I want to sit on the table which/that is at the corner. Köşedeki masaya oturmak istiyorum.
- They are seeing the cat which/that a dog is barking at. Köpeğin havladığı kediyi izliyorlar.

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 - The diamond which / that we are looking for is very valuable. Aradığımız elmas çok değerlidir.
The diamond for which we are looking is very valuable.

- They are seeing the cat which / that a dog is barking at. Köpeğin havladığı kediyi izliyorlar.
They are seeing the cat at which a dog is barking. Köpeğin havladığı kediyi izliyorlar.

- Every foreign writer’s perspective on China is shaped by the country, in which he grew up.
Her yabancı yazarın Çin’e bakışı, içinde büyüdüğü ülke ile biçimlenir.

- The house in which Mozart was born is now a museum. (defining relative clause)

Zaman zarfı niteleneceği vakit “on which” veya “in which” yerine “when” tercih edilebilir.
- Sunday is the day when we are going to meet. Pazar buluşacağımız gündür.

Sebep niteleneceği vakit “for which” yerine “why” tercih edilebilir.

- He didn't tell me the reason why he resigned. Bana istifa etme sebebini söylemedi.
- This is the reason why I don't like him. Ondan hoşlanmamamın sebebi bu.

Whereby,
By which,
Because of which: … yolu ile, … vasıtası ile
Sıfat cümleciği olarak kullanılır. Bir ismi niteler. Bir ismin tamamlayıcısı olabilir.
- Learning a language is a process whereby new vocabulary and grammar structures are
acquired. Bir dil öğrenmek, yeni kelime ve gramer yapıları yardımıyla elde edilen bir süreçtir.
- They have introduced a new system whereby all employees must undergo regular training.
Tüm işçilerin düzenli eğitime tabi tutulduğu yeni bir sistemi getirdiler.
- In fact, it was a slow and long process whereby England was transformed into a modern
state.

What (in the relative clauses):

What kullanılarak oluşturulan cümlecikler relative clause'lardan biraz değişiktir. What aslında
nitelenen ismi de kapsar ve the thing which veya the things which diye telafuz edilir. What
clause'larda hem özne hem de nesne olarak tercih edilebilir.
- That is what I wanted to her.
- What he bought was very expensive. (Onun satın aldığı şey çok pahalıydı.)
- What you said surprised me. Senin dediklerin beni şaşırttı.
- What we saw last week was terrible. Geçen hafta gördüklerimiz korkunçtu.
- I found what I wanted. Aradığımı buldum.
- Was what you said interesting? Senin söylediğin şeyler ilginç miydi?
- Did what I did annoy you? Benim yaptıklarım seni kızdırdı mı?

531
 QW_ever (in the relative clauses):

Whoever: kim olursan ol,

Whatever: ne olursa olsun
Whichever: hangisi olursa olsun
Whenever: ne zaman olursa olsun
Wherever: nerede olursa olsun
İlgi zamiri olarak kullanılırlar.
- Whoever telephones, tell, I am out.
- You can have whichever you like.
- In fact, on Earth, wherever we find water, we find life.

Adjective Clause’da sağlamcı teknikler

Düşün Sağlayıcı
Who He, they Kim
Whom Him, them Kimin ile
Whose my, your, her, his, its, our, their Kimin
Which It, they, them
Where There
When Then
Coordinator Which (and) this
Note: Sorgulayarak cümleyi kurgulanırken “preposition” aynen kalacak, atılmamalıdır.

Examples:
1) I met the woman … husband is the president of the corporation.
Sorgulamada boşluğa “her husband” ifadesiden “her” nesne - sağlayıcı olması gerektiği
görülmektedir. “her” karşılığı “whose” olmalıdır.
I met the woman whose husband is the president of the corporation.
2) Many of the people … came to the party last week had traveled many miles to get there.
They came to the party last week. (Özne-who)
3) The teacher was delighted when the students … she had taught for over two years, all
passed the exam. [Boşluktan sonra öznesi olan cümle var ise “whom” kullanılır. ]
4) She was engaged to a pilot … she had met in Ankara. Boşluktan sonra öznesi olan cümle var
ise (whom)
5) She spent many hapy holidays with Peter, … she had first met in Alanya.
Him -> whom
6) Tom often saw Jill, … he had the greatest respect.
He had the greatest respect for him.
For him-> for whom
Tom often saw Jill, for whom he had the greatest respect.
7) This happened in 1960’s, … I was still a baby.
When did this happen in 1960’s?
This happened in 1960’s, when I was still a baby.
8) Do you know the woman … across the street.
Do you know the woman who lives across the street.
Do you know the woman living across the street.

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9) Have you met the new office boy … last week?
Have you met the office boy who was hired last week?
Have you met the office boy hired last week?

- All of the world’s major national parks are included on the map, ---- are most of the important
reserves of lesser status. Bu cümlede “which” kullanılmaz. “that” bağlacından önce virgül
gelmez; “as” bağlacı kullanılır.

533
534
 12. Conjunctions
Bağlaçlar cümleler arasında bağlantı kurduklarından dolayı yapıda en az iki cümle vardır.
Bağlaçlar cümlenin başında, ortasında veya sonunda olabilirler.

Bağlaçlar,
 Coordinating conjunctions
 Correlative conjunctions
 Sentences connector
 Adverbial clauses
 Prepositional Phrases
 Conditional

İp Uçları

Bağlaçlarda özne ve konu bütünlüğü çok önemlidir. Soru şıklarında önce özne benzerliği
aranmalıdır. Konu bütünlüğünde olumlu, olumsuz koşullar bağlaç türüne göre
anlamlandırılmalıdır.

Boşluktan sonraki yapılar:

 Cümle
 Verb : fiilin yalın hali bu durumda 4 adet bağlaç vardır; to, as, so as to, in order to
 Ving
 N /NP

Noktalama işaretleri:
 “So that, whereby, when, whenever, while, so long as” bağlaçlarından önce virgül gelmez.
 Zaman bağlaçları virgülden sonra gelmez.
 Birden fazla cümle arasındaki bağlantıyı sağlayan “Coordinating Conjunction” bağlaçlarından
önce mutlaka bir virgül (,) vardır. [ FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So ].

Prepositional Phrase:
 “Because of” parellellik ister.
 As a result of, due to, in case of birbirlerinin yerine kullanılır.
 Despite/ regardless of + Noun/noun phase
 Because of /after+ Noun/vVing
 “In case of” type-1 ana cümlede will ya da modal görülmesi gerekir.

Conditonal:
 Unless:olmadıkça, ana cümle olumsuz, ya cümle olumlu olduğunda.
 “as if” kendinden önce bir takım davranış ve benzetme fiilleri ister.
 “Even if” bir zıtlık bağlacıdır. İçerisinde “if” olduğu için “if” li yapılar ile çalışmak ister.
 Unless: if tip1 yapısında kullanılır. Unless tarafı olumsuz olduğu için diğer cümleninde olumsuz
olması gerekir.

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Correlative conjunctions:
 Neither nor, iki ayrı cümle bağlar
 İki cümlenin her iki tafaında parellellik var ise (Söz gelimi … to …, … to …) ; not only but also,
either or, and kalıpları kullanılır.

Zaman zarfı:
 “Until” ve “before” aynı anlama gelmektedir. Zaman uyumu şarttır.
 Zaman zarfı ile zaman bağlacı bir arada bulunmaktan hoşlanmazlar. “Until” zaman zarfıdır.
 “Still” zaman bağlacıdır. “Still” görüldüğünde zıtlık bağlacına öncelik verilmelidir. “Still”
olumsuzu işaret eder.

Adverbial zaman bağlacı:

 Aynı anlamda aynı yapıda olan şıklar elenmelidir. However, even so, on the other hand
 “Because” iki olumlu cümleyi, ya da iki olumsuz bir cümleyi bir araya getirir.
 That is + Noun/adj
 As’den sonra cümle geldiğinde “gibi” anlamına gelir. As’den sonra isim geldiğinde “olarak”
anlamına gelir.
 “But for” type-2 yapısındadır.
 As well as: and. I like tea as well as coffee.
 Whenever yapısında iki tarafta simple present tense olmak zorundadır.
 “So that” cümle ortasında yer alır. Yan cümlesinde Modal yapıya ihtiyaç vardır.
 Whereas: İki tarafta zıtlık bildirir.
 Since then + Clause
 “While” cümleciği iki cümleyi hem zaman hemde zıtlık yönünden bağlar.

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 12.1. Coordinating conjunctions

The two independent clauses are joined together with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
- She didn’t press the bell, but I did.
- I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying English at university.
- I go to the park every Sunday, for I love to watch the ducks on the lake.
- The soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter, but it’s better in the heat of summer.

A compound sentence can be created by joining the two independent clauses with a semicolon.
- The road runs through a beautiful wooded valley; the railway line is parallel to it.
- Terry always slept with the light on; he was afraid of the dark.
Terry always slept with the light on because he was afraid of the dark.
Terry always slept with the light on, as he was afraid of the dark.
- The night was extremely cold; frost covered the windowpanes.
- There is no need to be frightened; he is a very friendly dog.

Birden fazla cümle arasındaki bağlantıyı sağlayan bu bağlaçlar mutlaka iki cümle arasında
bulunurlar. Cümlenin başında bulunmazlar. “Coordinating Conjunction” bağlaçlarından önce
mutlaka bir virgül (,) vardır. [ FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So ].

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:
- She is kind so she helps people.

And: ve

And: ve (Paralellik, sıralama bağlacı)

“And” is used to join two words, phrases etc. referring to things that are related in some way.
Take two independent clauses and join them together with the conjunction and: "The door
opened.", "The man walked in.": The door opened, and the man walked in.
- It was snowing heavily, and there was a storm.
It was snowing heavily and there was a storm. (Nadiren virgülsüz)
- David gave away his stamp collection, and he got rid of his coins.
- Residents were reported trapped in their homes and cars, and strong winds and icy roads
caused motorway accidents and forced school closures in parts of the US.
- The astronomical unit is the average distance of the earth from the Sun, and it is the standard
of distances in the Solar System.
- A group of space aliens are invading the earth and kidnapping sexy, good looking and highly
intelligent older man for various experiments.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
- He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.
He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

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 For: için, zira

For: için, zira (edat olarak, “için”; bağlaç olarak iki cümlecik arasında “zira” anlamındadır.)
“For” is used to introduce the reason for something. “For” means the exact same thing as
“because”. The only difference is that when you use “for” to join two sentences together into one
compound sentence, you need to use a comma before it. When you use “because” to join to
sentences, you don’t use a comma before it.
- The day broke, for the birds were beginning to sing.
- The pond was stocked with trout in April, for the supply of fish was down last year.
- I can not tell whether she is old or young, for I have never seen her.
Note: Bu yapı “for + noun” kullanımı ile karıştırılmamalıdır.

Or: veya, yahut, ya da

Or: veya, yahut, ya da (eşdeğerlik bağlacı alternatifleri gösterir)

“Or” is used between two words or phrases to show that either of two things is possible.
- We must hurry, or we will be late.
- You would better have a friendly relationship with your boss, or you will lose your job.
- The grain shipment had to be sent, or there would be much starving in the provinces.

“Or” bağlacı “eğer yapmazsak” anlamında “if” anlamı da verir.

“Or” is used to introduce another choice or possibility:

- Would you like tea or coffee?

“Or” is used in negative statements to introduce something else that is also not true.
- We couldn’t stop or get out of the taxi.

“Or” is used to say what will happen if a specified thing is not done.
- You have to go to the job interview or you won’t get a job.

“Or” is used to introduce the reason why something said previously is true.
- He must have passed the exam or he would be upset.

“Or” is used to introduce a word or phrase that defines or explains what another word or phrase
means.
- Adiós, or in English goodbye, is what we say to each other when we’re leaving.

Examples:
- Be careful, or you’ll make grammatical mistakes.

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 But: ama, ancak, fakat

But: ama, ancak, fakat (zıtlık ifade eder)

- Science may be the theater, but engineering is the action on the stage.
- We may not know very much about butterflies, but they are certainly very beautiful.
- The mountains surrounding Los Angeles effectively shield the city from the hot, dry winds of
the Mojave Desert, but they also prevent the circulation of air.
- The car is beautiful, but it is so expensive.
- I sent an e-mail to him last month, but I haven't had a reply from him yet.
- I gave him my address, but he didn't contact me.
- Oxygen, sugars and amino acids are allowed into brain, but most other substances are kept
out.
- It's an old car, but it's very reliable.
- They rushed to the hospital, but they were too late.
- We've invited the boss, but she may decide not to come.
- According to the legend, she was approached by Apollo, but she refused to respond to his
love.
- Our oceans fell from the sky, but not as rain.
- Enthusiasts in some countries had been building small rockets and thinking about space
travel for many years, but it was a team of scientists and engineers in Germany that finally
made the dream a reality.
- Several species of birds in Vietnam vanished during the war, but they began to reappear in
the 1980s and their gradual return has been encouraged by Vietnamese villagers.
- Compared to its Balkan neighbours, Greece is an wealthy country, but it remains one of the
poorer members of the European Union.
- An ideal anticancer drug would destroy cancer cells without harming normal cells, but no
such drug exists.
- The island groups in the Pacific are often called “Oceania,” but this name does not imply that
they are the remains of a continent.
- In Egypt, a number of oil deposits have been discovered in recent years, but it is unlikely that
oil will play a major role in the country’s economy in the near future.
Son yıllarda Mısır’da birçok petrol yatakları keşfedilmiştir, ancak petrolün, yakın gelecekte
ülke ekonomisinde önemli bir rol oynaması muhtemel değildir.

Positive Sentence, but + negative auxiliary:

- Jack is rich, but John isn’t.
- They are good, but those aren’t.
- I was at home, but Sue wasn’t.
- Mary studies hard, but Sam doesn’t.

Negative Sentence, but + positive auxiliary:

- I didn’t watch the film, but she did.
- I can’t speak English, but he can.
- Jim will not be there, but Morris will.

539
 Nor: ne de

Nor: ne de (or’un olumsuzu olup iki alternatiften hiç biri anlamındadır.)

“Nor” means “also not”. “Nor” requires unusual grammar. The first sentence will contain a
negative verb. The second sentence will contain what looks like an interrogative affirmative verb
form. An auxiliary verb (do /does /did, is /am /are /was /were), modal verb (can /could /will /would
/may /might /must /should), or be main verb (is/am/are/was/were) comes after “nor” and before
the subject, and then the main verb comes after the subject.
- I don’t want to visit anybody, nor do I want anybody to come to me.
- She doesn’t drink milk, nor does she eat butter.
- I can’t whistle, nor can I sing.
- He didn’t study last night, nor did he read his book.
- They were not wearing jackets, nor were they carrying umbrellas.

So: bundan dolayı, böylece

So: bundan dolayı, böylece (sonuca götüren bağlaçtır)

- These newcomers often end up not finding the opportunities they are looking for, so they
become part of the urban poor.
- The temperature was five degrees below normal in February, so home heating bills rose by
fifteen percent.
- I was feeling hungry, so I made myself a sandwich.
- It was snowing heavily, so we cancelled the match. Çok kar yağıyordu, bu nedenle (bundan
dolayı) maçı iptall ettik.
Note: Sonuç gösterdiği için asla cümle “So” ile başlamaz.

Yet: halbuki

Yet: halbuki
- Kelly was a convicted criminal, yet many people admired him.
- I was expecting him to be a great man, yet he amounted to nothing.
- There are hundreds of mental or cognitive ability tests available worldwide, yet the number of
people who value their results remains very low.

Note: “Yet” Cümle sonunda ve Present Perfect Tense ile henüz anlamında kullanılır.
- I have not finished my work yet.

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 12.2. Correlative conjunctions

When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about verb, subject agreement and parallel
structure.

Açıklama:
 Aralarında karşılıklı ilişki ya da bağlantı olan aynı cins iki gramer yapısını birbirine bağlar.
 İlkinde hangi yapı kullanılmışsa ikincisinde de aynı yapı kullanılır; Sözgelimi ilkinde sıfat
var ise ikincisinde de sıfat; ilkinde zarf gelmişse ikincisinde de zarf, ilkinde fiil var ise
ikincisinde de fiil gelmelidir.

İkili olarak kullanılırlar:

Both ... and,
not only ... but also,
either ... or,
neither ... nor,
whether ... nor,
as ... as,
such ... that,
scarcely ... when,
as many ... as,
no sooner ... than,
Hardly ... when/before: tam _mıştı ki … oldu
Scarcely ... when/before: tam _mıştı ki … oldu
rather ... than.
Rather ... then: …dan ziyade …. Oldu
Prefer … to …: … yı … ya tercih ederim.
Prefer + to + V1: … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih ederim.
Prefer + Ving : … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih ederim.

Both … and: hem... hem de, (eşit mesafede durur)

- Both your friends and your family should support you.

- He is both intelligent and good-natured.
- You should enter both the date and the time.
- Both the man who is at the corner and the man who is in that shop are from Japan.
- Generally, social media platforms can be thought of as virtual meeting places which function
to encourage the exchange of media content among users who are both producers and
consumers.

541
Not only … but also: sadece ... değil ... aynı zamanda

- Not only my daughter but also my wife is in the kitchen.

Both my daughter and my wife are in the kitchen
- He is not only running, but also trying to talk on the phone.
- This car is not only fast but also comfortable.
- She is not only clever, but also hard-working.
- She not only speaks English but also Italian.
- If this project fails it will affect not only our department, but also the whole organization.
- It is important not only to know the law but also to follow it.
- He not only discovered the law of floating objects, or specific gravity, but also formulated with
scientific exactness the principles of the lever, the pulley, and the screw.
- Countries are interested not only in their absolute economic welfare, but also in how well they
are performing compared to other countries.
- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was not only a poet and an author but also the chairman of the
modern language department at Harvard university for more than eighteen years.
- She used her artistic capacity not only to support her family but also to represent human
suffering

“Not only … but also” yapısı iki cümleyi de birbirine bağlayabilir. İki cümleyi bağlarken “also” ya
cümlenin sonunda ya da fiilden önce kullanılır ya da hiç kukullanılmaz. Cümle sonunda
kullanıldığında “also” yerine “as well” de kullanılabilir.
- Poluton not only does harm to environment but it (also) endangers the life on the earth (as
well). Kirlilik sadece çevreye zarar vermez. Aynı zamanda yeryüzündeki hayatı da tehlikeye
atar.

“Not only” iki cümleyi birbirine bağlarken cümlenin başına gelirse “not only” yapısının olduğu
taraf devrik olur.
- Not only can he make people laugh, but he can also make the cry. O sadece insanları
güldürmüyor aynı zamanda ağlatabiliyor da.

“Not only … but also” yapısında “only” yerine “just, merely, solely, simply” zarfarı da kullanılabilir.
- He not just works but he goes for walk every morning as well. O sadece çalışmıyor, aynı
zamanda her yabah yürüyüşe de gidiyor.

Either … or: ya ... ya da

- They will send it either today or tomorrow. (Ya bugün ya da yarın gönderecekler.)
- Either you leave now or I call the police!
- I will either go for a walk or read a book.
- You must register either by phone or by email.
- When modern coastal fish-farming began 30 years ago, no one was doing things right, either
for the environment or the industry’s long-term sustainability.

542
Neither ... nor: ne ... ne de (neither /nor)

“Neither … nor” olumlu cümlelerde kullanılır, ancak kendisi olumsuz olduğundan cümlenin anlamı
da olumsuz olur.
- A vacuum will neither conduct heat nor transmit sound waves.
- I love neither flowers nor roses. (Ne çiçekleri ne de gülleri severim.)
- He is neither rich nor famous.
- Neither doctors nor scientists can accurately predict who will become schizophrenic.
- In the current financial crisis, Italy is alone among the big European countries in having
neither a bank rescue fund nor a stated figure for the sum it is ready to make available.

Whether … or …: ister o ister öbürü / ya o ya da öbürü

Whether … or (ikisinden hangisi / …mi yoksa ...mi)
Whether yapısında bir tarafında cümle diğer tarafına ise isim gelir.
- He is trying to decide whether to be a teacher or a historian.
- Have you decided whether you will come or not?
- He doesn't know whether to apologize or walk away.
- Someone's got to tell her, whether it's you or me.
- Let's face it - you're going to be late whether you go by bus or train.
- He seemed undecided whether to go or stay
- Whether it is a stone or rock …

If ... then: eğer ... ise, sonrası ...

- If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
Eğer bu doğruysa, olan şey şaşırtıcı değil.

What with ... and: ... ile birlikte

- What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives.
Tüm teyzeleri, amcanları ve kuzenleriyle birlikte, çok akrabası var.

No sooner … than … : _mesiyle _mesi bir oldu, (as soon as)

No sooner had + Clause (V3) + than …+ Past simple: _mesiyle _mesi bir oldu.
Subject + had + no sooner + V3 + than …+ Past simple: _mesiyle _mesi bir oldu.

No sooner is used to show that one thing happens immediately after another thing. It is often
used with the past perfect, and usually followed by than:
- They had no sooner arrived than they were arguing.
- We had no sooner started cooking than there was a power cut and we had no electricity.
- I had no sooner closed the door than somebody knocked.
Kapıyı tam kapatmıştım ki biri kapıyı çaldı.
- We no sooner sat down in the train than I felt sick.
Trende tam oturmuştuk ki midem bulandı.

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 When no sooner is used in front position, we invert the order of the auxiliary verb and subject.
This is common in more formal and literary styles:
- No sooner had they started their walk than it started to rain.
- No sooner did Israel declare its independence in May 1948 than its five neighbouring states
invaded it.
- No sooner had he reached the corner, than the bus came.
- No sooner had I entered through the door than the phone rang.
Kapıdan girmemle telefonun çalması bir oldu.
- No sooner had we arrived at the cinema than the film started.
Sinemaya gelmemizle filmin başlaması bir oldu.

Hardly ... when/before: tam … olmuştu ki … oldu

Scarcely ... when/before: tam … olmuştu ki … oldu
Heriki tarafta da cümle var. Cümleler genelde past tense olur. (Simple past, past perfect, past
perfect continuous, past continuous)
- Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.
- Scarcely had we started watching the movie when they came. (Filmi izlemeye henüz
başlamıştık ki onlar geldi.)
- I had hardly/scarcely closed my eyes when the phone rang. Gözlerimi kapatmamla telefonun
çalması bir oldu./Tam gözlerimi kapatmıştım ki telefon çaldı.
- She was hardly/scarcely inside the house before the kids started screaming. Tam eve girmişti
ki çocuklar çığlık atmaya başladı.
- I had hardly begun to work, when I was interrupted.

Rather ... then: …dan ziyade …. Oldu

- I would rather go swimming than go to the library.

Prefer … to …: … yı … ya tercih ederim.

İki isim arasında tercih ederken kullanılır. Iki isim arasına “to” eki alr.
- I prefer tea to coffee. Çayı kahveye tercih ederim.

Prefer + to + V1: … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih ederim.

Prefer + Ving : … yapmaktansa … yapmayı tercih ederim.

- He prefers to drink a cup of tea rather than to eat a sandwich.
- I prefer drinking a cup of tea to eating a sandwich.

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Q1. The inhabitants of our village claim that pedestrians have no choice but to risk their
lives crossing the dangerous road as there is — a pedestrian bridge — a crosswalk.
A. not only / but also
B. both / and
C. neither / nor
D. no sooner / than
E. hardly / when

Heriki boşluğun hemen yaında isim yani parelellik var. D ve E şıkları olmaz, çünkü:
- I had hardly begun to work, when I was interrupted.
- No sooner had we arrived at the cinema than the film started.
Sinemaya gelmemizle filmin başlaması bir oldu.
Not only /but also ve both /and yapıları cümleyi olumlu yaparlar. Neither /nor ise cümleyi olumsuz
yapar. “But” olumsuzluk eki göz önüne alındığında doğru şık: C

Q2. Due to — a lack of production — increasing housing prices, Liverpool is now ranked
as one of the least affordable cities countrywide.
A. neither / nor
B. no sooner / than
C. scarcely / before
D. both / and
E. hardly / when

Due to + NP/OP/Ving: olmasından dolayı, olduğu için

“no sooner / than, scarcely / before, hardly / when” yapıları adverbial time clause olduğundan her
iki boşluğa da cümle gelmeliydi. Bu nedenle B, C ve E şıkları elenir. Cümlede olumsuz bir anlatım
olmadığından A. şıkkıda elenir. Doğru yanıt: D

545
 12.3. Adverb Clauses

Adverbial Conjunctions:
Ana cümleyi niteleyen ve zarf görevi yüklenen yan cümleciklere İngilizce'de "adverbial clauses"
denir. Zarf cümlecikleri cümlenin başına ya da sonuna gelebilir. Yan cümlecik başa
yerleştirildiğinde ana cümleden virgülle ayrılmalıdır.

Here are some common adverbial conjunctions:

Although, after, before, because, how, if, once, since, so that, until, unless, when, while, where,
whether.

Introductory adverb clauses are set off from the main sentence by a comma.
Adverbial conjunction + independent clause + , + independent clause.
- Because it is rainy today, the trip is canceled.
- Although Billy couldn’t swim, he jumped off the pier.
- Even if you pay for my ticket, I will not go.
- Though he had the right qualifications, he did not land the job.

Adverb clauses that follow the main idea are usually not set off with commas.
Independent clause + adverbial conjunction + independent clause.
- I will be coming straight home after I go to the store.
- She is in terrific condition because she exercises regularly.
- He did not land the job though he had the qualifications.
- He waved when he saw his girlfriend.
- Billy jumped off the pier although he couldn’t swim.

A subordinate clause usually gives essential information for the main clause. Therefore, it
should not be separated from it with a comma. However, when a subordinate clause is at the start
of a sentence, a comma is used because it helps readers by letting them know where the main
clause starts.

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions: After, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon
as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order that, once, provided that, since,
so that, though, unless, until, when/whenever, where/wherever, whether, while

Subordinate clauses are dependent on the main clause in some way and do not normally stand
alone. Note the way in which subordinating conjunctions also give meaning to the sentence:
• if suggests a condition
• when / whenever indicate time
• while suggests time or contrast of surprising facts
• because points to reason
• since suggests reason or time
• as suggests reason or time
• although / though / even though all indicate a contrast of surprising facts

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Subordinating clauses of this kind can normally go first or last in the sentence, depending on what
you want to emphasize:
- Whenever I babysit at their house, I am always very well looked after.
- I am always very well looked after whenever I babysit at their house.
- When I babysat for the Robinsons last month, I was given nothing to eat or drink.
- I was given nothing to eat or drink when I babysat for the Robinsons last month.
- While I am fond of their children, I think the parents are very mean. (BUT NOT: I think the
parents are very mean while I am fond of their children.)

Word order in subordinate clauses is first the subject, then the verb.
- I bought a book on history.I bought the book that you asked for.
- I know the way to his house.
- I know where he lives.
- He went home after work.
- He went home after he had finished work.

No future tense is used in subordinate clauses of time referring to the future (after the
conjunctions "when, till, until, after, before, as soon as, as long as, by the time", and some
others). The present tense, usually the Simple Present, is used instead of the future in clauses of
time.
- He will call you when he returns.
- I'll help you after I have dinner.
- I will wait until he finishes his work.
- I said that I would wait until he finished his work.

No future tense is used in subordinate clauses of condition referring to the future (after the
conjunctions "if, unless, in case, on condition that", and some others).
- If he calls, tell him the truth.
- I will talk to him if I see him.
- I won't be able to go with you unless I finish this work soon enough.

A comma is generally not used between the main clause and the adverbial subordinate clause if
the subordinate clause stands after the main clause. But a comma is used between them if the
subordinate clause stands at the beginning of the sentence before the main clause. Compare:
- She went for a walk in the park after she had finished her work on the report.
- After she had finished her work on the report, she went for a walk in the park.

A comma is used before the adverbial subordinate clause if the subordinate clause refers to the
whole main clause (not only to the verb in it). Such situations often occur in the case of the
clauses beginning with "though, although, whatever, no matter what" and "because". Compare:
- She was absent because she was ill.
- They must have been sleeping, because there was no light in their windows.

Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are
not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
- Oliver Ellsworth, the third chief justice of the United States Supreme Court, was the author of
the bill established the federal court system.
- Total color blindness, a rare condition, is the result of a defect in the retina.

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 - Parsley, an inexpensive herb, is often used in soups and sauces. Maydanoz, pahalı olmayan
bir bitki, genellikle çorbalar ve soslarda kullanılır.
- Jupiter, the closest of the giant planets to Earth, has no solid surface and is surrounded by
zoones of intense radiation.
- Tornados, powerful, destructive wind storms, occur most pften in the spring when hot winds
rising over flat land encounter heavy cold air.
- Willa Cather considered her novel of life in nineteenth-century Nebraska, My Antonia, her
best work.

Subordinators:
Subordinators are linking words that are used to join clauses together. They are used at
the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. A clause is a group of words that must contain
a subjectand predicate. There are two types of clauses:
 independent clauses - these can stand alone as a sentence by themselves
 dependent clauses - these make no sense by themselves.
Example

Common subordinators
Below are some examples of commonly used subordinators.
Comparison &
Cause / effect Time
Contrast

 Although  Since  After

 Though  So that  When
 Even though  Because  Until
 While  Whenever
 Whereas  Before
Possibility Place & manner
 if  Wherever
 as if  Where
 whether  How
 unless

548
Adverbial clauses function as adverbial modifiers. Adverbial clauses include several types of
clauses that indicate time, place, purpose, cause, result, condition, concession, manner,
comparison.

Adverbial clauses usually come after the main clause:

- Her father died when she was very young.
- She had a difficult childhood because her father died when she was very young.

Some subordinate clauses can come in front of the main clause:

- Although a few snakes are dangerous, most of them are quite harmless.
- Although she has always lived in France, she speaks fluent English because her mother was
American and her father was Nigerian.

The adverbial clause of time:

- He hasn't called me since he arrived.
- Call me as soon as you receive the report.

After the time referring conjunction (when, till, until, after, before, as soon as, as long as, by the
time, and some others) is not used future tense. The present tense, usually the Simple Present,
is used instead of the future in clauses of time.
- I will wait until he finishes his work.
- I said that I would wait until he finished his work.

The adverbial clause of place:

- This cat sleeps wherever it wants.
- Go down this street and stop where the road turns right.

The adverbial clause of purpose:

- He works hard so that he can buy a house for his family.
- He gave her detailed directions so that she could find his house easily.
- We left early in order that we might get there before the beginning of the wedding ceremony.

The adverbial clause of result:

- My car was repaired on Thursday so that on Friday I was able to leave.
- I have so much work this week that I won't be able to go to the concert.

The adverbial clause of reason:

- I can't come to the party because I have a cold.
- I called you because I needed money.
- Since she didn't know anyone there, she stayed in her room most of the time.
- As there are several possible answers to this question, let's discuss all of them.

The adverbial clause of comparison:

- He works as quickly as he can.
- Tom is older than I am.
- It looks as if it is going to snow.
- You sound as if you have a sore throat.

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Note that after "as if; as though", the subjunctive mood is used in cases expressing unreality.
- He looks as if he were old and sick.
- She described it as if she had seen it all with her own eyes.
- She loves them as though they were her children.

The adverbial clause of concession:

- Though he was tired, he kept working.
- Although it was already dark, he could still see the shapes of the trees.
- He didn't convince them, although he tried very hard.
- No matter what she says, call me at nine o'clock.
- Whatever happens, you must help each other.
- Find him, whatever happens.

The adverbial clause of condition:

- We will go to the lake on Saturday if the weather is good.
- If the plane left on time, they should be in New York now.
- If he has already seen the report, he knows about our plans.

Aafter the condition referring conjunction (if, unless, in case, on condition that, and some
others) is not used future tense.
- If he calls, tell him the truth.
- I will talk to him if I see him.
- I won't be able to go with you unless I finish this work soon enough.

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 12.3.1. Time

İp uçları:
Conjunctions that answer the question "when?";
Since then + Clause
Because of /after+ Noun/Ving
Present future tense + until /when/as soon as + present simple tense

Time clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to
another event.

Conjunctions: when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as

Time adverbial: until, till, still, always
hardly, scarcely, no sooner,

As

As : gibi
- It was not money as we know and understand it today.

As : … iken, (when, while≈ just as ≈much as)

- I nabbed him as he was going out the door. Tam kapıdan çıkarken onu yakaladım.
- As the prision warders were eating their lunch, the prioners escaped.
- She sprained her ankle as she was playing tennis.
- As I was walking down street, I met old friend.
- I saw Tom as he was getting off the bus. Tom’u otobüsten inerken gördüm.
- As the children were singing in the garden, it began to rain.
Çocuklar bahçede şarkı söylerken yağmur başladı.
- As I was finishing my homework, she began cooking.
- He was working as we were playing.
- I was there as she was telling that story.
- You don’t talk much as you are eating.
- As she was walking down the road, she was hit by a lorry.

Just as: Tıpkı … gibi, tam olurken

We may use “as” as an alternative to “when” when we are comparing two short actions or events
that happened or happen at the same period of time. We often combine it with just. Just as’in
diğer bir kullanım yeri ise zaman bağlacı olduğu yerdir. While anlamına gelen as’in başına sadece
just ekleyerek vurgulu bir anlatım elde edilir. “Just as” bağlacı sınavın cümle tamamlama
kısmında benzerlik ve paralellik için kullanılmaktadır. Tıpkı bilim adamlarının tahmin ettiği gibi
- Just as I was getting off a bus, …
- Just as it was planned, ….: tıpkı planlandığı gibi
- It swims on the seafloor just as it is ancestors did.

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- The nests birds leave behind provide clues about their lives and environment just as
archaeological sites supply glimpses of human history
- Just as I was leaving, the phone rang. Tam çıkarken telefon çaldı.
- We got to the bank just as they were about to close. Bankaya, tam kapatmak üzerelerken
yetiştik.
- Just as the poet starts with a blank sheet of paper and the artist with a blank canvas, so the
engineer today begins with a blank computer screen.

- The telephone rang (just) as I was climbing into my bath.

- We got to the bank just as they were about to close. Bankaya, tam kapatmak üzerelerken
yetiştik.
- Just as I feel pessimistic, so does my mom (Ben tam kendimi kötümser hissettim, anemde.
Çoğunlukla ikinci cümle so ile başlar ve cümle devrik olur. Agree – Disagree)
- In mythology, Apollo, who was the twin brother of Artemis, known also as Diana, was
considered to represent masculine physical perfection, just as his sister represented female
excellence.
Mitolojide, Diana olarak da bilinen Artemis'in ikiz kardeşi olan Apollo, tıpkı kız kardeşinin
kadın mükemmeliğini temsil ettiği gibi erkeksi fiziksel mükemmelliği temsil ettiği düşünülür.

When

Zaman bağlacı olarak “olurken, olduğunda, olunca” anlamı verir.

- You have to get up when the bugle blows.
- The Princess of Wales was killed in a car crash in 1997, when he was just 12.

Zaman bağlacı olarak “olması gerekirken, olması gerektiği halde” anlamı verir.
- When you should have gotten at least three million, you only got one million. En az üç milyon
alman gerekirken sadece bir milyon aldın.

Zaman bağlacı olarak “ olduğuna göre” anlamı verir.

- How can you buy a home when you earn two thousand liras per month.
- It was snowing when we arrived. Vardığımızda kar yağıyordu.
- He waved when he saw his girlfriend. Kız arkadaşını görünce el salladı.

Examples:
- It was snowing when we arrived. Vardığımızda kar yağıyordu. (Past continuous, Past simple)
- He waved when he saw his girlfriend. Kız arkadaşını görünce el salladı. (Past simple, Past
simple)
- When she called, I had already eaten lunch. (Past simple, Past perfect)
- I always leave home when the postman comes.(Present simple, Present simple)
- When she was ill, the doctor came home every day.
- When I fought back, one of them took out a gun and told me to stop resisting. I did.
- The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred on August
22, 1849, when the Austrians attacked the Italian city of Venice with unmanned balloons
loaded with explosives.

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 - With few exceptions, most totalitarian governments have become more liberal since 1989
when the Berlin Wall fell.
- In general, when credit demand is low, interest rates are correspondingly low.
- Workloads seem lighter when countered by antistress measures such as exercising, enjoying
time with friends and cultivating a hobby.
- The United Nations officially recognized the greenhouse effect in 1995, when its International
Panel on Climate noted that human activity had a discernible influence on global
temperatures.
- One of the world’s worst space flight disasters occurred on 28 January 1986, when the
shuttle Challenger exploded soon after take-off, killing the crew of seven.

Öncesinde verilen bir zaman ifadesini niteleyerek “adjective Clause” yapısı oluşturur.
- 1960 is the year when I was born.
- I can clearly remember the day when I saw you for the first time.

“Ne zaman” anlamında Noun Clause yapısı oluşturulur.

- I don’t know when she will come.
- Professor has asked me when I will hand the project.
- When they will arrive depends on the traffic.

When it comes to …: gelince, söz konusu olduğunda

- When it comes to renting or buying, you'll spend about the same amount.

Whenever: her ne zaman

Every time: her ne zaman

Whenever: her ne zaman

- Whenever you need my car you can take it.
- Whenever he comes home; he acts like a hungry dog.
- Whenever I go to sleep early, I have extraordinary dreams.
- This is especially true whenever its price increases sharply, and experts immediately get to
work to diagnose the cause and consequences of the price increase.
- Whenever I get angry and upset, I try to take ten deep breaths.

Every time: her ne zaman

- We can’t keep calling the doctor every time you get a headache.
- Peter gets drunk every time he drinks. Peter ne zaman içse sarhoş oluyor.

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 Since

Conjunction in Time Clauses; since: den beri

When “since” is used as a preposition to introduce a date or a specific time in the past, it is
normally used with present perfect and past perfect tenses. It refers to a period of time starting
at a particular point in the past and continuing up till now (present perfect) or up until another
point in the past (past perfect).

Genelde yan cümlecik V2, ana cümlecik V3 yapısındadır.

The tense in the since-clause can be past or perfect, depending on whether it refers to a point
in the past or to a period of time leading up to the present or, in the case of the past perfect,
leading up to a point in the past.

- It was only a week since we have known each other, but we are very much in love.
- They are a lot happier since they have been living apart.
- Since he left on Saturday, I haven’t seen him again.
- Since joining the company, Mike has been promoted twice.
- They have been quarrelling since they’ve been married. They’ve been happy since they’ve
lived here.

Conjunction in Reason Clauses; since: diği için, den dolayı, made ki (because, as)
- Since we've got a few minutes to wait for the train, let's have a cup of coffee.
- Since you are so wealthy, why don’t you just buy the whole building?
- She was late since there was heavy traffic.

Preposition; since + noun/time/date: den beri

“Since” + the start of a period:
since 1993, since the party, since he was 8 years old, Since this morning, since last week, since
yesterday, since Wednesday, since 2 o'clock.
(For + a period of time; for about seven years, for an hour, for 27 years, for a log time)
I haven’t seen him since this morning.
- I have worked here since 1990.
- I haven’t seen my younger brother since 14 July 1998.
- She has lived here since 1980.
- Alice has been married since March 2nd.
- They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday.
- I have been here since the accident.
- They’ve been on strike since the beginning of April and there’s no sign of it ending.
- I hadn’t visited the area since my childhood days and I noticed last summer how everything
had changed.

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Ever since: ta o zamandan beri
Since as a conjunction sometimes combines with ever to make ever since. Note also in these
examples that present and past tenses are possible in the main clause as well as the present
perfect:
- The company started losing money in 2002 and has been in serious decline ever since.
- I took my final exams five years ago and have been working as a doctor ever since.
- My father has not smiled ever since my mother died.

Since,
Since then: o zamanlardan beri (adverb)

“Since” zarf olarak kullandığında, mutlaka öncesi cümle yapısı V2 olmalıdır. Since yapısının
kullanıldığı cümle ise “have/has + V3” yapısında olmak zorundadır.
“Since” can also be used as an adverb. “Since then” refers to a particular point in time and ever
since to a period of time. Which one we use depends on whether we want to focus attention on
the point in time or on the continuing period of time.
- I saw her las week. I haven’t heard from her since. Onu geçen hafta gördüm. O zamandan
beri ondan haber almadım.
- She left home in 1992 and he hasn’t contacted us since then.
- The company started losing money in 2002 and has been in serious decline since then.
- He left this morning and we haven’t seen him since.
- He was sent to prison, but has since been released.
- Since, no one has lived here.
- Since then, I haven’t been able to sleep well.
- We have had no gas since the strike began.
- I have earned my own living since I left school.

Since when: Ne zamandan beri

- Since when do I need your permission?
- When did you start working here? A: Last August.
Since when have you been working here? A: Since August.
- I've been working for my present employer since 1998.
How long have you been working for your present employer?
Since when have you been working for your present employer?

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 While

Zaman bağlacı olarak kullanıldığında iki eylem ya da durumun eş zamanlı olduğunu gösterir.
Simple present tense/future tense + while + simple present continuous
- Every morning while running in the park I see one particular deer.

While: _iken
Zaman bağlacı olarak kullanıldığında iki eylem ya da durumun eş zamanlı olduğunu gösterir.
Structure: Simple present tense/future tense + while + simple present continuous.
- Every morning while running in the park I see one particular deer.
- Eight tonnes of crude oil are currently needed to create one tonne of polyol, which is an
alcoholic substance used in a number of plastics, while just 1.7 tonnes of corn yields the
same result.
Bir dizi plastikte kullanılan bir alkollü madde olan bir ton poliol oluşturmak için şu anda sekiz
ton ham petrole ihtiyaç duyulurken sadece 1.7 ton mısır aynı sonucu vermektedir.

While: irken (when, while, as , ≈ just as)

We can connect the past continuous and Past simple together by using the words “when, while,
and as.”
- While I was walking down the street, I saw an old friend of mine.
- While I was studying, he came in. (Ben ders çalışırken o geldi.)
- While you were in class, I was studying chemistry.
- He fell asleep while he was doing his English exercises. İngilizce alıştırmalarını yaparken
uyuya kaldı.
- She sprained her ankle while she was playing tennis. Tenis oynarken ayak bileğini burktu.
- While she was washing the dishes, the children played games. (O bulaşıkları yıkarken
çocuklar oyun oynadılar.)
- The pragmatic origins and uses of IQ tests have recently been emphasized, while the early
pioneers of intelligence testing were mostly interested in theoretical questions about the
nature of intelligence.

While,
At the same time: aynı zamanda, bununla birlikte
"At the same time" is used to refer to two or more events taking place simultaneously. "At the
same time "- refers to a specific moment.”In the same time "refers to duration.
- No one likes conflict. While, we have to deal with this problem.
- We listen at the same time the teacher talks.

Reduction of adverb clauses, time: while (during the same time)

- While I was watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
While watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
Watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door. [While can be omitted.]

Note: After the conjunctions "when" and "while" the present participle is used. Be very
attentive when reading the terms of the contract.
- We discussed those questions while preparing for the meeting.

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 As soon as (When, After): Hemen, olur olmaz

“As soon as” is very similar to “when” it emphasizes that the event will occur immediately after
the other. We usually use the simple present for future events. Although present perfect can also
be used. ASAP: as soon as possible.

- As soon as she saw me, she began to laugh. Beni görür görmez gülmeye başladı.
- I’ll tell him the news as soon as I see him. Onu görür görmez haberi vereceğim.
- I would like to go for a walk as soon as the rain has stopped.

On: Hemen, olur olmaz

On+ specific date

- On he had found somewhere to live he started looking for work.
- On signing this contract, you will have to obey the rules. =Once you sign this contract ...

Once: Hemen, olur olmaz

Once” sabısızlık gösterir. Once = (when, after, as soon as). “Once” can be used as a conjunction
meaning ‘after’, ‘as soon as’. It is most often used with a perfect tense.
Bağlaç olarak kullanıldığında “Hemen, olur olmaz, -ir –mez” anlamı verir. (Upon, on, as soon
as,when, just after).
- Once you push this button, the door will open.
- Once agricultural land, the Turkish authorities had turned it into a vast minefield in the 1950s
to prevent smuggling.
- We all stood up once he entered.
- Once we have acknowledged the painful memories of the past, we can begin to come to
terms with them.
- Once individuals lose status, either through separation from a partner or loss of “resource
earning potential” like job, money oor home, they become vulnerable to aggression and
displacement from high-ranking types within their social group.
- Once you are able to see yourself interacting with others you can work on extinguishing any
undesirable behaviours.

Bağlaç olarak kullanıldığında “bir … olursa” anlamı verir.

- Once he starts he will be obliged to continue. Bir başlarsa devam etmek zorunda kalacaktır.
- Once I make up my mind, nothing can stop me. Bir kez kararımı verdim mi beni hiçbirşey
durduramaz.

Once (adv): bir kere, bir defa

- She visits me once a month. O bizi ayda bir defa ziyaret eder.
- Evans, who once served on the John Kerry presidential campaign in the US, never left.

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 Once (adv): bir zamanlar, eskiden; (to be + once)
- It was once thought that infants could neither learn nor remember. Bir zamanlar yeni doğan
çocukların ne öğrendikleri ne de hatırladıkları düşünülürdü.
- There was once a theatre here. Burada bir zamanlar tiyatro vardı.
- Smallpox was once a dreaded human disease, but it was eradicated worldwide in the 1970s
by widespread vaccination.
Bir zamanlar çiçek hastalığı korkunç bir insan hastalığıydı, 1970 yılında yaygın olarak
kullanılan aşı ile dünya çapında kökü kurutuldu.

Only once: Sadece bir kez

- You can play with my new toy only once.
- Unlike fossil fuels, which can be used only once, wind and solar power are renewable
sources.

At once: immediately or without delay, o anda, derhal

- He realized his mistake at once.
Once + Verb in past form: in the past, at a time that is not stated
Van Gogh’s “Sunflowers” once sold for 39.9 million, three the previous record.

Upon:

Upon: olur olmaz, olduğu anda, olduğunda (= as soon as you arrive),

- Upon your arrival, please report to the reception desk.
Varışta lütfen resepsiyona rapor verin.
- Upon you get there, you’ll love it. Oraya varır varmaz orayı seveceksin.
- Upon arrival to the city, they often encounter lack of housing and infrastructure services.
Şehre vardıklarında, genellikle konut ve altyapı hizmetlerinin eksikliği ile karşılaşırlar.

It can be used instead of on after several common verbs, such as “happen, depend, insist and
congratulate.”
- He insisted upon seeing you even though I told him you were busy.
- A police patrol happened upon the robbers as they were running out of the bank.
- My whole future depended upon the decision of one manager.

Upon is also used to mean “immediately after”, as in

- Upon his release from prison, Davis went immediately to his mother’s house.

“Upon” can also mean “happening soon” and in this case it is not normally replaceable with “on”,
as “in”
- Christmas is almost upon us again.
- It’s June already and the exams will soon be upon us.

When used between two nouns that are the same, upon emphasizes the large number or amount
of the thing that has been mentioned, as in
- I’ve written to you year upon year but I have never received a reply.
- They drove for days across mile upon mile of open desert.

558
“Upon” is also used in a small number of phrasal verbs, notably “set, put and chance”. Set upon is
often passive and means ‘attack’, as in
- He was walking through the park when he was set upon by a gang of youths.
- If you feel put upon, you feel exploited because you are doing all the work while others relax.

Upon: … göre belirlenecektir.

- Contractor will be determined upon international tender results.
Yüklenici, uluslararası ihale sonuçlarına göre belirlenecektir.

Other time conjunctions

In the meantime,
Meanwhile: bu arada, aklıma gelmişken

- The hurricane will reach the island this evening; in the meantime, residents are being
evacuated.
- They'll be here soon; meanwhile, let's have coffee.
- The party is Saturday; in the meantime, we have to shop and prepare the food.
- Meanwhile a soccer game between Galatasaray and Fenerbahce on Sunday night has been
postponed.

Before: _meden önce

Before: earlier than a particular event or action.
- Before every presidential election in the United States, the statisticians try to guess the
proportion of the population that will vote for each candidate.
- We were ready to go before they came.
- I had done my work before you began.
- Before he goes out, it will begin raining.
- NASA is planning to send robots before it sends astronauts.
- There is much work to be done before grapes can be transformed into fine wine.

After: _dikten sonra

- She (had) left after I telephoned.
- He watched TV after he had finished his work. İşini bitirdikten sonra televizyon seyretti.
- You can go out after you finish your homework. (Ödevini bitirince dışarı çıkabilirsin.)
- We all go out after the bell rings.
- After she came, everbody really enjoyed at the party.
- The ship was seized by authorities in Panama after military cargo was found hidden in a
shipment of sugar.

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Afterwards,
Later,
Then,
Next,
Subsequently: daha sonra, ardından
- I watched a film on TV. Afterwards, I went out to meet my friends.
- First cook the onions. Later add the mushrooms. (Önce soğanları pişirin, sonra mantarları
ekleyin.)
- In early times natural plant products were used. Then/Next, a great variety of synthetic
substances became available.
- The epidemic broke out in a small village. Subsequently, it spread to the whole area.

Eventually,
At least,
After all,
At long last: sonunda, sonuçta, nihayet
- Imagine an industry that runs out of raw materials. Companies go bankrupt, workers are laid
off, families suffer and associated organizations are thrown into turmoil. Eventually,
governments are forced to take drastic action.
- They worked on the experiment for a long time. At last, they were able to obtain significant
results.
- The Duchess of Cambridge gave birth to a healthy baby boy on Monday. At long last, the
royal baby has arrived.
- I don't think he should be punished for breaking the window. After all, he's only five years old.

In the nick of time: son anda, tam zamanında, ucu ucuna

- In the nick of time, governments released reserves in order to start cash circulating again.

Since: _den beri

We use the present perfect (continuous) with since. “Since” can also be used with a specific
point in time.
- They have worked here since 1987.
- I’ve had several different jobs since I graduated from school.
- Since she left her husband, she has been too happy. (Kocasından ayrıldığından beri çok
mutlu.)
- I’ve been living here since I was born. (Doğduğumdan beri burada yaşıyorum.)

Until,
Till: oluncaya kadar
“Until and till” express up to that time. We use either the simple present or Past simple with 'until'
and 'till'. “Till” is usually only used in spoken English.
Structure: Future present tense until + simple present tense
She will wait for me until/till I finish my work.
- We shall study until we learn the answers of all questions.
- I stayed there until my girlfriend arrived.
- Tom lived with his parents till he was 30. (Tom, 30 yaşına kadar anne babasıyla yaşadı.)
- I have to keep writing until the end of next year.

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 - Until China becomes the most powerful nation in the world, with Chinese spoken universally,
English will remain the primary language of science and diplomacy.
Çin, dünyada en güçlü ulus haline gelinceye kadar, Çince ile birlikte evrensel olarak
konuşulan, İngilzce bilim ve diplomasinin ana dili olmaya devam edecek

By the time: _inceye kadar

By the time expresses the idea that one event has been completed before another. It is important
to notice the use of the past perfect for past events and future perfect for future events in the
main clause.
- We will have finished our homework by the time they arrive.
- By the time she was 13, she had already achieved worlwide fame.
- By the time the guards realized what was happening, the gangs were already inside the
bank. Korumalar ne olduğunu anlayıncaya kadar çete çoktan bankaya girmişti.
Zaman cümleciği “by the time” ile verilmiş ise, ana cümlede ya “will have V 3” ya da “had V3”
kullanılır.
"By: _e kadar" belirli bir zamanda ya da o zamandan önce oluşan bir olay için kullanılır.
- The book will be finished by the end of next year.

The first time: ilk defa

The second time : kinci defa
- The second time I played tennis, I began to have fun.
- The first time I went to New York, I was intimidated by the city.

At first : ilk başta

- At first, I didn’t believe a word of your story. Later, I understood that you are telling the truth.
- At first, I had great difficulty with grammar. Later, I was able to overcome these difficulties by
studying hard.

The last time: son defa, en son

We can use these forms to be more specific about which time of a number of times something
happened.
- I saw Jack the last time I went to San Francisco.

Directly,
Immediately,
The minute,
The instant,
The moment: _ir _irmez, _diği an
- The moment you drop the bomb it will explode.
- The baby started to cry the moment she saw me. Beni görür görmez ağlamaya başladı.
- She woke up the instant the phone rang. Telefon çalar çalmaz uyandı.
- Please call me the minute you get home. Eve varır varmaz/vardığın an lütfen beni ara.
- I came directly I heard what had happened. Ne olduğunu duyar duymaz geldim.
- She smiled immediately she heard the news. Haberi duyar duymaz gülümsedi.
- I’ll phone you immediately I hear any news. Haber alır almaz seni ararım.

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V + to + V: … olmaya
Uzunca bir süreye bağlı bir sonucu ifade eder.
- She lived to be 100. (= and she became 100.)
- The show went on to become a great success.

(Only) to V + ... : _meye, _mek için

(Only) to be + V3 + …: _diği için
Geçici bir durumu göstermek ve durumun ortaya çıkardığı sonucu ifade etmek için kullanılır.
- I rushed to the door to check it was locked. Kapının kilitli olduğunu kontrol için kapıya koştum.
- She turned the corner, (only) to find the car has gone. Köşeyi döndü, arabanın gitmiş
olduğunu gördü.
- The curtain parted, (only) to reveal a scene. Perde açıldı ve ortaya bir dekor çıktı.
- He had a few lines about the eyes, but at forty-seven that was only to be expected

No sooner … than … : _mesiyle _mesi bir oldu, (as soon as)

No sooner had + Clause (V3) + than …+ Past simple: _mesiyle _mesi bir oldu.
Subject + had + no sooner + V3 + than …+ Past simple: _mesiyle _mesi bir oldu.

No sooner is used to show that one thing happens immediately after another thing. It is often
used with the past perfect, and usually followed by than:
- They had no sooner arrived than they were arguing.
- We had no sooner started cooking than there was a power cut and we had no electricity.
- I had no sooner closed the door than somebody knocked.
Kapıyı tam kapatmıştım ki biri kapıyı çaldı.
- We no sooner sat down in the train than I felt sick.
Trende tam oturmuştuk ki midem bulandı.

When no sooner is used in front position, we invert the order of the auxiliary verb and subject.
This is common in more formal and literary styles:
- No sooner had they started their walk than it started to rain.
- No sooner did Israel declare its independence in May 1948 than its five neighbouring states
invaded it.
- No sooner had he reached the corner, than the bus came.
- No sooner had I entered through the door than the phone rang.
Kapıdan girmemle telefonun çalması bir oldu.
- No sooner had we arrived at the cinema than the film started.
Sinemaya gelmemizle filmin başlaması bir oldu.

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 12.3.2. Place

Place clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something. Indicate the place of
the action and answer the question where; they are introduced by "where, wherever, everywhere,
as near as, as far as".
Where : olduğu yer(d)e
Wherever : (her) nereye
Everywhere : her yere, her yerde
Anywhere : herhangi bir yerde

Wherever: (her) nereye

- He cannot go wherever he wants. (O istediği her yere gidemez.)
- My parents find me wherever I go. (Nereye gidersem gideyim ebeveynlerim beni bulur.)
- She was followed by photographers wherever she went. Nereye gittiyse fotoğrafçılar
tarafından takip edildi.

Where: _diği yer(d)e

- We would like to live in a place where it never rains. Hiç yağmur yağmayan bir yerde
yaşamak istiyoruz.
- I found my umbrella where I had left it. Şemsiyemi, bıraktığım yerde buldum.
- They didn't find him where they expected. (Onu umdukları yerde bulamadılar.)
- The accident took place where the Bosphorus meets the Black Sea.
- Crocodiles are found near swamps, lakes, and rivers in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Central
America, where they are often seen floating in the water like logs, with only their nostrils,
eyes, and ears above the surface.
- He has focused on moving the complexity of computing from the desktop to the network,
where it can be managed more easily.
- Management must learn to determine market conditions in the countries where it is doing
business.
- Road and rail connections in Italy are generally better in the north, where Milan, Bologna and
Verona are the key transport centres.
- Crocodiles are found near swamps, lakes, and rivers in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Central
America, where they are often seen floating in the water like logs, with only their nostrils,
eyes, and ears above the surface.
- Various fossils have recently been found in an Ethiopian valley where bones that span six
million years of human evolution have been dug up over the last 25 years.
Everywhere : her yere, her yerde

- Everywhere I turned, a dense forest of enormous trees reached dizzying heights of 34m, their
branches engulfing their surroundings with palm fronds 10m long and 4m wide.

563
 12.3.3. Purpose

He went to China so that / in order that he could learn Chinese.

He went to China in order to learn Chinese.
He went to China to learn Chinese.
He went to China in order not to forget Chinese.
He went to China so as to learn Chinese.
He went to China so as not to forget Chinese.
He went to China not to forget Chinese.

Clauses:
So that ,in order that: olsun diye, olmak için, olmak amacıyla
For this purpose: bu amaçla

In case, In the event that: Olur diye, olursa, olması halinde

Lest, For fear that: Olmaz ise, olmaz diye, olmaması halinde

Prepositional Phrase + V:
to + V1 /infinitive: individual purpose
So as to + V, In order to + V: olmak için, olmak amacıyla

Prepositional Phrase + Ving:

For + Ving: …den dolayı
With a view to Ving: olmak amacıyla
with the aim of + Ving: amacıyla

Prepositional Phrase + Noun

In the event of + noun, In case of + noun: Olması halinde, olması durumunda
For + noun

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 Clauses

So that ,in order that: olsun diye, olmak için, olmak amacıyla
For this purpose: bu amaçla

In case, In the event that: Olur diye, olursa, olması halinde

Lest, For fear that: Olmaz ise, olmaz diye, olmaması halinde

So that ,
in order that: olsun diye, olmak için, olmak amacıyla
“so that” ve “in order that” yapısından sonra gelen cümlelerde genellikle “can, may, will, could,
would, might” modallar öncelikli kullanılır. So that: in order to make something happen, make
something possible
- You must speak clearly … they can understand what you are saying. Ne dediğini
anlayabilsinler diye tane tane konuşmalısın.
- I turned off the radio … the baby could sleep. Bebek uyuyabilsin diye radyoyu kapattım.
- She wears the glasses … she will see beter.
- She is going by bus … she can get there earlier.
- I will buy some food … I can cook for the guests.
- I turned the music down in order that it shouldn’t disturb you. Seni rahatsız etmesin diye
müziği kıstım.
- They worked very hard in order that the building might be finished in time. Bina zamanında
bitirilebilsin diye çok çalıştılar.
- The bus stoped in order that some people could get on.
- I stood up, in order that I could see beter.
- I bought a story book in order that I might read in the train.
- I send my daughter abroud in order that she could learn English.
- They calls us in order that they hear the news. Haberleri ögrenebilmek için bizi ararlar.

For this purpose: bu amaçla

- The antique table needs refinishing. For this purpose, we are stripping away the old varnish
and sanding the wood.

Lest,
For fear that: Olmaz ise, olmaz diye, olmaması halinde
Az kullanılan bir bağlaçtır. Üst düzey İngilizce’de kullanılır. Genelde should ile kullanılır.
- I wore thick clothes lest I should not catch cold. Üşütmeyim diye kalın giysiler giydim.
- The technician checks everything carefully lest no problem arises during the operation.
Teknisyen, operasyon sırasında hiç sorun çıkmasın diye herşeyi dikatlice kontrol etti.
- He studied hard lest he might fail. Kalırım diye korkusuyla çok çalıştı.
- She left her husband for fear that he should give her a beating. Onu döver korkusuyla
kocasını terketti.
- The colonel forbids the soldiers to light fires for fear that the enemy might locate them. Albay
düşman yerlerini tespit eder korkusuyla askerlerin ateş yakmasını yasakladı.
- He reminded me for fear that I would forget the file. Dosyayı unuturum korkusuyla bana
hatırlattı.

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In case,
In the event that: Olur diye, olursa, olması halinde
“So that”, “olsun diye” anlamını verirken, “in case” “olur diye” anlamını verir. Diğer bir ifadeyle, “in
case” birşeyin olma ihtimaline karşı nasıl önlem alacağımızı ifade ederken kullandığımız bir
yapıdır. Tedbir, tehlike, önlem durumunda bu “if clause” ların önceliği vardır. Bu bağlaçlar ile
simple present, Past simple, should, may, might önceliklidir. (In case = If should.)
- I will take my umbrella in the event that it should rain. Yağmur yağar diye şemsiye alacağım.
- I will go to my mother in the event that she needs help. Yardıma ihtiyacı olursa diye anneme
gideceğim.
- I bought another concert ticket in case you wanted to come with me.
- We will close all the windows in case it rains while we are out.
- I will be home all night in case you need me. Bana ihtiyacın olur diye bütün gece evde
olacağım.
- Bring a map in case you get lost. Kaybolursun diye bir harita getir.
- You should wear your coat in case it is cold. Soğuk olma ihtimaline karşılık ceketini
giymelisin.
- You shouldn’t forget to take your credit card in case you may need money.
- Take some cash in case they don't accept credit cards.
- Give this to her in case she cries
- I will punish you in case you disobey the rules. Kurallara itaat etmemen halinde seni
cezalandıracağım.

Prepositional Phrase + V

to + V1 /infinitive: individual purpose

So as to + V, In order to + V : olmak için, olmak amacıyla

to + V1 /infinitive: individual purpose

If we want to express individual purpose with a verb pattern, we are obliged to use “to + infinitive”:
- I decided to buy a new computer.
- I stopped by at the supermarket to buy some apples on the way home.

Note that when the subject of the sentence is a person rather than the thing described, the “to +
infinitive” pattern is also possible:
- I use this small knife to slice vegetables with.
- I use this gadget to open shellfish with.

So as to + V,
In order to + V : olmak için, olmak amacıyla
We might use “in order to”, or “so as to”, to express individual purpose when we want to be more
formal or explicit about the reason for doing something. All of these structures answer the
question: Why…?.
- I went to bed early in order to get enough sleep before the exam.
- After four weeks of exams, I went to the seaside to rest.

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 - After twenty days of exams, I went to the seaside for a rest.
- After all those exams, I went to the seaside so as to have a good rest.

The “in order to” and “so as to” structures are particularly useful with stative verbs such as “be,
have, know, appear, and before negative inifinitives”:
- So as not to appear foolish, I learnt all I could about the company before going for the
interview.
- I'm going to move to the city centre in order to be near where I work.
- In order not to have to commute, she bought a flat in the town centre.
- In order to know more about him, she studied his movements carefully.
- We need to find out what is causing your pain. In order to understand this, we need to do a
series of tests.
- She wakes up early in order to be on time to work.
- They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of his wife.
- We have art in order not to die of the truth. (Friedrich Nietzsche)

Prepositional Phrase + Ving

For + Ving: …den dolayı

With a view to Ving: olmak amacıyla
with the aim of + Ving: amacıyla

With a view to Ving: olmak amacıyla

- These measures have been taken with a view to increasing the company's profits.

For + Ving: …den dolayı

For doing sth: used to say what the purpose of an object, action etc is
- In order to write on a blackboard, we use what? We use chalk to write on a blackboard.
What is chalk used for? It is used for writing stuff on a blackboard. Since you can answer a
question with your statement, it is correct usage.
What do we write with on a blackboard? We write on a blackboard with chalk.
- This book is useful for learning Asian cultures. (what)
This book is useful to learn Asian cultures. (why)
- They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party.
- Music educators give us many good reasons for playing.

with the aim of + Ving: amacıyla

- She studied English with the aim of becoming a bilingual accountant.
İki dilli muhasebecilik yapmak amacıyla İngilizce eğitimi aldı.

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 Prepositional Phrase + Noun

In the event of + noun, In case of + noun: Olması halinde, olması durumunda

For + noun

For + noun:
“For + noun” is commonly used with nouns to express individual purpose:
- I decided I would save up for a new computer.

In the event of + noun,

In case of + noun: Olması halinde, olması durumunda
“In case of” Türkçe karşılığı “in case” ile aynıdır, ancak kullanım farkı vardır. Devamında isim
getirilir. "in case + noun"
- Call me in case of any emergency.
- Take your umbrella in case of rain.
- The fire alarm will ring in case of fire.
- In case of first aid, don’t stir injured person. İlk yardım halinde yaralıyı kıpırdatmayın.
- In the event of rain, the parade is canceled.

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 12.3.4. Contrast – Zıtlık

 Zıtlık bağlacı (but, however, although, yet, whereas vb.) sorularında “but-may/can”
şeklindeki zıtlık olasılık, “most/many-but” şeklindeki çokluk-zıtlık ilişkisi ile “although-still”
ilişkisine dikkat edilmelidir.
 “Although” ile başlayan bu cümlenin fiilinin may veya can’li olması söz konusudur.
 However: Olumsuzluk ifade eder. Kendisinden sonra bir adverb veya adjectives alması
gerekir.

Zordu, “bununla birlikte, yine de” başardım.

However, Yet, Still : bununla birlikte, ancak, yine de

But : yinede, bununla birlikte
Nevertheless / Nonetheless : yine de
All the same : yinede
Even so : Buna rağmen, öyle bile olsa
Anyway /anyhow /in any case : her neyse

However, Yet, Still: bununla birlikte, ancak, yine de

- A dolphin is a mammal. However, it lives in the sea.
- Diamonds are a girl’s best friend. However, that kind of best friend is very expensive.
- Some teachers believe in memorizing dialogues. Still, others think that memorization is not as
good as engaging in natural conversations with native speakers.
- The first part of the play was rather boring. However, the second part was a really stimulating.
- The novel is 720 pages long. However, it reads more quickly than many shorter ones.
- Zambia's people have a literacy rate of 78%, which is high compared with many poor African
countries. Yet, it has only one library, one university and no television stations.
- I hadn’t seen her for 20 years. Still, I recognized her immediately when I saw her. Onu 20 yıl
görmemiştim. bununla birlikte onu görünce hemen tanıdım.

When two sentences show opposite situations, “however”, “in contrast”, and “on the other
hand” may all be used:
- Jill is wonderful at math; in contrast /however /(on the other hand), her brother is terrible at it.
- In most plays, however unreal may be the world presented to us, we are expected to regard it
temporarily as the real world.
Çoğu oyunda, bize sunulan dünya ne denli gerçek dışı olursa olsun, bizden onu geçici olarak
gerçek dünya gibi görmemiz beklenir.

When two sentences show weak contrasts “however” can be used, but “in contrast” and “on the
other hand” can't. For example, when one sentence is affirmative and the other is negative, or
when the sentences show ideas that contrast but are not opposite.
- He really wanted to stay in bed; however, he got up and went to work.
- Jill is wonderful at math, but/yet it's not her favorite subject in school.
- While /Altough / Though /Even though Jill is wonderful at math, it's not her favorite subject in
school.

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 “However” can also be used to introduce an unexpected result:
- Bob had a flat tire and traffic was very heavy; however, he made it to work on time.

Unexpected results can also be introduced by “but” or “yet”, but the punctuation is different:
- Lidia didn't study and had poor notes from the class lectures, but / yet she got a high mark on
the test.
Important Note: In formal writing, sentences do not begin with “but” or “yet”; also, do not write a
comma after “but” or “yet”.

However: bununla birlikte, ancak, yine de

- However little respect the British people may feel for the monarchy, they are still not likely to
change to a republic.
- However hazy their grasp of astronomy may be, most adults hold several beliefs with some
certainty.
- In the end, however, it was the Egyptians who had the last laugh.
- However, the Spanish one hears in South America does not always conform to what one has
learned in the classroom or heard on a cassette, and even competent Spanish-speakers find
it takes a bit of getting used to.
- However, prior to the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, several countries had made
claims to parts of Antarctica, some of which overlapped.
- However, with the coming of the inkjet printer it was soon possible to print really highquality
images.
- What he really seeks, however, are the most meaningful ones, and these vary from one
context to another.
- Chávez’s growing influence, however, means that a collapse in Venezuela could take much
of the continent down with it.
- However, as soon as tourism activity takes place, the environment is inevitably changed or
modified, either to facilitate tourism or through the tourism production process.
- According to a recent report, however, the muscles controlling the device have been
deteriorating, limiting him to as little as one word per minute.
- However, for artists and intellectuals, the period proved to be one of the most creative epochs
in the history of Europe.
- However, the Iranians have not come across with this state coincidentally.
- Spain had always tried hard to reclaim Gibraltar from Britain; however, in a referendum held
in 1967, the people of Gibraltar decided by a great majority to stay with Britain.
- However effective a drug may be, its functions have to be several.
- Senegal is a small African country with no strategic importance; however, ever since it gained
independence, it has always been in the forefront of African politics.
- The changing climate will have negative effects on all parts of the world; depending on
people’s location and lifestyles, however, there will be great differences in the subsequent
health hazards that human populations face.
- Until the outlines of a design are set down, however tentatively, there can be no appeal to
science or to critical analysis to judge or test the design.
- However, research has shown that the relationship between attitudes and behaviour is
complex.
- However, when you and your host are on the same wavelength, you can have a trip more
special than money can buy.

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 - However, for reasons that remain unclear, Mr Bush overlooked him, so his professional life
ended in frustration.
- The transformation of industry came more gradually. By the 1830s or 1840s, however, writers
and social thinkers in Europe were increasingly aware of unexpected and extraordinary
changes in their economic world.
- Germany and the US, however, dominated the rest of the steel industry.
- Recently, however, a new contender has emerged, and surprisingly it is from the cold outer
solar system: it is Jupiter’s moon Europa.
- Starting around 1270, however, Italian merchants began to sail through the Strait of Gibraltar
and on to the woolproducing regions of England and the Netherlands.
- Nothing in Rome’s earlier experience had prepared it, however, for the huge increase in slave
numbers that resulted from its western and eastern conquests.
- However, in spite of their extraordinary abilities, no hero is perfect.
- However, when interactions are anonymous or infrequent, behavioural cues cannot be read
against a background of known behaviour, so more general attributes must be used.
- The public is concerned when a well-known species like the tiger, whale, or mountain gorilla
becomes endangered; however, the majority of other cases are hardly ever noticed by the
public.
- However, the widespread international presence of the humble history textbook should not
disguise its ideological and cultural potency.
- However, it soon became clear that the Morgenthau Plan was causing serious economic
problems in Germany: deindustrialization caused agricultural productivity to plummet.
- However, with 9 billion people expected around 2050, moving on is not an option.

But: yinede, bununla birlikte

- Latin American countries on average export only about 10 per cent of their products to other
Latin American countries but almost 20 per cent of them to the US.
- Several species of birds in Vietnam vanished during the war, but they began to reappear in
the 1980s and their gradual return has been encouraged by Vietnamese villagers.
- Oxygen, sugars and amino acids are allowed into the brain but most other substances are
kept out.
- Tuscany attracts more than 12 per cent of all visitors to Italy, but just over 1 per cent of them
spend the night in Umbria, in the south of Tuscany.
- Gang violence is deplorable and cannot be tolerated, but simply “cracking down” on it is not
the solution.
- However little respect the British people may feel for the monarchy, they are still not likely to
change to a republic.
- Hybrid cars are certainly a step in the right direction, yet it is not possible to go much further
without any breakthroughs in battery technology.

Nevertheless / Nonetheless: yine de

- She appreciated the flowers; nevertheless, a Corvette would be a finer gift.
- That movie was extremely funny; nevertheless, it was a bit too tasteless for me.
- It is a difficult race. Nevertheless, about 500 runners/athletes participate every year. Zor bir
yarış. Bununla birlikte/yine de/buna rağmen her yıl yaklaşık 500 atlet (bu yarışa) katılır.
- I can't say I'm convinced that he is right. Nevertheless, his book is well worth reading.

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 - Winning an Olympic Gold Medal requires years of often painful physical training and little time
for a social life. Nevertheless, many athletes are willing to go through the struggle in order to
win.
- My sister studied diligently for several months. Nonetheless, she failed. Kızkardeşim aylarca
çok çalıştı. Bununla birlikte / yine de / buna rağmen sınıfta kaldı.
- Crashes are rare, but even so, there should be stricker safety regulations. Kazalar nadiren
oluyor ama, yine de / buna rağmen daha sıkı güvenlik kurallarının olması lazım.
- I realize that skydiving is dangerous and expensive. Nonetheless, I want to try it.

All the same: yinede

- I like him. All the same, I don't trust him.

Even so: Buna rağmen, öyle bile olsa

- It is very old car. Even so, it still works very well.
- Accidents are rare in this part of the plant. Even so, there should be stricter safety
regulations.

Anyway /anyhow /in any case: her neyse

- I don't have time to go. Anyway, it's too expensive.
- I don't want to go. In any case, I haven't been invited.

However, yet, nevertheless, nonetheless, even so: buna rağmen (Unexpected result)
- She studied diligently for several months. Nevertheless / However / Yet / Nonetheless, she
failed.
- George is very handsome. Yet, he is not popular with girls.
- My uncle is 70 years old now. Nonetheless, he maintains his interest in legal matters.
- It's raining. Even so, we must go out.

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 Refutation: taban tabana zıtlık

Clauses:
On the contrary /conversely /however: aksine, tersine
By contrast: buna karşılık
In contrast: bunun aksine
On the other hand: diğer taraftan
On the one hand ...on the other hand: Bir yandan … ama diğer taraftan

Preposition phrase:
Unlike + noun /NP /OP /Ving: … den farklı olarak, … nın aksine
Contrary to+ NP /OP /Ving: bilakis, (tam) tersine
In contrast to sbd/sth

On the contrary /conversely /however: aksine, tersine

Söylenen bir ifadenin doğru olmadığını, tersi bir durumun sözkonusu olduğunu ifade eder. We
use "on the contrary" only when dealing with opinions. We use it when we've presented an
opinion to the reader but wish to oppose it.
- She is not ugly. On the contrary, she is a good-looking girl.
- I don't hate classical music. On the contrary, I'm very fond of it.
- The risk of infection hasn’t diminished at all. On the contrary, it has increased.
- Mary is not poor. On the contrary, she is quite rich.
- I didn't ask Mary to leave. On the contrary, I asked her to stay.
- You say she is very beautiful. I, on the contrary, find her rather ugly.
- I'm not tired at all. On the contrary, I'm feeling full of energy.
- Carbon dioxide is not a pollutant. On the contrary, it makes crops and forests grow faster.
- A planned economy does not produce new jobs. On the contrary, all of the existing empirical
data strongly argues that the exact opposite occurs.
- George is an optimist. In contrast/However/, Bill is a pessimist.
- Extroverts love crowds. In contrast, introverts prefer solitude.
- Six is more than five; conversely, five is less than six.

By contrast: buna karşılık

- The cats will often sleep the day away. The dogs, by contrast, never settle down.

In contrast: bunun aksine

"In contrast" can be used very generally, and is more useful for descriptions.
- Extroverts like crowds. In contrast, introverts prefer solitude. Dışadönükler kalabalık severler.
Buna mukabil/buna karşın, içedönükler yalnızlığı tercih ederler.)
- At room temperature, unsaturated fats are usually liquid. In contrast, saturated fats are solid.

Note: When a distinction is being made that does not involve opposition of this sort, “in
contrast” is appropriate.
- “In New York, you don’t need a car. In Los Angeles, in contrast, you can’t really get along
without one, though you won’t need a snow shovel.”

573
In contrast to sbd/sth: a difference between people, ideas, situations, things etc that are being
compared
- In contrast to a lot of other people, we managed to survive the recession.

On the other hand: diğer taraftan

- The job wasn’t very interesting. On the other hand, it was well-paid. İş pek ilginç değildi ama
diğer taraftan/öte yandan parası iyiydi.
- Australia has much land relative to its population. On the other hand, Japan has little land
relative to its population.
- Some people say that older people are wiser. On the contrary, I've met many foolish
grandparents, and a number of very sensible young adults
- I may go dancing this weekend with my friends. On the other hand, I may stay in and finish
my paper.

On the one hand ...on the other hand: Bir yandan … ama diğer taraftan
Something that you say when you are speaking about two different facts or two opposite
ways of thinking about a situation.
- On the one hand, I'd like more money, but on the other hand, I'm not prepared to work the
extra hours in order to get it. Bir yandan, daha fazla para istiyorum, ama diğer taraftan, onu
elde etmek için ekstra saatler çalışmaya hazır değilim.
- On the one hand, you complain that you're lonely, and on the other hand you won't come to
parties with me.
- Efficient and reliable strategies for flood protection and prevention on the one hand, and
irrigation and fair water distribution on the other hand, will have to be developed.

Unlike + noun /NP /OP /Ving: … den farklı olarak, … nın aksine
- Unlike his father, he is a famous surgeon.

Contrary to+ NP /OP /Ving: bilakis, (tam) tersine

“on the contrary” ile aynı anlamı verir. 'contrary to' bir preposition olarak kullanılır.
- Contrary to widespread belief, the Buddhist religion does not require practitioners to be
vegetarian.

In contrast to + NP /OP /Ving,

In contrast with + NP /OP /Ving: _nın aksine [NP: noun phrase, OP: object pronoun]

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 Zor “olmasına rağmen” başardım.

Clause:
Although: … olmasına rağmen, buna ragmen
Though: … olmasına rağmen, buna rağmen
While /whilst: _e rağmen, _dığı halde, _e karşın
Even though: … olmasına rağmen, olsa bile
Much as + Clause: olsa bile
In spite of the fact that, Despite the fact that, Nothwithstanding the fact that: olmasına ragmen

Preposition phrase:
Despite + Noun/noun pharse
In spite of + Noun/noun pharse
Despite (of) + NP /OP /Ving ,
In spite of + NP /OP /Ving,
Notwithstanding + NP /OP /Ving: _e rağmen, yine de, fakat

However how + adj / adv, No matter how + adj / adv: ne kadar … olursa olsun
Try as he may/might: çok uğraşmasına ragmen
Adv / Adj + as,Adv / Adj + though: _e rağmen, _dığı halde, _e karşın

A clause which begins with "although" or "even though" and which expresses an idea that
suggests the opposite of the main part of the sentence. Cümlenin ana parçası tersini öneriyor ise
bir fikir ifade eder. Önem verilme derecesi düşük olan cümle “although” ile başlar.
Although (conjunction) + clause: used to introduce a statement that makes your main statement
seem surprising or unlikely.

Although: … olmasına rağmen, buna rağmen

- Although a dolphin lives in the sea it is not a fish. It is a mammal.
- We like to live in the south of Turkey although it is very hot in summer.
- Although she’s only three her mother dresses her in grown-up clothes. Daha üç yaşında
olmasına rağmen annesi onu yetişkin gibi giydiriyor.
- He decided to go although I begged him not to. Gitmemesi için yalvarmama rağmen gitmeye
karar verdi.
- Although it was raining, they went on playing football. Yağmur yağmasına rağmen futbol
oynamaya devam ettiler.
- She lives like a poor woman although she has a lot of money.
- Although some of the balloons worked, others were caught in a change of wind and blown
back over Austrian lines.
- They can move inland away from the dangers of storm surges, although this solution has
high economic costs.
- Although their responses may not be as obvious as those of animals, plants have the
capacity to respond to light, gravity, water, touch, and other stimuli.
- Although she can’t smile properly yet, the recipient of the world’s first face transplant is doing
well, according to the first scientific report of the operation.
- Although the causes of alcoholism are various; alcohol use is a major factor.

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- Although there are dozens of indigenous languages spoken throughout South America, this
is, with the exception of Portuguese-speaking Brazil, a Spanishspeaking continent.
- Although some educators think so, many are doubtful.
- Although there were plenty of sceptics when Mauritius tried a decade ago to become an
offshore financial centre, it has partly attained its goal, since it now hosts 19 national and
international banks.
- Although famines became less common and less widespread in Europe in the eighteenth
century, infectious disease continued to kill half of all Europeans before they reached the age
of twenty.
- Although young children are certainly sensitive to other people’s facial expressions, their
brains are not capable of fully understanding the emotions that cause them.
- Although Shakespeare focused all his creative energy primarily on the stage, he was as well
the foremost lyric poet of his age.
- Although Plato loves Homer and regularly cites from his epics, he insists on the censorship of
those passages that represent morally controversial behaviour.
- Although engineers also must write and speak well, this alone is insufficient to convey
complex engineering information.
- Although the physiology of the blush is not fully understood, we are getting nearer to a better
understanding of it.
- Although smiling occurs during embarrassment, it has a different appearance from that of
amusement.
- Although situated on the plains of Central Europe, Poland has an extremely varied landscape
- By the middle of the century, although still one of the “Big Three”, Britain was clearly weaker
than both the United States and the Soviet Union.
- The African Union is well aware that, although Africa has enormous agricultural potential, it
still remains a major food importer.
- Although he promised you to return it soon, he hasn’t done so, and you need the book
urgently.
- Although the Richter Scale has no upper limit, the largest known shocks have had
magnitudes in the 8.8 to 8.9 range.
- Although Spain’s aim had always been to annex Gibraltar, it was made clear in a referendum
in 1967 that the people preferred British rule.
- Although Azerbaijan’s economy is largely dependent on oil, in recent years it has entered a
period of recession.
- Although Senegal is neither a large nor a strategically-located country, it has nonetheless
played a prominent role in African politics since its independence.
- Although former colonies have gained their independence, it is true that, as the term
“postcolonial” itself indicates, they still feel the impact of colonialism.
- Although it was Bruegel alone among the Dutch painters in the sixteenth century that was
primarily interested in the representation of rural scenes, his contemporaries continued to
deal in their works with various aspects of urban life.
- Although Ptolemy made few original discoveries, he systematized the works of others.
- Although long considered the most prosperous of the Soviet satellite countries, East
Germany suffered from severe economic stagnation and environmental degradation.
- Although iron did not disappear overnight, it was soon eclipsed by soaring steel production.
So, steel began to be used for various purposes.
- Although he has been considered the greatest technical genius of antiquity, in fact he
preferred to devote himself to pure scientific research.

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 - They can move inland away from the dangers of storm surges, although this solution has
high economic costs.
- Although many community newspapers are justifiably proud of their hard-hitting local
editorials, perhaps half of all community papers carry no editorials at all.
- Although even the proper use of antibiotics can inadvertently lead to the spread of drug
resistant bacteria, the habit of using a low dose is a formula for disaster: the treatment
provides just enough antibiotic to kill some but not all bacteria.
- Although Plato loves Homer and regularly cites from his epics, he insists on the censorship of
those passages that represent morally controversial behaviour. Platon, Homeros’u
sevmesine ve onun destanlarından düzenli olarak alıntılar yapmasına rağmen, ahlâkî
bakımdan tartışmalı davranışları yansıtan bölümlerin sansür edilmesinde ısrar eder.

Though: … olmasına rağmen, buna rağmen

“Though” is used to introduce a statement that makes the main statement coming after it seem
surprising, unlikely, or unexpected.
- Though it is rising sharply, street crime in major Asian cities is still less common than in most
European cities.
- I like to live in this city through it is very crowded.
- Through they are both at the ends of the earth; the Artic and the Antarctic differ in many
ways.
- We performed badly at the conference. We were honored by the chairman, through.
Note: “Though” cümlenin sonunda kullanılırsa şaşkınlık ifade eder!
- Strange through it may seem the new camera provides the best in image quality.
- Though the smell of fumes in an aircraft cockpit may not always spell danger, it is guaranteed
to alarm the pilot.
- Though many migratory birds are immune to the effects of the avian flu virus, they operate as
effective carriers and may pass it on to other birds which are more susceptible.
- Though it is rising sharply , street crime in major Asian cities is still less common than in most
European cities.

While /whilst: _e rağmen, _dığı halde, _e karşın

“While” ve “whilst”, “iken” anlamında zaman bağlacı olarak kullanılırken, burada zıtlık yapısında
kullanılır. “While/Whilst” it has prowed to be useful, this method is not without pitfalls. Yararlı
olmasına ragmen bu metod kusursuz değil.
- While the US and the European Union have enacted legislation designed to prevent the
importation of products obtained from endangered plants and animals, this legislation has
had little impact in the Third World Countries that are home to many of these species.
ABD ve Avrupa Birliği, soyu tükenmekte olan bitki ve hayvanlardan elde edilen ürünlerin
ithalatını önlemek için tasarlanan yasayı yürürlüğe koymasına rağmen, bu türlerin çoğunun
ana vatanı olan Üçüncü Dünya ülkelerinde bu yasanın etkisi az olmuştur.

577
Even though: … olmasına rağmen, olsa bile
Even though is used to express a fact, something that is real or true,
- As one of the four satellites of Jupiter, discovered by Galileo in 1610, Europa is now believed
to have water in a liquid state, even though it is so far from the Sun.
- He wanted to go with them even though he was ill. Hasta olmasına rağmen onlarla gitmek
istiyordu.
- Even though he earned a little money, he was generous. Az para kazanmasına rağmen
cömertti.
- Even though she had a bad cold, she went to the school.
- Even though John is rich, he lives in a small house. (John is rich, but in spite of that, he lives
in a small house.)
- Even though she likes animals, Mary doesn't want a dog. (In spite of the fact that she likes
animals, Mary doesn't want a dog.)
- A lot of people have forgiven her even though she’s still not prepared to forgive herself.
- Leonardo da Vinci is one of the very few artists whose reputation has from his own time
onwards always remained at the highest level, even though the number of paintings he
produced wasn’t large.

Even if: … olsa bile

Even if is used in a supposition or hypothesis. This is “if clause.”
- Even if Caroline earned a big salary, she would not buy a fast car. (Caroline doesn't like fast
cars. It is not because of the price that she won't buy one.)
- Even if I had time and money, I wouldn't go on a cruise. (It's not because I have no time or no
money that I won't go on a cruise. I have other reasons for not going.)
- Even if we had been invited, we couldn’t have come.
- We have decided to go on a picnic even if it rains. (Yağmur yağsa bile, biz pikniğe gitmeye
karar verdik.)
- Even if you take a taxi, you’ll still miss your train. Taksiye binsen bile trenini kaçıracaksın.

Much as + Clause: olsa bile

“Kadar” anlamına gelen “as … as “ bağlacının kısaltılmış olarak “ although” anlamındadır.
- Much as I like him, I don’t trust him.
- Much as he wasn’t a member of the club, he was allowed to go in. Kulubün üyesi
olmamasına rağmen içeri girilmesine izin verildi.

However how + adj / adv,

No matter how + adj / adv: ne kadar … olursa olsun
- However fast we drive, we’re not going to get there in time. Ne kadar hızlı gidersek gidelim,
oraya zamanında yetişemeyeceğiz.
- However hard he may study, he can’t be successful. O ne kadar sıkı çalışırsa çalışsın,
başarılı olamaz.
- However hungry I am, I never seem to be able to finish off a whole pizza. Ne kadar aç
olursam olayım, bütün bir pizzayı asla bitiremezmişim gibi geliyor.
- No matter far away you are, you are always in your drearest friends’ minds.
- Most scientists did not seem to realize how important the new break through was.

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Try as he may/might: çok uğraşmasına ragmen
- Try as I may, I couldn’t keep up with them. Çok uğraşmama rağmen onlara ayak
uyduramadım.

In spite of the fact that,

Despite the fact that,
Nothwithstanding the fact that: … olmasına ragmen

“Despite ve in spite of” edat olup “the fact that” eklenmesi ile bağlaca dönüşür.
- In spite of the fact that they are very rich, they are very unhappy. Çok zengin olmalarına
rağmen çok mutsuzlar.
- He got a promotion nothwithstanding the fact that he doesn’t work hard. Çok çalışmamasına
rağmen terfi etti.
- Despite the fact that that London is very expensive, it is also very exciting.
- Nothwithstanding the fact that all the work was finished on time, my boss didn’t appreciate it.

Despite + Noun/noun pharse

In spite of + Noun/noun pharse
Preposition phrase: despite, in site of, notwithstanding
- Despite snow or rain there are always more than fifty thousand fans at the football games.

Despite (of) + NP /OP /Ving ,

In spite of + NP /OP /Ving,
Notwithstanding + NP /OP /Ving: _e rağmen, yine de, fakat
Preposition phrase: despite + in site of, notwithstanding

- In spite of many difficulties, the climbers were able to reach the top.
- Despite the political upheavals in the Arab world, the Middle East is gaining ground to
become one of the world’s popular tourist destinations.
- He kept running despite his pain.
- My grandfather is 80 years old. In spite of this, he leads an active life.
- Mary had the worst headache of her life. In spite of this, she went to her daughter's
graduation.
- Nothwithstanding the side effects, I will go on to use the drug.
- All the work was finished on time; nothwithstanding, my boss didn’t appreciate it.
- Some wrong answers were marked right and, conversely, some right answers had been
rejected. (Bazı yanlış cevaplar doğru olarak işaretlenmişti, buna mukabil/diğer taraftan, bazı
doğru cevaplar da yanlış kabul edilmişti.)
- In spite of the growth in e-mail and fax transmissions, many communications are still best
handled by face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact.

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Adv / Adj + as,
Adv / Adj + though: _e rağmen, _dığı halde, _e karşın
- Difficult as the exam was, I was able to pass it by studyşng hard enough. Sınav zor olsa da
yeterince çok çalışarak geçmeyi başardım.
- Hard as he tried, he couldn’t persuade me to let go out at night. Çok uğraşmasına rağmen
gece dışarı çıkmaya beni ikna edemedi.
- Comprehensive though this book, I didn’t find what I looked for in it. Bu kitap çok kapsamlı
olmasına ragmen aradığımı bulamadım.
- Carefully though the project was planned, there were still some drawbacks. Proje dikkatlice
planlanmış olmasına rağmen halen bazı eksiklikler vardı.

Tam zıtlık

Whereas,while: oysa, halbuki

Whilst /On the other hand, While /However

Whereas,
while: Oysa, halbuki
“Whereas” is the same mean with “although” or “while”. It’s preceded by a comma because it
introduces a separate dependent clause. İkinci cümlede kullanıldığında “whereas, while” dan
sonra virgule kullanılmaz.
While is used to emphasize the difference between two situations, activities.
- Some couples now both have to work. Whereas only one person did before.
- Dogs like to play. Whereas cats like to sleep.
- The old system was fairly complicated whereas the new system is really very simple.
- Whereas there are undoubted social benefits to increasing home ownership, there are some
economic problems associated with it.
- A 10% increase in the cost of hospital services would cause poorer households to cut back
their hospital care by 4.7%, whereas the wealthy would have to do the same by only 2.9%.
- Germans always shake hands when they are introduced to strangers, whereas the Japanese
give a little bow. Americans, on the other hand, nod their heads and say “Hi”.
- Gold is a good conductor, whereas /while aluminium isn’t. Note: Buradaki boşluğa “however”
gelemez çünkü “however” sonrasında virgule ister.
- The typical prediction was 6500. Whereas the index is currently trading at about 5400.
- While I accept that he’s not perfect in many respects, I do actually quite like the man. Pek çok
bakımdan onun mükemmel olmadığını kabul etmekle birlikte yine de onu çok seviyorum.
- While I fully understand your point of view, I do also have some sympathy with Tom’s. Bakış
açını tamamen anlamakla birlikte Tom’un dediğine de katılıyorum.
- While I understand why he refused to help her, I can’t agree that he was right.
- While I like all types of fish, my girlfriend always chooses meat dishes when we go out to eat.
- We would always choose somewhere in the mountains for a holiday, while our children
always want the seaside.
- The suspicious mother thought I was talking about her daughter, while, in fact, I was talking
mine.

580
 Whilst /On the other hand,
While /However
Note that “whilst” we would use “while” or “whereas” within sentences to contrast two ideas,
across sentences we would need to use ‘however’ or ‘on the other hand’. Compare the
following:
- In the UK the hottest month of the year is usually July. Whilst /(On the other hand), in
southern Europe the hottest period is usually in August.
- Britain secured only one gold medal in Atlanta four years ago. While /However, at Sydney
2000 we ended up with eleven.

Negative Condition

Otherwise /Instead : Aksi halde, yoksa, bunun dışında

Or /Or else : Yoksa

Otherwise /Instead : Aksi halde, yoksa, bunun dışında

- My parents lent me the money. Otherwise, I couldn’t have afforded the trip. Parayı bana
ebeveynlerim verdi. Yoksa/Aksi takdirde geziyi karşılayamazdım.
- I hope the weather improves. Otherwise, we’ll have to cancel the match.
- The law does not permit drinking and driving anytime; otherwise there would be many more
accidents.
- You need to hurry; otherwise we'll be late for work.
- Bob isn't having problems; otherwise he would've called us. Notice that there is no comma
after otherwise.

Special Note: Sentences such as those above may also be joined with if not and unless, but the
punctuation is different:
- If you don't hurry, we'll be late for work.
- Unless you're ready in five minutes, I'll leave without you.

Notice that “unless” and “if not” use commas, not semicolons or periods (full stops). Notice also
that there is no comma when “unless” and “if not” are in the middle of a sentence.

Or /Or else : Yoksa

- I must leave now. Or else, I will be late for the meeting. Şimdi çıkmam lazım, yoksa toplantıya
geç kalacağım.
- You have to attend the class. Or else, you will fail in the exam. (Derslere katılmak
zorundasın. Yoksa, sınavlardan kalacaksın.)

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 12.3.5. Reason

Reason clauses are used to indicate the reason for something. Paralellik aranır. Olumlu sebebin
olumlu sonucu, olumsuz sebebin ise olumsuz sonucu vardır.
• Reason for sth
• Reason why + clause

First clause gives the reason for main clause

Because : olmasından dolayı, olduğu için

- Because she was young, she was inexperienced. Çok genç olduğu için deneyimsizdi.
- Many urban areas are growing because their rural hinterlands are depressed, which forces
impoverished rural people to move to the cities in search of work.
- She didn’t go to school because she was ill
- I failed beacuse I hadn’t studied at all.
- Because oil is such an important and visible part of our daily lives, and because it is
exceptionally open to political manipulations, it often receives an enormous amount of
attention.
- Salmon farms are prohibited in Alaska because fishermen blame the farms for undercutting
their price.
- Because energy production expends resources and causes pollution, scientists and
engineers must work to develop energy-efficient processes.
- Because children enjoy the process of play, they are not primarily focused on achieving a
product or achieving a goal.
- Milosevic, the ex-president of Serbia, was protested nationwide and then removed from
power because he had led the country into four wars which he had lost, and brought
economic ruin to his people.
- Politics and economics were primary concerns of writers and intellectuals in America during
the 1930s, because the stock market crash in October 1929 had precipitated a total collapse
in the economy. (Siyaset ve iktisat, 1930’larda Amerika’da yazarların ve aydınların öncelikli
konuları idi, çünkü borsanın Ekim 1929’da yere çakılması, ekonomide tam bir çöküşe yol
açmıştı.)

582
As,
Since: olmasından dolayı, olduğu için
“As” and “Since” are used when the reason is already known and they often come at the
beginning of the sentence. “Since” is used to give the reason for something.
- We camped there as it was too dark to go on.
- We had to give up the project since it began to be expensive.
- I did it because they asked me to do it. Benden yapmamı istedikleri için yaptım.
- As it is raining, you’d better take a taxi. Yağmur yağdığından dolayı taksi tutsan iyi olur.
- As he wasn’t ready in time, we went without him. Zamanında hazır olmadığı için onu almadan
gittik.
- As she was too young, she wasn’t given a job in the firm.
- Since we have no money, we can’t buy the car. Paramız olmadığı için arabayı alamıyoruz.
- Since there was a thick fog, we lost our way. Yoğun sis olduğu için yolumuzu kaybettik.
- Since she was too late, she missed the train.
- In child development, play and exploration are similar since they are both intrinsically
motivated behaviours and not directed by external goals.
- Environmentalists are criticizing the patent office for delaying its decision on some new
measuring instruments since they believe that these are urgently needed to detect certain
problems.

For: olmasından dolayı, olduğu için

For + Sentence, Sentence.
Sentence; for + sentence.
Sentence, for + sentence.
“For” genelde bir ara bağlaç olarak iki cümle arasına virgülden sonra girer. “For” does not tell
us why a certain action was performed, but presents additional information which helps to
explain it. “For” is used to introduce the reason for something [= because]
“For” is not often used in informal English and it never comes at the beginning of the sentence.
- I must sleep, for it is too late. Çok geç olduğu için uyumam gerekiyor.
- He rushed to get work, for he was late. He rushed to get work because he was late. Her iki
cümlede anlam aynıdır.
- He became a poor man, for he wasted all his money.
- The days were short, for it was now December.
- The day broke, for the birds were beginning to sing.

“So” ve “for” zıt anlamdadır.

- I was late, so I took a taxi. I took a taxi, for I was late.

For + noun /NP /Ving:

- The Renaissance originated in Italy for several reasons.

583
Because of the fact that,
Due to the fact that,
Owing to the fact that,
In view of the fact that,
On account of the fact that: olduğu için
By virtue of the fact that :olması gerekçesiyle
- Because of the fact that the child was afraid of the dog, he hid behind his mother’s skirt.
Çocuk köpekten korktuğu için annesinin eteğinin arkasına saklandı.
- Due to the fact that I live on my own, I have to cook my own food. Yalnız yaşadığım için
yemeğimi kendim yapmak zorundayım.
- Owing to the fact that it had rained, the match was cancelled. Yağmur yağdığı için maç iptal
edildi.
- On account of the fact that final exams are over, we can relax. Final sınavları bittiği için artık
dinlenebiliriz.
- In view of the fact that the general manager was ill, they had to postpone the meeting. Genel
müdür hasta olduğu için toplantıyı ertelemek zorunda kaldılar.

Because of + NP/OP/Ving,
Due to + NP/OP/Ving,
Owing to + NP/OP/Ving ,
In view of + NP/OP/Ving ,
On account of + NP/OP/Ving,
Thanks to + NP/OP/Ving ,
As a result of + NP/OP/Ving,
As a consequence of + NP/OP/Ving: olmasından dolayı, olduğu için, olması sayesinde
Because of somebody/something used to say who or what causes something to happen or is the
reason for something.
- In a new culture, many embarrassing situations occur because of a misunderstanding.
- Because of the gas explosion, several homes burned down.
Because of an exploding gas line, several homes burned down
- Due to the free flow of gas, water could not put out the fire.
Due to free-flowing gas, water could not put out the fire.
- On account of the age of the pipeline, it broke.
On account of being so old, the pipeline broke.
- Owing to the delay in replacing the pipeline, the accident was likely to occur.

Just because: sırf olsun diye

- Just because I don’t complain, you mustn’t suppose that I’m satisfied. Sırf şikâyet etmiyorum
diye memnun olduğumu sanmayın.

Inasmuch as : mademki (because)

- In asmuch as they couldn’t reach an agreement, the possibilities for peace are still remote.
Bir anlaşmaya varamadıkları için barış olasılığı hâlâ uzak.

584
Seeing (that),
Seeing as,
Inasmuch as: olduğuna göre, olduğundan dolayı, olduğu için (because)
- Seeing that you're coming anyhow, I decided not to take notes for you.
- Seeing as they liked her first book, they were sure to make a good offer for the second one.
- Seeing that we are all here, we might as well sing. Hepimiz burada olduğumuza göre artık
şarkı söyleyebiliriz.
- Seeing that the weather was bad, we decided to stay at home. Hava kötü olduğu için evde
oturmaya karar verdik.

given that,
given (that): göz önüne alındığında, bakılırsa, (because of)
- Given that the lack of vitamins, you should include more fresh vegetables and fruits in your
diet.

Now that: madem ki, artık … olduğuna göre, (because)

- Now that you have grown up, you must stop the childish behaviour. Artık büyüdüğüne göre
çocukça davranışı bırakmalısın.
- Now that the exams are over, I can enjoy. Sınavlar bittiğine göre artık eğlenebilirim.
- Now that everybody is here, we can start the meeting. Herkes burada olduğuna göre,
toplantıya başlayabiliriz.
- Now that the news is out about tomatoes being found for their cancer-fighting properties, the
question is how to get sufficient amounts every day.
- Now that the winter has gone, the flowers will start to bloom.
- Now that the group has been released, will it change Ankara's stance?
- Now that the news is out about tomatoes being found for their cancer-fighting properties, the
question is how to get sufficient amounts every day.

By virtue of:… den doayı, (because of, as a result of)

By virtue of + Noun/Ving + Main Clause
- She succeeded by virtue of her tenacity rather than her talent.

On the grounds that: olması gerekçesiyle, olması nedeniyle

- They oppose the bill on the grounds that it is too restrictive. Kanun tasarına çok kısıtlayıcı
olduğu gerekçesiyle karşı çıkıyorlar.

In terms of + NP : olması bakımından

In as far as, In so far as: olması bakımından, olduğu ölçüde, olduğu kadarıyla

585
 Gerekçesine yanıt önündeki cümlede

Therefore /thus /hence: böylece

- Someone had removed all the evidence. Thus, it was now impossible for the police to
continue their investigation. (Birisi bütün delilleri yok etmiş. Bu yüzden polisin soruşturmasına
devam etmesi artık olanaksızdı.)
- No two volcanoes are alike. Thus, each needs to be studied separately so that its warning
signals can be recognized.
- We are in the middle of a severe draught. Thus, the city government has asked us to
conserve water whenever possible.
- Mr. Taylor is an outstanding teacher. Hence, he is highly respected. Bay Taylor seçkin bir
öğretmendir. Bu yüzden son derece saygı görür.
- Science is now largely dominated by the interests of the industrial world. Hence, it hardly
deserves the name ‘science’.
- Cats have flexible spines. Hence, they can do many physical maneuvers that people cannot
do.

Examples:
- Columbus was not the first European to set foot on the American continents. Viking sailors
had reached and briefly settled present-day Newfoundland and perhaps New England around
the year 1000. But knowledge of these Viking landings had been forgotten throughout
Europe for hundreds of years. It would not be right therefore, to deny Columbus credit for
his accomplishments.

“Therefore”, cümlede çeşitli yerlerde bulunabilir, anlamı aynıdır:

Cümle başında:
- The players were very tired after the match. Therefore, they needed some rest. Oyuncular
maçtan sonra çok yorgunlardı. Bu nedenle, biraz dinlenmeye ihtiyaçları vardı.
- There is a hospital in our neighbourhood. Therefore, we refrain from making noise.
Semtimizde bir hastane var. Bu nedenle, gürültü yapmaktan kaçınıyoruz.
- This is a binding contract. Therefore, we recommend that you review it with a lawyer. Bu,
bağlayıcı bir sözleşme. Bu yüzden, bunu bir avukatla incelemenizi öneririz.
- Inflation rate was extremely high. Therefore, the government put into effect some measures.
- You will not be informed of the test result until next month. Therefore, it is a waste of time to
keep calling the office.
- The due date for the final paper has passed; therefore, I could not submit mine on time.
Cümle ortasında (Daha iyi bir İngilizce’yi ifade eder):
- The professor tried to be fair to his students. He, therefore, made an oral exam in addition to
the three written exams. Profesör, öğrencilerine adil davranmak istiyordu. Bu nedenle, üç
yazılı sınava ek olarak sözlü bir sınav da yaptı.
Cümle sonunda (seyrek olarak kullanılır):
- He was mistreated by his manager. He submitted his resignation, therefore. Müdüründen
kötü muamele gördü. Bu yüzden, istifa etti.

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Accordingly: bu yüzden, bundan dolayı, buna bağlı olarak
- No formal complaint was made. Accordingly, the police took no action. Resmi şikayet
yapılmadı; bu yüzden polis işlem yapmadı.
- The plan for a bridge across the river has proved unpopular. Accordingly, they are trying to
find an alternative project.
- It rained very hard; accordingly, the game was canceled.

With this in mind: therfore

- Jennifer realized that her job was at a dead end. With this in mind, she went back to college
to learn more skills.

Thereby: öylelikle, o süretle, böylece

12.3.6. Result, Summation, Conclusion

So: bu yüzden (so that)

Formulation: Sentence-1, so (that) + sentence-2
- I missed the bus, so I had to walk.
- All the seats in the bus were occupied, so he had to stand.
- I like the books, so I buy the books every month.
- They were late, so we waited a long time.
- She doesn’t do her homework, so she gets bad marks.
- He wants to go holiday, so he resigned. (Tatile gitmek istiyor bu yüzden işten ayrıldı.)
- She woke up early, so that she didn’t miss the bus. Erken kalktı, bu yüzden otobüsü
kaçırmadı.

As a result: _nın sonucunda

Consequently: _nın sonucunda
As a consequence: _nın sonucunda
- She has lived in Spain. As a result she speaks Spanish fluently.
- For many centuries most people thought the world was flat. As a result, they presumed that if
one sailed to the edge of the world one would fall off into space.
- Grammar rules sometimes overwhelm and confuse students of English. As a result, many
people avoid stuying grammar.
- They’ve increased the number of staff. Consequently, the service is better. Personel sayısını
artırdılar ve bunun sonucu olarak servis düzeldi.
- Following the September 11th terrorist attacks security checks at airports in particular
increased. Consequently, many people were reluctant to travel by air.
- Susan's car broke down on the highway. Consequently, she couldn't arrive on time for her
class.
- He lacks self-confidence. As a consequence, he is unlikely to be successful.
O kendine güvenden yoksundur. Bunun bir sonucu olarak, başarılı olması pek mümkün
değildir.
- During World War II, German submarines began to sink British ships far faster than it could
be replaced. As a consequence, Britain came close to defeat.
- The thunder and lightning were intense; consequently, the crowd dispersed.

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- I am diabetic; consequently, I can’t eat sweets.

Note: Conjunctive adverbs can also be used after periods:

- It rained very hard; consequently, the game was canceled.

As a result of + noun: … sonucu

As a consequence of + noun: … sonucu

In conclusion: özetle, özetlersek

Sonuç olarak. (Son paragrafın ilk iki kelimesidir.)
Formulation : In conclusion, + cümle.
- The system lacked originality and efficiency. In conclusion, it was a complete failure. Sistem,
orijinallikten ve verimlilikten yoksundu. Sonuç olarak, tam bir başarısızlıktı.

In summary,
To sum up: Özetle
- The music was bad and the singer was inexperienced. In summary it was a disappointing
performance. Müzik kötüydü ve şarkıcı acemiydi. Kısacası konser hayal kırıklığı yarattı.
- To sum up, there are three main ways of tackling this problem. Özetle, bu sorunu ele almanın
üç temel yolu var.

All in all: özetle toparlarsak

- Dr. David Bellamy, who was the guest speaker, gave an interesting and important talk on
AIDS. All in all, it was a very successful conference. Konuk konuşmacı olan Dr. David
Bellamy, AIDS konusunda ilginç ve önemli bir konuşma yaptı. Her şey hesaba katıldığında
çok başarılı bir konferans oldu.

In the end: sonunda, hikayenin sonunda

- In the end, they married.
- At the end of the road.

In short,
In brief,
To be brief,
In a nut shall: kısacası
- His novels belong to a great but vanished age. In short, they are old-fashioned. Romanları,
büyük ama yok olmuş bir çağa ait. Kısacası, demodeler.
- The plan is to change the radio station’s style. In brief, less talk and more music. Plan, radyo
istasyonunun tarzını değiştirecek. Kısacası/ özetle az konuşma çok müzik.

After all : Sonuçta, Ne de olsa, Herşeye rağmen

Finally /At last /Eventually : Nihayet, son olarak
Lastly /last of all : Son olarak

(The) last but not (the) least… : sonuncu ama en az diğerleri kadar önemi şudur...
Sunum sonuda dinleyenlere uyarıcı vurgu için kullanılır.

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 Because / so: Sentences showing results can also be joined by using because and so, but the
punctuation is different.
- It rained very hard, so the game was canceled.
- The game was canceled because it rained very hard. Because it rained very hard, the game
was canceled.
Note that a comma, not a semicolon, is used with so. Note, also, that when because is in the
middle of a sentence, there is no comma, but when it is at the beginning of a sentence, there is
a comma.

To wrap up: toparlamak gerekirse

12.3.7. Exception

Except that /Save that / Except (for) /But /Saving / Apart drom: _den başka, ... hariç, ... dışında
Hariç tutma anlamı verirler. “except that” ve “save that” devamlarında bir cümlecik alır. Diğerleri
edat(preposition) olduklarından ya isim ya da isim gibi işlev gören yapılar alırlar. (Noun, Noun
Phrase, Object pronoun, Ving)
- All my students but Jack were in the class. Jack hariç tüm öğrencilerim sınıftaydı.
- The museum is open daily except Mondays.Müze Pazatesi günleri hariç her gün açıktır.
- They look very similar except that one is a little taller.Birisinin biraz uzun olması hariç onlar
çok benziyorlar.
- Apart from the salary, it is not a bod job. Maaş hariç, kötü bir iş değil.

12.3.8. Manner

Nasılı anlatırken kullanılır.

(Just) as: _dığı gibi
- (Just) as railway bridges were the great structural symbols of the 19th century, so highway
bridges became the engineering emblems of the 20th century. Demiryolları köprüleri 19.
yüzyılın büyük yapı sembolleri olduğu gibi, oto yol köprüleri de 20. yüzyılın mühendislik
amblemi oldu.

As if / As though : gibi, sanki, _mış gibi

Gerçek durumu ifade ederken “gibi”, gerçek dışı bir olay anlatılırken “sanki, _mış gibi” anlamını
alırlar.
- Take an umbrella. It looks as if it is going to rain. Şemsiye al. Yağmur yağacak gibi
görünüyor.
- He has broken the vase, but he behaves as if nothing had happened. Vazoyu kırdı, ama
sanki hiçbir şey olmamış gibi davranıyor.

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 “As / As though” yapısının kullanıldığı cümlede “be” yapısı kullanılmış ise gerçek dışı durum
olsa bie “had been” yerine “were” kullanılır.
- They listened to him as if
- he were a king. Onu bir kralmış gibi dinliyorlardı.

at first glance: ilk bakışta

On the surface: görünüşde
When seen or considered briefly and for the first time.

- At first glance, Chinese students appear as eager as ever to study in the US.
İlk bakışta, Çinli öğrenciler ABD'de okumak için her zamanki gibi istekli görünürler.
On the surface it seems that there is no decline in the desire of Chinese students to get
educated in the US.

Apparently: görünüşe göre

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 12.4. Sentence connectors

Sentence connectors
Sentence connectors are used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give paragraphs
coherence. Sentence connectors perform different functions and are placed at the beginning of a
sentence. They are used to introduce, order, contrast, sequence ideas, theory, data etc.

Sentence Connectors:
Sentence connectors bağlaçlarında noktalama işaretleri bulunmaktadır:
 Main clause. Bağlaç, S + V + O
 Main clause; bağlaç, S + V + O
 Main clause; bağlaç + S + V + O

- My sister studied diligently for several months. Nonetheless, she failed.

- Jody is afraid of heights; nevertheless, she has applied for a job as a stunt woman. (stunt:
akrobasi)

Useful sentence connectors

Logical / sequential order Order of importance
 Firstly, secondly, thirdly etc  Most / more importantly
 Next, last, finally  Most significantly
 In addition  Above all
 Furthermore  Primarily
 Also  It is essential / essentially
 At present / presently

Contrast Result
 However  As a result
 On the other hand  As a consequence
 On the contrary  Therefore
 By (in) comparison  Thus
 In contrast  Consequently
 Hence

Comparison Reason
 Similarily  The cause of
 Likewise  The reason for
 Also

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 12.4.1. Emphasis

Indeed,
Actually,
As a matter of fact: aslında, gerçekte, doğrusunu istersen
- The political crisis has a negative influence on the economy; indeed, foreign investments
have never been as low.
- He is a very talented musician. Indeed, he has an extraordinary gift for music. O çok yetenekli
bir müzisyen. Gerçekten de, müziğe karşı olağanüstü bir yeteneği var.
- I haven’t seen him for almost 15 years. Indeed, I can’t even remember what he looks like.
- I like swimming. As a matter of fact, it is my favourite pastime. Yüzmeyi severim.
Aslında/Aslına bakılırsa, yüzme benim en sevdiğim hobimdir. (Pastime: hobi, meşgale,
eğlence)
- I like reading. As a matter of fact, it is my favorite pastime.
- He is certainly a fine musician. As a matter of fact, I regard him as one of the greatest
violinists of our time.
- You can have the rest of this chocolate cake. As a matter of fact, I hope you do. I need to
lose weight.
- I’m not looking forward to working under him. Actually, I’m already scanning the newspapers
for job opportunities.
- Jennifer has never liked swimming. Actually, she's terrified of water and won't go near it.

In fact: aslında, gerçekte

- Oregon has a very rainy climate. In fact, it rains there 65% of the time.
- Many teenagers know more about computers than their parents; in fact, they often end up
teaching adults how to use the Internet.
- He is quite rich. In fact, he is one of the richest people in England. O oldukça zengindir.
Aslında/Aslına bakılırsa, İngiltere’nin en zenginlerinden biridir.
- Deflation isn’t necessarily a bad thing. In fact, productivity driven deflation is beneficial.
- Even though he is a quiet person, everyone likes him. In fact, he is always invited to parties.

Above all: en önemlisi, Herşeyden once, (More than anything else)

- He misses all of us, but he longs above all to see his family again.

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12.4.2. Addition

Further,
Furthermore,
What’s more,
Moreover,
Besides: üstelik, dahası, (artı)
“Moreover” and “furthermore” add extra information to the point you are making. When the
added information is stronger than the information preceding, it uses “moreover” or
“furthermore”. “Besides” is used if the information in both sentences involves reasons or
explanations:
- Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the
competition.
- Fred was happy to clean out the garage; besides, he had no other important things to do.
- There is growing opposition to capital punishment. Moreover, there is now evidence that
many executed prisoners were innocent. Ölüm cezasına, artan bir muhalefet var.
Ayrıca/üstelik, idam edilmiş pek çok mahkumun masum olduğuna dair kanıt var.
- I love walking on the beach; furthermore, I hope to live close to the ocean some day.
- The gods thundered in the heavens; furthermore, the mortals below cowered in fear.
- It rained hard; moreover, lightening flashed and thunder boomed.
- All docs not have a gift for music. Moreover, he lacks motivation to practice music. Therefore,
he can't become a good musician.
- He was a notable orator and prolific writer. Moreover, he was a serious student of the Bible
and philosophy.
- He has earned the respect of farmers everywhere. Furthermore, they know they can trust
him. (Her yerde çiftçilerin saygısını kazandı. Ayrıca ona güvenebileceklerini biliyorlardı. )
- We have welcomed our guests. Furthermore, we sent them back their home at our expenses.
(Misafirlerimizi ağırladık. Ayrıca, masrafı üstlenerek onları evlerine geri gönderdik.)
- To prepare his homework, Jack went through various history books. Furthermore, he took
notes from several encyclopedias.
- The new service will be considerably more expensive. Furthermore, it will only be available in
certain areas.
- The service will be considerably more expensive. Further, it will only be available in certain
areas. (Hizmet, çok daha pahalı olacak. Üstelik/ayrıca/bundan başka, yalnızca belli
bölgelerde kullanılabilecek.)
- I don’t want to go shopping. Besides, I haven’t got any money. (Alışverişe gitmek
istemiyorum. Üstelik hiç param yok.)
- I prefer to buy fruits and vegetables in the open market because they are quite cheap there.
Besides, they are much fresher than fruits and vegetables sold at the greengrocers'.
- My sister works full-time at the school cafeteria. Besides this, she is taking 18 credits at
school.
- The economic news from Europe was particularly disappointing in the first half of the year.
What’s more, recent surveys from the region imply little prospect of improvement in the near
future.
- The police have found the missing money. What is more, they have arrested the thief .

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In addition: buna ek olarak, bir de, hem de
When the added information is of approximately equal "strength," use in addition or also:
- I have to study this evening. In addition, I have to cook dinner.
- She is a famous novelist. In addition, she writes articles for a local newspaper. (O, ünlü bir
romancı. Ayrıca, yerel bir gazeteye makale yazıyor.)
- An explorer attempting to cross the Arctic has to cope with bitterly cold temperatures. In
addition, he has to battle with the strong tidal pull on the ice.
- Susan is working full-time. In addition / also, she's taking college classes.
- The doctor told him to lose weight; in addition, she advised him to stop smoking.
- This hotel is as comfortable as your own house; in addition, it is not very expensive.
- In addition to dealing with poor sanitation and pollution from dirty cooking fuels and primitive
stoves, they are exposed to modern environmental hazards, such as urban air pollution,
exhaust fumes and industrial pollution.

In addition to: buna ek olarak, bir de, hem de

- In addition to dealing with poor sanitation and pollution from dirty cooking fuels and primitive
stoves, they are exposed to modern environmental hazards, such as urban air pollution,
exhaust fumes and industrial pollution.

Also: ayrıca, de, da

Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis.
- You can pay your bills in cash. You can also write a check.
- We also spoke about marketing.
- Fire brings warmth, safety, clean drinking water and cooked food, and may have fast-tracked
the expansion of humans out of Africa. But fire is also an unruly beast, bringing with it the
threat of devastation and death.

Also is used with “not only” to give emphasis.

- We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition.

It can not be usually started a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase
that means also, you can use “In addition”, or “In addition to”.
- He is praised by his family for the good results. Also, he is expecting to be rewarded by the
school administration. (İyi sonuçlar nedeniyle ailesinden övgü aldı. Ayrıca, okul yönetiminden
ödül bekliyor.)
- I think I will accept the offer because it is a first class hospital. Also, the situation appeals to
me.
- You can pay your bills in cash. You can also write a check.
- My brother plays basketball. Also, he runs a small hotel in the south. Kardeşim basketbol
oynuyor. Ayrıca güneyde küçük bir otel işletiyor.
- He is praised by his friends for the good results he got from the finals. Also, he is expecting to
be rewarded by the school administration. (Finallerdeki iyi sonuçlar nedeniyle
arkadaşlarından övgü aldı. Ayrıca, okul yönetiminden ödül bekliyor.)
- Living in a big city offers good job opportunities. Also, it provides good educational
opportunities.

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Apart from + NP + (... Also),
Besides + NP + (... Also) : _nın yanı sıra, _e ek olarak (... ayrıca)
“Apart from” and “besides” are often used to mean “as well as”, or “in addition to”.
- Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer.
- Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer.

12.4.3. Alternatives

Alternatively: alternatif olarak

- The agency will make travel arrangements for you. Alternatively, you can organize your own
transport. Acente, sizin için seyahat ayarlamalarını yapacak. Alternatif olarak / İsterseniz
kendi ulaşımınızı kendiniz organize edebilirsiniz.
- You're welcome to come with us now in our car. Alternatively, you could go later with Mary.
- We can buy a small house with this money. Alternatively, we can buy a new car.
- You can save this computer program on your hard drive. Alternatively, you can put it on an
USB.

By the way : Bu arada, aklıma gelmişken

Incidentally : Bu arada, aklıma gelmişken
(Used to introduce an additional point that the speaker has just thought of)
- Thank you for clearing the table. By the way, did you do your homework yet?
- Some people, and incidentally that includes Robert, just won't look after themselves
properly.
- I tripped. Incidentally, my enemy's leg was out where I had tripped.

12.4.4. Reformulation

To put it in a different way,

Put differently: farklı şekilde ifade edersek
In other words: dğer bir deyişle
- They asked him to leave. In other words, he was fired. (Ondan ayrılmasını istediler. Diğer bir
deyişle kovuldu.)
- All sources of power are natural. In other words, all power is based on the control of natural
sources.
- He is a conservative. In other words, he favors the preservation of old institutions in their
original form.
- Is there a cheaper solution? In other words, can you design cheaper device?

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 12.4.5. Logical / sequential order

First : firstly, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, for one thing
Second : secondly, in second place, for another thing
Third : thirdly, in the third place
Finally : lastly, last of all
- There are several reasons why I don’t want to buy this car. Firstly/First/In the first place, it
looks awful. Secondly/Second/In the second place, it is unreliable. Thirdly/Third/In the third
place, it is expensive. Bu arabayı almak istemeyişimin pek çok nedeni var. Birincisi,
görüntüsü kötü. İkincisi, sağlam değil. Üçüncüsü, pahalı.
- Owning a car has some advantages. First (First of all/Firstly/ To begin with), it gives you
comfort. Secondly, it saves you a lot of time. Thirdly, it gives you great freedom of movement.
- There are several reasons why the Industrial Revolution started in Britain rather than in
France. First / Firstly / First of all / In the first place / To begin with, Britain had the money to
finance the larger enterprises. Second / Secondly / In the second place, England’s
supremacy on the seas had encouraged commerce and thus, indirectly, industry. Third /
Thirdly / In the third place, there was a new rich class in England, a merchant class, which
was ready to devote itself to industry.
- The country is confronting three major problems. First / Firstly / First of all / In the first place /
To begin with, there is the inflation problem to be dealt with. Second / Secondly / In the
second place, the rate of unemployment is very high. Finally / Lastly / Last of all, the country
is faced with the threat of civil war.

12.4.6. Correction

Rather: daha doğrusu, aslında, şöyle demek daha doğru olur. (adverbial clause)
Zarf olarak kullanılıp öncesindeki cümleye gönderme yapar.
- This system must be improved. Rather, it must be thoroughly changed. (Bu sistem
düzeltilmelidir. Daha doğrusu, tamamen değiştirilmelidir.)
- He is enjoying himself. Rather, he seems to be enjoying himself.
- Her name is not Margeret. Rather, it is Margot.
- There is no shortage of basic skills in the workplace. Rather, the problem is poor
management.

To be (more) precise: tam söylemek gerekirse/tam olarak

- The shelf is about a metre long. To be more precise, it is 98 cm.

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 12.4.7. Exemplification

Exemplification

For example /for instance /to illustrate : örneğin

Say: e.g, örnekleme
- I think he doesn't have any concept of time. For example, he kept me by waiting almost two
hours yesterday.
- In this book Wellington is described as a great general but he is also shown to have some
human weaknesses. For example, the writer talks about Wellington's vanity and his
unattractive lack of generosity in sharing the credit for his victories.
- Allergies to certain insect bites can be fatal. For example, a bee sting can cause shock in
some people.
- Women generally live longer than men. For example/For instance, in the USA life expectancy
for women is 75, while it is 73 for men. (Genellikle kadınlar erkeklerden uzun yaşar.
Örneğin/mesela, ABD’de erkekler için ortalama ömür 73 iken kadınlar için 75’tir.)
- Contrary to expectations, more people are now leaving many of the world’s largest urban
areas than are moving in. For instance, the population of Sao Paulo was expected to reach
24 million by the year 2005, but fewer than 18 million live there now.
- Some sports often involve injury to the players. Skiing without proper skills, for instance, often
leads to broken legs.
- Floods can be highly destructive. To illustrate, the flood which occurred in Germany in 1962
devastated particularly the city of Hamburg, killing 315 people.
- Proper use of the comma takes practice. To illustrate, I have prepared the following three
exercises for you.
- Many famous artists have suffered from physical and mental afflictions. As an example,
consider the lives of Van Gogh and Gaugin.

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 12.4.8. Explanation
Namely: yani
- Edgar learned some excellent methods of pre-writing; namely, he learned how to use a
graphic organizer to gather his thoughts and group them together.
- Some groups, namely students and pensioners, will benefit from the new tax. (Yeni vergiden
bazı gruplar, yani öğrenciler ve emekliler, yararlanacak.)

That is (to say): yani, şöyle ki

- The machinery was not impaired; that is, it wasn’t damage.
- The nutrients that foods supply are essential nutrients. That is, they are needed from outside
the body.
- The brochure dealt with travelling in Morocco. That is/In other words/ Namely, it discussed
transportation, currency, and language.
- The machinery was not impaired. That is, it wasn't damaged.
- Good readers should be able to read between the lines. That is, they should be able to make
inferences (=to draw conclusions) about information that is conveyed indirectly or given only
partially.
- I’ll deal with the second issue first. That is to say, the changes needed to the curriculum.
- As a child grows up, he learns how to behave in ways which are appropriate to the society
into which he is born. That is to say, he acquires the patterns of behavior which are accepted
as normal in his society.

12.4.9. Particularization

Especially /In particular /Particularly : özellikle, bilhasa

- Children are easily affected by the media. Violent movies may be especially harmful to them.
- Shopping in small markets is quite advantageous. In particular, one can find specialty items
that larger stores do not contain. Küçük pazarlardan alışveriş yapmak avantajlıdır.
Özellikle/bilhassa, insan, büyük mağazalarda olmayan özel ürünleri bulabilir.
- The world's nuclear industry has continued to decline since the 1980s. In particular, this is
true of the fifteen countries of the European Union.
- The correct use of punctuation often confuses students. In particular, they find the comma
rules difficult to master.
- Following the September 11th terrorist attacks stringent security measures were taken.
Particularly, security checks at airports were increased.

Specifically : Özel olarak (Bilimsel ise)

- We had to arrange several details for the journey. Specifically, we had to make plane and
train reservations as well as decide on the final itinerary. Yolculuk için birçok ayrıntıyı
ayarlamak zorundaydık. Özellikle/bilhassa, nihai yolculuk programına karar vermenin yanı
sıra uçak ve tren rezervasyonlarını da yapmak zorundaydık.
- I have a question about tenses. Specifically, when should I use the past perfect?

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 12.4.10. Similary

Similarly /likewise /correspondingly: benzer bir şekilde

- People cannot survive under water. Similarly, a fish will die if it is taken out of water.
- Cars must stop at red traffic lights; similarly, bicycles should stop, too.
- The cost of food and clothing has come down in recent years. Similarly, fuel prices have
fallen quite considerably. (quite considerably: Önemli ölçüde)
- Photographers require short exposures to capture fast-moving objects. Similarly, chemists
need short laser pulses to study rapid reactions.
- Mike has a talent for fixing bicycles; likewise, his brother is very proficient at building
motorcycles.
- You can’t teach navigation in the middle of a storm. Likewise, you can’t build a system of
values in the current educational climate. Bir fırtınanın ortasında navigasyon öğretemezsiniz.
Aynı biçimde, şu anki eğitim ortamında değerler sistemini inşa edemezsiniz.
- The clams were delicious. Likewise, the eggplant was excellent.
- High inflation usually leads to high interest rates. Likewise, interest rates decline when
inflation is low.
- A person who talks too much is seldom loved by others. Likewise, a person who rarely
speaks is not always well liked.

In the same way: aynı şekilde

By the same token: aynı şekilde
- The whole of society may suffer if its government is attacked. In the same way, the entire
body is harmed if the brain is damaged.
- Speaking a foreign language fluently requires oral practice. In the same way, playing the
piano cannot be learned without regular practice.
- I don’t think that prices will go up really sharply. By the same token, I don’t see them going
down much lower either. Fiyatların gerçekten çok artacağını sanmıyorum. Aynı biçimde, daha
düşeceklerini de öngörmüyorum.

Correspondingly: buna karşılık, buna bağlı olarak, buna paralel olarak

- The service is better. Correspondingly, it is more expensive. Servis daha iyidir. Buna bağlı
olarak/paralel olarak daha pahalıdır.
- The war fall in trade. Correspondingly, it has had a devastating effect on the country.

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 12.5. Linking words and Preposition phrases

Fiilin yalın hali var ise fiilin önüne dört preposition’dan birini kullanırız. Bunlar,
 So as to
 As to
 To
 In order to

Preposition phrase’lerden sonra, preposition phrase + Noun / Ving /Noun Caluse gelir.

Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors, they can
also be used to develop coherence within a paragraph, that is linking one idea / argument to
another.
Sequence Result Emphasis

 First / firstly, second /  So  Undoubtedly

secondly, third / thirdly etc  As a result  Indeed
 Next, last, finally  As a consequence  Obviously
 In addition, moreover (of)  Generally
 Further / furthermore  Therefore  Admittedly
 Another  Thus  In fact
 Also  Consequently  Particularly / in
 In conclusion  Hence particular
 To summarise  Due to  Especially
 Clearly
 Importantly
Addition Reason Example

 And  For  For example

 In addition / additionally /  Because  For instance
an additional  Since  That is (ie)
 Furthermore  As  Such as
 Also  Because of  Including
 Too  Namely
 As well as
Contrast Comparison

 However  Similarly
 Nevertheless  Likewise
 Nonetheless  Also
 Still  Like
 Although / even though  Just as
 Though  Just like
 But  Similar to
 Yet  Same as
 Despite / in spite of  Compare

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  In contrast (to) / in  compare(d) to /
comparison with
 While  Not only...but also
 Whereas
 On the other hand
 On the contrary

12.5.1. Transition + N /NP

Konuyu değiştirmek ya da bir konudan başka bir konuya geçiş sağlamak için kullanılır. Bu
bağlaçlar devamınlarında bir isim ya da isim gibi kullanılar yapı gelir.

As for
when it comes to
With regard to
With respect to
In the case of: e gelince
About
as to
concerning
regarding
As regards
pertaining to: ile ilgili olarak, _e gelince
- There is no problem as regards the financial arrangements. Finansal düzenlemeler ile ilgili hiç
bir problem yoktur.
- There is no decision as to when the work start. İşin ne zaman başlayabileceğine daiir hiçbir
karar verilmiş değil.
- Everybody is going to the party. As for me, I am not going. Herkes partiye gidiyor. Bana
gelince, ben gitmeyeceğim.
- As regards the status of women in scientific research, it may be said that the fundamental
problem is not attracting them to science but retaining them in science after they have been
trained.
Kadınların bilimsel araştırmalardaki durumuna ilişkin olarak denilebilir ki temel sorun,
kadınları bilime çekmek değil, ancak yetiştirildikten sonra onları bilim içinde tutabilmektir.

Irrespective of + NP / OP / Ving: gözönüne alınmaksızın, bakılmaksızın

Regardless of + NP / OP / Ving: gözönüne alınmaksızın, bakılmaksızın
Regardless of the consequences: Sonuçlarına bakılmaksızın, sonuçları ne olursa olsun.
regardless of Qw …: … olursa olsun
- Whatever they say: Onlar ne söylerse söylesin
- Regardless of what they say: Onlar ne söylerse söylesin
- No matter what they say: Onlar ne söylerse söylesin
- Irrespective of what they say: Onlar ne söylerse söylesin

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 - The candidates will be evaluated regardless of their gender, religion, etc. Adaylar
cinsiyetlerine, dinlerine vs. bakılmaksızın değerlendirilecek.
- Regardless of how impartially: nasıl tarafsız olursa olsun

12.5.2. Prepositional phrase + Noun /NP

A prepositional phrase is phrase that starts with a “preposition” and ends with “noun or a
pronoun”.
- from her, (the "noun" is a pronoun)
- from sleeping, (sleeping is a gerund, a verbal noun)
- from what he said, (the noun is a noun clause)

The words after the preposition are known as the object of a preposition. There will often be
modifiers in the object of the preposition making it a noun phrase.
- With John, (There are no modifiers in this example.)
With the wonderful John, (With the modifiers)
- Without trying, (There are no modifiers in this example)
Without overly trying, (With the modifier overly, the object of the preposition is a noun
phrase.)

Sometimes the answers to those questions take more than one word. Often those phrases are
prepositional phrases.
Which one: The flower in the vase is a peony.
What kind: The umbrella with the polka-dots is Mary Anne's.
Where: We will be going to the movies.
When: My lunch period is after science.
How: You are walking on your tiptoes.

 A phrase is a group of words working together that does not have both a subject and a verb.
Phrases usually act as a single part of speech.
 Prepositions can never be alone, so it makes sense to learn about prepositions in their
phrases. Any lone preposition is actually an adverb.
 A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the
word that is the object of the preposition.

The object of the preposition is the noun following the preposition that the preposition is relating
to something in the sentence.

To find the object of the preposition ask "What?" after the preposition.
The flower in the vase is a peony.
You found in - ask "In what?" Answer - vase.

A prepositional phrase is the preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the modifiers
between the two.
in (preposition) the vase (object)
with (preposition) the polka-dots (object)

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to (preposition) the movies (object)
after (preposition) science class (object)
on (preposition) your tiptoes (object)

Some Common Prepositions

Prepositions of time: after, around, at, before, between, during, from,

on, until, at, in, from, since, for, during, within

Prepositions of place: above, across, against, along, among, around,

at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between,
beyond, by, down, in, inside, into, near, off, on,
opposite, out, over, past, through, to, toward,
under, underneath

Prepositions of at, for, on, to, in, into, onto, between

direction/movement:

Prepositions of manner: by, on, in, like, with

Other types of prepositions: by, with , of, for, by, like, as

The word to is often a preposition, but it is just as often part of an infinitive verb. If the word
after to is a verb, to is not a preposition.
Preposition: I want to go to Florida for vacation.
Infinitive Verb: I want to go to Florida for vacation.

“In doing so” can be replaced by when we do this or in the process.

“By doing so” can be replaced by as a result of doing this.
“On doing so” can be replaced by when/after it did this (I find this an odd sentence).

Preposition (by, of, in, on...) + Noun /Noun Phrase

If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund (which functions as a noun). It is
impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition.

noun phrase: adj + noun.

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Preposition + noun /noun phrase
The preposition may be complemented (completed) by a noun (N / NP) or in some cases (before,
after, while) a clause.
- Jason read the manual before the installation.(before he installed the system.)
Jason said, "You can't turn it on without a plug."
- Jane got it working with a different cable.
- Jason was talking about an action movie.
- Jane suggested a "night out" instead of TV at home.
- Jason lectured against unnecessary expenses.

Gerund after “Adjective + Preposition”

afraid of: They are afraid of losing the match.
angry about/at: Pat is angry about walking in the rain.
bad at/good at: John is good at working in the garden.
clever at: He is clever at skateboarding.

Gerund after “Noun + Preposition”

advantage of: What is the advantage of farming over hunting?
chance of: There's a chance of catching a cold these days.
choice between: There's a choice between flying to London Heathrow or Stansted.
danger of: Peggy is in danger of making a mistake.

Gerund after “Verb + Preposition”

accuse of:They were accused of breaking into a shop.
agree with: I agree with playing darts.
apologize for: They apologize for being late.
believe in: She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood.
blame for: The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories.
complain about: She complains about bullying.
worry about: The patient worries about having the check-up.

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 12.5.3. Preposition + Ving

Through + NP /OP /Ving: doğruca, doğru, sayesinde

Across, from end to end: the main road through town
For the whole of a period: I slept through the night. Through its darkest time
By means of: Skill improves through practice.
- We don’t get into the house through the window.
- I had made a hole through the wall.

Preposition (by, of, in, on...) + Ving

- I am against smoking in public places.
- She is good at speaking English.
- I went home after leaving the party.
- We can talk about going home.
- I'm tired of hearing excuses.
- You can't learn English without making mistakes.

Preposition + Gerund clause (Reduced Clause)

The preposition may also be complemented by a gerund clause (a nonfinite clause). The add-on
clause is called an adjunct because the structure is not required to complete the meaning of the
sentence (extra info).
- Jason read the manual before installing the system.
- You can't turn it on without plugging it in.
- Jane got it working by using a different cable.
- Jason was talking about seeing an action movie.
- Jason was having vision problems from watching the new TV.
- Jane suggested a "night out" instead of watching TV at home.
- Jason thanked Jane for making her suggestion.
- Jason lectured against spending money.
- I was angry with myself for making such a stupid mistake.

In Ving= …mede/ ..mada.

In learning English, in swimming: yüzmede
- She took great delight in telling your story.
- He came in shouting. Bağırarak girdi.

Believe in + Ving
- I believe in discussing things openly.

In doing so= böyle yaparak

- In doing so, NASA wanted prioritized research objectives for the robotic orbiters and landers
that will be used primarily for reconnaissance purposes prior to later explorations by
astronauts of the lunar surface.
- In doing so, the peacemakers created fresh bitterness and conflict.

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by + Ving: yaparak
By + Ving /noun: used to say what means or method someone uses to do something
By + Ving : tek yollu olarak “only if” dir; by going: giderek. by swimming: yüzerek. by channeling:
kanalize ederek
- You can improve your English by using the Internet.
- The British government responded by closing the port.
- By avoiding the claims issue in this way, it was possible to produce a treaty.
- I began by extending the methods to the project.
- Students in the United States often support themselves by babysitting, working in
restaurants, or driving taxicabs.
- He also helped to spread learning by establishing a public library and by founding the
American Philosophical Society, which is an important academy of great scholars to this day.
- Earthquakes can damage a tree by causing it to shake violently, and it can take several years
for the tree to heal.

By + adv + Ving: … bir şeklide yaparak

- The food industry is vulnerable to the charge that it contributes to mortality by actively
seeking to increase consumption of unhealthy foods on which profits depend.

by + Ving so= böyle yaparak

- by doing so: böyle yaparak

by + Ving to be + V3: … olmuş gibi yapmak

By + NP /OP /Ving : Aracılığıyla, vasıtasıyla, yardımıyla

With the help of+ NP/OP/Ving : Aracılığıyla, vasıtasıyla, yardımıyla
By means of+ NP/OP/Ving : Aracılığıyla, vasıtasıyla, yardımıyla
- The thieves escaped by means of that plan. Hırsızlar o plan aracılığıyla kaçtılar.
- She stopped smoking with the help of her family and friends.
- With the help of our experts
- The purpose of this paper is to present a real-time algorithm for the analysis of time-varying
signals with the help of the wavelet transform.
- Through the ages, drugs have been enormously beneficial in relieving suffering and in
preventing and treating diseases.

Via + NP /OP /Ving: Aracılığıyla, vasıtasıyla: He went to Los Angeles via San Francisco.
By way of: yolu ile

For + Ving: the purpose of an object

However, if we are talking about the purpose of an object or an action, we normally use the “for +
Ving” pattern. Note that this pattern commonly answers the question: What are they (used) for?
- Schools are for educating children not for entertaining them.
- Schools are for learning. Life is for living.

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For + Ving: …den dolayı
For doing sth: used to say what the purpose of an object, action etc is
- In order to write on a blackboard, we use what? We use chalk to write on a blackboard.
What is chalk used for? It is used for writing stuff on a blackboard. Since you can answer a
question with your statement, it is correct usage.
What do we write with on a blackboard? We write on a blackboard with chalk.
- This book is useful for learning Asian cultures. (what)
This book is useful to learn Asian cultures. (why)
- They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party.
- Music educators give us many good reasons for playing.

To be + adj + for + Ving

- The swallows of Capistrano are famous for returning to the same nests in California each
spring.
Sth is neccessary for doing sth/sth

of + Ving:
To be capable of doing sth: having the qualities or ability needed to do something
- You should tell the truth instead of lying all the time.

Noun + of + Ving: nasıl oluru anlatır.

- Factoring is the process of finding two or more expressions whose product is equal to the
given expression.

on + Ving: to continue doing something

- We need to keep on going.
- He broke his leg on getting out of the car.

Go on + Ving: to continue doing something

Go on + Ving ile kullanıldığında, ‘devam etmek, sürdürmek’ anlamındadır:
- Tom went on talking about his success until I went to sleep. Tom, ben uyuyuncaya kadar
başarısından söz edip durdu.

Go on, “to” ile kullanıldığında, yapılan işten başka bir işe geçildiğini anlatır:
- Tom stopped talking about his success and went on to tell me about his problems. Tom,
başarısından söz etmeyi bırakıp sorunlarını anlatmaya koyuldu .

Upon + Ving + so,

On + Ving + so: böyle yapar yapmaz
- Upon doing so, the thunderstorm activity quickly diminished.
- Upon accelerating northeastward across Florida Panhandle, the thunderstorm activity quickly
diminished.
- Upon causing the system to accelerate northeastward across Florida Panhandle, the
thunderstorm activity quickly diminished.

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 12.5.4. Preposition Phrase List

Preposition phrase + V1 (fiilin yalın hali)

To
As to
In order to
So as to

a number of + n : bazı, birçok

by means of +n : vasıtasıyla, yardımıyla
in place of + n : yerine
in spite of + n : rağmen
in terms of + n : bakımından, açısından

So why : Peki neden

in accordance with : uyarınca, uygun olarak
in addition to : ek olarak, ilaveten, ayrıca
so far as : şimdiye kadar olduğu gibi
a great deal of : bir hayli
a walk of life : Kesim
according to : _e göre
after all herşeye : rağmen, sonuçta
after awhile : bir süre sonra
in regard to : göz önüne alındığında
along with : in addition to
amidst arasında, ortasında
and … alike : gerek … gerek, hem … hemde
apart from : -den başka, ilaveten
as a consequence : sonuç olarak
in the short term : kısa vadede
as far as I’m concerned : bana kalırsa, bakımından, göz önüne alındığında
in turn : … ise, … da
as from : _den itibaren
as of : _den itibaren (gelecekte)
as opposed to : _nin aksine
as regards : _e gelince, -e ilişkin olarak
as such yanlızca : … diye, bu nedenle
as to : _e ilişkin olarak, ilgili
as usual on : ile ilgili olarak her zaman
as well as : in addition to, beside
aside from : _den başka
at all costs : ne pahasına olursa olsun
at least : en azından, bari, hiç olmazsa
at most : en çok, (sayısal değer alır)
at one's disposal : kullanım için hazır
at the expense of : … pahasına, … yı yitirerek
be about to v. : _mek üzere olmak

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be in favor of : _dan yana olmak
be on the point of : _mek üzere olmak
because of : nedeniyle, dolayı, yüzünden
besides : ilaveten, yanısıra
but for : olmasa, olmasaydı
by far : açık ara
by heart : Ezbere
by means of which : Böylelikle
by no means : kesinlikle … değil
by way of : yoluyla, aracılığıyla
by which : Böylelikle
capable of : yeteneğine sahip olmak
certainly not : bırakın; … şöyle dursun
coincided with : aynı zaman tekabül eden
compared with : karşılaştırıldıgında
considering : hakkında, e dair
contrary to : aksine
despite : rağmen
ditto : yazılanlar ile aynı anlamda
due to : sebebiyle, nedeniyle
except for : dışında, - den başka
extent : boyut, derece, ölçü
far and away : kıyaslanmaz ölçüde
far from : _den çok, -mek yerine
for all : rağmen
for good : sonsuza kadar, ebediyen
for short of : başarısız olmak
for the sake of : uğruna, hatırına
from … on : _den itibaren (geçmiş)
from … onwards : itibarı ile gelen, itibaren gelen
from one's point of view :_e göre, birisinin bakış açısına göre
given : göz önüne alındığında
great extent : büyük ölçüde
ground(s) : Neden
Have/has to do with : ilgisi, alakası olma
how come : Why
ice versa : Tersine
if it hadn’t been for : olmasaydı
if it weren’t for : olmasa
in a row : ard arda, üst üste
in advance : önceden peşin
in advance of : Öncesinde
in any case : ne olursa olsun, her halükarda
in comparison to : Karşılaştırıldığında
in comparison with : oranla, kıyasla, nispeten
in complete with ile : tam olarak
in compliance with : gereği, _e gore
in case of : olması halinde / takdirde
in conformity with : gereği, _e gore

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in conjunction with : birlikte, bağlantılı
in connection with : ile ilgili, _e ilişkin
in contrast to : aksine, tersine
in defiance of : _e karşı olarak
in excess of : _den fazla
in favor of : _dan yana olmak
in favour of : lehinde, tarafında
in proportion to : _e oranla, _e göre
in pursuit of : _nin peşinde, arayışıyla
in response to : _ne karşılık, cevap olarak
in return for : karşılıgında, _e karşılık olarak
in succession : ard arda, üst üste, ardından
in the case of : halinde, durumunda
in the event of : _ması halinde, o taktirde
in the face of : … karşısında
in the long run : uzun vadede
in the long term : uzun vadede
in the manner of : tarzında, o tarzda
in the short run : kısa vadede
in the wake of : ardından, … sonrasında
as for : _e söz konusu olduğunda (gelecekte)
in view of : sebebiyle, göz önüne alarak
instead of : … yerine
irrespective of : dikkate almadan, _e rağmen
keep abreast of : (güncel olayları) takip etmek
keep track of : (gelişmeleri) takip etmek
let alone : bırakın; … şöyle dursun
make (an) allowance for : gözönünde bulundurmak
make the most of :en iyi şekilde yararlanmak
most of all : en önemlisi
much less : bırakın; … şöyle dursun
not to mention : bırakın; … şöyle dursun
notwithstanding : rağmen
of one's own accord : kendi isteğiyle, gönüllü olmak
of one's own will: kendi isteğiyle, gönüllü olmak
on account of : sebebiyle
on behalf of : adına, yerine, namına
on grounds of : sebebiyle
on no account : hiçbir şekilde
on the contrary : aksine
on the grounds of : because of
on the grounds that : because
on the part of : … adına, … lehine
on the point of : üzereyken
on the pretext of: … bahanesiyle
on the verge of : eşiginde
once and for all : bir kerede, bir seferde
other than : _den başka, hariç
owing to : sebebiyle, yüzünden

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rather like : oldukça
rather than : _den ziyade, _den çok
regard as : kabul etmek, gibi görmek
regarding : akkında , ilişkin olarak
regardless of : gözönünde bulundurmadan,
relative to : göz önüne alındığında, kıyasla
result from : _den kaynaklanmak
result in : olarak sonuçlanmak
result of + noun … nın sonucunda
as a result of + n: sonucunda
save from : dışında, - den başka
similar to : benzer şekilde
so apart from : _dan başka
so much that : o kadar … ki, öylesine … ki
standpoint : açı, görüş açısı
subject to : maruz bırakmak
take advantage of : yararlanmak, faydalanmak
take into account : göz önünde bulundurmak
take something for granted: düşünmek, olduğu gibi kabul etmek
take turns : sırasıyla yapmak
thanks to : sayesinde
the rest : gerisi, geri kalanlar
Thereby : böylelikle, bu sayede
to a large :büyük ölçüde
to some extent :bir dereceye kadar, belli ölçüde
to such an extent that : o kadar … ki, öylesine … ki
to the contrary : tersine, aksine
to the extent of : Pahasına
to the extent that : Pahasına
to the point : konu ile ilgili, konu ile alakalı
under the pretext of: … bahanesiyle
unlike : aksine
via : üzerinden, yoluyla, vasıtasıyla
Whereby : Böylelikle
with regard to : _ne gelince, ilgilii hakkında
with respect to : ilgili olarak

As early as: … kadar erken

- Although plays were being written as early as 300 BC, the first permanent theatres where
they could be staged properly were not built until much later.

As in: ... da olduğu gibi

- As in other areas of policy analysis, foreign policy analysis also starts with a number of
central questions about the nature of what is to be studied.

So why: peki neden

- So why does one third of the world’s population still lack access to proper healthcare?

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 12.6. Explanatory examples

Q.1. Mike has been told he will have to pay the fine — his high rank in the military.
A. even if
B. furthermore
C. on grounds that
D. despite
E. on purpose that

Bu tür sorularda şıklarda verilen yapıların bilinmesi lazım.

 “Even if, on grounds that, on purpose that” birer adverbial clause
Adverbial clause’larda yapı: Averbial clause + S + V + O
Bu sorudaki adverbial clause’lardan sonra “S + V + O” yapısı olmadığından A, C, E şıkları
elenir.

 Furthermore, bir sentence connector. Sentence connectors’lar farklı bir noktalama alırlar.
Sentence connectors’larda yapı:
- Main clause. Bağlaç, S + V + O
- Main clause; bağlaç, S + V + O
- Main clause; bağlaç + S + V + O

B şıkkıda elenir.

 Despite bir prepositional phrase’dir. Preposition phrase + Noun /Ving /NP

Doğru yanıt: D

Q.2. Continued high-blood pressure is dangerous —- it can increase the risk of heart
disease and stroke.
A. however
B. so that
C. as
D. no matter although
E. for instance
Doğru yanıt: C

Q.3. They like to keep their old houses rather than building the new ones ---- it is very hard
and expensive to maintain them.
A) because of.
B) even though.
C) on the contrary.
D) on account of
E) for example.

On the contrary, for example, sentence connector olarak kullanılır. Noktalama işaretleri olmalıdır.
C ve E şıkları elenir.
On account of, sonunda preposition olmasından kaynaklı, Noun /Ving /NP alır. D şıkkı elenir.

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A şıkkı parelellik, B şıkkı zıtlık içerir. Raher than ifadesi kıyaslama var demektir. Bundan dolayı
doğru yanıt: B

Q.4. —- the Oscar Reward, the Cannes Film Festival is the biggest event which takes place
in May in the South of France.
A. Except for
B. Such as
C. Lest
D. Unless
E. But

The Osacar Reward isim, except for ve such as isim ile kullanılır.
Lest ve Unless birer adverbial clause, cümle gelmesi gerekir. C ve D şıkları elenir. But ise bir
coordinator, cümlenin başına gelemez. E şıkkıda elenir.
Such as yapısı: I like fruit suc as apple and pear. B şıkkıda olmaz. Doğru yanıt: A.

Q.5. — vaccination has eliminated naturally occurring polio in North and South America,
rare cases continue to occur in developing countries of Africa.
A. However
B. Although
C. As a result of
D. Hence
E. Moreover

As a result of bir prepositional phrase isimle kullanılır. Bu nedenle C şıkkı elenir.

However –but, Hense – so, Morever – but olarak gruplandığından sentence connector, noktalama
işaretleri olmalıydı. A, D, E şıkları da elenir. Doğru yanıt: B

Q.6.The economy in China is booming; — many foreign investors are planning to enter
China’s market.
A. nonetheless
B. even if
C. so as to
D. in addition to
E. that’s why

; olduğu için bir sentence connector sorusu. A ya da E şıkından biri doğru.

So as to bir prepositional phrase sonuna V1 alır (so as to + V1), cümle gelmez. C şıkkı elenir.
In addition to + noun, D şıkkıda elenir.
Even if bir adverbial clause, noktalaması olmuyor.
Nonetheless, but anlamına gelir, bir tanesi olumsuz olmalıydı.
That is why – for anlamına gelir. Doğru yanıt E şıkkıdır.

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Q.7.The Vaal River is one of the major rivers in South Africa but the runoff is not constant
which means that large dams have to be built — store water for use.
A. notwithstanding
B. regardless of
C. so as to
D. thanks to
E. with the aim of

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 13. Agreement in the clauses
Complex sentences are formed when you connect a main clause and a subordinating clause with
a subordinating conjunction.

Example:
Complex sentence: When she was a baby, she loved to crawl around.
Main clause (Independent): She loved to crawl around.
Subordinating clause (Dependent): When she was a baby ...
Subordinating conjunction: when

Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses:

Object subordinate clauses answer the question "what?" and stand in the place of an object after
such verbs as "know, think, believe, understand, wonder, agree, say, tell, ask, answer, remark"
and phrases like "I'm sure (that), I'm afraid (that)". Object clauses are connected to the main
clause by the conjunction "that" (which is often omitted) and by other conjunctions, such as
where, when, why, how, whether, if.

Verb tense agreement with time clauses in complex sentences,time subordinators: when, before,
after, while, as, by the time, until, till, since, as soon as, as long as, whilst, whenever

Verb tense agreement in conditionals and subjunctives, condition subordinators: if, as if, whether,
as though

Purpose: …mek için, …mak için (“Ne için?” sorusuna yanıt aranır.
To V1
So as to
In an effort to
In an attempt to

Time:
 One of these days: often used in future tense
 In those days: often used in past tense
 On Sunday last: often used in past tense
 Already: Often used in perfect tense

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 13.1. Time agreement in the clauses

13.1.1. Time adverbials – Zaman zarfları

Adverbs of time:
The adverbs of time are placed between the two parts of the predicate in the perfect tenses:
Already, just, never, ever. The adverbs of time can also stand after the main verb: already.

Adverbs that tell when an action occurred, or its time, include:

Now, first, last, early, yesterday, tomorrow, today, later, afterwards, ago (e.g., two hours ago),
already, early, immediately, just, late, lately, later, long, now, once, recently, soon, still, then,
today, tomorrow, when, yesterday, yet.

Yesterday – V2
So far – have /has + V3

Zaman: Simple past, V2

 Yesterday, two day ago, last week, in 1971 gibi yapılarını gördüğümüzde boşluğa V 2 gelir.
 10th Century, 10th Century AD (M.S), 10th BC, Midle Age, Bronze Age yapılarını
gördüğümüzde boşluğa V2 gelir.
 Tarihi kişiler veya karekterler, Tarihi olaylar veya buluşlar, Türü yok olmuş hayvan veya
bitkilere ilişkin yapılarını gördüğümüzde boşluğa V2 gelir.

Time
Present
Past

Future

V2 V1 Will + V1

Soru: Most anthropologists think man ---- South America around 12,000 years ago,
although some ---- it much earlier.
A) has settled / may have put
B) settles / are putting
C) had settled / were putting
D) was settling / had put
E) settled / have put

616
 Soru: As I ---- you yesterday, the undersecretary ---- over this afternoon’s discussions.
A) have told /was presiding
B) told /will be presiding
C) would have told /had presided
D) will tell /has presided
E) would tell /has been presiding

Soru: The Pyramid of the Sun ---- in stages in the second and third centuries A.D. and --
-- about 200 feet high and 700 feet in length.
A) was built / measures
B) had been built / may measure
C) could have been built / was to measure
D) has been built / would measure
E) could be built / had measured

Soru: At the end of the First World War, the leaders of victorious countries gathered at
Versailles, and there, they —- to decide what penalties Germany, Austria and other
allies —-.
A) tried / would have to pay
B) had tried / must have paid
C) were trying / were paying
D) used to try / might have paid
E) could try / should have paid

Zaman zarfları: Simple Present, V1

 today
Soru. Today the telephone ---- an indispensable part of our daily life but ---- so.

A) had been / had not always been

B) has been / is not always
C) is / has not always been
D) will be / would not always be
E) was / couldn’t always have been

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 Zaman zarfları: Simple Future, will /modal-1 + V1

 Soon, tomorrow, next week, in 2075, the coming year (the year to come), the following
year.
Modal-1: can, could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather, must

Soru. Sub-Saharan Africa ---- at a relatively stable rate since the mid-1990s, and its growth
---- in the following years.
A) was growing / continues
B) has been growing / should continue
C) has grown / should have continued
D) grew / has continued
E) is growing / will have continued

E şıkkındaki “will have continued” olamaz. Çünkü “will /modal-1 + V1” olmalıdır.

Soru. New experiments on animals ---- hope that a cure based on transplanting stem cells -
--- a reality in the future for patients with Parkinson’s disease.
A) could have given / had become
B) gave / becomes
C) will give / has become
D) give / could become
E) had given / became

will /modal-1 + V1

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 13.1.2. Zaman uyumu

Past to past

V2
Had V3
Had been Ving
Was /were Ving

Soru. The banks complained that they ---- adequate notice regarding this new monetary policy.
A) are not being given
B) are not given
C) haven't given
D) had not been given
E) will not be giving

Soru. When that happened, their hopes ---- because the army ---- its most trusted leaders.
A) wane / would lose
B) are waning / loses
C) waned / had lost
D) were waning / has lost
E) have waned / lost ...

Present to present

V1
Am /is /are + Ving
Have /has + V3
Have /has been + Ving
Will + V1
Will be + Ving
Will have + V3
Will have been + Ving

Soru. Although their responses --- as obvious as those of animals, plants --- the capacity
to respond to light, gravity, water, touch, and other stimuli.
A) may not be / have
B) have not been / had
C) were not / have had
D) had not been / are having
E) would not be / would have had
Açıklama: if yoksa would’da yoktur.

619
 Modal yapılarında zaman uyumu

Modal -1 + V1 devamındaki cümle her zaman present:

Model-1: will, can, may, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather, must
 Present: S + V + O

Modal-2 + V1:
Model-2: could, might, would
 Present: S + V + O
 Past: S + V + O + bağlaç + S + V + O

Modal-3 + have + V3 devamındaki cümle her daim past:

Model-3: would, can, could,may, might, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather, must (will
hariç)

Soru. The rescue workers ............able to rescue some of those who .......still alive under the
rubble.
A) should be / were
B) may be / are
C) might have been / have been
D) will be / would be
E) were / will be

Conditional yapılarında zaman uyumu

 If, provided /providing (that), on condition that, in the event that, Only if, if only
 Unless (if not), Even if
 In case, for fear that, lest; tedbir amaçlı koşullu cümleler

Model-1: will, can, may, shall, should, ought to, had better, would rather, must
Model-2: could, might, would
Model-3: would, could, might

IF:
 V1, can + V1, should +V1 -> will + V1, modal-1 + V1
 V2, could + V2, were + Ving -> would + V1, modal-2 + V1
 had + V3, could have + V3, had been + Ving -> would have + V3, modal-3 + have + V3

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 13.2. Tense agreement in the clauses

Verb yapısında:
To be : durum belirtir.
Have /has : aitlik belirtir.
Tense : olaylar anlatılır.
Modal : duygu ve düşünceler kullanılır.

Modal Verb: Modal fiiller yanında bir fiil ile kullanılırlar. Duygu, düşünce üretirler.
Will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, ought to, had better, would rather, must.
Açıklama: “Have to” bir modal değildir.

Tenses are often regarded in groups:

 simple tenses / the indefinite tenses
 continuous tenses / the progressive tenses
 perfect tenses
 perfect continuous tenses / the perfect progressive tenses
 The tenses can be in the active or passive voice

Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

Present Present Present Present
Past Past Past Past
Future Future Future Future

Zaman:
 Present: am, is are; have /has been
 Past: was, were, had been
 Future: will, am/is/are going to; will have been

Örnek:
I … happy today. Ben bu gün mutluyum. (am)
I … happy yesterday. Ben dün mutluydum. (was)
I … happy in a week. Ben bir hafta içinde mutlu olacağım. (will be)
I … happy for ten days. Ben 10 gündür mutluydum. (had been)
I … happy when I came to you. Ben size geldiğimden beri mutluydum. (had been)
I … happy since I saw you. Ben seni gördüğümden beri mutluyum. (have been)
I … happy for a 20 days by tomorrow. Ben yarın itibarı ile 20 gündür mutlu olacağım. (will have
been)

621
Net zaman: Am,is are; was, were; will be, am/is/are going to. (bugün, dün, Nisan’da, 1960’da).
Süren zaman: Have been, has been, will have been. (dünden beri, 1960’dan beri, uzun süredir,
yarın sabah itibarı ile, seni tanıdığımdan beri.)

Net Zaman Süren Zaman

Present am, is, are have /has been
Past was, were had been
Future will be, am /is /are going to will have been

Zaman: şu an, geçmiş, gelecek ( Present, Past, Future ).

Simple, “when” sorusuna yanıt arar.
Continuous, zamanın etrafında devam eden olayları tanımlar.
Perfect, zamanın öncesini tanımlar.
Perfect continuous, zamanın etrafında devam eden olayın süresini tanımlar.

Present:
To be: am, is,are
Have got /has got
Modal: will, shall, can, could, may, must, should
Present tense
Present Continuous tense
Present Perfect tense
Present Perfect Continuous tense

Future:
To be: Will be
Future tense
Future Continuous tense
Future Perfect tense
Future Perfect continuous tense

Past:
To be: Would be, was, were
had
Modal: would, could,
Past tense
Past Continuous tense
Past Perfect tense
Past Perfect Continuous tense

622
The verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense that reflects the actual time of the action
and conveys the meaning correctly in the pair with the verb in the main clause.

Simple

Simple

Simple
Continuous Continuous Continuous

Perfect Perfect Perfect

Past Present Future

Examples:
- They studied Portuguese for three years. (Geçmişte, üç yıl sürmüş ve bitmiş.)
They’ve studied Portuguese for three years. (Üç yıl önce başlamış ve bugüne kadar devam
etmiş. Bitip bitmediği belli değil.)

- He often watches TV. (O belli sıklıkta TV izler ve izlemeye devam etmektedir.)

He is watching TV at the moment. (O şu an TV izliyor.)

- Jo did her homework when I got home. (Geçmişte,iki eylem aynı anda olmuştur.)
Jo was doing her homework when I got home. (Eve gitmeden önce ödev yapılmaya
başlanılmış ve eve gidildğinde de ödev yapma işlemi devam etmektedir.)

- She teaches English. (Permanent job)

She’s teaching English while she’s in Berlin. (Temporary job)

- When we got there, the class started. (İki eylemde aynı anda olmuştur.)
When we got there, the class had started. (Oraya varıldığında ders çoktan başlamıştır.)

- Antonio repaired his car last week. (Kendisi arabayı tamir etmiş.)
Antonio’s car was repaired last week. (Arabasını tamir ettirmiş.)
- She has been teaching since she graduated from college.
- While I was watching TV, the telephone rang.
- By the time he returned, I had typed ten pages of my report.
- She went for a walk in the park when the weather was good.
- I went to bed early because I was very tired.
- He didn't answer your questions because he doesn't speak English.
- The books that I bought yesterday are on my desk.
- The surgeon who is going to perform the operation arrived yesterday.
- The surgeon who was going to perform the operation fell ill yesterday.
- Yesterday the patient felt better than he feels today.

623
 13.2.1. If the main clause is present

If the verb in the main clause is in the present or in the future, the verb in the subordinate clause
may be in any tense that conveys the meaning correctly according to sense, logic, and general
rules of the use of tenses.

 the subordinate clause is the present tense to show a same time action
- He is pretty excited about the show because he adores the band.
- I think (that) he lives on Rose Street.

 the subordinate clause is the past tense to show a past action

- He is satisfied because he managed to complete his work.
- I know where she went.

 the subordinate clause is the present perfect tense to show an action that extends from the
past to present.
- The office is in order now because the bosses have elected a very efficient manager.
- He says that he has paid the dues.
- He says that he had paid the dues.
- I know that John has already left for Chicago.
- The ceremony is organizing because the team has become the champion.
- As the division of labour has become more specialized, it is no longer possible for skills to
be passed down within the family.
İş bölümü uzmanlaştığı için becerilerin aile içinde nesilden nesile sürdürülmesi artık
mümkün değildir.

The present perfect tense to show a previous action before the main action
- The weather is cold because it has snowed.

 the subordinate clause is the future tense to show an action that is to come
- She is studying hard now because there will be an exam soon.
- I don't know whether he will agree to do it.
- I wonder whether she will buy this house.
- I'm not sure that he will help us.
- I see that she is writing a report.
- He says that he will pay the dues.
- He says that he is going to pay the dues.
- I have heard that Mr. Smith is going to be our new director.

 the time clause is the simple present tense to show a same time relation with the main
action
- Frogs sing when it rains.

 the condition clause is the present tense to express real conditional

- If it rains, the roads become muddy.
- I don't know if she is in town.

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 13.2.2. If the main clause is future

Future:
To be: Will be
Simple Future tense
Future Continuous tense
Future Perfect tense
Future Perfect continuous tense

We do not use the future tense in subordinating clauses beginning with “when, until, before, after”
etc. Future present tense /simple present tense: until /till /when /as soon as /before + simple
present tense

 the subordinate clause is the present tense to show an action of the same time
- I will study harder even though I have so many other chores to do
- He will understand that you want to help him.

 the subordinate clause is the past tense to show a past action

- Even though she did badly in her last assessment, she will not give up just like that.
- I will ask him why he didn't buy that book.

 the subordinate clause is the present perfect tense to show an action that will happen before
the main action
- There will still be other minor adjustments to do even though they have completed the
main task.
- John will ask what I have done with the money. (Subordinate clause – present perfect
tense)
- Untilil he has taken the test as ordered, I will not help him in any way.
- Before the 21st century has run its course, countless technologies not envisioned yet will
be available to us.

 the subordinate clause is the present tense or present perfect tense

- By the time he contacts her, she will have sprouted leaves in her hair!
- The candidates will have undergone 10 interviews by the time they have succeeded in the
preliminary stage.

 the time clause is the present tense to show an action of the same time
- I will wait here until she arrives.

According to the rules of the use of tenses, the simple present is used instead of the simple future
in adverbial clauses of time and condition referring to the future.
- He will ask her about it when he sees her tomorrow.
- She will visit them tomorrow if she has the time.

625
 13.2.3. If the main clause is past

Past:
To be: Would be, was, were
had
Modal: would, could,
Simple Past tense
Past Continuous tense
Past Perfect tense
Past Perfect Continuous tense
Simple Past

Past Perfet Would be

would Present Perfect Future
Past Continous

Past Today Time

You are here

 the subordinate clause is the present tense to show a univeral truth or fact
- Darwin believed that humans evolve from apes.

 the subordinate clause is the simple past tense to show another completed action related in
time to the main action. Simple past tense to show the same time relation of past.
- He said that he was sorry.
- The flowers blossomed after the wicked witch died.

 the subordinate clause is the past continuous tense for actions that continued while other
events happened. The action was going on when another past action happened or at some
point of time in the past. Time expressions: while; when; at five o'clock, yesterday.
- When he came in, I was reading a letter.
- When I was taking a bath, the telephone rang.

 the subordinate clause is the past perfect tense to show a previous action
- He knew that he had made a grievous error in his judgement.

the subordinate clause is the past perfect tense to show an action which precedes the main
action.
- The fairies danced after they had defeated the wicked witch.
Periler, kötü cadıları yendikten sonra dans ettiler.

626
The choice of a past tense in the subordinate clause:
If the verb in the main clause is in the past tense (usually, in the Past simple), there are three
possible variants of the action in the subordinate clause:
1) at the same time as the action in the main clause;
2) earlier than the action in the main clause;
3) later than the action in the main clause.

If the action in the subordinate clause took place at the same time as the action in the main
clause, the Past simple (or the past continuous if required by the context) is used in the
subordinate clause.
- I thought that he worked at a bank.
- I knew that she was waiting for me by the entrance.

If the action in the subordinate clause took place earlier than the action in the main clause, the
past perfect (or the past perfect continuous if required by the context) is used in the subordinate
clause.
- I knew that he had already left for Rome.
- She said that she had been waiting for me for a long time.
If the action in the subordinate clause took place later than the action in the main clause, the
future in the past is used in the subordinate clause ("would" is used instead of "will").
- I wasn't sure that he would be at home.
- I knew that she would be waiting for me by the entrance.

Note: It will be much easier to understand the rules of the sequence of tenses if you study how
direct speech is changed into reported speech.

If the verb in the main clause is in the past tense, the verb in the osubordinate clause should also
be used in one of the past tenses. The examples below show how the sentences given above will
change if we use the past tense in the main clause.
- I thought (that) he lived on Rose Street.
- I didn't know if she was in town.
- I didn't know whether he would agree to do it.
- I wondered whether she would buy that house.
- I wasn't sure that he would help us.
- I saw that she was writing a report.
- I knew that John had already left for Chicago.
- I knew where she had gone.
- I heard that Mr. Smith was going to be our new director.
- He understood later that you wanted to help him.
- I asked him why he hadn't bought that book.
- He learned that the hotel concierge usually locked the front door at midnight.
- She found out that he still worked at a bank.

627
 Exception from the rule:
If a general truth is expressed in the object subordinate clause, the present tense is normally
used in the subordinate clause despite the fact that the past tense is used in the main clause.
- Newton discovered that the force of gravity pulls all bodies to the Earth.
- Galileo proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun.

When + Past simple tense, Past simple continuous /Past perfect tense

When the main clause is in the past or past perfect tense, the subordinate clause must be in
the past or past perfect tense.
- He said that he wanted to go. (Not used: He said that he wants to go.)
- She said that she had paid the dues. (Not used: She said that she has paid the dues.)
- They asked me where I was going. (Not used: They asked me where I am going.)

There are some exceptions to this rule. When the subordinate clause expresses a general truth, it
can in the present tense even when the main clause is in the past tense.
- The teacher said that the earth moved around the sun.
OR: The teacher said that the earth moves around the sun.
- She said that she had cancer.
OR: She said that she has cancer. (The second sentence is possible as long as the fact that
she has cancer is true.)
- Copernicus proved that the sun was the centre of the universe.
OR: Copernicus proved that the sun is the centre of the universe.

Main clause is “Simple present tense” -> result must be in “Simple present tense”.
Main clause is “Past simple tense” -> result must be in “Past simple tense”.
- I work so hard that I am tired.
- I worked so hard that I was tired.
- I sat near the window whenever I took a bus.
- My wife and I went to Disneyland when we visited Los Angeles last spring. Prior to that time,
we had never been to such a big amusement park. It was a lot of fun.

Past simple tense + while /when + Past simple tense.

Past perfect tense + while /when + Past simple tense.
- Jim had just turned out the lights when the doorbell rang.

A past tense in the main clause may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause
when the subordinate clause expresses some universal truth.
- Copernicus proved that the earth moves round the sun.

628
13.2.4. Perfect tenses in the clauses

Perfect tenses:
Present Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Future Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense, Geçmişte başlamış etkisi devam eden cümlelerde kullanılır.
Time expressions: by now: şu ana dek; so far: şimdiye kadar; never: asla; ever: her zaman;
several times; since: den beri; lately: son zamanlarda, geçenlerde.

Kullanılan “verb tense” göre cümlenin anlamı değişir:

- My mother has done a lot for me. Annem benim için çok şey yapmıştır. (= annem hayatta)
- My mother did a lot for me. Annem benim için çok şey yaptı. (= annem hayatta değil)

Example:
- I have just eaten a sandwich. ( I am not hungry now)
- I’ve cut my finger. It’s bleeding.
- My boss has gone to London. (He is there now)
- It has rained a lot this year.
- My grandfather has written many novels. (He is still alive and writing novels)
- Recent excavations in Algeria have indicated that Homo erectus resided there between
500,000 and 750,000 years ago.
- He has admitted accepting bribes. Rüşvet aldığını itiraf etti.
- Have you decided in which sector you will look for a job when you graduate?
- American officials have ordered some overseas airports with direct flights to the US to
intensify screening of electronic devices.
- This man has got the hardest job in the world.
- She has known them for six years.
- She has loved him all her life.
- This is the third time that I have lost my keys. Bu, anahtarlarımı üçüncü kaybedişim.
- This is the highest building I have ever seen. Bu, hayatımda gördüğüm en yüksek bina.
- He has gone to Ankara. Bu cümlede özne Ankara’ya gitmiştir ve hala da Ankara’dadır.
He has been to Ankara. Bu cümlede ise özne şu anda Ankara’da değildir ama Ankara’ya
gitmiştir. Yani Ankara’yı bilir demektir.
- He has lived here since 1995.
- You have changed since I saw you last.
- We have worked here for five years.
- I have just seen him.
- Have you ever eaten at that restaurant yet?
- It is the most bloody war man has yet seen. İnsanoğlunun şimdiye kadar gördüğü en kanlı
savaş.
- Have you ever been to Turkey?
- This is the first time I have ever eaten Thai food.
- Istanbul is the most beautiful city I have ever been to?
- I have never seen such a big building. (All my life)
- Have you already finished your homework?

629
 - There has been a lot of disturbance recently. Son günlerde ülkede çok kargaşa oluyor.
- Nobody has cleaned this room up to the present. Şimdiye kadar bu odayı kimse temizlemedi.

The Past Perfect Tense:

The action happened before another past action or before some point of time in the past.
Time expressions: by the time; before; after; by 1998; by yesterday; by last Sunday.
- When they arrived the film had already begun.
- Alexander Graham Bell had already invented the telephone by the time I was born.
- I didn’t recognise him. He had changed a lot.
- When Sam was born, I had been a doctor for 10 years.
- They had already eaten everything by the time we went to the restaurant.
- By the time he returned, I had worked for six hours.
- After the meeting (had) finished, everybody went home.
- No sooner had he seen me than he ran away.

The Future Perfect Tense:

The action will happen before another future action or before some point of time in the future.
Time expressions: It is often used with “by the time, before, by the end of the year, at 3 o’clock,
by 3 O’clock, before 3 O’clock, by next June, by this time next week, by tomorrow, by next
Monday, by 2035.
- By 2050, scientists will have found the cure for cancer.
- I will have finished the project by the time you arrive at the office tomorrow morning.
- When Mr. Lane retires next month, he will have worked for our company for 40 years.
- When you are my age you will have known all about this.
- By the time the children come I will have made the beds.
- Next week they will have been married for 10 years.

When main clause is in perfect tense,

 subordinate clause is used to show another action related in time to the main action.
 subordinate clause is used in the past tense to show a past action
 subordinate clause is used in the clause with 'will /shall /can /may /must /ought' to
express real conditional.

- Although the residents have complained to the authorities, they have not made any actions
yet.
-
- Many of the larger companies in Somalia have issued shares, although there is no stock
exchange or financial authority of any sort in the country.
Ülkede herhangi mali otorite veya borsa bulunmamasına rağmen Somali'deki büyük
şirketlerin çoğu, hisse çıkarmışlardır.

630
 - Traditionally, textbooks on British government and politics have focused on institutions and
behaviour while ignoring the controversies and issues which are the fundamentals of politics.
Geleneksel olarak, İngiliz hükümeti ve siyasetindeki ders kitapları, politikaların temelini
oluşturan tartışmaları ve konuları ihmal ederken, kurumlar ve davranış üzerine
yoğunlaşmıştır. (İhmal etmeye devam ediyor.)

- Although that species was discovered a long time ago, no one has ever documented it.
- You have changed since I saw you last.
- She left home in 1992 and hasn’t contacted us since then.

When main clause is in the perfect tense, subordinate clause with 'will /shall /can /may /must
/ought' to express real conditional
- He has focused on moving the complexity of computing from the desktop to the network,
where it can be managed more easily. (Bu cümle ile raporlama ya da doğrulama söz
konusudur.)
Daha kolay yönetilebilecek şekilde masaüstünden ağa, bilgisayarın karmaşıklığını
taşımaya odaklanmıştı.
- The influence of Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language on the
development of the language has been widely assumed but cannot be proved and is
difficult to assess.
- The Welsh language has changed so little through the centuries that an educated
Welshman can still read the Welsh of the Middle Ages.

- The country has a long way to go before calm can resume and a stable new order can
emerge.
Sakinlik devam etmeden ve istikrarlı bir yeni düzen ortaya çıkmadan önce ülkenin uzun bir
yolu var.

 Clauses with noun, adjective and abverbial

- Because Brazil’s exports include a wide variety of valuable raw materials, the country has
had huge earnings in foreign currency over the past few years.
- Various fossils have recently been found in an Ethiopian valley where bones that span six
million years of human evolution have been dug up over the last 25 years.

Main clause is in past perfect tense, use in the subordinate clause:

After + past perfect tense, Past simple tense
- The aging matriarch had drawn up a will in case her illness became more serious.

631
 13.2.5. Perfect continuous tenses in the clauses

Perfect continuous tense, zamanın etrafında devam eden olayın süresini tanımlar. Süreçler
perfect tense’ler ile tanımlanır. How long sorusuna yanıt verir.

Perfect continuous tenses / the perfect progressive tenses:

 Present perfect continuous tense
 Past perfect continuous tense
 Future perfect continuous tense

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense indicates the duration of an activity that began in the
past and continuous to the present. Time expressions: since, for, all morning, all day, all week,
etc.
- I have been living in Ankara for 10 years.
- It has been raining all day.
- I have been working on this project for more than two year.
- The children have been playing in the garden since morning.
- I have been living in this city since 1987.
- Shakespeare has been dead almost 400 years

At the Past Perfect Continuous Tense, the action lasted for some time before another past
action or before some point of time in the past.Time expressions: by the time; before; after; by
yesterday; by 2005; for two hours; for a long time.
- When I saw Mary, her eyes were red. She had been crying.
- Brian gained overweight because he had been overeating.

Show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past:
- The Titanic had been lying on the sea bed for 70 years when they found it.

Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and
effect:
- We all knew he had been drinking whisky again. He stank. [Stink: pis kokmak, iğrenç
kokmak]
-
The Future Perfect Continuous is used to show that something will continue up until a particular
event (by next week) or time in the future. Time expressions: by the time; by 2030; before; for two
hours, for five minutes, for two weeks, since Friday.

- By the time he returns, I will have been working for nine hours.
- By 2025, he will have been living here for fifty years.

Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show
cause and effect:
- Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.

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The Future Perfect Continuous “learn, lie, live rain, sit, wait and work” gibi, devamlılık ifade eden
fiilerle kullanıldığında, şu anda devam etmekte olan eylemin, gelecekte de devam ediyor
olacağını da ifade eder:
- I was born in 1975 and it is 2001 now. By 2040, I will have been living for 65 years.

13.2.6. Main clause has the modals

Main clause has the modals 'can /will /shall /may /must /ought to',

We use “may” in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the present tense.
We use “might” in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the past tense.

use in the condition clause:

 The clause with 'will /shall /can /may /must /ought' to express real conditional
- If it can only rain now, the fields will be wet enough for the little frogs.
- Although the British Royal Navy claims that it was not operating any warships in the area
at the time, it must have been military sonar that killed the whales and dolphins.
Britanya Kraliyet Donanması, o sırada bölgede herhangi bir savaş gemisi çalışmadığını
iddia etmesine rağmen balinaları ve yunusları öldüren askeri sonar olmalı.

 The present tense to express real conditional.

- If it rains now, the frogs can come out and play.

In a present subjunctive clause, whether the tense in the main clause is past or present, use (in
the subjunct clause)
 Base form of the verb
- He is locked in the cell lest he become violent again.

 'be' of the verb - to be

- He is locked in the cell lest he be violent again.

In a past subjunctive clause indicating unreal conditions, use (in the subjunct clause)
 Past tense of the verb
- He would have shown it to me if I came earlier.
 'were' of the verb - to be
- If I were a bird, I would fly to the furthest corner of this world.
 The modals 'would/could/should/might'
- If I could do it, I would have done it earlier.

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 13.2.7. Main clause has conditional sentences

Condition type I:
If + simple present, simple future tense /simple present tense.
Expressions such as “as if”, “if only”, “it is time” and “wish that” are usually followed by past
tenses.

Conditional sentence type 2:

If + Simple Past tense, would/could/should + Verb
Tobe -> were (whatever the subject is singular or plural)
- If Iran were to go nuclear, other countries in the region would follow suit.

Conditional sentence type 3:

If + past perfect, would/could/should + have + PP
- If we had received the news sooner, we woold have written to John.
- I had no map. That is why I got lost.If I had had map, I would have beel all right.

Examples:

- Half of the increase in EU Aid for Trade is specifically targeted toward the African, Caribbean
and Pacific countries (ACP), with which the EU is negotiating regional Economic Partnership
Agreements designed to remove all tariff and quota barriers to the EU market.

AB Ticaret Desteği'ndeki artışın yarısı, AB'nin AB pazarına yönelik tüm tarife ve kota
engellerini kaldırmak için tasarlanan bölgesel Ekonomik Ortaklık Anlaşmalarını birlikte
müzakere ettiği özellikle Afrika, Karayipler ve Pasifik ülkelerine (ACP) yöneliktir.

Whether in the subordinate clause

- Whether you are interested in the ancient, medieval, or modern world, you can find art and
architecture from each time period anywhere people resided in the Middle East.
Antik, ortaçağ ya da modern dünyayla ilgilenmek istersiniz, Orta Doğu'da ikamet etmiş olan
herhangi bir yerden herhangi bir zaman döneminden sanat ve mimari bulabilirsiniz.

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 Examples

2006-1/6. Having read so many contemporary American writers, I ---- to feel impatient with
the kind of fiction that ---- in England. (began / was being written)

A) was beginning / will have been written

B) had begun / has been written
C) have begun / would have been written
D) would begin / is being written
E) began / was being written

Having read: Adverbial Participle, Active, Different time.

“The participle clause” olup olmadığını anlamak cümle sonundaki virgul ve cümlenin başındaki
“Ving” kontrol edilmelidir. İndirgemede cümleler arasında zaman farkı ile yan cümlenin aktif ya da
pasif yapıda olup olmadığı ve cümlelerdeki öznelerin aynı olup olmadığı önemli kriterlerdir.
Özneler ortak ise doğrudan Participle ile başlar; değilse birinci özne yazılır, ardından participle
yazılır.

After I had read so many contemporary American writers, I began to feel impatient with the kind
of fiction that was being written in England.

2006-1/8. He certainly ---- party members last weekend when he announced that he ---- to
regain his party chairmanship. (shocked / would not seek)
A) has shocked / had not sought
B) would have shocked / will not seek
C) had shocked / would not have sought
D) was to shock / is not seeking
E) shocked / would not seek

Reported speech (direct-indirect).

2006-1/9. The 1980s ---- a surge of new interest ---- the definition of intelligence.
(brought / in expanding)
A) have brought / to be expanding
B) had brought / having expanded
C) were bringing / to have expanded
D) brought / in expanding
E) would have brought / to expand

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2006-2/6. Many parts of rural America ---- to reflect the values and traditions of the
European immigrants who ---- in the country during the nineteenth century. ( continue /
arrived )
A) continued / have arrived
B) have continued / would have arrived
C) continue / arrived
D) would have continued / were arriving
E) will continue / would arrive

2006-2/7. With few exceptions, most totalitarian governments ---- more liberal since 1989
when the Berlin Wall ----. ( have become / fell )
A) became / falls
B) are becoming / would fall
C) were becoming / has fallen
D) had become / was falling
E) have become / fell

2006-2/8. Of all the arts it ---- to classical music that Germany ---- the greatest contribution.
( is / has made)
A) had been / made
B) is / has made
C) has been / had made
D) was / will have made
E) might be / would have made

2007-1/6. The British government ---- details of the next stage of its genetically modified
cropfield trials, thus ---- off a now familiar cycle of debate and demonstration.
( has released / setting )
A) has released / setting
B) will release / to set
C) would have released / having set
D) is releasing / to have set
E) released / to be set

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 13.3. Reduced sentences

İp uçları:
 Simple Infinitive: to see (görmek-aktif), to be seen (görülmek-pasif)
 Zarf cümleciğinde, soruda bağlaçlardan sonra özne yok ise doğru yanıt,
zaman aynı ise “aktif: Ving / being” ya da “ pasif: ( being) + V3”,
zaman farklı ise “aktif: having + V3”, ya da “pasif: (having been)+ V3 olacaktır.
Perfect Progressive: having been Ving olur.

 “When” zaman cümleciği sadeleşirken “Upon + Ving” veya “On + Ving” olur.

 “If” ile yapılan koşullu cümleler sadeleşirken “If” cümleden atılır, ve koşul cümlesine uygun
yardımcı fiil ile başlar. Anlam değişikliği yoktur.
- If I were you, I would’t say that. Were I you, I would’t say that.
- If I had studied, I would have passed. Had I studied, I would have passed.
- If you should need help, call me. Should you need help, call me.

13.3.1. Reduction in the noun clauses

Verb + to V (that + özne + predicate)

Verb + to be noun /adj /adv /Ving (that + Özne + to be + noun /adj /adv)
Verb + to be + V3
Verb + to have V3
Verb + to have been + V3

To be V + adj /adv + to be V
Preposition (for) + Noun + to V

It is V3 + Qw + to V

It is V3 + Qw + to be + V3
Subject + is /are + V3+ to be + V3

It is V3 + QW + to have seen
It is V3 + QW + to have been caught

Examples:
- Most of the molecules are thought to be transferred from people's skin, hands and sweat to
their phone.

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 To + V
To be + Noun /Ving

Zamanlar aynı, yapı aktif:

Cümleciklerde zamanlar ve özneler aynı ise “that + özne + predicate” yerine,
 “to V”,
 “to be + noun /Ving” gelir.

Aöıklama: Predicat, yardımcı fiil ve fiilden oluşur.

- He is happy that he is here.

He is hapy to be here.

- We have expected him to be more careful in everything.

- We decided that we improve the installation.

We decided to improve the installation.

- Do you remember to set the burglar alarm before you go to bed every night?
- The British government continued to think of the colonists as British subjects. (as British
subjects: İngilterinin tebası olarak)
- Columbus was not the first European to set foot on the American continents.

Cümleciklerde zamanlar aynı özneler faklı ise ek olarak cümlenin öznesi “object pronoun” olur,
“that” kalkar, öznesi başına “for” getirilir, yüklem “to V” yapılır.
- It is not safe that people swim here. It is not safe for people to swim here.

“It is + V3 /adj + that ...” yapısında ise that’den sonraki özne pasif yapı formunda
biçimlenir.
- Everybody knows that he is a liar.
Everybody knows for him to be a liar.
He is known to be a liar.

- We felt that Teddy was right yesterday.

It was felt that Teddy was right yesterday.
Teddy was felt to be right yesterday.

- People claimed that he stole the money.

It was claimed that he stole the money.
He was claimed to steal the money.

- We expect that economy will get better soon.

It is expected that economy will get better soon.
Economy is expected to get better soon.

- They think that he has a lot of money.

It is thought that he has a lot of money.
He is thought to have a lot of money.

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 To be + Ving

that + Past/Present Continuous Tense: to be + Ving

- They report that the Prime Minister is going to Greece.
The Prime Minister is reported to be going to Greece.

- People knew that he was struggling for his country. It was known that he was struggling for
his country.
He was known to be struggling for his country.

to be + V3
to be being + V3

Zamanlar aynı, yapı pasif:

Pasif yapıda ise “to be + V3” ya da “to be being V3” gelir.
- They allege that books are stolen from the library.
They allege for books to be stolen from the library.
It is alleged that books are stolen from the library.
Books are alleged to be stolen from the library.
- They suspected that the man was murdered.
It was suspected that the man was murdered.
The man was suspected to be murdered.

to + have+ V3
to + have been + V3

Cümlede zamanlar farklı:

Noun clause’larda özneler aynı, zamanlar farklı ise “... that + özne + predicate” kalkar, aktif
yapıda yüklem “... to + have+ V3”; pasif yapıda yüklem “... to + have been + V3”; yapılır.
Zaman farkı durumu “Past simple” ve “Past Perfect” ile yapılan cümleler içinde geçerlidir.
Perfect Infinitive: to have seen (görmüş-aktif), to have been seen (görülmüş-pasif)
- The Tissint sample is probably the most important meteorite that it had landed on the Earth in
the last 100 years.
The Tissint sample is probably the most important meteorite to have landed on the Earth in
the last 100 years.
- I am glad that I have been chosen. (passive) I am glad to have been chosen.
- We feel that Teddy was right yesterday. Teddy is felt to have been right yesterday.
- People claim that James stolen the money. It is claimed that James stolen the money.
James is claimed to have stolen the money.
- People know that he was struggling for his country. It is known that he was struggling for his
country.
He was known to have been struggling for his country.
- They suspect that the man was murdered. It is suspected that the man was murdered.
The man was suspected to have been murdered.
- They believed she had done it on purpose. It was believed she had done it on purpose.

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 She was believed to have done it on purpose.
- 168 species are believed that they went extinct before 2000.
168 species are believed to have gone extinct before 2000.
- It is reported that the minister has approved of the proposal.
The minister is reported to have approved of the proposal. Bakanın öneriyi onaylamış olduğu
belirtilmektedir.
- It is understood that he has studied in Germany. (O’nun Almanya’da öğrenim görmüş olduğu
anlaşılıyor.)
He is understood to have studied in Germany.
- It seems that he has passed the exam. He seems to have passed the exam.
- She seems that she has won the prize.
She seems to have won the prize. Onun ödülü kazanmış olduğu görünüyor.
- It is said that they have been caught by the police.
They are said to have been caught by the police. Onların polis tarafından yakalanmış
oldukları söyleniliyor.
- It is said that the manager has been involved in illegal affairs.
The manager is said to have been involved in illegal affairs. Müdürün yasa dışı işlere
bulaşmış olduğu söyleniliyor.

- It is reported that the agreement has been signed by both sides.

The agreement is reported to have been signed by both sides. Anlaşmanın her iki tarafça
imzalanmış olduğu bildiriliyor.
- We did not know what we should have done before that diffucult interview.
We did not know what to have done before that diffucult interview.
- They are trying to follow what they were told. They are trying to follow what to have been said
to them.
- I would like to know where I had to go. I would like to know where to have gone.

having + V3
V+having + V3
adj + having + V3

Perfect Tense’li yapılarda ise “having + V3” kullanılır. Structure: V+having + V3, adj +
having + V3.
- I am glad that I have selected you.
I am glad that I had selected you.
I am glad having selected you.

- She acknowledged that she was at fault.

She acknowledged that she had been at fault.
She acknowledged having been at fault.

- She admitted that she had made a mistake.

She admited having made a mistake

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 Wh- + to

Wh- Soru kelimeleri (what, when …) ile modal (can, should …) yardımcı fiileriyle oluşan
cümleler “Wh- + to” şeklinde kısaltılabilir.
- I don’t know what I do. I don’t know what to do. (Ben ne yapacağımı bilmiyorum.)
- I don’t what I should do. I don’t what to do.
- I'm not sure how I can help you. I’m not sure how to help you.
- They will discuss how to halt the flow of recruits and money.
- He told me that I should drive. He told me to drive. (command)
- He asked me if I would help. He asked me to help. (request for action)
- I suggest that he should not be late. I suggest that he not be late.

Özne yapısında sadeleştirme:

Mastarların kullanımından faydalanarak özne yapısındaki “Noun Clause” larda sadeleştirme

yapılır. Sadeleştirme yapılırken özne cümlenin başına çekilir, bağlaç kısaltılır ve fiil mastar
biçiminde (to) ile kullanılır.
To be + V3, pasif
- It seems that your family is extremely happy.
Your family seems to be extremely happy. Ailenizin son derece mutlu olduğu görünüyor.
- It is claimed that he will be released the next mounth.
He is claimed to be released the next month. O’nun gelecek hafta serbest bırakılacağı iddia
ediliyor.
- It is reported that the results of the election will be announced tomorrow.
The results of the election are reported to be announced tomorrow. Seçim sonuçlarının yarın
ilan edileceği bildirilmektedir.
- It seems that they will move to another town next year.
They seem to be move to another town next year. Onların gelecek yıl başka bir kasabaya
taşınacakları anlaşılıyor.
- It is feard that the boy will be killed. The boy is feard to be killed. Çocuğun öldürüleceğinden
korkuluyor.
- It is expected that inflation will drop.
Inflation is expected to drop. Enflasyonun düşeceği umuluyor.

That clauses following “It is important / necessary / essential etc… somebody do something.” can
be reduced to “It is important / necessary / essential etc… for somebody to do something.”
- It is essential that she change her job.
It is essential for her to change her job. (Özneler farklı olduğundan, for + possessive pronoun)

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 Nesne yapısında sadeleştirme (Question words)

Noun clause’larda “what to / how to / wh… to” ile yazılan cümlelerin indirgenirken bağlaç
yapılarındaki kısaltmalarda bağlaç cümleye anlam kattığı için kısaltılamaz.
- We can not decide whether we will stay at home or go out.
We can not decide whether to stay at home or to go out. Evde mi kalacağız dışarıya mı
gideceğiz karar veremiyoruz.
- She didn’t seem to realize where she could apply to.
She didn’t seem to realize where to apply to.
Nereye başvurması gerektiğini anlmamış gibi görünüyor.
- I don’t know what I do. I don’t know what to do. (Ben ne yapacağımı bilmiyorum.)
- I don’t what I should do. I don’t what to do.
- I'm not sure how I can help you. (modal) I’m not sure how to help you.
- How society should distribute scarce goods is a central economic problem in any society.
(question)
How to distribute scarce goods is central economic problem in any society.
- We don’t know what we have to do. We don’t know what to do.
- She doesn’t know when she should leave. She doesn’t know when to leave.

Important note: Adjective clause’larda “where _ to” olmaz, fakat Noun clause’larda olmaktadır.
… Where she is going to

Tümleç yapısında sadeleştirme

Noun Clause’ ların cümlede tümleç olarak kullanıldığı yapıda da kısaltma mastarlardan
faydalanılarak yapılır.
- My job is that I teach English.
My job is to teach English. İşim Inglizce’yi öğretmektir.

Ving

Reduce to gerund phrase in Noun Clauses

Gerund alan fiilerle yapılan Noun Clause’larda (Perfect Tense’ler hariç) “... that + Subject +
predicate” yerine “Ving” gelir.
- I suggested that we make the decision faster. I suggested making the decision faster.
- She admitted that she broke the glass. She admitted breaking the glass.
- The man denied that he stole the money. The man denied stealing the money.
- My boss insists that we be early tomorrow. My boss insists being early tomorrow.
- She acknowledged that she had taken the bribe. She acknowledged having taken the bribe.
- I suggest that we wait a while before we make any firm decisions.
I suggest waiting a while before we make any firm decisions.
- She acknowledged that she had been at fault. She acknowledged having been at fault.
- She admitted (that) she had made a mistake. She admited having made a mistake.

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 - The 27-year-old admitted preparing for acts of terrorism, attending a camp, receiving training
and possessing firearms in a hearing last year.
- Thomas Edison began conducting experiments during his childhood.
- They will also look at providing more military help to those fighting on the ground, and
boosting humanitarian aid.
- Neil denies breaking the window.

The subjunctive form in noun clause (İstek kipi):

Active Passive
Subject V /V3 /have V3 (*) Subject+ (not) + V O + (not) + be + V3
that
(Çekimsiz) O+ should (not) be + V3
Subject + should + (not) + V

Active Passive
It is Subject + (not) + V O + (not) + be + V3
Noun/Adjective (**) that
It was (Çekimsiz) O+ should (not) be + V3
Subject + should + (not) + V

Words that take the subjunctive form:

V3 (*) Advised insist Propose request
ask know realize rule
demand move(=propose) required suggested
decree order recommended urged
desire prefer regret
Adjectives (**) Advisable important Obligatory significant
crucial imperative necessary urgent
essential mandatary recommendable vital

Nouns (**) advise insistence Proposal suggestion

demand order Recommendation
Note: “ask” rica etmek anlamında çekimsiz olarak kullanılır. İnglizce’de yukarıdaki tabloda verilen
sıfatlar kullanıldıklarında dilek kipi gerektirirler.

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 13.3.2. Reduction in the relative clauses

A participle is a verb form which can be used as an adjective to describe a noun.

When the present participle (Ving) is used, the noun it describes is (or was) the performer of the
activity named by the participle. Tanımladığı isim işi yapandır.
When the past participle (V3) is used, the noun it describes is (or was) acted upon. Tanımladığı
işi yaptırılandır.

Summary:
Noun + noun: Antalya, which is a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.
Noun + adj: The girl who is happy with the present is playing joyfully.
Noun + Pre: The boy who was in the car looked suspicious to me.
Noun + with (have positive): Students who have enough knowledge and skills will be admitted.
Noun + without (have not): People who don’t have their ID cards can not get in.
Noun + Ving(Present Simple - active): This is the students who get the best exam results.
Noun + Ving (Past Simple - active):The person who invited me was friendly.
Noun + V3 (Passive): The car that was bought yesterday is very fast.
Noun + Sentence: I lost the pen which you gave me.
Noun + having + V3 (active, present perfect) - The girl having asked a question is very clever.
Noun + having been + V3 (passive, present perfect) - The teacher having been asked a
question is very clever.
Noun + to V (active, future): The person who will criticize me isn't you.
Noun + to be + V3 (Passive, future): The person who will be invited is you.

Examples:
Molecules found on phones reveal lifestyle secrets.

Active Structure (yapan): N + Ving, Ving + Ving

Determine + Noun + Reduced Relative Clause

Active Structure: “who, which, that“ ve yardımcı filler (am, is, have, was gibi) atılır. Fill “Ving” olur.

Determine + noun /adj /pre:

Who, which, that ve to be filleri atılır.
- The girl who is happy with the present is playing joyfully.
The girl happy with the present is playing joyfully.
- The person who was responsible for the accident was put in jail.
The person responsible for the accident was put in jail.
- It, which is a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.
It, a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.
- The boy who was in the car looked suspicious to me.
The boy in the car looked suspicious to me.

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The verb “have” meaning possession:
We can omit relative pronoun and “have” and use “with” (+) or “without” (-).
- Students who have enough knowledge and skills will be admitted.
Students with enough knowledge and skills will be admitted.
- People who don’t have their ID cards can not get in.
People without their ID cards can not get in.

Present Simple Tense (noun + Ving, noun + not + Ving):

- This is the students who get the best exam results.
This is the students getting the best exam results. Bu sınavda en iyi notları olan öğrencidir.
- I have a kid who dosen’t help me much.
I have a kid not helping me much. Bana yardım etmeyen bir çocuğum var.
- People who buy lottery tickets are often found at bingo.
People buying lottery tickets are often found at bingo.
- It is an animal which / that lives in Africa.
It is an animal living in Africa.
- The woman who / that feed the pigeon.
The woman who / that fed the pigeon.
The woman feeding the pigeon. Güvercin besleyen kadın.
- Students who want to join the club must apply to the English teacher.
Students wanting to join the club must apply to the English teacher.
- Do you know the man who is talking on the TV?
Do you know the man talking on the TV?
- Do you know the girl standing near the window? – No, I don't know her. (her job; him:onu,
ona)
- How do you feel about NFL players refusing to stand during the National Athem?

Past Simple Tense (noun + Ving, noun + not + Ving):

- The person who invited me was friendly.
The person inviting me was friendly.
- Jack is the teacher who helped me last week.
Jack is the teacher helping me last week.
- Andy was an engineer who found a useful invention in the past.
Andy was an engineer finding a useful invention in the past.
- I bought a computer which didn’t work well yesterday.
I bought a computer not working well yesterday.
- The customers who wanted to see the manager looked very angry.
The customers wanting to see the manager looked very angry.
- The boy who helped me to repair my bicycle is my school friend. His name is Alex.
The boy helping me to repair my bicycle is my school friend.
- It was the cyanobacteria, pumping out unwanted oxygen, that transformed Earth's
atmosphere.
- I saw people running out of the building. Do you know what happened?

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 Present Continouns Tense (noun + Ving, noun + not + Ving):
- That is the dog which is barking at Tom now.
That is the dog barking at Tom now.
- She has a good husband who is helping his wife now.
She has a good husband helping his wife now.
- I brought a boy who isn’t smiling much now.
I brought a boy not smiling much now.
- The woman who is talking to the teacher is my mother.
The woman talking to the teacher is my mother.
- The boy who is standing by the door is her nephew.
The boy standing by the door is her nephew.

Past Continouns Tense(noun + Ving, noun + not + Ving):

- The students who were waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed.
The students waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed.

Passive Structure (yapılan): N + V3

The relative pronoun (that, who, which) and the be verb in a prepositional phrase may be omitted.
The reduced prepositional phrase becomes part of the noun phrase.
Continuous Tense (passive):
- The song which is being played now is my favorite one.
The song being played now is my favorite one.

Passive Structure:
“who, which, that” ve yardımcı filler (am, is, have,was gibi) atılır. Fill “V3” kalır.
- The car that was bought yesterday is very fast.
The car bought yesterday is very fast. Dün satın alınan araç çok hızlı.
- The man who was invited. The man invited.
- The language spoken
- The suggestion which / that was made was interesting.
The suggestion made was interesting.
- The boy who was attacked by a dog was taken to hospital.
The boy attacked by a dog was taken to hospital. (Past Participle)
- The car which is parked next to mine is very expensive.
The car parked next to mine is very expensive.
- Hamlet, which was written by Shakespeare in the early 1600s, is among the classics.
Hamlet, written by Shakespeare in the early 1600s, is among the classics.
- She played the guitar which was bought by her father.
She played the guitar bought by her father.
- The character that was created in 1953 changed over the years.
The character created in 1953 changed over the years.
- Lan Fleming who was educated in England wrote fourteen books.
Lan Fleming educated in England wrote fourteen books.
- Devil May Care that was written by S. Faulks creates a modern Bond.
Devil May Care written by S. Faulks creates a modern Bond.
- We read the email that had been sent by the manager.
We read the email sent by the manager.

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 - This vase, which was made in China in the 14th century, is very valuable.
This vase, made in China in the 14th century, is very valuable.
- She only eats cakes that are made by her mother.
She only eats cakes made by her mother.
- The car which was used in the bank robbery has been found by the police.
The car used in the bank robbery has been found by the police.
- Genetics, the study of heredity, emerged as a science at the beginning of the twentieth
century.
- The man kissed the woman is a well-known model.

Future Tense

• Noun + to + V: yapacak olan

• Noun + to be + V3: yapılacak olan

Active (Yapacak olan); N + to + V:

- The person who will criticize me isn't you.
The person to criticize me isn't you. Beni eleştirecek olan kişi siz değilsiniz.
- We require a car to take us to the airport early on Sunday morning.

Passive (Yapılacak olan Passive); N + to be + V3:

- The person who/that will be invited is you.The person to be invited is you.
- The person who will be criticized isn't you.
The person to be criticized isn't you. Eleştirecek olan siz değilsiniz.
- The Democrats hope to win an overwhelming majority in parliament in the elections will be
held next October.

Perfect Tense

Active (N + having + V3):

- The girl who has asked a question is very clever.
The girl having asked a question is very clever.

Passive (N + having been + V3):

- The teacher who has been asked a question is very clever.
The teacher having been asked a question is very clever.

Zaman (Tense) Farkı (a Perfect Participal):

Relative clause yapısının fiili ile ana fiil arasındaki zaman farkı varsa active eylemler için
“having +V3”, passive eylemler için “having been + V3” kullanılır.
- The students who failed the Math 101 course have to take it again next term.
The students having failed the Math 101 course has to take it again next term.

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 to + V (yapan)
to be + V3 (yapılan)

The first /last /second /next + noun:

The first, the second, the third, the last, the next; the only,
The superlative yapı (the best, the most populated, … ),
Modal yapılar (may, can, must,…) yapıları Relative Clause ile kullanıldığında “who, which,
that” ve yardımcı filler (am, is, have,was gibi) atılır. Aktive cümlelerde fiil “to V” halini ve
pasive cümlelerde ise “to be + V3” halini alır.

to + V (yapan)
the first /last /second /next + Noun
to be + V3 (yapılan)

- He is the first person who wrote about that problem.

He is the first person to write about that problem.

- This is the largest ship which was made last year.

This is the largest ship to be made last year.

- Jack is the first person who has handed in this exam.

Jack is the first person to have handed in this exam.

- The first person to step on the moon was Neil Armstrong.

Aya ilk ayak basan insan Neil Armstrong’dur.

- Mars was the first planet to be discovered.

Mars keşfedilen ilk gezegendi.

- The person to do was Einstein.

- Was Columbus the first man to discover the New World?

Columnus was the first man who discovered the New World.

- The first man to do it was Edison. (onu ilk yapan)

- Te first planet to be discovered. (Keşfedilen ilk gezegen)

Soru: The Erie Canal was the first of the US artificial waterways built ---- the Great Lakes
with the sea.
A) to be connected
B) connecting
C) to have connected
D) to connect
E) having connected

Yanıtlara bakıldığında kısaltma olduğu görülmektedir.

… was the first, the second, only, last ifadeleri var ise kısaltma “to” ile başlar, B ve E şıkları elenir.

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A şıkkında “to be connected” ile pasif bir kısaltma var. Boşluktan sonra ; preposition, bağlaç var
mı? Yok.
C şıkkında “to have connected” perfect bir kısaltma gelmesi için boşluktan sonra perfect bir
zaman zarfı olmalı, yok. Buranın önce yapıldığını anlatan birşey olmalı, yok.Tekrar ettiğini anlatan
birşey olmalı, yok.
Doğru yanıt: D

The only + noun:

to + V (yapan)
the only + noun
to be + V3 (yapılan)
- John is the only person who understands me.
John is the only person to understand me.

Superlative + noun:
to + V (yapan)
superlative + Noun
to be + V3 (yapılan)
- Tom is the most handsome boy who came in this school.
Tom is the most handsome boy to come in this school.

- It was the best play to be performed that year.

- The saddest girl to hold was martiny.

Being + V3
Being + past participle

“Being + past participle” can be used in the same way as a continuous passive relative clause.
- The poem that is being read by the actor was written by my brother.
The poem being read by the actor was written by my brother.

- The strawberries that are being eaten at the wedding….

The strawberries being eaten at the wedding were grown in Scotland.

Things to notice:
1: We generally don't use perfect participles ('having + past participle') in this case.
2: We can't use this kind of participle clause if we're talking about one finished action which is
not repeated:
Note: Who was the girl dropping the coffee?
Instead, we use a normal relative clause: Who was the girl who dropped the coffee?

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 Reducing a Nonidentifying Clause
A nonidentifying clause or nonrestrictive clause adds extra information, an aside comment.
Commas are used. Because a nonidentifying clause is more aside comment than modifier, it is
usually not reduced. This depends on how closely related its meaning is to the rest of the
sentence. A nonidentifying clause may sound awkward when reduced. It may be considered
informal.
Prepositional Phrase
- The desk, which is in the spotlight, is for the host. (nonID clause)
The desk, in the spotlight, is for the host.
The desk for the host is in the spotlight. (rephrased)

- The desk is for Mr. Leno, who is in the spotlight. (nonID clause)
The desk is for Mr. Leno, in the spotlight.
Note: sounds bad, rarely or not ever used.
The desk is for Mr. Leno, the host. (appositive)

Passive Verb Phrase

- Mr. Brad Pitt, who is scheduled for tonight, is the guest. (nonID clause)
Robert Pattison, scheduled for tonight, is the guest. (informal)
Robert Pattison, Edward Cullen in Twilight, is the guest. (appositive)

- The show is recorded in the Disney studios, which are located in Burbank, California. (nonID
clause –if all studios are in Burbank.)
The show is recorded in the Disney studios, located in Burbank, California.

Progressive Verb Phrase

- The Evening Show, which is celebrating its twenty-fifth anniversary, has a new host. (nonID
clause)
The Evening Show, celebrating its twenty-fifth anniversary, has a new host. (informal)

- We bought tickets to see the Evening Show, which is celebrating its twenty-fifth anniversary.
(nonID clause)
We bought tickets to see the Evening Show, celebrating its twenty-fifth anniversary.

650
 Omission of who(m) / that
Nesneyi ve Tümleci niteleyen “who, whom, that” sıfat cümleciği (Object-Complement)
Nitelenen ismin kendisini niteleyen cümlenin nesnesi görevini üstlendiği zaman woman who,
whom ve that cümleden atılabilir. Relative clause’un anlamını hiç bozmadan, kısaltmak için; who,
which ve that bağlaçlarının hemen ardından fiille başlayan ve öznesi olmayan bir cümle
gelmelidir.

In defining clauses, we can omit the relative pronoun in the position of object. In non-defining
sentences you neither omit the relative pronoun nor use "that".
- The boy who/whom/that you don’t like much wants to talk to you.
The boy you don’t like much wants to talk to you.

- I met the people whom you told me about them.

- I met the people you told me about.

- The woman who (m)/that we saw at the zoo last week is a teacher .
The woman we saw at the zoo last week is a teacher.

- The woman to whom my father is talking is a teacher.

The woman my father is talking to is a teacher.

- The girl who (m) / that you like very much is my friend's sister.
The girl you like very much is my friend's sister.

- The teacher after whom a dog is running is our neighbour.

The teacher whome a dog is running after is our neighbour.
The teacher a dog is running after is our neighbour.

- The seat which / that my daughter likes has a very hard cushion.
The seat my daughter likes has a very hard cushion.

- The cat which / that my brother likes much is my friend's cat.

The cat my brother likes much is my friend's cat.

- The box for which we are seeing is very worthless.

The box we are seeing for is very worthless.

- Do you remember the boy that I was talking about?

Do you remember the boy I was talking about?

- He is a man whom we all admire.

He is a man we all admire.

- I lost the pen that you gave me. Or: I lost the pen which you gave me.
I lost the pen you gave me.

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 Reducing a Clause with a Prepositional Phrase
The relative pronoun (that, who, which) and be verb in a prepositional phrase may be omitted.
The reduced prepositional phrase becomes part of the noun phrase (NP).
Subject Noun Phrase + Verb + Comp.
comp – complement: a word, phrase or clause which is necessary in a sentence to complete its
meaning
- The man who is next to me writes novels.
The man next to me writes novels.

- The paperback books that are on my desk are about James Bond.
The paperback books on my desk are about James Bond.

- The news show that is in the morning hosted the writer.

The news show in the morning hosted the writer.

- She likes the stories that he writes.

- She likes the stories which he writes.
She likes the stories he writes.

Proposition + QW:
- The man to whom she is speaking is her doctor.
The man she is speaking to is her doctor.
- The house in which he lived was too far from the center of the city.
The house he lived in was too far from the city center.

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 13.3.3. Reduction in the adverbial clauses

Adverbial Participle Phrase Table:

Action Clauses Reduction form
Avtive Ving / being
Same time
Passive (being) + V3
Active having + V3
Different time
Passive (having been) + V3
Perfect Progressive: having been Ving

İp uçları:
• “The participle clause” olup olmadığını anlamak cümle sonundaki virgul ve cümlenin
başındaki “Ving” kontrol edilmelidir:
• İndirgemede cümleler arasında zaman farkı ile yan cümlenin aktif ya da pasif yapıda olup
olmadığı ve cümlelerdeki öznelerin aynı olup olmadığı önemli kriterlerdir.
• Özneleri aynı mı yoksa farklı mı? Özneler ortak ise doğrudan Participle ile başlar; değilse
birinci özne yazılır, ardından participle yazılır.
• Continuous tense yapısında Ving olarak kullanılmayan fiiller, “participle reduction” da V ing
olabilmektedir; wanting, moving, knowing
• “Adverb Clause” aktif ya da pasif mi?
• Participle cümlesinden sonra virgül vardır.
- Having finshed my work, I left the office. After I finished my work, I left the office.

Before / After + Noun / Clause / Ving + Main Clause

When + Ving / Clause / Adjective / V3 + Main Clause
On / Upon + Noun / Ving + Main Clause
Before breakfast,
Before having breakfast,___ . = Before I have breakfast, ___ .
Note: at break fast: kahvaltıda, On breakfast: kahvaltı ettiğimde

Zarf cümleciğinde sadeleştirme yapılırken:

Zarf cümleciğinin fiili “to be” ise “Subject + to be” düşer, fiil “Ving” olur.
- Because I was late, I took a taxi.
Being late, I took a taxi.
- While I was watching TV, I looked over the files.
Watching TV, I looked over the files.

Zaman aynı ise özne düşer ve fiil “Ving” olur.

- Before I left home, I had breakfast.
Before leaving home, I had breakfast.

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Zaman farklı ise özne atılır, fiil “having + V3” olur.
- After I had written the report, I asked him to look over them.

Participles are also used in the function of adverbial modifiers. Participles may replace adverbial
and adjectival clauses.
- After the workers had done the job, they went home.
Having done the job, the workers went home. (Çalışanlar işi bitirdikten sonra …)
- As soon as the job was done, the workers left the workplace.
(being) done the job , the workers left the workplace. (İş bitirilir bitirilmez … )
- After the job had been done, the workers went home.
The job having been done, the workers went home.

The reduction is possible only when the subjects of the adverb clause and the main clause are
the same. In very formal English, is etimes possible to use the different subjects.
- Before he came, I had already finished my homework. (different subjects)

If the main verb of the adverb clause is not “be verb”, omit the subject and change “verb” to
“Ving”.
- Before I go to school in the morning, I usually take a shower.
Before going to school in the morning, I usually take a shower.

At the same time, Active Structure (Ving / Being)

If the subject of the adverb clause and the main clause are the same and main verb of the adverb
clause is “be verb”, omit “subject” and “be verb” of the adverb clause. (Past continuous tense,
Past simple tense)
- While I was walking down the street, I came across a very strange guy.
While walking down the street, I came across a very strange guy.
- I was playing tennis. Later, I called my mother.
After playing tennis, I called my mother.
Note: The adverb clause in this sentence cannot be reduced to a phrase.

Time ( When, since, after, before, as soon as, on, upon, while, whilst ):
Note: when atıldığında cümlede “when”’in anlamı yok oluyorsa when atılmaz.
- When I saw the woman lying on the road, I stopped my car.
Seeing the woman lying on the road, I stopped my car.
- When I saw the road block, I stopped my car.
Seeing the road block, I stopped my car.
- When you cross the street, you must be careful.
When crossing the street, you must be careful.
- When we arrived at the airport, we learned that our flight was delayed because of weather
conditions.
Arriving at the airport, we learned that our flight was delayed because of weather conditions.
- When I returned to the village, I met an old friend.
Returning to the village, I met an old friend.

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On + Ving
Upon + Ving
- When /(as soon as) I heard the news, I got shocked.
Hearing the news, I got shocked.
On /upon hearing the news, I got shocked.
- When the police opened the box, they found some jewellery.
Opening the box, the police found some jewellery.
On /Upon opening the box, the police found some jewellery.
- When we opened the cupboard, we found a skeleton inside.
On /upon opening the cupboard, we found a skeleton inside.
Opening the cupboard, we found a skeleton inside.

After + Ving
- After she heard the news, she fainted right there.
Hearing the news, she fainted right there.
- After they finished their homework, they went to an internet café.
Finishing their homework, they went to an internet cafe.

Before + Ving
- Before he left, he said good-bye to each of them.
Before leaving, he said good-bye to each of them. Note: Before reduction yapılırken atılamaz.
- Before I came to the U.S.A., I had lived in Australia.
Before coming to the U.S.A., I had lived in Australia.

While + Ving
Whilst + Ving
- While I was reading a book, I was listening music, too.
While reading a book, I was listening music, too. Reading a book, I was listening music, too.
- While I was searching for my old valuables, I spotted my nursery school certificate.
While searching for my old valuables, I spotted my nursery school certificate.
Searching for my old valuables, I spotted my nursery school certificate
- While I was walking down street, I ran into one my old friends.
While walking down street, I ran into one my old friends.
Walking down street, I ran into one my old friends.
- While I was watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
While watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
Watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door. [While can be omitted.]
- One day, whilst fishing on the beach during his spare time, he discovered nine coins buried in
the sand.
One day, whilst he was fishing on the beach during his spare time, he discovered nine coins
buried in the sand.
- Not knowing what to expect, she was afraid to open the door.
- (On/Upon) receiving the letter, you should reply immediately. Mektubu alınca hemen
yanıtlaman gerek.

655
Since + Ving
- Since I came to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
Since coming to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.

Conditional:
- If you are learning English, you must be patient.
If learning English, you must be patient.
- She talked as if / (as though) she knew everything.
She talked as if / (as though) knowing everything.

Reason:
- Because the whether was warm and clear, we decided to have a picnic.
The whether being warm and clear, we decided to have a picnic.
- Because/as/ since he was ill, he didn’t come to the party.
Being ill, he didn’t come to the party.
- Because he wanted more money, he accepted the offer.
Wanting more money, he accepted the offer. [Because is omitted.]
- Because I didn’t want to hurt her, I didn’t tell her the truth.
Not wanting to hurt her, I didn’t tell her the truth.
- Because she was anxious to see them, she couldn’t sleep that night.
Being anxious to see them, she couldn’t sleep that night.
Anxious to see them, she couldn’t sleep that night. [Being can be omitted.]
- As I felt tired, I went to bed early.
Feeling tired, I went to bed early.
- As he did not know what to do, he applied to me for advice.
Not knowing what to do, he applied to me for advice.
- Since Bob is an experienced teacher, he knows how to deal with such problems.
Being an experienced teacher, Bob knows how to deal with such problems.

- Since I came here, I have been very busy.

Since coming here, I have been very busy.
- The mechanisms of synergy between industry and agriculture worked in reverse: killing the
industry reduced the productivity of the agricultural sector.
- He opened the door, smiling; surprised, he didn't know what to say.
- Although he knew the answer, he didn’t answer the question.
Although knowing the answer, he didn’t answer the question.

Manner:
- Smiling warmly, Mary shook hands with me. Mary, smiling warmly, shook hands with me.
Mary shook hands with me, smiling warmly.

Instead of “and”:
- She wrote him a friendly and thanked him for his help.
She wrote him a friendly, thanking him for his help.

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Instead of “a relative clause”:
- The man who was driving the car was wearing dark glasses.
The man driving the car was wearing dark glasses.
- The engine accumulated dust, and this impaired its function.
The engine accumulated dust, which impaired its function.
The engine accumulated dust, impairing its function.

At the same time, Pasif Structure: (being) + V3

Time:
(Being + V3)
V3
- When he was asked to explain what happened, he said that he didn't know.
Asked to explain what happened, he said that he didn't know.
- When he was asked whether he would resign or not, he said that he might.
Asked whether he would resign or not, he said that he might.
İstafa edip etmeyeceği sorulduğunda, edebileceğini söyledi.
- When he was asked that question, he got angry.
When asked that question, he got angry.Asked that question, he got angry.

Until + being + V3
Until + V3
- Until it is learnt, it must be repeated.
Until learnt, it must be repeated.

After + being + V3
Befor + being + V3
- After he was arrested, he decided not to steal again.
After being arrested, he decided not to steal again.
- Soldiers must be given sufficient training before they are given duties.
Soldiers must be given sufficient training before being given duties.
- After he was punished by his teacher, he started to behave properly.
Punished by his teacher, he started to behave correctly.

Upon + being + V3
- The late Chinese Prime Minister, Chou-En Lai, upon being asked whether the French
Revolution had been a good thing in world history, was reported to have said: “It is still too
early to tell.”
Çin Başbakanı Chou-En Lai, Fransız Devriminin dünya tarihinde iyi bir şey olup olmadığının
sorulması üzerine "Hâlâ söylemek için henüz çok erken" dediği bildirildi.

Conditional:
- When / (Now that) / If it is painted white, the house looks bigger.
Painted white, the house looks bigger.
- When it is exposed to water, iron will eventually rust.
When exposed to water, iron will eventually rust.

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If, Unless, As if, As though, Whether or not:
- If this method is used properly it will be highly effective.
If used properly, this method will be highly effective.
- Unless you are told otherwise, you shouldn’t go there.
Unless told orherwise, you shouldn’t go there.
- She talked as if / as though she was promoted that position.
She talked as if / as though promoted that position.

Although, Though:
- Although it was begun many years ago, the road is still not completed.
Although begun many years ago, the road is still not completed.
- Though it was written for children, the book is popular among adults as well.
Though written for children, the book is popular among adults as well.

Reason Condition:
- Because the dog is seriously injured, it may die.
Being seriously injured, the dog may die.
Seriously injured, the dog may die.
- Since it was built, it has been the shortest way to go there.
Since being built, it has been the shortest way to go there.
- Because it was injured seriously, it may die.Being injured seriously, it may die.
- Because /as /since he had been dismissed from the factory, Ali had to look for a job months.
Having been dismissed from the factory, Ali had to look for a job months.
- Because the dog is seriously injured, it has been taken to the vet.
Being seriously injured, the dog has been taken to the vet.
- Although it was published in 1968, the book gives very significant information.
Although published in 1960, the book gives very significant information.

Instead of a relative clause:

- The two survivors, who were worn out by hunger and fatigue, at last reached the coast.
The two survivors, worn out by hunger and fatigue, at last reached the coast.
Worn out by hunger and fatigue, the two survivors at last reached the coast.
- Captured four times by the authorities, he managed to escape twice, both times through
tunnels dug first by rebels on the inside, and a second time, by his comrades on the outside.
- Surprised by his strange decision, his friends tried to talk him out of it.
- Left in the yard, the books were spoiled by the pouring rain.
- Lost in the woods, the dog managed to find the way home.
- Cook and stir until thickened.
- Deprived of the moderating effects of the oceans, much of Central Asia experiences bitterly
cold winters and boiling hot summers. Okyanusların yumuşatıcı etkilerinden yoksun kalan
Orta Asya’nın büyük bölümü, çok sert soğuk kışlar ve son derece sıcak yazlar yaşar.

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At the different times, Active structure: having + V3

- After I had finished my homework, I went to party.

After having finished my homework, I went to party.
- After I had finished my work, I went home.
Having finished my work, I went home.
- After they had collected further data, they made up their minds.
Having collected further data, they made up their minds.
- After / when she had collected sufficient data, Birsen started to write her thesis.
Having collected sufficient data, Birsen started to write her thesis.

- Because/ as /since I had seen the movie, I didn’t go with them.

Having seen the movie, I didn’t go with them.
- Because I (have) lived in the city before, I have many friends there.
Having lived in the city before, I have many friends there. [The time in the adverb clause is
before the main clause.]
- Because I had read the book before, I didn’t read it again.
Having read the book before, I didn’t read it gain.

- As I had seen him in that building before, I thought that he worked there.
Having seen him in that building before, I thought that he worked there.
- As she has already seen the film, Mary doesn’t want to see it again.
Having already seen the film, Mary doesn’t want to see it again.

- Although the journalist had written an article, he didn’t show it to his boss.
Having written an article, the journalist didn’t show it to his boss.
- The task was completed. The men went to their barracks.
When / after the task had been completed, the men went to their barracks.
The task (having been) completed, the men went to their barracks.
The task completed, the men went to their barracks.

- Having completed his study he submitted it to the committee.

(When it is) taken as it is, the sentence will mean nothing. Olduğu gibi ele alındığında bu
cümle bir anlam taşımaz.
- Earth was already 2 billion years old at the time of the Great Oxidation Event, having formed
4.5 billion years ago.
- Having been dismissed from the factory, Ali had to look for a job months. (Because/as/ since)
- Having finished my homework, I went to party. (After)

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At the different times, Passive structure: having been + V3

- After the article had been scripted, it was sent to the press immediately.
Having been scripted, the article was sent to the press immediately.
- He has been dismissed from school. He plans to set up his own business.
Having been dismissed from school, He plans to set up his own business.
- After the results had been announced, they were hung on the wall.
Having been announced, the results were hung on the wall.
- İncirlik base were strategically located, it plays a major role for the USA.
As it had been strategically located, İncirlik base plays a major role for the USA.
(Having been) strategically located, İncirlik base plays a major role for the USA.
Strategically located, İncirlik base plays a major role for the USA.

To be, adverbial clauses

- He talked as if /(as though) he was the best.

He talked as if /(as though) the best.
- When it is necessary, you can spend some of money.
When necessary, you can spend some of money.
- Although / though he was unhappy, he tried to smile.
Although / though unhappy, he tried to smile.
- While I was at school, I was very hard-working.
While at school, I was very hard-working.
- As it can be seen in her eyes, she loves him.
As be seen in her eyes, she loves him.

Participial Phrase with its own subject

- It was a nice day. We went swimming.

Since it was a nice day, we went swimming.
It being a nice day, we went swimming.
- John married Helen. Bill had to find another girl.
As John had married Helen, Bill had to find another girl.
John having married Helen, Bill had to find another girl.

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 Exam Questions

V3 + V3:
- A huge monument has been discovered buried under the sands at the Petra World
Heritage site in southern Jordan.

- Colossal clouds cloak the surface of Venus, making it difficult for researchers to probe its
secrets.

V + V3 : Adj + Noun

- Trump gave classified info to Russians.

Trump Ruslara gizli bilgi verdi.

- On seeing the new shopping centre for the first time I wondered whether it would succeed,
with all the other shops already in the neighbourhood.

- Football not broken, but heartbroken.

- Even suspended, I am the president.
- I am to ask what happened.

- Driver accused of running over 38 people. (Gerunds are used after prepositions.)

- Several guns have been found in an abandoned car believed to have been used by some of
the the attackers.
Several guns have been found in an abandoned car which was believed that they have been
used by some of the attackers.

An abandoned car: adj(V3) + noun.

Past Participles can also be used like an adjective in front of a noun.

Reduction of Relative Clause, noun /Ving + V3: Passive

an abandoned car which was believed …: an abandoned car believed …

Reduction of Noun Clause, Verb + to have V3: zaman farklı, yapı aktif
- I am glad that I have been chosen. (Passive). I am glad to have been chosen.

- He is one of the latest teenagers to be linked to activity by the extremists around the world.
- Her 15-year-old friend is believed to have been killed in fighting in 2014.

- About 20 miles from Boston, there is a little town named Concord that has a rich story.

- Over the years, the strongest threats to the Iranian regime ultimately have come from within,
from a new generation of young students and workers who have discovered that their

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 prospects for prosperity and democratic rights have not changed much since the days of the
shah.

- Ann hoped to be invited to join the private club. She could make important business contracts
there.
Ann hoped that she was invited to join the private club.

- Historians will never agre completely the effects of dropping the world’s first atomic bomb to
end the World War II.

- Historians will never agree completely the effects of dropping the world’s first atomic bomb
which will end the World War II.

- Written by James A. Bland, “ carry Me Back to Old Virginny” was adopted is the state song of
Virginia in 1940.
Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that
are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Do not use commas to set off essential
elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses).

- A few animals sometimes fool their enemies by appearing to be dead.

Step-1: to be + V3: to be dead
By + Ving to be + V3: … olmuş gibi yapmak
By appearing to be dead: ölmüş gibi görünmek
Step-2: by + Ving: yaparak, ederek. by appearing: görünerek, gözükerek
Step-3: fool: aldatmak, aptal yerine koymak, şaka yapmak, kandırmak

- What surprised you most?

What is it surpised you most?

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 13.4. Ving, V3, Been, Being

Ving having + V3
yaptığı için yapmış olduğu için
yaptığı zaman yaptığı için
yaptığında yaptıktan sonra
yapınca yaptığı zaman
yapan yaptığında
yaparak: by Ving yapınca
yaparken yapar yapmaz
ve yaptı
ve bu da ki / ki buda yaptı
yapar yapmaz

Being V3 having been + V3

Yapıldığı için yapılmış olduğu için
Yapıldıktan sonra yapıldığı için
Yapıldığında yapılır yapılmaz
Yapıldığı zaman yapıldığında
Yapılır yapılmaz yapıldığı zaman

“V3”: ayrıca yapılırsa… ve yapılırsa anlamıda mevcuttur.

having been doing: yapmakta olduğu için

Adverbial ya da adjective clause kısaltmalarında atılan bağlacın anlamı bulunmalıdır:

Ving……………………….., özne……………….: eş zamanlı aktif
V3 / being V3…………., özne……………….: eş zamanlı pasif
Having + V3………………., özne……………….: farklı zamanlı aktif
Having been + V3..……., özne……………….: farklı zamanlı pasif

İndirgeme bağlaç ve fiiller ile ilgili olduğu için, cümledeki yerine, isim ve sıfatlarla ve diğer fiiller ile
ilişkisine dikkat edilmelidir.

Adjective:
adj + noun
To be + adj: I am ready. That’s a big house.
adj + to + V + sth: He was powerless to prevent it.
Indefinite pronoun + adj: I feel ill.
Subject + sense verb (Look, feel, sound taste and smell ) + adj.
Adjectives patterns with “kind, considerate, tactful”: You are very kind to invite me.
A/an + Noun/noun phrase ( adj + noun): A fearful railway accident happened 3 days ago.

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Adjective:
“Ving” describes non-person. “V3” describes person.
- How was the concert last night? It was disappointing.
- All the students felt bored listening to his lecture.

Adverb:
An adverb is a word, which serves as a modifier of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, a
preposition, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence

Preposition:
Structure: Preposition + N /Gerund.
“Preposition” lardan sonra “isim” ya da “Gerund(Ving)” gelir. Adverbial Clause’larda kullanılan
“Question Word” bağlaçlarından önce kullanıldığı yapılar da mevcuttur.

Tense

• Present Continuous Tense:

Active: S + to be (am, is, are) + Ving + …
- The doctor is examining him at the moment.

Passive: S + to be (am, is, are) + being + V3 + …

- He is being examined by the doctor at the moment.

• Past Continuous Tense:

- When I came to the hospital, The doctor was examining him.
- When I came to the hospital, Tom was being examined by the doctor.

• Present Simple Tense:

- Trees lose their leaves in the fall.
- The leaves of the tree are losed in the fall.

• Past Simple Tense:

- I saw him an hour ago.
- He was seen by me an hour ago.

• Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

- Recently, John has been doing the work.
- Recently, the work has been being done by John.
The perfect continuous tense: The future progressive passive (will be being) and perfect
progressive passive (has been being) are quite rare.
- The factory has been being built for 10 years!

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• Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
- Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he
moved to Paris.
- The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years
before he moved to Paris.

• Future Simple (will): promise to do something hopes and predictions for the future
- Will you go by bus? No, I think I will go on foot.
- You will be in Rome tonight.

• Future be going to: to express a future plan

- Is he going to sing Thriller at the party?
- Is Thriller going to be sung at the party?
- The cinema in the High Street is going to be converted into a dance hall.

• Future Perfect be going to:

- They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.
- The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.

• Future Continuous Tense:

- They won't be questioning him when you get there.
- He won't be being questioned when you get there.

• Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

- They'll have been treating her for exactly three months.
- She'll have been being treated for exactly three months.

• Future Perfect Continuous be going to

- The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it
is finished.
- The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the
time it is finished.

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 Participles

Past participle phrases: begin with a past participle, the verb: V3.
Present participle phrases: begin with a present participle, the verb: Ving.

• Present Perfect Tense:

- I have just eaten a sandwich.
- A sandwich has been just eaten by me.
- She hasn't finished her assignment yet. O henüz ödevini bitirmedi.

• Past Perfect Tense:

- Because /as /since I had seen the movie, I didn’t go with them.
- Chris was ill because he had eaten too much chocolate.

• Future Perfect:
- I will have finished the project by the time you arrive at the office tomorrow morning.
- She will have prepared the dinner by the time we get home.
- The scientists will have found the cure for cancer by 2030.

• Conditional perfect:
- If his passport had not been stolen, Adam would have gone to Brazil.
- I wouldn't have known if you hadn't told me.

• Passive Voice:
- The west coast of The USA was struck by torrential rain last night.
- The painting was stolen in the middle of the night.

Participles as adjectives:
A present participle (Ving) attributes a quality of action to the noun, which is viewed as
undertaking the action. A past participle (V3) views the noun as having undergone the action
expresses by the participle. The present is an active participle and the past is a passive participle.
When a participle phrase introduces a main clause, separate components with a comma.

The Participles can also be used like an adjective in front of a noun.

Structure: Ving/V3 + Noun /NP /Ving (Active):
- The stolen baby was found by the police unharmed.
- Dean's broken arm was set in plaster by the doctor at the hospital.
- Please bring all of the required documents for your interview tomorrow.
- A noise that disturbs someone is a disturbing noise.
- The police caught him stealing car.

Adjective Clause Structure: Noun /NP /Ving, V3. (passive)

- The dog, trained properly, will make a good watch dog.

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Noun Clause Structure: Noun /NP /Ving + Ving. (active)
- I know the man who came late.
I know the man coming late. (Reduction adjective clause.)
- I am sorry to have kept you waiting so long.
- That is Mary sitting over there.

Noun Clause Structure: Noun /NP /Ving + V3. (passive)

A past participle views the noun as having undergone the action expresses by the participle.
When a participle phrase concludes a main clause and is describing the word right in front of it,
you need no punctuation to connect the two sentence parts.
- These are the facts gathered by the committee.
- The language spoken in Canada is English.
- I had my suit pressed yesterday. (causative form)
- She kept her eyes closed all the time.
- Can Mary make herself understood in English.
- The President was sitting on the chair surrounded by his supporters.

Adverbial Clause:
- Before being admitted to the college, he had to go through an examination.
Before he was admitted to the college, he had to go through an examination.

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 Causitive (Ving)

Active: have someone V something

have + someone + verb + something = "to give someone the responsibility to do something".
- Dr. Smith is having his nurse take the patient's temperature.
- I am having the mechanic check the brakes.
- I have my sister watch the baby while I am out.

Active: get someone to do something

Birine bir şeyi ikna yoluyla yaptırıldığı zaman bu yapı kullanılır.
get + somebody + to + verb = "to convince to do something" or "to trick someone into doing
something".
- He gets his brother to do his homework. O kardeşine ödevlerini yaptırır.
- The government TV commercials are trying to get people to stop smoking.

“Make” somebody do something: Bir işin zorla ya da ısrarla başkasına yaptırıldığı anlamı
vardır.
- My mother is making me tidy my room. Annem bana odamı toplatıyor.

Passive: have/get something V3:

Have + object + V3
Get + object + V3
Now I am having the bathroom redecorated. [Present Continuous]
We’ve been having our garden remodeled. [Present Perfect Continuous]
He was having his car serviced when I arrived. [Past Continuous]
They’ll be having their dinner served at half past eight. [Future Continuous]

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 Reduction of Noun Clause

Require/ suggest/recommend ...+ that + S + Infinitive (without to) + O

Passive voice: Require/ suggest/recommend ...+ that + BE +PP- Adverb modifies

Active “to be”:

adj /adv + to be
- He is happy that he is here. He is hapy to be here.

Tümleç yapısında sadeleştirme

- My job is that I teach English. My job is to teach English. İşim Inglizce’yi öğretmektir.

Verb + to be + Ving:
- They report that the Prime Minister is going to Greece.
The Prime Minister is reported to be going to Greece.

Verb + to V:
- We decided that we improve the installation. We decided to improve the installation.

Verb + Ving:
Verb + object + to V
To be + adj + Ving + sth
Advise/ allow/ permit/ recommend + Ving
Advise/ allow/ permit/ recommend + object + to V
- She admitted that she broke the glass. She admitted breaking the glass.
- If you can’t unscrew the lid, try hitting it with a hammer.
- I advise you to wait before deciding to accept the job.

Keep (on) doing something: to continue doing something or to do the same thing many times.
- We have got high inflation. That is why prices keep going up.

Regret+To Verb: Feel regret for something you are going to do

Regret + Ving: Feel regret for something already happened

Verb + to have been Ving: zaman farklı

- People know that he was struggling for his country.
It is known that he was struggling for his country.
He was known to have been struggling for his country.

Verb + having + V3, adj + having + V3:

- I am glad that I have selected you. I am glad that I had selected you.
I am glad having selected you.

for + possessive pronoun, Özneler farklı olduğunda

Preposition(for) + Noun + to V
- It is essential that she change her job.
It is essential for her to change her job.

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 Should - If
- He told me that I should drive.
He told me to drive. (command)

- He asked me if I would help.

He asked me to help. (request for action)

(should) be adj
- I suggest that he should not be late.
I suggest that he not be late.

Passive:
To be:
- He will be executed.
- He to be executed. O idam edilecek.

Verb + to be + V3: zamanlar aynı

- They suspected that the man was murdered. It was suspected that the man was murdered.
The man was suspected to be murdered.
Verb + to have been + V3: zaman farklı
- I am glad that I have been chosen. (passive)
I am glad to have been chosen.

Verb + to be being V3:

(should) be + V3
- It was vital that the patient should be operated.
It was vital that the patient be operated.
- It is essential that cancer should be diagnosed and treated as early as possible in order to
assure a successful cure.
It is essential that cancer be diagnosed and treated as early as possible in order to assure a
successful cure.
- The U.S. postal service policy for check approval includes a requirement that two pieces of
identification be presented.

Question Words:
QW + to V:
- I don’t know what I do. I don’t know what to do. (Ben ne yapacağımı bilmiyorum.)

It is V3 + Qw + to V
It is V3 + Qw + to be + V3
It is V3 + QW + to have seen
It is V3 + QW + to have been caught

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 Reduction of Relative Clause

• To be:
Noun + noun:
- Antalya, which is a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.
Antalya, a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.

Noun + adj:
- The girl who is happy with the present is playing joyfully.
The girl happy with the present is playing joyfully.

Noun + Preposition:
- The boy who was in the car looked suspicious to me.
The boy in the car looked suspicious to me.
- The man who is in the house likes to watch television all day.
The man in the house likes to watch television all day.
- The books that are on the desk are mine.
The books on the desk are mine.

Noun + with (have positive):

- Students who have enough knowledge and skills will be admitted.
Students with enough knowledge and skills will be admitted.

Noun + without (have not):

- People who don’t have their ID cards can not get in.
People without their ID cards can not get in.
• Noun (/Ving) + Ving(Present/Past Simple - active):
- Students who want to join the club must apply to the English teacher.
Students wanting to join the club must apply to the English teacher.
- I bought a computer which didn’t work well yesterday.
I bought a computer not working well yesterday.

• Noun (/Ving) + Ving(Present/Past Continuous - active):

- The woman who is talking to the teacher is my mother.
The woman talking to the teacher is my mother.
- The students who were waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed.
The students waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed.
- The man who is swimming in the lake is my father.
The man swimming in the lake is my father.
- The clothes that are lying on the floor belong to me.
The clothes lying on the floor belong to me.

• Noun (/Ving) + being V3(Present/Past Continuous - Passive):

- The song which is being played now is my favorite one.
The song being played now is my favorite one.

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• Noun + having + V3 (Present Perfect - Active)
- The girl who has asked a question is very clever.
The girl having asked a question is very clever.

• Noun (/Ving) + V3 (Passive):

- The car that was bought yesterday is very fast.
The car bought yesterday is very fast.
- The survey which was conducted by the government did not indicate true public opinion.
The survey conducted by the government did not indicate true public opinion.
- The food that was eaten by the mice was poisonous.
The food eaten by the mice was poisonous.

• Noun + having been + V3 (Present Perfect - Passive)

- The teacher who has been asked a question is very clever.
The teacher having been asked a question is very clever.

• Noun + Sentence: I lost the pen which you gave me.

• Noun + to V (active, future): The person who will criticize me isn't you.
• Noun + to be + V3 (Passive, future): The person who will be invited is you.

Examples:
- Drinking water containing excessive amounts of fluorides may leave a stained or mottled on
the enamel of teeth.
- Pewter, widely used for eating and drinking utensils in colonial America, is about ninety
percenttin, which copper or bismuth added for hardness.

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 Reduction of adverbial (Participle) clause

To be:
Active, same time: Ving / Being
- Because he was poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
- Because /as /since he was ill, he didn’t come to the party.
Being ill, he didn’t come to the party.

At the same time, Active Structure (Ving / Being)

- When we opened the cupboard, we found a skeleton inside.
On /upon opening the cupboard, we found a skeleton inside.
Opening the cupboard, we found a skeleton inside.
- After she heard the news, she fainted right there.
Hearing the news, she fainted right there.
- Before I came to the U.S.A., I had lived in Australia.
Before coming to the U.S.A., I had lived in Australia.
- Since I came to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
Since coming to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
- If you are learning English, you must be patient.
If learning English, you must be patient.
- Although he knew the answer, he didn’t answer the question.
Although knowing the answer, he didn’t answer the question.
- While I was reading a book, I was listening music, too.
While reading a book, I was listening music, too.
Reading a book, I was listening music, too.
- When I saw the woman lying on the road, I stopped my car.
Seeing the woman lying on the road, I stopped my car.

At the same time, Pasif Structure: (being) + V3

- When he was asked whether he would accept it or not, he said that he might.
When asked whether he would accept it or not, he said that he might.
Asked whether he would accept it or not, he said that he might.
- After he was arrested, he decided not to steal again.
After being arrested, he decided not to steal again.
- When / (Now that) / If it is painted white, the house looks bigger.
Painted white, the house looks bigger.
- Since it was built, it has been the shortest way to go there.
Since being built, it has been the shortest way to go there.
- Because /as /since he had been dismissed from the factory, Ali had to look for a job months.
Having been dismissed from the factory, Ali had to look for a job months.
- Because the dog is seriously injured, it may die.
Being seriously injured, the dog may die.
Seriously injured, the dog may die.
- The Woolworth Building in New York was the highest in America when built in 1943 and was
famous for its use of Gothic decorative detail.
“When it was built…” adverbial clause olarak indirgendiğinde, “When + verb_ing”, olur. In this
case: when + being built (but “being” is hidden)

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At the different times, Active structure: having + V3
- After I had finished my homework, I went to party.
After having finished my homework, I went to party.
- Because/ as /since I had seen the movie, I didn’t go with them.
Having seen the movie, I didn’t go with them.
- As I had seen him in that building before, I thought that he worked there.
Having seen him in that building before, I thought that he worked there.
- Although the journalist had written an article, he didn’t show it to his boss.
Having written an article, the journalist didn’t show it to his boss.

At the different times, Passive structure: having been + V3

- After the results had been announced, they were hung on the wall.
Having been announced, the results were hung on the wall.

To be
- He talked as if /(as though) he was the best.
He talked as if /(as though) the best.
- When it is necessary, you can spend some of money.
When necessary, you can spend some of money.

Participial Phrase with its own subject

- John married Helen. Bill had to find another girl.
As John had married Helen, Bill had to find another girl.
John having married Helen, Bill had to find another girl.

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 13.4.1. Ving

“Ving + noun” is the beginning of the sentence as a subject.

Ving is used in many different ways.

The present participle: Ving

“Ving” as part of the continuous form of a verb:

- Present continuous tense: I am doing.
- Past continuous tense: He was doing.
- Future continuous tense: We will be doing.
- Present perfect continuous tense: They have been doing.
- Future perfect continuous tense: By 2025, he will have been living here for fifty years.
- She would have been expecting me.

“Ving” after verbs of movement & position:

This construction is particularly useful with the verb “to go”.
- She went shopping.
- I go running every morning.
- We lay looking up at the clouds. Biz bulutlara bakarak yatarız.
- She came running towards me. Bana doğru koşarak geldi.

“Ving” after verbs of perception:

The pattern for this usage is “verb + object + Ving”.
There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero infinitive rather than a
participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action while “Ving” refers to an ongoing action.
- I heard someone singing.
- He saw his friend walking along the road.
- I can smell something burning!
- I watched the birds flying away.

“Ving” as an adjective:
- It was an amazing film.
- Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.
- He was trapped inside the burning house.
- Many of his paintings show the setting sun.

“Ving” with the verbs “spend” and “waste”:

The pattern with these verbs is “verb + time/money expression + Ving”.
- My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.
- Don't waste time playing computer games!
- They've spent the whole day shopping.
- I wasted money buying this game.

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“Ving” with the verbs “catch” and “find”:
The pattern with these verbs is “verb + object + Ving”.
With catch, “Ving” always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger. This is not the
case with find, which is unemotional.
- If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!
- Don't let him catch you reading his letters.
- I caught him going through my bag.
- We found some money lying on the ground.
- They found their mother sitting in the garden.

“Ving” for two actions at the same time:

When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use
a “Ving” to describe one of them. When one action follows very quickly after another done by the
same person or thing, we can express the first action with a “Ving”.
- Whistling to himself, he walked down the road.
He whistled to himself as he walked down the road.

- They went laughing out into the snow.

They laughed as they went out into the snow.

- Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air.

She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air.

- Putting on his coat, he left the house.

- He put on his coat and left the house.
- A million fans waving red flags.

“Ving” to explain a reason:

“Ving” can be used instead of a phrase starting with “as, since, or because”. In this usage the
participial phrase explains the cause or reason for an action.
- Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.
- Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
- Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.
- He whispered, thinking his brother was still asleep.
- Fearing Russia, Baltic states get U.S. help.

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 to + Ving

“to” is part of a phrasal verb or verb:

- I look forward to meeting your parents tonight! [look forward to (pv): sabırsızlanmak, can
atmak]
- He confessed to killing his next-door neighbour. [confess to (pv): itiraf etmek]
- She adjusted to living on her own. [adjust to (pv): ayarlamak]
- He objects to spending so much money on a T.V. [object to(pv): itiraz etmek]
- Mother Theresa devoted her life to helping the poor. [devote to(pv): adamak]
(Remember, not every verb + preposition combination is a phrasal verb! A phrasal verb is
when the preposition changes the meaning of the verb.)

“to” is part of an adjective: V3 + to Ving

- He is commited to destroying.
- I am opposed to increasing taxes.
- I am addicted to watching soap operas on T.V.!
- She is committed to improving the education system.
- Many of the nurses and doctors in the hospital are truly dedicated to making life better for the
patients.
- Mother Theresa was devoted to helping the poor throughout her life.
- He’s not used to driving on the left-hand side of the road!

“to” is part of a noun: noun + to Ving

- His addiction to gambling has caused a lot of stress for his family.
- Her great dedication to teaching inspires her students.
- Mother Theresa’s devotion to helping the poor brought her worldwide acclaim.
- Her reaction to winning the Oscar was priceless!

Gerund (Ving) is used like nouns or adjectives.

Both gerund and Infinitive can be use to modify noun:

Gerund: are often used when actions are real, concrete or completed.
Infinitive: are often used when actions are unreal, abstract, or future.
To Verb: express purpose of doing something
• As a subject (part of the subject) of a verb:
- Speaking English requires a lot of practice.
- Flying makes me nervous.

• As a complement:
- His job is teaching English.

• As an object of a preposition (Hear, see, listen, watch, feel, imagine):

- I will call you after arriving at the office.
- We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.

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• As an adjective: (İsim tamlaması: Living room, Drinking water)
- John is in the living room.

• After certain verbs as an object (Avoid,finish, regret, can’t stand, end up, miss, enjoy, don’t
mind)
- He enjoys teaching English.
- USA abandon arming Syrian rebells.

• After certain “verbs + object” (Prefer, begin, start, love, like, hate)

• With possessive forms

- Tunisia's uprising: Tunusun ayaklanması
- I can’t understand her arguing with me. Benimle tartışmasını anlayamıyorum.

• After “despite” or “in spite of”

• Gerunds are also used between “the” and “of” just like nouns:
- The burning of fossil fuels causes a number of environmental problems.

• There are many "go + gerund" expressions used for adventure sports and individual
recreational activities.
- I go swimming every weekend.

• Gerunds can be made negative by adding "not."

- He enjoys not working.
- The best thing for your health is not smoking.

• There is no point + in + gerund:

- There was no point in repairing our old refrigerator. We decided to buy a new one.

• We had trouble + gerund:

- I had difficulty understanding his speech.

• be worth + gerund:
- This film is worth seeing.
- This book is dull. It's not worth reading.

• V + object + Ving
- I insisted on them paying me.
- I insisted on being paid.

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 13.4.2. Have been, has been

Present Perfect Tense - Active: Have /has + V3

Present Perfect Tense - Passive: Have /has been V3
Preset Perfect Continuous Tense - active: Have /has been Ving
Preset Perfect Continuous Tense - Passive: Have /has been being Ving

Have been:
“Have been” is simple present perfect tense form used to express completed action.
- I have been to Paris thrice.
- They have famously been friends for more than 25 years.

It is also used in formation of present perfect continuous tenses to express duration of an action.
- I have been reading this novel since three hours. (present perfect continuous)
- He had been waiting for one hour when she arrived. (Past perfect continuous)
- You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives. (Future
perfect continuous)

to have long been doing sth

- I have long been learning English.
This means you have been learning English for a long time.
(it's not wrong at all, but we would probably be more likely to say "I've been learning English
for a long time".)

I continue learning English. (This simply means that you are learning English now and that
you started learning in the past, but it gives no hint as to when you started. It could have just
been last month!)

- Universities have long been instrumental in generating knowledge and ideas.

Üniversiteler bilgi ve fikir üretmede uzun zamandan beri bir araç olmuştur.

Geçmişte gecerliydi, artık önemsenmeyen, gözardı edilen:

Have been + noun /adj
Have been + preposition + Noun (city or place)
- She has been too hapy
- She has been in love at least six times.
- I have been busy.
- I've been reading this book for a long time. It's been a long time since I read this book.
- It's been a long time since I had pasta. It's been a long time since I have had pasta.
- Saturn and its diverse moons have been under the close watch of the Cassini probe since
2004.
- This "Great Oxidation Event" was one of the most important things to ever happen on this
planet. Without it, there could never have been any animals that breathe oxygen: no insects,
no fish, and certainly no humans.

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We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is finished:
- I have seen that film. (Notbe used “yesterday”)
- We have just bought a new car. (Not be used “ last week”)
- We have been to London.

A person who is no longer as famous, successful or important as they used to be

- He’s very much a political has-been.
- She’s just an old has-been.

13.4.3. Being

Being (n): varlık, varoluş, yaradılış, yapı

“Being” is normally used the progressive form with an adjective when we are talking about actions
and behaviour. The verbs in the progressive form use a form of "to be: am, is, are, was, were, will
be" + the present participle (an -ing verb). It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the
tense.
- You are being cruel when you hurt others with your words or actions.
- I was walking on tiptoe and being very careful not to wake the baby.

However, when the adjectives(V3) relate to feelings, we do not use the progressive form:
- I was upset /worried when I heard that they would have to operate on John's knee.
- I am delighted /overjoyed to hear that you have passed all your exams.

When the adjective refers to feelings, the continuous form is not possible.
- I was upset when I heard that I had failed the test. Not be used: I was being upset when I …
Here we are talking about the speaker’s feelings and hence a continuous form is not
possible.
- I am delighted to hear that you have won the first prize. Not be used: I am being delighted …

Verb + being,
Adj + prep + being:
Note that being as Ving, is required in all such instances:
- Would you mind being quiet for a moment?
- I look forward to being interviewed on the current affairs programmer.
- She was afraid of being accused of a crime which she did not commit.
- I am tired of being taken for granted and expected to do all the housework.

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 Being + V3

“Being” is used in the passive forms of present and past continuous tenses.
- My car is being serviced. Instead of: The local garage is servicing my car.
- Mother is cooking dinner. (Active) Dinner is being cooked by mother. (Passive)
- They are repairing the roof. The roof is being repaired.
- I was quite sure I was being followed. Instead of: I was quite sure someone was following
me.

'Being + past participle' can be used in the same way as a continuous passive relative clause.
- The poem that is being read by the actor was written by my brother.
The poem being read by the actor was written by my brother.
- The strawberries that are being eaten at the wedding….
The strawberries being eaten at the wedding were grown in Scotland.

Being in participle clauses:

We can use an adverbial participle clause to express reason or cause as an alternative to a
because/since/as clause. Using a participle clause in this way is more characteristic of written
English or a literary style, rather than spoken colloquial English.
- Being French, he is passionate about wine and cheese.
Instead of : Because he is French, he is passionate about wine and cheese.

- Being a friend of Tony Blair, I'm often invited to No 10.

Rather than: As I am a friend of Tony Blair, I'm often invited to No 10.

- Being quite slim, I was able to squeeze through the hole in the railings.
Instead of: Since I am quite slim I was able to squeeze through the hole in the railings.
- since being fired: kovulduğundan beri
Since she was fired

- Being rather over weight, Geoffrey was unable to squeeze through.

Rather than: Because he's rather over weight, Geoffrey was unable to squeeze through.

- The park issued a statement to the media after being contacted about the event.

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 13.4.4. Having

Having been:
“Having been” is the past participle form and used to emphasize that a first action has been
completed before the second action begins.
- Having been to Paris, I wrote an article on Eifell Tower.

"Being /having been X, Y" usually implies that "being/having been X" is a reason for Y.
- Having been a sea captain, he was well acquainted with the tides.
Because / as he .

Having + V3:
- Having seen an accident ahead, I stopped my car.
- Having been served tea, the teachers discussed the problem.
After they have been served tea, the teachers discussed the problem.
After the teachers had been / were served tea, the teachers discussed the problem

having been + Ving (Perfect Progressive):

- After having been working as a teacher for 25 years, he decided to quit his job.
After he had been working as a teacher for 25 years, he decided to quit his job.

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 13.4.5. To be + V3, to be + V

(should) be + V3
- It was vital that the patient should be operated.
It was vital that the patient be operated.

By + Ving to be + V3: … olmuş gibi yapmak

By appearing to be dead: ölmüş gibi görünmek

Passive voice,
need to be + V3
- Not only knowledge and skills, but also attitudes need to be cultivated in school for students’s
future adjustment to society.

Conjunction,
(Only) to be + V3 + …: _diği için
- He had a few lines about the eyes, but at forty-seven that was only to be expected

Reduction in Noun Clauses,

Verb + to be + V3
Zamanlar aynı, Pasif yapıda ise “to be + V3” ya da “to be being V3” gelir.
- They suspected that the man was murdered.
It was suspected that the man was murdered.
The man was suspected to be murdered.

It is V3 + Qw + to be + V3 /Adj
- It seems that your family is extremely happy.
Your family seems to be extremely happy.
Ailenizin son derece mutlu olduğu görünüyor.

Reduction in Relative Clauses

Noun + to + V: yapacak olan
Noun + to be + V3: yapılacak olan (Passive, future)
- The person who will be invited is you.
The person to be invited is you.
- For any adhesive to make a really strong bond, the surfaces to be glued must be absolutely
clean and free from moisture or grease.

The first /last /second /next + noun:

The first, the second, the third, the last, the next; the only,
The superlative yapı (the best, the most populated, … ),
Modal yapılar (may, can, must,…) yapıları Relative Clause ile kullanıldığında “who, which, that”
ve yardımcı filler (am, is, have,was gibi) atılır. Aktive cümlelerde fiil “to V” halini ve pasive
cümlelerde ise “to be + V3” halini alır.

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 to + V (yapan)
the first /last /second /next + Noun
to be + V3 (yapılan)
- He is the first person who wrote about that problem.
He is the first person to write about that problem.
- This is the largest ship which was made last year.
This is the largest ship to be made last year.

The only + noun:

to + V (yapan)
the only + noun
to be + V3 (yapılan)
- John is the only person who understands me.
John is the only person to understand me.

Superlative + noun:
to + V (yapan)
superlative + Noun
to be + V3 (yapılan)
- Tom is the most handsome boy who came in this school.
Tom is the most handsome boy to come in this school.
- It was the best play to be performed that year.
- The saddest girl to hold was martiny.

Have to be + V3 ,
Has to be + V3: “Have to” yapısının pasif halidir. (is to be=has to be)
- An invention has to be taken to the market to be regarded as innovation.
- The laundry is to be done on Fridays. (general)
The laundry has to be done. (today, right now)
- I have to do the homework.
The homework has to be done.

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 13.5. Frequently used conjunctions

13.5.1. As

Conjunction “as”

As : olurken, (when, while≈ just as ≈much as)

As = when (for clauses of time)
- As I was walking down street, I met old friend.
- I saw Tom as he was getting off the bus. Tom’u otobüsten inerken gördüm.
- As the children were singing in the garden, it began to rain.
- He was working as we were playing.
- I was there as she was telling that story.
- You don’t talk much as you are eating.
- I nabbed him as he was going out the door. Tam kapıdan çıkarken onu yakaladım.
- As the prision warders were eating their lunch, the prioners escaped.
- She sprained her ankle as she was playing tennis.
- As I was finishing my homework, she began cooking.
- As she was walking down the road, she was hit by a lorry.

Just as: tam olurken

We may use “as” as an alternative to “when” when we are comparing two short actions or events
that happened or happen at the same period of time. We often combine it with just. Just as’in
diğer bir kullanım yeri ise zaman bağlacı olduğu yerdir. While anlamına gelen as’in başına sadece
just ekleyerek vurgulu bir anlatım elde edilir.
- The telephone rang (just) as I was climbing into my bath.
- We got to the bank just as they were about to close. Bankaya, tam kapatmak üzerelerken
yetiştik.
- Just as I feel pessimistic, so does my mom (Ben tam kendimi kötümser hissettim, anemde.
Çoğunlukla ikinci cümle so ile başlar ve cümle devrik olur. Agree – Disagree)

Just as: Tıpkı … gibi, tam … gibi, tam … yaparken

“Just as” bağlacı sınavın cümle tamamlama kısmında benzerlik ve paralellik için
kullanılmaktadır. Tıpkı bilim adamlarının tahmin ettiği gibi
- Just as I was getting off a bus, …
- Just as it was planned, ….: tıpkı planlandığı gibi
- It swims on the seafloor just as it is ancestors did.
- The nests birds leave behind provide clues about their lives and environment just as
archaeological sites supply glimpses of human history
- Just as I was leaving, the phone rang. Tam çıkarken telefon çaldı.
- We got to the bank just as they were about to close. Bankaya, tam kapatmak üzerelerken
yetiştik.
- Just as the poet starts with a blank sheet of paper and the artist with a blank canvas, so the
engineer today begins with a blank computer screen.

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As + Clause: _diği için; _diğine göre, (since, because; Conjuntion in Reason Clauses)
- As I was late, I took a taxi.
- As Jason had the necessary qualifications, he easly got the post.
- As people get older, the number of neurons decreases.
- As a cancer cell spreads to the body, it ruins the immune system and leads to malfunctioning
in the motor system.

“Because” is used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence or utterance.
“Because clause” usually comes at the end:
- I went to Spain last summer because I wanted the guarantee of sunshine on every day of my
holiday.

“As” and “since” are used when the reason is already well known and is therefore usually less
important. The as or since clause is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence:
- As the performance had already started, we went up to the balcony and occupied some
empty seats there.
- Since John had already eaten, I made do with a sandwich.

“For” suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought. It is never placed at the beginning of
the sentence and is more characteristic of written, rather than spoken English:
- I decided to stop the work I was doing - for it was very late and I wanted to go to bed.

As well as (In addition to, beside): hem … hem de …; _nin yanısıra; ayrıca; üstelik
- The captain as well as the passengers was frightened.
- She’s clever as well as nice. Hoş olduğu kadar akıllıdır.
- She works in television as well as writing children’s books. Çocuk kitabı yazmanın yanı sıra
televizyonda da çalışıyor.
- We study other languages as well as English.
- I have to prapare my home work as well as my lessons.

Cümledeki bazı bilgiler biliniyorsa, bu bilgiler as well as’den sonra cümle kurmadan kısaca
verilebilir.
- As well as birds, some mammals can fly. Kuşların yanı sıra, bazı memeliler de uçabilir. (Birds
can fly, as well as some mammals. denmez.)
- They speak French in parts of Italy as well as France. Fransa’nın yanı sıra Italya’nın bazı
bölgelerinde de Fransızca konuşurlar. (“They speak French in France as well as parts of
Italy.” denmez.)

As well as’den sonra eğer bir fiil gelecekse çoğunlukla –ing olarak gelir.
- Smoking is dangerous, as well as making you smell bad. Sigara içmek hem tehlikelidir hem
de kötü kokutur. (“… as well as it makes you smell bad” denmez.)

Ana cümlede eğer bir fiilin mastar hali varsa as well as’den sonra diğer fiilin yalın hali
kullanılır.
- I have to feed the animals as well as look after the children. Hayvanları beslemenin yanı sıra
çocuklara da bakmak zorundayım.

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 Ancak as well as’den sonra bir cümlecik geliyorsa anlam değişir.
- She sings as well as playing the piano. Hem şarkı söyler hem de piyano çalar.
- She sings as well as she plays the piano. Şarkı söylemesi, piyano çalması kadar iyidir.

As long as,
So long as: olduğu sürece / eğer (If)
“As long as: medikce” anlamı da mevcuttur. Olumlu anlam ifade eder. “So long as” ise olumsuz
anlam belirtir.
- You can pass the exam as long as you study hard. (Sıkı çalışıtığın sürece sınavı
geçebilirsin.)
- You won’t get so much as a peny from me as long as I live. Yaşadığım sürrece benden bir
kuruş bile alamayacaksın.
- You can have it as long as you return it by this evening. Bu akşama kadar geri getşrmek
şartıyla onu alabilirsin.

As soon as: … ir irmez, aynı zamanda, hemen sonra

As soon as possible: mümkün olduğu kadar çabuk
- Everyday, as soon as he comes home, he turns the TV on. (Her gün eve gelir gelmez
televizyonu açar.)
- I promise I'll come as soon as I can. Söz veriyorum yapabildiğim kadar erken geleceğim.
[Olabildiğince çabuk geleceğim, yapabileceğimin en iyisini yapacağım.]
- Please answer my letter as soon as possible. Lütfen mektubuma mümkün olduğu kadar
çabuk cevap ver.
- I will send the packets as soon as possible. Paketleri mümkün olduğu kadar çabuk
göndereceğim.
- She cleaned the house as soon as possible. Evi mümkün olduğu kadar çabuk temizledi.
- I will pay your money as soon as possible. Paranı mümkün olduğunca çabuk ödeyeceğim.

As far … as: … ya kadar

- Russia had conquered the Baltic territories as far southwest as Riga. Rusya Riga’nın
güneybatısına kadar Baltık topraklarını işgal etti.

As far as: _dığı kadarıyla, _dığım kadar

- As far as I understood, they will come here in August. Anladığım kadarıyla buraya ağustosta
gelecekler.
- I will escape as far as I can. (Kaçabildiğim kadar uzağa kaçacağım.)

As far as … is/are concerned

So far as … is/are concerned: göz önüne alındığında, bakımından
- I must make the decisions as far as finance is concerned. Finans konusunda/finans göz
önüne alındığında kararları ben veriyorum.
- Today, our oceans hold millions of life forms - from bacteria to blue whales - and sit at the
centre of our planet’s ecology, climate and weather. The water within drives the world’s
winds, it temporarily becomes clouds or ice sheets at various locations, and it connects the
poles via languorous deep-sea currents - processes that are all reflections of water’s singular
role in absorbing and moving the Sun’s energy around our planet. For these and many other
reasons, as far as life is concerned, the oceans are the Earth.

687
As far as I am concerned: bildiğim kadarıyla, bana kalırsa
- As far as I am concerned, you ought to be more concerned about the academic quality of
your work.

adj. / adv. + as + Clause: _e ragmen, _sa da (zıtlık)

Sıfat ya da zarfı takip eden cümlede ikinci kelime “as” ise anlamı “although” olur.
- Late as I was, I didn’t take a taxi.
- Difficult as the exam was, I was able to pass it by studying hard enough. Sınav zor olsa da
yeterince çok çalışarak geçmeyi başardım.

As if / As though: … miş gibi davranmak, görünmek

“As if” ve “ as though” yapıları gerçek dışı ya da gelecekte muhtemel olayları belirtmede kullanılır.
Look, seem, smell, sound fiilleri ile kullanılır.
Gerçek dışı:
- The house looked as if nobody was living in it. Ev sanki hiç kimse yaşamıyormuş gibi
görünüyor.
- It smells as though you have smoked here. Sanki burada sigara içmişsin kokuyor.

Gelecekte muhtemel:
- It looks as if it is going to rain.
- She looks as though she will cry.

Inasmuch as: çünkü, _dığı için

- He failed, inasmuch as he hadn’t studied.
- I felt sory for them inasmuch as they couldn’t recognize that they were wrong. Hatalı
olduklarının farkına varmadıkları için onlar adına üzüldüm.

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 Comparitive “as”

Karşılaştırılan iki isim arasında eşitliği göstermek için kullanılır.

“As + adj / adv “ den sonra muhakak “as” gelmelidir.

As + adj / adv + as: … kadar

This is used when you are comparing two people, things, and situations. Karşılaştırma yapmak
için kullanılır. Yorum amaçlı da kullanılır.
- She speaks as fluently as a native speaker.
- I'm almost as good in maths as in science.
- I am as tall as John. John ile aynı boydayım.
- I'm not as young as you, slow down. Senin kadar genç değilim, yavaşla.
- Jane works as hard as Gwen, but she has a problem with her style of working. (Jane de
Gwen kadar çok çalışıyor ama onun çalışma tazrında bir problem var.)
- Some of the doctors are paid almost twice as much as the nurses. (Bazı doktorlara
hemşirelerin neredeyse iki katı ödeme yapılmaktadır.)
- We must make as few mistakes as possible. Biz mümkün olduğunca az hata yapmalıyız.
- Your guess is as good as mine. Sizin tahmininiz benim ki kadar iyiydir.
- Mike is 45 years old and Jack is 45, too. Mike is as old as Jack.
- Niko and Berke got the same grades from their final exams, so we can say that Niko is as
hardworking as Berke.
- Their father is as old as my father. Onların babası benim babam kadar yaşlıdır.
- Our garden was as big as that garden. Bizim bahçemiz şu bahçe kadar büyüktü.
- In some parts of Western Europe, notably in France, Denmark and Sweden, cohabitation has
become almost as common as marriage.

“as…..as” yapısı negative cümlede kullanııldığında eşitlik ortadan kalmakta, bir farklılıktan
bahsedilmektedir.
- I am not as old as Selly. = Sell is older than me.
- This book is not as exciting as the last one.
- The cafeteria is not as crowded as usual.
- Turkish is not quite as difficult as Chinese.
- He's not as stupid as he looks!
- John and James are identical twins. However, you can distinguish them because John is not
as tall as James.
- Roosen LTD. and Sintek CO. are two companies in the United States. Nevertheless, Roosen
LTD is not as big as Sintek CO.

As near as: … e kadar

- I walked as near as the post office. Postaneye kadar yürüdüm.
- We didn’t go as near as the others did. Diğerleri kadar gitmedik.
- Trading ships could navigate the Tiber as near as Rome.
- You should stand as near as you can. (Olabildiğiniz kadar yakında durmalısınız.)

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So + adj / adv + as: … kadar (Genellikle negatif cümlelerde)
“So ... as” is used in comparisons to say that something or someone has less of a particular
quality than another person or thing. Karşılaştırma cümlelerini olumsuz yapmak için ilk “as” yerine
“so” konulur.
- You aren’t so old as my son. Sen oğlum kadar yaşlı değilsin.
- The white pencil isn’t so long as the black pencil. Beyaz kalem siyah kalem kadar uzun
değildir.
- Mary doesn’t study so hard as Bob does. Bob studies harder than Mary.

“as ... as” ve “so ... as” yapısı arasında daha uzun kelime grupları kullanılabilir.
- She is viewed as a strong candidate for the presidency as you are.
- The young actor acts as perfectly in horror films as he does in TV comedies.
- After the global warming news, people aren’t as / so optimistic about the future of the world
as they were in the past.

As + many + countable nouns + as,

Aas + few + countable nouns + as: … kadar
- The peace had created as many problems as it had solved.
- There were as many people as I had expected.
- We have as many customers as them.
- There are as few houses in his village as in mine.
- You know as many people as I do.
- I have visited the States as many times as he has.
- There are not as many trees in this area as there used to be.
- We hope to see as few job losses in the company as possible.

As much + uncountable nouns + as,

As little + uncountable nouns + as: … kadar
- She earns as much many as her father.
- She can eat as much as she wants and she never puts on weight.
- John eats as much food as Peter.
- You've heard as much news as I have.
- He's had as much success as his brother has.
- They've got as little water as we have.
- I don’t have as much money as you have.
- My father puts as little sugar in tea as possible.

As/so + adj/adv + as to V: yapacak kadar

- He isn’t as qualified as to get the post without having some additional training. Biraz ek eğitim
almaksızın işe alınacak kadar kalifiye değil.

Such + adj + noun+ as to V: yapacak kadar

- She isn’t such a qualified candidate as to deal with all these diplomatic troubles. Bütün bu
diplomatic sıkınlarla baş edck kadar nitelikli bir aday değil.

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… times,
[two /half /twice times] as + adj + as:
Farklılık koymakta ve bu farklılığın katlarını da karşı tarafa aktarır.
- Istanbul is three times as large as Ankara.
- My grand father is four times as old as his grand son.
- She's twice as old as her sister.
- The glass is twice as big as it needs to be.
- I read twice as many books as you did.
- The old one now produces half as much water as it did in the past.

Similarity “as”

As (Like): … gibi, … biçimde

- As his father, he is a famous surgeon.
- At first, they were as enemies, but later they got to know each other more and stuff, they got
along and fell for each other.
- I parked the car as my driving teacher had taught me. Arabayı, direksiyon hocamın öğrettiği
gibi park ettim.
- He got divorced as his parents had done years before. Annesi ile babasının yıllar önce
yaptığı gibi o da boşandı.
- As smart phones’ tracking abilities have become more sophisticated, not only cell operators
but also law enforcement has come under fire for exploiting personal data without the user’s
knowledge.
- I tried to sing the song as my best singer did. (Şarkıyı en sevdiğim şarkıcının söylediği gibi
söylemeyi denedim.)
As + Clause: gibi
As + “Reduction of Clauses”: gibi
Genellikle nesnesi eksik ya da devrik yapılarda kullanılır.
- Do as she does. Onun yaptığı gibi yap.
- As you see in the picture.
- As you know.
- As I expected.As had expected.
- As it was predicted. Öngörüldüğü gibi.
Note: Amerikan İngilizce’sinde “like I said” de kullanılır.

Just as + N /NP: gibi [benzerlik göstermek için kullanılır.]

- just as the economy of the West

Such + adj + N + as: … kadar

- I haven’t expected such awful weather as this. Bu kadar kötü hava beklemiyordum.

Such + N/ NP + as: gibi, (like)

- Natural resources such as coal or oil. = Such natural resources as coal or oil.
- That sum of money is not enough for such costs as travel and accommodation. Bu kadar
para seyahat ve konaklama gibi masraflar için yeterli değildir.

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Such as + N: gibi, (like)
- There are many crowded cities in Turkey, such as Istanbul and Ankara
- Musical performers can be classified into many different catagories such as vocalists and
instrumentalists.
Note: yukarıdaki örnekte olduğu gibi bu yapı “both” ile karıştırılmamalıdır.
Note: Such as = like: gibi

As + noun: Olarak
- She works as a secretary.
- I am telling you this as friend.
- Australians today do not see London or New York as the centre of the world.
- When you stay as a guest in someone’s house, you give up your anonymity.

As such: aslında, öyle (Cümlenin sonunda)

- It is not a medicine as such. Aslında ilaç değil.
- He is a teacher and is known as such. O öğretmendir ve öyle tanınır.

As such: üstelik, gibi

- She is the committee chair. As such, she is responsible for scheduling the meetings.
Explanation: Here, the antecedent of such is chair. It can replace such: She is the
committee chair. As chair, she is responsible for scheduling the meetings.
- A plaintiff must prove damages in order to recover, but Smith has not done so here. As such,
she has no claim.
Explanation: If a writer is in doubt about whether as such is correct, it may be best not to use
the phrase at all. The general transitions therefore, thus, or as a result are often suitable
replacements.

The same as,

The same … as,
The same +N /NP+ as: aynı olarak, … ile aynı
İki şey, iki durum, iki olay arasındaki benzerliği ifade eden kalıplardan biridir. Türkçe karşılığı iki
olgu arasında tıpatıp ya da yaklaşık aynılığı ifade eder.
- I am of the same mind as you. Ben de seninle aynı fikirdeyim.
- He is the same age as me. O benimle aynı yaşta.
- We live under the same roof as my wife's family. Biz karımın ailesi ile aynı çatı altında
yaşıyoruz.
- They live in the same town as my aunt. Onlar teyzemle aynı kasabada yaşıyorlar.
- Have you noticed the same thing as me? Siz de benimle aynı şeyi fark ettiniz mi?
- My armchair is the same size and shape as yours. Koltuğum seninkiyle aynı boyut ve şekle
sahip.
- She is at the same age as me. O benimle aynı yaşta.
- Her grades are the same as mine. Onun notları benimki ile aynı.
- This building is the same as ours. Bu bina bizimkiyle aynı.

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 As well: üstelik, keza, dahi, de, da
As well: üstelik, keza, dahi, de, da
- She gave me money as well. Bana para da verdi.
- If you study your lessons, I will give you a chocolate and an apple as well. Derslerini
çalışırsan sana bir de çukolata ve bir elma da vereceğim.
- I will learn English and French as well. İngilizce ve Fransızca da öğreneceğim.

May /might as well: bari … _yı yapalım

- There is no bus. We might as well walk. Otobüs yok bari yürüyelim.

So as to : … mek için, … mak amacıyla, (In order to + V, to V)

So as to : … mek için, … mak amacıyla, (In order to + V, to V)
- They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of his wife.
- We have art so as not to die of the truth. (Friedrich Nietzsche)
- He did that so as to annoy me. O beni kızdırmak için yaptı.

As to : … ile ilgili, _e gelince, _e kadar

As regards + N/Ving,
As to + N/Ving,
Regarding + N/Ving,
With regard to + N/Ving,
With respect to + N / Ving: … ile ilgili, _e gelince, _e kadar
- Call me if you have any problems regarding your work. İşinle ilgili herhangi bir sorunun
olursa beni ara.
- As regards the potential energy crisis__why aren’t we putting money into serious alternative
sources of energy? Muhtemel enerji krizi ile ilgili olarak niye ciddi alternatif enerji
kaynaklarına para yatırmıyoruz?
- With regard to quality, Samsung is far better than Crea. Kalite bakımından/Kaliteye gelince
Samsung, Crea’dan çok daha iyidir.
- The two groups were similar with respect to income and status. İki grup, gelir ve statü
bakımından birbirlerine benziyordu.
- We are puzzled as to how it happened.
- As to his ability, we are sure that he can do the job. Onun kabiliyetine gelince, eminiz ki işi
yapabilir.
- We have no news as to his health.Onun sıhhatine dair haberimiz yok.

As for + noun: … e gelince

As for + noun: … e gelince
- As for heroes, they are the models of human behaviour for their society.
- As for the festival itself, it is a joyful celebration of the traditions of this city. Festivale gelince,
(festival) bu kentin geleneklerinin coşkulu bir kutlamasıdır.
Note: Pros and Cons: advantages and disadvantadges. As for… gelince (yayınlarda
kullanılır.)

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 Much as + Clause: although
Much as + Clause: although
Bu yapı Amerikan İngilizce’sinde sık kullanılan ve normal olarak “kadar” anlamına gelen “as … as
“ bağlacının kısaltılmış olarak “ although” anlamındadır.
- Much as I like him, I don’t trust him.

As how : … ne durumda
As how : … ne durumda
- He should behave as how he feels. (Nasıl hissediyorsa öyle davranmalı.)

As= According
As= According
Note: İngilizler kullanmıyor, onun yerine “in my opinion” kullanılırlar.

As of: ___ itibarı ile, ___ den itibarı ile (Geleceğe yöneliktir.)
As of: ___ itibarı ile, ___ den itibarı ile (Geleceğe yöneliktir.)
Starting from a particular time or date:
- As of next month, all the airline's fares will be going up.

From … on: … dan itibaren [ geçmişe yönelik, … den itibaren]

- From the mid-fifteenth century on, … onbeşinci yüzyılın ortasından itibaren

Just, almost, nearly gibi zarflar niteleme alarak kullanılır:

Just, almost, nearly gibi zarflar niteleme alarak kullanılır:
- Leaks consume almost / nearly as much water as the kitchen and bathroom faucets.
- He is just as clever as her.

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 As to be ( As is / as are ): şimdiki durumuyla, bu şekilde, … olduğu gibi
As is: şimdiki durumuyla, bu şekilde, … olduğu gibi
“as are" can be used “like this”.

The first sentence is preferable.

- All of the world’s major national parks are included on the map, as are most of the important
reserves of lesser status.

"As is" denotes that the seller is selling, and the buyer is buying an item in whatever condition it
presently exists, and that the buyer is accepting the item "with all faults", whether or not
immediately apparent.

Yazılımları yüklemeden önce onayladığınız o kullanım şartlarında illa ki geçen kelimeler. "This
software is presented as is".

Satılan mal hiçbir nedenle geri alınmaz:. 'Item is sold as is'..

Usually, when an item is sold "As is", it also means there can be no returns.

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 13.5.2. That
“That” kullanıldığı yerler:
• That: Şu
• Adjectives clause’da bağlaç,
• … Noun Clause’da bağlaç,
• Tekil cansız zamir; that of, that which, those which

İşaret zamiri olarak, that: “o; bu; şu”

- Did you see that?
- This is a book and that is a pencil.
- After that he went to bed. Ondan sonra yatağa gitti.

Öncesinde ismi niteleyen bir “adjective clause” yapısında bağlaç olarak kullanılır. Öncesinde
virgul kullanılmaz, “that” atılırsa sonrasında gelen cümlede özne ya da nesne eksik kalır.
- That is the man that helped me yesterday.
- The method that was used did not prove to be effective: Kullanılan metot faydalı olmadı.

Noun Clause’larda bağlaç olarak kullanılır. Noun clause’da “that” adjective clause’da olduğu gibi
özne ya da nesnenin yerini almaz.
- She said that he would go on holiday.
- What I want is that we go on holiday.
- It is believed that the money was stolen.
- I am of the opinion that the elections were not fair.
- I believe that the advantages of the program will outweigh its disadvantages. Programın
avantajlarının dezavantajlarından daha ağır basacağına inanıyorum.

“(So that) /(in order that)” amaç belirten “adverbial clause” yapılarında “mek/mak için, olsun diye”
anlamını vermede kullanılır.
- He studied very hard so that he could pass the exam.
- So that you can speak English fluently, you should practice a lot.

“…, so (that)” kalıbı içinde virgülden sonra “ bu yüzden” anlamında vermede kullanılır.
- She woke up late, so that she missed the bus.

“So + adj/adv + that + SVO” kalıbında “o kadar … ki” anlamını vermede kullanılır.
- She speaks so fast that I can hardly understand her.

“Such + a/an adj + noun + that + SVO” kalıbında “o kadar … ki” anlamını vermede kullanılır.
- It was such a difficult exam that nearly all the students failed.
“Provided (that) …” kalıbı içerisinde “eğer…se” anlamını vermede kullanılır.
- You can play with us provided (that) you obey the rules.
“Suppose (that), imagine that, assume that” kalıplarının kullanıldığı cümlelerde “diyelim ki,
farzet ki” anlamını vermede kullanılır.
- Suppose (that) you were lost what would you do.
Reason “is that” versus reason is “because”
- The cause is (that) the economy is weak.

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 Relative clause’daki that ile karıştırılmamalıdır. Relative clause’da “that" her zaman isimden
sonra gelir.
- He is not the person that I met. [Relative clause]
- He doesn’t know that I met that person [noun clause]

Noun /Noun Phrase +be+isim cümleciği ile “that” kullanılır.

- The sad truth that there aren’t many honest people in the world seems to be true. Dünyada
fazla dürüst insan olmadığı gerçeği doğruya benziyor.

Cümlenin öznesi durumunda that’in kullanılması zorunludur.

- That the world is round is a fact. Dünyanın yuvarlak olduğu bir gerçektir.

That clause preposition ile birleşmez. Birleşmenin gerekli olduğu durumlarda, araya durumu
yansıtan bir isim eklenir. “The fact” bunların en yaygınıdır.

Cümlenin nesnesi durumunda bağlaç olarak that’in kullanılması bir zorunluluk değildir.
- People used to believe (that) the world was flat. İnsanlar, eskiden dünyanın düz olduğuna
inanıyorlardı. (=Neye inanıyorlardı?)

Sıfatlarla birlikte “that” kullanıllır.

- I was afraid that I might hurt her feelings. Duygularını incitmiş olabileceğimden korkuyordum.

Explanation: Bir isim tümcesi, subjunctive form fiillerinden birini takip ettiğinde tümcedeki fiil hiçbir
koşulda değişikliğe uğramadan yalın halinde kullanılır.
- I ask (that) she come here. I asked (that) she come here.
- It is important that the student talk to her advisor early. [Geniş zamanda “he, she, it” e ait fiili
“_s / _es” eki almaz
- It is necessary that john bring his passport him when he applies for visa.
- Her mother has suggested that she wear extra clothing to keep warm for the picnic.

Examples:
- Hastanın acil olarak ameliyat edilmesi hayati önem taşıyordu.
It was vital that the patient be operated. It was vital that the patient should be operated.
- The doctor recommended that he should rest as much as possible.
Doktor O’na mümkün olduğu kadar dinlenmesi gerektiğini tavsiye etti.
- I insisted that my son (should) be a doctor. Oğlumun bir doktor olmasında ısrar ettim.
- The committee requisted that the documents (should) be summitted until tomorrow. (Komite
belgelerin yarına kadar sunulmasını istedi.)
- I advised her that she (should) have breakfast early. Erken kahvaltı yapmasını önerdim.

Note: “she (should) have breakfast early.” cümlesinde “have” doğrudur. Çünkü temel
cümlecikte “advise” fiilinin olmasından dolayı yan cümlecik yapısı istek kipi olmalıdır. Bu
nedenle asıl olması gereken “should have” dir. “should” kısaltıldığından doğru cevap “have”
olur. Çok dikkatli olmak gerekir.

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 Noun clause’da preposition’dan sonra “that” bağlacı gelmez.
- Onun zengin olmasıyla ilgilenmiyorum.
I am not interested in the fact that she is rich.
I am not interested in that she is rich.
I am not interested in him being rich.

In that + clause: olması bakımından, olması nedeniyle

Bir eylemin neden yapıldığını ya da durumun niçin oluştuğunu açıklar.
- The language game is similar to other games in that it is structured by rules.
Dil oyunu kurallara göre yapılandırılmış olması nedeniyle diğer oyunlara benzemektedir.
-
- English and Turkish are different in that the letter is an aqqiutirative language. İngilizce ve
Türkçe ikincisinin sondan eklemeli bir dil olması bakımından farklıdır.
- The two countries are alike in that they are ruled in the same way.
- They have some problems with accommodation in that they don’t know anywhere here.
Burada hiçbir yeri bilmediklerinden dolayı kalacak yer ile ilgili bazı problemleri var.
- Engineering is akin to writing or painting in that it is a creative endeavor that begins in the
mind’s eye and proceeds into new frontiers of thought and action, where it does not so much
find as make new things.
- Germany is similar in many ways to France, Italy and the UK in that it is one of just a few
European states which attempt to maintain worldwide representation.
Almanya, birçok açıdan Fransa, İtalya ve Birleşik Krallık'a benzemektedir; çünkü sadece
dünya çapında temsil edilmeye çalışılan birkaç Avrupa devletinden biridir.

Yardımcı fiilden sonra (Özellikle soru yardımcı fiil) “that” bağlacı gelmez.
- Onun doctor olması önemli mi? Is it important those the fact that she is a doctor?
Is it important those that she is a doctor?
Is it important her being is a doctor?
- Onun akrabanız olması kararınızı etkileyecek mi?
Will the fact that he is your relative affect your decision?
Will him being is your relative affect your decision?
- Did the fact that his father was a professor help in his career?

“That is” kalıbının kullanıldığı cümlerlerde “yani, diğer bir deyişle” anlamını vermede
kullanılır.
- These are all riparian settlements; that is, they are located near the lakes.

“Except that / save that” kalıplarının kullanıldığı cümlerlerde “hariç” anlamını vermede
kullanılır.
- She has achieved all her goals except that she couldn’t learn Spanish.

“That” bağlacından önce virgül gelmez.

Aşağıdaki örnekte görüleceği gibi, araya açıklama cümlesi gelebilir.
- It has been claimed, but never confirmed by the US Federal Reserve, that the reasons for
introducing the new-design dollar bills were the persistent reports of high quality counterfeits
circulating in the Middle East.

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Object of a Preposition:
Noun clauses also act as objects of a preposition:
- Harry is not the provider of what Marriage needs.
- Josephine is not resposible for what Alex decided to do.
- He is the owner of that blue car. O mavi arabanın sahibidir.
- Once again, Harry is not the provider of what? Josephine is not responsible for what? Allie is
the owner of what?

Bazı durumlarda “that” atılabilir:

Yüklemden sonraki that atılabilir. [object of a verb]
- I know (that) he is innocent.

Sıfattan sonraki that atılabilir. [adjective compliment]

- I’m sure (that) he is innocent.

to be sonrasındaki that atılamaz. [predicate nominative]

- My opinion is that he is innocent.

Cümle başında yer alan that atılamaz. [subject]

- That he is innocent is obvious.

İsimden sonra gelen that atılamaz. [appositive]

To be + that + clause: because of + clause

- The understanding is that the harness is a lifting device.
- The main reason for the crisis is that people spent more than they had.
- The result of this was that everyone won.
- The understanding with them is that we will support each other in hard times.
- An enduring illusion of the Americans is that every social imperfection can be corrected
simply by passing a law.

i. The reason is logical. (adjective)

ii. The reason is the high cost. (noun phrase)
iii. The reason is that the cost is too high. (noun-clause)

i. The reason is logical. (Subject Complement: adjective phrase)

ii. The reason is the high cost. (Subject Complement: noun phrase)
iii. The reason is that is costs too much. (Subject Complement: that-clause)
iv. That is costs too much is the reason. (Subject: that-clause)
v. The reason is that is costs too much. ("postposed subject")

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 13.5.3. While

Zaman bağlacı olarak kullanıldığında iki eylem ya da durumun eş zamanlı olduğunu gösterir.
Simple present tense/future tense + while + simple present continuous
- Every morning while running in the park I see one particular deer.

While: _iken
Zaman bağlacı olarak kullanıldığında iki eylem ya da durumun eş zamanlı olduğunu gösterir.
Structure: Simple present tense/future tense + while + simple present continuous.
- Every morning while running in the park I see one particular deer.
- Eight tonnes of crude oil are currently needed to create one tonne of polyol, which is an
alcoholic substance used in a number of plastics, while just 1.7 tonnes of corn yields the
same result.
Bir dizi plastikte kullanılan bir alkollü madde olan bir ton poliol oluşturmak için şu anda sekiz
ton ham petrole ihtiyaç duyulurken sadece 1.7 ton mısır aynı sonucu vermektedir.

While: irken (when, while, as , ≈ just as)

We can connect the past continuous and Past simple together by using the words “when, while,
and as.”
- While I was walking down the street, I saw an old friend of mine.
- While I was studying, he came in. (Ben ders çalışırken o geldi.)
- While you were in class, I was studying chemistry.
- He fell asleep while he was doing his English exercises. İngilizce alıştırmalarını yaparken
uyuya kaldı.
- She sprained her ankle while she was playing tennis. Tenis oynarken ayak bileğini burktu.
- While she was washing the dishes, the children played games. (O bulaşıkları yıkarken
çocuklar oyun oynadılar.)
- The pragmatic origins and uses of IQ tests have recently been emphasized, while the early
pioneers of intelligence testing were mostly interested in theoretical questions about the
nature of intelligence.

While,
At the same time: aynı zamanda, bununla birlikte
"At the same time" is used to refer to two or more events taking place simultaneously. "At the
same time "- refers to a specific moment.”In the same time "refers to duration.
- No one likes conflict. While, we have to deal with this problem.
- We listen at the same time the teacher talks.

Whilst: _iken, _irken

"Whilst" çok resmi yapılarda kullanılır.
- One day, whilst fishing on the beach during his spare time, he discovered nine coins buried in
the sand.

While: ... oysa, …ise, … iken (Zıtlık) (whereas)

- Sugar is sweet. While /Whereas lemons are sour.
Note: “while” cümlenin başına geldiğinde although gibi davranır.

700
 - While I like all types of fish, my girlfriend always chooses meat dishes when we go out to eat.

A while: bir süre, bir müddet (a short time)

Note that when while functions as a noun, it is nearly always used with an indefinite article:
a while: bir süre (for a while, after a while, in a while)
once in a while: arada bir, arasıra, nadiren
a little while: kısa bir süre
quite a while: uzunca bir süre
- I haven't seen you around for a while. Where have you been?
- Let's just wait a little while longer. He's bound to turn up eventually.

After a while: bir sure sonra

- After a while he fell seriously ill, and when he recovered, his parents, probably suspecting
that a mistake had been made, sent him to an establishment at Brighto, kept by two ladies.

Reduction of adverb clauses, time: while (during the same time)

- While I was watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
While watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
Watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door. [While can be omitted.]

Note: After the conjunctions "when" and "while" the present participle is used. Be very
attentive when reading the terms of the contract.
- We discussed those questions while preparing for the meeting.

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 13.5.4. Since

Conjunction in Time Clauses; since: den beri

When “since” is used as a preposition to introduce a date or a specific time in the past, it is
normally used with present perfect and past perfect tenses. It refers to a period of time starting
at a particular point in the past and continuing up till now (present perfect) or up until another
point in the past (past perfect).

Genelde ya cümlecik V2, ana cümlecik V3 yapısındadır.

The tense in the since-clause can be past or perfect, depending on whether it refers to a point
in the past or to a period of time leading up to the present or, in the case of the past perfect,
leading up to a point in the past.

- It was only a week since we have known each other, but we are very much in love.
- They are a lot happier since they have been living apart.
- Since he left on Saturday, I haven’t seen him again.
- Since joining the company, Mike has been promoted twice.
- They have been quarrelling since they’ve been married. They’ve been happy since they’ve
lived here.

Conjunction in Reason Clauses; since: diği için, den dolayı, made ki (because, as)
- Since we've got a few minutes to wait for the train, let's have a cup of coffee.
- Since you are so wealthy, why don’t you just buy the whole building?
- She was late since there was heavy traffic.

Preposition; since + noun/time/date: den beri

“Since” + the start of a period:
since 1993, since the party, since he was 8 years old, Since this morning, since last week, since
yesterday, since Wednesday, since 2 o'clock.
(For + a period of time; for about seven years, for an hour, for 27 years, for a log time)
I haven’t seen him since this morning.
- I have worked here since 1990.
- I haven’t seen my younger brother since 14 July 1998.
- She has lived here since 1980.
- Alice has been married since March 2nd.
- They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday.
- I have been here since the accident.
- They’ve been on strike since the beginning of April and there’s no sign of it ending.
- I hadn’t visited the area since my childhood days and I noticed last summer how everything
had changed.

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Ever since: ta o zamandan beri
Since as a conjunction sometimes combines with ever to make ever since. Note also in these
examples that present and past tenses are possible in the main clause as well as the present
perfect:
- The company started losing money in 2002 and has been in serious decline ever since.
- I took my final exams five years ago and have been working as a doctor ever since.
- My father has not smiled ever since my mother died.

Since,
Since then: o zamanlardan beri (adverb)

“Since” zarf olarak kullandığında, mutlaka öncesi cümle yapısı V2 olmalıdır. Since yapısının
kullanıldığı cümle ise “have/has + V3” yapısında olmak zorundadır.
“Since” can also be used as an adverb. “Since then” refers to a particular point in time and ever
since to a period of time. Which one we use depends on whether we want to focus attention on
the point in time or on the continuing period of time.
- I saw her las week. I haven’t heard from her since. Onu geçen hafta gördüm. O zamandan
beri ondan haber almadım.
- She left home in 1992 and he hasn’t contacted us since then.
- The company started losing money in 2002 and has been in serious decline since then.
- He left this morning and we haven’t seen him since.
- He was sent to prison, but has since been released.
- Since, no one has lived here.
- Since then, I haven’t been able to sleep well.
- We have had no gas since the strike began.
- I have earned my own living since I left school.

Since when: Ne zamandan beri

- Since when do I need your permission?
- When did you start working here? A: Last August.
Since when have you been working here? A: Since August.
- I've been working for my present employer since 1998.
How long have you been working for your present employer?
Since when have you been working for your present employer?

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704
 14. Exam Tips
Sorular yanıtlanırken 4’lü uyum aranır:
1- Grammar (Zaman, bağlaç ve yapı):
Bir cümledeki tümleci öğrenmek için fiile bakılır. Tümleç, bir cümlede fiile sorulan soruların
Ne? Nerede? Ne zaman? Nasıl? Niçin? ve Kim? ... gibi soruların yanıtıdır.
Soru kökünde verilen fiilin aktif mi yoksa pasif mi olduğu belirlenmelidir.
İngilizce cümlede herhangi bir bağlaç var ise o bağlacın uygun bir çevrisi seçeneklerden
aranmalıdır. Bağlaçların benzer anlamlarına dikkat edilmelidir.

14.1. Dictionary

İp uçları:

Vurgulayıcı kelimeler; Vurgu, iddialı, aşırılık, abartan kelimelere dikkat edilmelidir.

 İddialı kelimeler: all, primary, most, particularly, perfect; subtentially, major;
 Aşırı bilgi veren kelimeler: directly, mostly, immediate, right away, inevitable
 Abartılı bilgi veren kelimeler: clear indication, primarily, a great deal, a long period

2- Anlam:
Eylemin yönüne göre de karar verilebilir. Örneğin bir şeye tepki vermek, “react to” dur.

• Sınavlarda “could,” present ihtimal, “yet,” “but” gibi zıtlık, “any” ise olumlu cümlelerde
herhangi bir anlamında kullanılmaktadır.
• Who is that? It is Mr. Pike. (Who is used to ask for person.)
• How are your parents? (Subject is "your parents" - plural)
• Let’s play football. Yes, let’s. (No, let’s not.)

• Have/has: to eat, drink, or smoke something: The bakers are having dinner.

705
 Dictionary
seasons : autumn (fall), winter, spring, summer.
know : uzun sureli tanımak, recognize: kısa sureli tanımak
urban : kentsel, rural: kırsal
annual : yıllık, biennial: iki yılda bir , perennial: uzun ömürlü
successor : halef, predecessor: selef, öncel
through the ages : çağlar boyunca
for the sake of : uğruna, aşkına, hatırına
x overshadoved y : x, y’ yi gölgede bıraktı.
persude somebody into doing : birini bir şey yapmaya ikna etmek.
defer somebody from doing : ertelemesini istemek
how come? : why?
whatsoever : (at all), hiç
be of + noun (is of noun) : have
of + noun : adjective (of use=useful)
are of immense important : …oldukça önemlidir.
without foundation : asılsızdır. not wihout foundation: asılsız değildir.
aware of + noun : _nın farkında olmak
animal droppings and food waste: Hayvan pislikleri ve gıda atıkları
come into being : meydana gelmek, var olmak
the rest of + noun : geri kalanı
once in a lifetime : hayatta bir kere, kırk yılda bir
few and far : kırk yılda bir, nadiren
far between : seyrek olarak, kırk yılda bir, nadiren
once in a blue moon : kırk yılda bir
per capita income : kişi başına düşen gelir
Eagle's rebirth : Kartalın yeniden doğuşu
prior to : den önce
in two key ways : iki temel yolla
at full strength : tam güçte

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 Synonyms

Synonyms - Eş anlamlı:
Obviously : Clearly
Apparently : it seems that, seemingly
Finally : in the end, at last, eventually
Really : actually, in fact, indeed
Naturally : understandably, it is hardly surpising
Presumably : assume, presume, imagine
Quite : fairly, rather
Honestly : to be frank, frankly
Divert : reroute, redirect, change the course of, deflect, channel

The odd occasion /day /moment /drink: days etc that happen at various times but not often and
not regularly

Nearly: almost, but not quite or not completely [= almost]

Near to; next to= close to

Property, asset, estate:

Property is a general word for anything that belongs to you eg land, buildings, objects.
Assets (note that this is a plural term) is used particularly in business and the law. For example, a
business's assets could be the total value of the company : its funds, its premises, its stock, its
investments, its machinery.
Estate is a specific word used in the law in relation to a dead person - everything that the person
owned in life, becomes their 'estate'. It can be money, property or 'rights' to use something under
copyright or patent.

Saygılarımla: best regards, yours truly, yours sincerely, yours faithfully, your's respectfully

People (verb): if a story or someone's imagination is peopled by people of a particular type, it is

full of them. “Be peopled by/with somebody.”

Say, Tell:
You say something.
You tell someone to something.
To tell (someone) the truth: emphasize that you are being very honest.

707
Do, make:
“Do” is used when someone performs an action, activity or task.
“Do” is often used when reffering to work of any kind. Example: do homework, do your job.
Do someone’s hair: Create some change to hair: style, color, …
“Make” is used when refer to constructing, building or creating.
- I made some tea last night.
- Don’t make a hole in the wall!
- Don’t make war, make peace.

Make (up) the bad: to smooth and arrange the covers on a bed so it is ready for someone to
sleep.

Whole:
“As a whole” is used to say that all the parts of something are being considered together
“On the whole” is used to say that something is generally true

To start with: at the beginning, initially; in any case.

- To start with, you need to pick up your clothes.
Mean: Picking up your clothes is the first thing you need to do.

In (full) colour:
a television programme, film, or photograph that is in colour contains colours such as red, green,
and blue rather than just black and white.

Emigrate - Immigrate:
To emigrate is to leave one country to settle in another. (The focus is on the original country)
To immigrate is to come to a new country to live. (The focus is on the new country)
So if I were born in Ireland, and then migrated to the US, all of the below would be true and
grammatical:
- I emigrated from Ireland to the US. (This focuses on the leaving bit)
- I immigrated to the US from Ireland. (This focuses on the arriving bit)
- Almanya’daki Türkler Türkiye’den göçtüler (emigrate). Almanya’ya göçtüler (immigrate).

Necessary:
Something is neccessary for + Ving something:
Something is neccessary for something:
- Warmth, moisture, and oxygen are three necessary requirements for cultivating most
seedling.

It's necessary to do sth:

- Professional people expect you to call them when it is necessary to cancel an appointment.

Important or importance:
It is of great importance to you.
Importance is a noun; important is an adjective. (It is great important to you. Not possible). You
cannot have one adjective modify another (great modifying important).
- “It is greatly important to you.” possible but sounds a little odd. It is very important to you.

708
Out…: … ile alt etmek
Outwit : zekası ile alt etmek
Outnumber : sayı ile alt etmek
Outperform : performansı ile alt etmek

The difference between fast, quick, and rapid:

The rapid as "happening, moving, or acting quickly," rather than being quick or fast.
The quick ("able to move fast or do something fast") and fast ("able to move quickly") in terms of
each other, so there's not much to choose between them.
- When a body enters the earth’s atmosphere, it travels very rapidly.

Yükselmek: rise, lift, arise, raise

Rise: move from a lower position to a higher one; (come or go up.)
- The tiny aircraft rose from the ground.
Lift: raise to a higher position or level.
- He lifted his trophy over his head.
Arise: get or stand up.
- He arose at 9:30 and went out for a walk.
Arise: (of a problem, opportunity, or situation) emerge; become apparent.
- New difficulties had arisen.
Raise: lift or move to a higher position or level.
- She raised both arms above her head.

in a matter of fact: nitekim

Supreme court: yüksek mahkeme, anayasa mahkemesi, yargıtay, yüce divan

a means of:
a means of transport: bir ulaşım aracı
a means of communication: bir iletişim aracı
a means of legal identification: yasal kimlik tanıma aracı

709
 Dictionary and sentences

- Matchmaking site leads women into Syria chaos. Çöpçatanlık sitesi, kadınları Suriye kaosuna
itiyor.
- Friar battles labor exploitation in Brazil. Kâhin, Brezilya'da emek sömürüne karşı savaşıyor.

Wage: wage level : ücret düzeyi

waive: to waive immunity : muafiyetten feragat etmek.
Walk: people from all walks of life: toplumun her kesiminden insanlar.
Want: want for: purpose.
War: in the event of war : savaş durumunda.
Year: year after year: yıl be yıl, her yıl, yıllarca.
Will: father's will was in error: babasının isteğinde hata oldu. my father's will: babamın vasiyeti."
Warn: warning level : uyarı düzeyi.

Way: by the way: bu arada.

a long way to : uzun bir yol.
in a different way: farklı bir şekilde. I find the way. Bir yol bulurum. under way: sürüyor, devam
ediyor"

far-reaching: çok geniş kapsamlı

- It had far-reaching effects on social and economic life.
Sosyal ve ekonomik yaşam üzerinde çok geniş kapsamlı etkileri olmuştu.

To get along: başa çıkmak, iyigeçinmek, anlaşmak, uyuşmak

- The American people have in the end learned how to get along with the Mississippi.
Amerikan halkı sonunda Mississippi ile nasıl başa çıkacağını öğrendi.

Market-driven models: Pazar odaklı modeller

- Instead, they relied on a broad range of market-driven models termed “neoliberalism.”
- Bunun yerine, "neo-liberalizm" olarak adlandırılan pazar odaklı modellerin geniş bir
yelpazesine bel bağladılar.

Away from: uzakta

- The economists and administrators who dominated these new networks steered away from
the interventionist policies that had shaped postwar planning and recovery.
Bu yeni ağlara egemen olan ekonomistler ve yöneticiler, savaş sonrası planlamayı ve
iyileşmeyi şekillendiren müdahaleci politikalardan uzakta yön verdiler.

Ground troops:Kara birlikleri

- U.S considering sending ground troops to Syria.
U.S. consider that they send ground troops to Syria.

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14.2. Sentence analysis

14.2.1. Memorable phrases

- He reverses course on her explanation.

- Russia probe is greatest witch hunt.
- He was escalating this war.
- They will defend themselves to the end, so long as this is the Turkish approach - of course
the it will escalate the war.
- We don't want to separate from Turkey and set up a state.
- We don't want to divide Turkey. We want to live within the borders of Turkey on our own land
freely... The struggle will continue until the their innate rights are accepted.
- Spelunkers have discovered blind fish in underground rivers, tunnels blooming with gypsum
flowers and sheer, gaping pits.
- Engineering is akin to writing or painting in that it is a creative endeavor that begins in the
mind’s eye and proceeds into new frontiers of thought and action.
Mühendislik, zihin gözünde başlayan ve düşünce ve hareketin yeni sınırlarına doğru ilerleyen
bir yaratıcı çaba olmasından dolayı yazmaya ya da resim yapmaya benzer.

14.2.2. Sentences
- That’s one question raised by an analysis of Census Bureau data conducted by researchers
at the Centre for Immigration Studies which found that nine congressional seats would have
been allotted to different states in 2000, if noncitizens, including illegal aliens, had been
excluded from the counts Congress uses to allocate seats.

Cümlede “to select” değil de “to allocate” kullanılmıştır.

to allocate: dağıtmak, pay etmek, tahsis etmek
to select: seçmek

Cümlenin tercümesi yapılırken; dikkat esilmesi gereken husus çok uzun bir nesnesi
olmasıdır. Bu yüzden analiz ederken adım adım tercüme edilmelidir.
That’s one question raised by an analysis of Census Bureau.
Bu Sayım Bürosunun bir analizi tarafından gündeme getirilen bir soruydu.

An analysis of Census Bureau data conducted by researchers at the Centre for Immigration
Studies.
Göç Etme Araştırmaları Merkezi'ndeki araştırmacıları tarafından gerçekleştirilen Sayım
Bürosu verilerinin bir analizi.

711
 That’s one question raised by an analysis of Census Bureau data conducted by researchers
at the Centre for Immigration Studies.
Bu Göç Etme Araştırmaları Merkezi'ndeki araştırmacıları tarafından gerçekleştirilen Sayım
Bürosu verilerinin bir analizi tarafından gündeme getirilen bir soruydu..

The Centre for Immigration Studies which found that nine congressional seats would have
been allotted to different states in 2000.
2000 ylında dokuz kongre koltuğunun farklı eyaletlere tahsis edileceğini tespit eden Göç
Araştırmaları Merkezi.

That’s one question raised by an analysis of Census Bureau data conducted by researchers
at the Centre for Immigration Studies which found that nine congressional seats would have
been allotted to different states in 2000.
Bu 2000 ylında dokuz kongre koltuğunun farklı eyaletlere tahsis edileceğini tespit eden Göç
Araştırmaları Merkezi'ndeki araştırmacıları tarafından gerçekleştirilen Sayım Bürosu
verilerinin bir analizi tarafından gündeme getirilen bir soruydu.

if noncitizens, including illegal aliens, had been excluded from the counts Congress uses to
allocate seats.
Yasadışı yabancılar da dahil olmak üzere vatansızlar, Kongrenin sandalye tahsis etmek için
kullandığı sayımlardan yasaklanmış olsaydı.
Tüm parçanın tercümesi:
Yasadışı yabancılar da dahil olmak üzere vatansızlar, Kongrenin sandalye tahsis etmek için
kullandığı sayımlardan yasaklanmış olsaydı, ifadesi (That – cümlenin başındaki) 2000 ylında
dokuz kongre koltuğunun farklı eyaletlere tahsis edileceğini tespit eden Göç Araştırmaları
Merkezi'ndeki araştırmacıları tarafından gerçekleştirilen Sayım Bürosu verilerinin bir analizi
tarafından gündeme getirilen bir soruydu.

- One way to inform the public about factories that polute the environment is through
educational programs on TV. (through: sayesinde)
- The main problem for the architects was how to fit the circumference of the dome to the
square area.
- The solution was to have four great arches spring from pillars at the four corners of the
square.
- Recognized as one of the greatest intellects of all time, Einstein began to question the very
foundations of traditional physics early in the twentieth century.
- It was such a fast car that nobody could catch it.
- It is about when and how you come across a certain ideology and group, and what you are
currently looking for in your life.
- It is about personal backgrounds and trajectories combined with opportunities and situations.
- The knowledge and experience that one gains from failure contributes to success.
- Engineering is akin to writing or painting in that it is a creative endeavor that begins in the
mind’s eye and proceeds into new frontiers of thought and action, where it does not so much
find as make new things.
- No citizen of the European Union lives more than 700 km away from the coast.
- One of the oldest methods of preserving food is drying.
- That's an attractive brown leather coat.

712
- He wrote the letter on his own, he didn't need anybody's help.
- I wanted a green shirt but they only had a white one.
- He has never been to America.
- I forgot to turn off the lights before I left.
- He doesn't like being told what to do.
- I thought you were coming to the party.
- I wish I had a car, I'm tired of catching the bus.
- Let's go watch the game, shall we?
- I need to finish this by Friday.
- After many years of research, they found the solution at last.
- Would you like to go out this evening? No, thank you, I would rather stay at home.
- Five things you didn't know about space
- Kahve nasıl yapılır? How to make coffee
- İstanbul’da nereye gidilir? Where to go in Istanbul.
- EU officials have rejected his efforts to renegotiate Greece's bailout terms.
- Unfortunately, the images we acquired do show that the main building of the temple has been
destroyed.
- She didn't want to do it, but he made her do it.
- Several of the questions still remain unanswered despite a discussion ten hours.
- Why are clashes escalating? Neden çatışmalar tırmanıyor?
- Radioactivity causes cancer and may affect future generations. (“develop, create” fiilleri
olamaz.)
- The video shows how they react when they venture outside for the first time in their lives.
- Kunduz is strategically important and acts as a transport hub for the north of the country.
- I made up my mind. Ben kararımı verim.
- Many of these refugees are traveling with very little and need immediate assistance in
acquiring food, shelter, warm clothing and other necessary items.
- As my family, we cannot ignore this need.
- The need is vast, but together, we can provide help and hope to those who are suffering.
- The Small Business Research Initiative (SBRI) is a well established process to connect public
sector challenges with innovative ideas from industry, supporting companies to generate
economic growth and enabling improvement in achieving government objectives.
- Imagine an industry that runs out of raw materials. Companies go bankrupt, workers are laid
off, families suffer and associated organizations are thrown into turmoil. Eventually,
governments are forced to take drastic action.
- Archaeologists have a duty, both to colleagues and to the general public, to explain what they
are doing and why. Basically, this means publishing the discoveries so that the results are
available to other scholars. Further, their work can also be enjoyed by the wider public which,
after all, has usually paid the bill for the work, however indirectly.
- Temples were the most important public buildings in ancient Greece, because religion was a
central part of daily life.
- The Africans who go abroad to work usually send money back home to pay for their relatives’
medical care, education, and housing. Today, most African countries get the largest part of
their foreign exchange earnings from such remittances. Ironically, African citizens abroad
subsidize state corruption. Without this subsidy, Africa’s dictators would have to face the
political consequences of an angry population.
- In finance, interest, which is a sum of money paid by a borrower to a lender in return for the
loan, is usually expressed as a percentage per annum. Simple interest is calculated as a

713
 straight percentage of the amount loaned or invested, called the principal. In compound
interest, the interest earned over a period of time is added to the principal, so that at the end
of the next period, interest is paid on that total.
- You hear that a close friend is now in hospital, seriously ill. He’s been complaining about
aches and pains and general ill-health for weeks, but you haven’t taken him seriously as you
know him as a very healthy individual. You’ve been telling him to ignore the signs and
symptoms. Now you realize how wrong you have been; to yourself really, you say:
- The passing of a law and the implementing of it are two very different things.
- First lady weighs in on moving to DC.
Weigh:tartmak, yük olmak, gelmek, bastırmak, ölçüp tartmak, önemli olmak
Weigh in: yarıştan önce tartmak, maçtan önce tartmak (tartılmak), yüklemeden önce tartmak
(tartılmak), meşgul olmak, ilgilenmek
Move on: ilerlemek
First lady weighs in which she is moving on to DC
- You are smart enough to figure this out without my help.
- It can be difficult for small investors to sell their shares of stock in companies whose policies
they disagree with, because small investors’ assets are less robust than large investors.

- Russia has not still done enough to stop doping in order to have the ban on its athletes lifted.

- In this century, the wealth and success of nations will depend like never before on the ability
to produce and use knowledge.
Bu yüzyılda, ulusların serveti ve başarısı, daha önce hiç olmadığı kadar bilgi kullanma ve
üretme becerisine bağlı olacaktır.

714
14.2.3. Tender offers

balance of the inventory items: stok kaleminin dengesi

balance sheet: bilanço
receipt of goods: malların alındısı

Example-1:
- For development of tender offers concerning design and execution of complete set of
works on creation and implementation of automated management system at the oil
processing complex.

creation and implementation of automated management system at the oil processing

complex.
petrol işleme kompleksindeki otomatik yönetim sisteminin oluşturulması ve
uygulanması

concerning design and execution of complete set of works

bir dizi işin eksiksiz tasarlanması ve yürütülmesine ilişkin

Petrol işleme kompleksinde otomatik yönetim sisteminin oluşturulması ve

uygulanması üzerine bir dizi işin eksiksiz tasarlanması ve yürütülmesine ilişkin ihale
tekliflerinin geliştirilmesi için.

Example-2:
- Contractor will be determined upon international tender results.
Yüklenici, uluslararası ihale sonuçlarına göre belirlenecektir.

Example-3:
- Inrease of effectiveness of the complex by creating corporate information system of
management on basis of solution from well-known producers of program-technical
facilities of automated management system of industry.
Endüstrinin otomatik yönetim sisteminin teknik imkânları konusunda çok iyi tanınmış
üreticilerden gelen çözüm temelinde yönetimin bilgi sistemini işbirliği oluşturulması
yoluyla kompleksin etkililiğinin artması.

Example-4:
- The created system shall provide a possibility of its further development and upgrade
without considerable costs for change of structure of an automated system.
Oluşturulan system bir otomatik sistemin yapısı değişirken önemli maliyetler
olmaksızın güncellenmesine ve onun daha da geliştirilmesine imkan sağlayacaktır.

715
- The set of technical means and software used in case of project implementation of
an automated system shall be produced in lots, highly reliable with expanded
functions of diagnostics.
Bir otomatik sistemin proje uygulanması aşamasında kullanılan yazılım ve teknik
araçlar seti teşhis işlevlerinin genişletilmesi ile çok güvenilir, çok sayıda
üretilebilecektir.

- Technical, program, information, organizational and methodical, legal, mathematical,

linguistic, ergonomic supply of the created automated system shall correspond to the
project decisions developed according to requirements of RD.
Oluşturulan otomatik sistemin teknik, program, bilgi, örgütsel ve metodolojik, hukuki,
matematiksel, dilsel ve ergonomik arzı, RD'nin gereklerine göre geliştirilen proje
beklentilerine karşılık gelecektir.

- Requirements and an order of creation of an automated system shall conform to the

requirements of the specification developed in SS compliance.
Bir otomatik sistemin oluşum sırası ve şartları SS uygunluğunda geliştirilen
şartnamenin şartlarına uygun olmalıdır.

716
14.3. Translation

• Cümlenin öznesi, yüklemi ve bağlaçları bulunmalı; bunlara göre parçka doğru çevrilmelidir.
Example: __ having + V3: yapmış olduğu için.
• Sıfat ve sayısal bilgiler
• Key words:
Lead to: yol açmak
Substantially: önemli ölçüde, büyük ölçüde
Proper: uygun
Sufficiently: yeterli ölçüde
• Çeviride kanaat ifadelerine öncelik verilmez.
I believe the efforts made to alleviate the horrible aftermath of the hurricane Katrine won’t
suffice. (aftermath: kötü sonuç)
Katrina kasırgasının kötü sonuçlarını hafifletmek için yapılan çabaların yeterli olmayacağına
inanıyorum.
Inanıyorum ki Katrina kasırgasının ….yeterli olmayacaktır.
Kanımca Katrina kasırgasının …. yeterli olmayacaktır.
• “There was” ifadesi “vardı” şeklinde çevrilmesi yerine “bulunmaktaydı” şeklinde de
çevrilebilir.
• Noun clause
I think that she has stolen the money.
Onun parayı çaldığını düşünüyorum. Düşünüyorum ki o parayı çaldı.

• Özel yapıların doğru çevrsiyle sonuç elde edilebilir:

…not ….but
“one” zamiri bir cümlede zamir olarak kullanılmış ise ana fiil “aktif” de olsa genelde “pasif”
olarak çevrilir.

717
• be of + noun = have
of + noun=adjective (of use=useful)
are of immense important: …oldukça önemlidir.

• Hardly, barely, never, no, not, … gibi negatif anlam veren kelimeler var ise fiil negative bir
şekilde çevrilir.

İngilizce cümleye anlamca en yakın Türkçe cümleyi bulunuz.

1) The issue under debate today is whether, for all its flaws, capitalism is the best economic
system man has yet invented.
Bugün tartışılan konu, tüm kusurlarına rağmen, kapitalizmin, insanın şimdiye kadar icat ettiği
en iyi iktisadi sistem olup olmadığıdır.
2) The West needs to keep talking to Russia about many things, notably about efforts to
prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons.
Batı’nın, Rusya ile pek çok konu üzerinde, özellikle İran’ın nükleer silahlar edinmesini
engelleme çabaları üzerinde konuşmayı sürdürmesi gerekmektedir.
3) The European Union can help underdeveloped countries, especially those in Africa, by
offering financial aid, more open trade arrangements and easier visa conditions.
Avrupa Birliği, az gelişmiş ülkelere, özellikle Afrika’dakilere, mali yardım, daha açık ticaret
düzenlemeleri ve daha kolay vize koşulları sunarak yardım edebilir.
4) Although Plato loves Homer and regularly cites from his epics, he insists on the censorship
of those passages that represent morally controversial behaviour.
Platon, Homeros’u sevmesine ve onun destanlarından düzenli olarak alıntılar yapmasına
rağmen, ahlâkî bakımdan tartışmalı davranışları yansıtan bölümlerin sansür edilmesinde
ısrar eder.
5) The amount and severity of global warming depend on how much greenhouse gas we add
to the atmosphere.
Küresel ısınmanın miktarı ve şiddeti, atmosphere ne kadar sera gazı ilâve ettiğimize
bağlıdır.
6) There was much documentary evidence about the murder, which was subjected to rigorous
testing by the forensic specialists and found to be authentic.
Cinayet hakkında, adli tıp uzmanlarınca sıkı incelemeye tabi tutulan ve gerçek olduğu
anlaşılan pek çok belgesel kanıt bulunmaktaydı.
7) At the 1994 Brussels NATO summit a "partnership for peace" programme was formally
launched, enabling the old Warsaw Pact members and former Sovlet republics to take part
in a wide range of military cooperation with NATO.

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 1994 Brüksel NATO zirvesinde, eski Varşova Paktı üyelerine ve önceki Sovyet
cumhuriyetlerine NATO ile geniş kapsamlı bir askeri işbirliği yapma olanağı sağlayan "barış
için ortaklık" programı resmen yürürlüğe kondu.
8) Most historians have argued that the causes and outcomes of the French Revolution should
be understood in terms of class interests.
Çoğu tarihçi, Fransız İhtilali’nin nedenlerinin ve sonuçlarının, sınıf çıkarları bağlamında
anlaşılması gerektiğini ileri sürmüşlerdir. İpucu: Özne ve that bağlacı
9) Do you think there is anywhere in the world where the left remains a vibrant and progressive
force?
Dünyada, solun dinamik ve ilerici bir güç olarak varlığını sürdürdüğü herhangi bir yer
olduğunu düşünüyor musunuz?

10) Most of the fears that we had when we were children are actually quite profound, but as we
grow older and become more self-sufficient, the reality of fears diminishes.
Çocukken yaşadığımız korkuların çoğu, aslında oldukça derindir ancak büyüyüp kendimize
daha fazla yeter hâle geldikçe korkuların gerçekliği azalır.
11) For the last 20 years, there has been an ongoing argument as to whether jazz is no longer
an exclusively American let alone an Afro-American music.
Son yirmi yıldır, Afro-Amerikan müziği olmasını bir kenara bırakın, cazın artık yalnızca
Amerikan müziği olup olmadığı konusunda süregelen bir tartışma mevcuttur.
12) Patriarchy originally meant superiority of the father and used to be employed by sociologists
to describe family structures where the father rather than the mother was dominant.
Ataerkillik, başlangıçta babanın üstünlüğü anlamına gelmekteydi ve toplum bilimciler
tarafından anneden ziyade babanın baskın olduğu aile yapılarını tanımlamak için kullanılırdı.

Türkce cümleye anlamca en yakın İngilizce cümleyi bulunuz.

1) Shakespeare’in ailesi, idamı, 13. yüzyıl ortasında kayda geçmiş olan Warwickshire’lı eşkiya
William Sakspere’e dayanmaktadır.
Shakespeare’s family goes back to the Warwickshire robber William Sakspere, whose
hanging was recorded in the mid-13th century.
2) 1870’lerden itibaren, pazar, mal ve nüfuz arayışı, Avrupalı sanayileşmiş ülkelerin
emperyalist yayılışını körüklemiş ve sonuçta onları çoğu kez birbirleriyle karşı karşıya
getirmiştir.
From the 1870s on, search for markets, goods, and influence fuelled the imperial
expansion of the European industrialized countries and, consequently, often put them at
odds with each other.
3) Yaşlıların gençleri sayıca geçeceği bir gelecekten korkan pek çok hükûmet, insanları çocuk
sahibi olmaya teşvik etmek için ne gerekiyorsa yapmaktadır.
Fearful of a future in which the elderly outnumber the young, many governments are doing
whatever they can to encourage people to have children.
4) Yıllık olarak üretilen 67 milyon ton dokuma ipliğinin yarısından fazlası petrolden elde edilen
sentetiklerdir.
More than half of the 67 million tons of textile fibres produced annually are synthetics made
from petroleum.

719
5) Siyasî bir dahi, ancak bir ekonomi amatörü olan Başkan Bill Clinton’ın en kayda değer
başarısı, Beyaz Saray’da bulunduğu sekiz yıl boyunca, Amerika’nın ekonomik temeline
gerçekten yeni bir güç katılmasıdır.
The most remarkable achievement of President Bill Clinton, who was a political genius but
an economic amateur, was that, during the eight years he was in the White House, truly
new power was added to America’s economic base.
6) İklim değişikliği ile ilgili çoğu bilim adamı, kentlerin, çevrelerinden daha sıcak olduğu ve bulut
oluşumuna neden olan dikey hava akımları yarattığı görüşündedir.
Most scientists concerned with climate change are of the opinion that cities are hotter than
their surroundings and create updrafts of air causing cloud formation.
7) Çoğu bilim insanı, yıllarca, gezegenimizdeki ekolojik sistemlerin dengesinin gerçekten ne
denli hassas olduğunun önemini kavramamıştır.
For years, most scientists have underestimated just how delicate the balance of the
ecological systems on our planet really is.
8) Oyunlara ve özellikle çocuk oyunlarına ilişkin inançlarımız, teknoloji ve küreselleşme ile
köklü değişimler geçirmiştir.
Our beliefs about plays, and children’s plays in particular, have undergone radical changes
with technology and globalization.
9) Kendine ait önemli rezervleri bulunmayan dünyanın en büyük enerji tüketicisi Avrupa Birliği,
ihtiyaç duyduğu enerjinin % 50’sini ithal etmektedir ve ithal enerjiye olan bağımlılığının
2030 yılına kadar % 70’e çıkacağı tahmin edilmektedir.
The world’s largest energy consumer without its own significant reserves, the European
Union imports 50% of the energy it needs, and it is predicted that its dependence on
imported energy will rise to 70% by 2030.

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 14.4. Completion

Cümlede boş bırakılan kısmı tamamlamada “Parçanın anlam bütünlüğünü sağlamak için
getirilebilecek cümleyi bulunuz” sorusua yanıt aranırken,

• Cümlenin zaman yapısı, yardımcı fiil, zamir uyumu şıklarda aranır. Paragrafta tense akışı
genelde değişmez.
• Bir önceki cümlede belirli isim tamlamasının yerine kullanılan zamirler aranır. such, this,that,
it, they, he, … “This, that, these, those, the, another, other” gibi referans ya da zamir
kelimeler bir önceki cümleye gönderme yapar. Seçeneklerde bağlaçlar, zamir ya da referans
kelimeleri tespit edilirse boşluk öncesi cümlede karşılığı aranmalıdır.
• Kronoloji ve tarih sıralaması uyumuna dikkat edilmelidir.
• Konuşma diline özgü ifadelere dikkat edilir. (he, this, that; true, false…)
• Boşluktan önceki cümlenin soru mu, yorum mu olduğu belirlenmelidir.
• Açıklama isteyen bir sorunun yanıtı “well”, “principally” ile başlar. Açıklama isteyen sorular
“what, how” ile başlar.
• “certainly” ifadesi evet anlamındadır, onaylamak için kullanılır.
• “In other words” ifadesi bir önceki cümleye açıklama getirir.
• Bir konudaki düşüncemizi “I think, I suppose, I feel, I regard, I am of the opinion that”
ifadeleriyle söyleriz.
• Paragrafın ana fikrinin verildiği ilk cümle okunarak paragraph ne ile ilgili olabilir sorusu
yanıtlanır.
• Boşluğun devamında “fakat, yine de, ancak” anlamı veren “nevertheless” gibi zıtlık
bağlaçları önemli ipuçları olabilir.
• Bazı paragraf sorularında aynı özne ile cümleler kurulabilir.
• Eğer bağlaç soruluyorsa iki ayrı cümleyi de anlamak gerekmektedir.
• Boşluk doldurmada; kelimenin doğru hali, kelimenin sıfat, zarf, fiil ve isim halleri, gramerdeki
belli başlı yapılar bilinmelidir.
• İstisna durumlarda; Past ile başlayan bir cümlenin devamındaki zıtlık bağlacı ile başlayan
cümle Present olabilir. Aynı şekilde Present ile başlayan bir cümlenin devamındaki zıtlık
bağlacı ile başlayan cümle Past olabilir.
• Bazı kelimelerin sık kullanımına, sıfat cümleciklerinin farklı türlerine dikkat edilmelidir.
• Boşluktan sonra yer alan preposition (ilgeçler)’e dayalı kelime soruları,
• Phrasal verbs konusunda çeşitli sorular

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 • Correlative Conjunctions yapıları sorulabilir. Ancak bu yapıların arasında kullanılan ifadeler
uzun olabilir ve bu yüzden cümleleri iyi takip etmek gerekmektedir. Bu tip soruların bir diğer
özelliği çok basit bir ifadenin bile karmaşık bir formda sorulmasıdır.

14.5. Irrelevant sentences

“Parçanın anlam bütünlüğünü bozan cümleyi bulunuz”

Anafikir:
Genelde paragrafın ilk cümlesi ana fikri veren cümle olmalıdır. Devamında gelen cümleler ise ana
fikri destekleyen cümlelerdir. Paragrafın son cümlesi ise tüm paragrafdaki fikri özetleyen cümle
olduğu gibi kendinden önceki cümleyi destekleyen bir cümle de olabilir. İlk cümlede paragrafın
çerçevesini çizen fikir de belirlenmelidir. Örneğin: “Kiew is one of the most historic cities of the
Ukraine.” Cümlesi paragrafın ilk cümlesi ise “historic” kelimesi, paragrafın çerçevesinin tarihsel
anlatımlar ile ilgili olacağını gösterir. Giriş cümlesinde kendisinden önceki cümleye gönderme
yapan “another, also, comparative” yapıları, vurguları gibi ifadeler var ise şüphelenmek gerekir.
Paragrafın giriş cümlesinde bu tür yapılar kullanılamaz.

Özne akışı:
Paragrafı oluşturan cümlelerdeki özne akışının uyumuna dikkat edilmelidir. Sürekli aynı konudan
bahs edilirken özne değiştiğinde şüphelenmek gerekir. Hem özne hemde konu akışını değiştiren
cümle atılmalıdır.
(I) Carl Sandburg (1878-1967), born in Galesburg, Illinois, is best known for his poetry. (II) He
was, however, also a journalist, an author of children’s books, and a historian. (III) Sandburg’s
poetry celebrates the lives of ordinary people. (IV) In “The People, Yes,” he uses the words, style,
and rhythms of common speech to celebrate the tall tales of the American people. (V) Indeed,
most American poets in the 19th century were concerned with nature and country life. Yanıt: V

“Tense” akışı:
Cümleler okunurken yardımcı fiil ve fiillerin altı çizilmelidir. Paragrafın “tense” akışından farklı bir
“tense” içeren cümle var ise anlam bütünlüğünü bozup bozmadığına bakılmalıdır. Duruma şüphe
ile yaklaşılmalıdır.
(I) Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through Earth. (II) The Richter
magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California Institute of
Technology to compare the intensity of earthquakes. (III) They are recorded on instruments called
seismographs. (IV) Seismographs record a zigzagtrace that shows the varying amplitude of
ground oscillations beneath the instrument. (V) Sensitive seismographs, which greatly magnify
these ground movements, can detect strong earthquakes from sources anywhere in the world.
A) I B) II C) III D) IV E) V

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Zamir ya da Referans kelimesi:
Paragrafta verilen cümleler okunurken bir zamir ya da referans (referall) kelimesi görülürse
bunların bir önceki cümlede neye gönderme yaptığı belirlenmelidir. Zamir ya da referans kelimleri
kendinden önceki cümlede karşılığı yok, fakat iki önceki cümlede karşılığı var ise kendinden
önceki cümle atılır. Eğer bir önceki ve iki önceki cümlede de karşılığı yok ise kendisinden
şüphelenir, atılır.
• This/these/such (isim) yapılarının karşılığı öncek cümlede aranır.
• İsimlerin yerini tutan “he, it, they,…” karşılığı aranır.

Tarihsel akış ve kronoloji:

Paragrafın sıralama, tarihsel akış ve kronoloji verilmiş ise sıralamanın ve zaman akışının bozulup
bozulmadığı control edilmelidir.

Paragrafın gidişatında anlam bütünlüğünü bozan, olumlu cümlelerin içinde olumsuz, olumsuz
cümlelerin içinde olumlu cümle var ve genelden farklı anlam veriyorsa bu cümle atılmalıdır. Genel
anlatımın dışına çıkan özel cümleler atılır.
(I) We may not know very much about butterflies, but they are certainly very beautiful. (II) For the
first time, British scientists have tracked the movements of butterflies. (III) Two types of flight were
found in the 30 butterflies monitored. (IV) One was the straight and fast flight used for travel. (V)
The other was a slow and looping route to aid foraging. Yanıt: I

(I) Earthquakes are the result of forces deep within Earth’s interior that continuously affect its
surface. (II) The energy from these forces is stored in a variety of ways within the rocks. (III)
Although the Richter Scale has no upper limit, the largest known shocks have had magnitudes in
the 8.8 to 8.9 range. (IV) When this energy is released suddenly by rupturing movements along
faults in the crust of Earth, an earthquake results. (V) The area of the fault where the sudden
rupture takes place is called the focus of the earthquake, while the point on Earth’s surface
directly above the focus is called the epicentre of the earthquake. Yanıt: III

Önceki cümleyi vurgulayan kelimeler:

Kendinden önceki cümleleri vurgulamak için kullanılan “actually, in fact, indeed, as a matter of
fact” zarfları ile başlayan cümlelerde gerçekten önceki cümleyi vurgulayıp vurgulamadığı control
edilmelidir.

Önceki cümle ile ilintili olan bağlaçlar:

“However, for example” gibi bağlaç ile başlayan cümleler kendinden önceki ya da kendinden
sonraki cümle ile ilintili olmalıdır. Bağlaç cümlesi kendinden önceki ile ilintili değil de ikinci cümle
ile ilintili ise kendinden önceki cümle atılır. İkisi ile de ilinti değilse bağlaç cümlesinin kendisi atılır.
Bağlaç cümlesi giriş cümlesi ise atılamaz.

Önceki cümle ile kıyaslama yapan yapılar:

Paragraftaki herhangi bir cümlede “also, another, comparative, approach, methot” gibi
kendisinden bir önceki cümle ile kıyaslama yapan yapılar ise şüphe edip kontrol edilmesi
gerekmektedir. Önceki cümlede karşığı olmalıdır.
One must also be remind that..: ayrıca hatırlatılmalıdır ki…
Another methot is…: başka bir metot ….
That is a more usufel approach

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Some, others, one, another, the former, the latter yapılarına dikkat edilmelidir. Örneğin, “The
others” ifadesinin öncesinde karşılığı olabilecek yapı bir öncesinde olmalıdır. Yoksa iki öncesine
bakılır, var ise bir önceki cümle atılır, yok ise kendisi atılır.

14.6. Restatement

“Anlamca en yakın olan cümleyi bulunuz”

Sorudan "Anlamca En Yakın Cümle" istendiğinden dolayı verilen cümlenin tıpa tıp aynısı
seçeneklerde olmayacaktır. Bu soru tipleri ile baş edebilmek için özellikle Modal, Tense, Adverb,
Adjective ve Noun Clause'ların çeşitleri hakkında bilgi sahibi olunmalıdır. Yakın anlamlı cümleleri
bulmada tekrar ifade etme, “restatement” farklı şekillerde gösterilir:
a) Her şey değişir ama tense asla değişmez! Verilen cümle ile istenen seçeneğin zamanı
(Tense) aynı olmak zorundandır. Sorudaki zamanla örtüşmeyen seçenekler hemen elenir.
b) Kalıp yapının benzeri aranmalıdır.
c) Gramer yapısı değiştirilir:
Active - Passive değişikliği yapma gibi.
d) Eş anlamlı kelimleler aranır.
e) Eş anlamlı bağlaçlar aranır: Although yerine Even though kullanılır. “Because=since=as”
çok sorulur.
f) Eş anlamlı sıfat veya zarflar aranır. “Appear=seem=look like,” çok kullanılır.
g) Cümleciklerde ana cümle ile yan cümlenin sıralamsı değişir. Bu durumda tabii ki bağlaç da
değişir.
- A drug may affect several functions, even though it’s targeted at only one.
A drug is taken for a specific purpose, but it may have a range of other effects.
h) İndirgeme yapıldığında var olan bağlaç görülmeyebilir.
- The pictures of the 18th-century painter, Hogarth, seem modern because of their wit and
satire.
There is a contemporary feel for the pictures of 18th-century painter, Hogarth, owing to
their humour and satirical content.
i) Sadeleştirmeler kullanılır: If we do not hurry, we will be late = We had better hurry,
otherwise we will be late ( IF yerine Otherwise)

724
Examples:
1) Steven was accused of starting the fire that burned down the two factory buildings.
They accused Steven after they had proof that the two factory buildings had been burned
down.
2) Science does not produce a unified picture of the environment on which all can agree,
instead it provides multiple views, each of which may be valid from a particular ideological
angle.
There is not one single view of the environment that can be provided through science that
everyone will agree on, rather it gives different perspectives, all of which are valid depending
on the ideological perspective
3) Huntington’s has been described as the most disastrous disease known to man because of
its peculiarly cruel characteristics, as it progressively strips a person of control of his
muscles, reason and emotion.
Due to its cruel characteristics that gradually take away a person’s control of their muscles,
reason and emotion, Huntington’s is said to be the most devastating disease in the world.
4) The stocks of bluefin tuna, the most valuable fish in the world, have plummeted to such
paltry levels that many scientists speculate that the fish could be headed for extinction.
Stocks of the bluefin tuna, the most expensive fish in the world, have dropped to such a low
level that scientists are predicting that they might become extinct.
5) The changing climate will have negative effects on all parts of the world; depending on
people’s location and lifestyles, however, there will be great differences in the subsequent
health hazards that human populations face.
All regions of the world will be adversely affected by the changing climate, but the resulting
health risks to human populations will vary greatly, depending on where and how people
live.
6) No other building embodies the history of Paris more than does the famous cathedral of
Notre-Dame.
Of all the buildings in Paris, it is the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame that most truly
represents the past of that city.

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 14.7. Diyalogues

“Karşılıklı konuşmanın boş bırakılan kısmını tamamlayabilecek ifadeyi

bulunuz.”

Diyalog kurulduğunda aşağıdaki durumlar söz konusudur:

Agree with: aynı fikirde olmak
Explanation: açıklama
Wonder, care: merak etme
Remark, comment: yorum.
Warning: uyarı
Worry, fear: endişe etmek
Complain: şikayet etmek
Protest: itiraz etmek
Suggestion: telkin
Encourage: cesaretlendirmek
Recommend: tavsiye etmek
Obtain approval: onayını almak
To express admiration: hayranlığını bildirme
Tell something interesting

Karşılıklı konuşmanın boş bırakılan kısmını tamamlayabilecek ifade aranırken:

1) Hangisinin doğru olduğu da boşluktan önceki ve sonraki anlatılardan anlam bütünlüğü

kurularak bulunur.

2) Boşluktan sonraki zamir ve referans kelimeleri boşluğu dolduracak cümlede aranır.

3) Tense uyumu izlenir.

- Have you been reading that disturbing article on how Venice is sinking?
Yes, I have. And it’s not simply that Venice is sinking.

4) Boşluğun devamında açıklama, bilgi verme, tanım yapma, izah etme gibi anlamlar söz
konusu ise soru cümlelerine yönelilmelidir.

 Açıklama yapılırken: “Well, To begin with, On the first side, Firstly, Let me think, …” gibi
ifadeler kullanılır.

 Sorgulama Kelimleri (Question Words) ile kurulan cümlelerde, net bilgiler ve detaylı
açıklamalar istenir. Why - because,
Where – here, there, place,

726
 When - Zaman

 How: detaylı açıklama söz konusudur.

Apparently, they act as a coolant and reduce friction. Cümlesi “How do they help?”
sorusunun yanıtır.
How does it manage to do that? Soru cümlesi açıklama istemektedir.

5) Onaylama sorularının yanıtı genelde “Yes/No” ile başlar.

“Yes” yerine kullanılan ifadeler:
“Of course, For sure, Certainly, Right, Exactly, Absolutely, I suppose it is, I believe it is, I
hope so, I think so…”
No yerine kullanılan ifadeler:
Unfortunately, I am not sure, May be, May be not, Indeed, I guess so, That may be true, I
don’t think so, On the contrary, Not really, Actually, As a matter of fact, Who knows, …”

6) Diyalog sorusunda boşluktan sonra “Alright, I will try.” gibi cümleler var ise açıklama istiyor
demektir. Bu nedenle boşlukta sorgulama cümleleri olmalıdır.

7) Kelime öbeklerine dikkat edilmelidir.

Olumlu cümle, Agree: So do I. Disagree: I don’t.
Olumsuz cümle, Agree: Neither do I. Disagree: I do.

8) Boşluğun devamında, “why not, perhaps not” var ise bir üst cümlede not olmalıdır.
Parelelliklere dikkat edilmelidir.

Example:
Emre: What’s so funny that you’ve been laughing now for hours?
Figen: I was just remembering a friend of mine who owns a shoe shop. He was very upset
because he realized that many customers were trying to squeeze their feet into shoes that
were too small, and were ruining his shoes.
Emre: ----
Figen: Even so, I just can’t help laughing. (Yine de gülmeden edemiyorum.)

a) That must have been quite an experience for him. Now he won’t let anyone try on
different sizes.
b) Doesn’t the salesman have any rights? He should be able to fill out some kind of
complaint form.
c) Being a frequent shoe-buyer myself, I don’t know where your friend’s store is.
d) Perhaps he should start selling other things. This way, he won’t have to deal with
those customers anymore.
e) I don’t find it amusing whatsoever. The customers should have been more careful
with what they were doing.
Yanıt: e

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Example:
Timur: Do you know the difference between the use of barbecues and conventional gas
cooking?
Levent: ----
Timur: What can be done to reduce this?
Levent: I think we should use gas over barbecue as it contributes to an increase in smog
levels.

a) Burning charcoal releases carbon monoxide into the air much more than cooking with
gas does.
b) Well, actually, both are good ways of cooking, but barbecues take longer to prepare.
c) Gas cooking is far more efficient than using a barbecue, as you can adjust the heat
according to your needs.
d) Unfortunately, both are harmful and cause damage to the environment.
e) Gas appears to be more dangerous as there is a high risk of explosion.
Yanıt: a

Example:
Teacher: Your son has adapted quite well socially. He’s had no problems making friends.
Also, he’s quite a leader among them.
Parent: I’m glad to hear that. What about his class work?
Teacher: ----
Parent: He's never been very good at sitting still and focusing.
a) His math skills are very good, but he needs to work harder on his language skills.
b) He enjoys group work, probably because he likes to socialize so much.
c) I think he needs a private tutor to help him with the more difficult subjects.
d) I really enjoy having him in class because he’s such a good example to others.
e) He has the ability but he seems to lack the concentration to do the work.
Yanıt: e

Example:
Jale: Here is an article about how people react in emergencies. Researchers say that when
more people are around, it reduces the chances of actually being helped.
Adnan: ----
Jale: Apparently, onlookers provide a model for action. If they are docile and disinterested,
the situation may seem less serious.
Adnan: I think if there is only one bystander, your chance of being helped increases, as he
will think he must help immediately.
a) Is an individual aware that others are present?
b) How did they carry out that research?
c) Do they offer any explanation as to why this happens?
d) Is this finding true for all cultures?
e) Who were the participants in this research?

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 Yanıt: c

14.8. Paragraph

“Soruları aşağıdaki parçaya göre cevaplayınız”

Paragraf;
Bir makalenin, bir denemenin ya da bir yazının küçültülmüş biçimi olan paragrafın giriş, gelişme
ve sonuç bölümleri vardır. Paragraf anlatım biçimleri: açıklama, tartışma, betimleme, öyküleme.
Paragrafta düşünceyi geliştirme yolları: tanımlama, karşılaştırma, örneklendirme, tanık gösterme,
benzetme, ilişki kurma.

Ana fikri veren cümleler kesin bir yargı bildirir, açık ve anlaşılır bir anlam taşır. Parçada olmayan
konular ana fikir olmayacağı gibi, parçanın bir kısmını bildiren cümleler de ana fikri vermez.
Paragrafta ana fikrin daha iyi açıklanmasını sağlayan, onu daha belirgin hale getiren, işlediği
konunun sınırlarını çizen yardımcı fikirler de vardır. Bir paragrafta ana fikir bir tane iken yardımcı
fikir sayısı birden fazla olabilir.

Cümledeki iddialı, aşırı ya da abartılı bilgi veren kelimelere dikkat edilmelidir:

 İddialı kelimeler: all, primary, most, particularly, perfect; subtentially, major;
 Aşırı bilgi veren kelimeler: directly, mostly, immediate, right away, inevitable
 Abartılı bilgi veren kelimeler: clear indication, primarily, a great deal, a long period

 Yazarın tavrı sorulduğunda “as a result” ile başlayan cümlelere dikkat edilmelidir.
 “According the passage” ile başlayan soru ifadesi tüm parçanın incelenmesinin gerekli kılar.
 Paragrafda verilen örnek cümleler, bir araştırma sonucu dikkate edilmelidir.

Cümlenin anlamını etkleyen ifadeler

Cümlenin anlamını etkleyen ifadeler ana fikir cümlesinde bulunuyorsa, metinde verilen anlama
tümden etki eder.

Kısıtlayıcı: “only, merely, just, solely: sadece”.

- I have only two minutes. (I don’t have much time)
- There were only fifty survivors. (Not many people survived.)

 Anlam daraltan sıfatlar: certain, specific, particular, significant, fixed, …

 “Each” ve “every” yapı bakımından tekil ifadeleri gösteriyormuş gibi görünsede, aslında
bahsettikleri ismi sayı va anlam bakımından genelleştirirler. Every student, each student, all
students ile başlayan cümlelerde tüm öğrencilerden bahsedilmektedir.
 “Widely, commonly, popular, universally” gibi sıfatlar cümlelerde genelleme yapmak için
kullanılır.

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  “At least: en azından” burada birşeyin azlığını değil tam tersine çokluğu vurgulanmaktadır.
 Whoever, whenever, gibi içinde “ever” kelimesi bulunduran ifadeler özneyi ya da nesneyi
sınırlamadan genelleştirir.
 “Any” bir miktar ifadesi olarak olumsuz ve soru cümleciklerinde kullanılmasnın yanı sıra
“her/herhangi” anlamında genelleme yapmak için kullanılır.
Derin anlamı içinde yatan cümleler
Usul ve yapılış biçimi gösteren zarflar: quickly, easly, clearly, accurately, precisely, slowly, fast,
hard, late, well
- I opened the case easly.

Kısıtlayıcı zarflar: Only, merely, just, purely, solely, simply, exclusively.,

- You can just sit here.

Derece gösteren zarflar: Rather, quite, fairly, extremely, much, a lot, highly.

Dikkati bir noktaya çekmek için kullanılan zarflar: Mainly, specifically, primarily, notably,
especially, principally, predominantly, mostly, chiefly.

Tüm cümleyi niteleyen zarlar:

- Essentially, I can’t sleep alone.
- Fortunately, we were able to arrive on time.
- Obviously, he is innocent.

Bakış açısı gösteren zarflar: Scientifically, Chemically, Semantically.

Bakış açısını gösteren ifadeler: I think that, Most probably, certainly, Without doubt, clearly,
explicitly, transparently, for certain, surely.

Olasılık ve tahmin ifadeleri

Hiçbir “modal yardımcı fiil” tanım yapmak, kesin hüküm bildirmek veya anlamı sınırlamak için
kullanılmaz.

“Düşünmek, zannetmek” fiilerinden sonra gelen ifadeler kesin hüküm bildirmezler.

“Believe, claime, allege, argue, suggeste” gibi fiillerden sonra genellikle “that cümleciği” ya da
“gerund /infinitive” yapıları gelir.

Olup olmadığı anlamı veren “whether /if” cümlecikleri kesin hüküm belirtmezler. Bu kalıp genelde
sorgu ve tartışma fiilerinden sonra kullanılır. (Discusse, debate, dispute, wondere, aske, …)
- Whether the first man lived in Africa is under debate.

Olasılık veya tahmin bildiren bazı zarflar kullanıldıkları cümleler kesin hüküm belirtmezler.
(Probably, possibly, …)

Koşul cümleleri kullanılarak varsayımlar yapılabilir. Eğer varsayımlar bir başkası tarafından
yapılmış ise metin içierisnde “according to, to somebody, gibi “ yapılarda görülür.

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Gerçek: There is no life in the Arctic.
Varsayım: There would be no life in the Artctic.

Paragraf soru tipleri

Paragrafın anafikri, yazarın okuyucuya vermek istediği mesajdır. Paragrafın ana fikrini
bulabilmek için kendimize “Yazar bu parçayı hangi amaçla yazdı?”gibi soruları sorulur. Ana
düşünce, değişik soru biçimleriyle karşımıza çıkar;
 Paragrafın ana fikri aşağıdakilerden hangisidir?
 Paragrafta anlatılmak istenen aşağıdakilerden hangisidir?
 Bu parçada aşağıdakilerden hangisi vurgulanmıştır?

Yardımcı fikir ile ilgili sorular çoğu zaman olumsuz biçimdedir;

 Paragraftan aşağıdakilerden hangisi çıkarılamaz?
 Paragrafta aşağıdakilerden hangisine değinilmemiştir?
 Parçadan aşağıdakilerden hangisine ulaşılamaz?

The main idea: (ana fikir),

Ana fikir genellikle ilk cümlede, bazen de son cümlede saklı olabilmektedir. Ana fikri “but,
however, yet, on the other hand” bağlacından sonraki görüşten de anlaşılabilmektedir. Başlık
sorularıyla ana fikir arasında yakın bir ilişki vardır.

Bir cümle “however, nevertheless, but, on the other hand,” gibi zıtlık bağlaçları ile başlıyorsa ana
fikir bu cümlenin içindedir. Çünkü bu cümleden önce söylenmiş her şey bu cümlede çürütülür.
Ana fikrin konusu, fikir ve yorumu ile sınırlaır.

The main subject (/idea /point /concern) of the passage...

The passage is mainly (/largely about /deals /concerned) with …
The main argument of the passage is that...
The passage gives a general account of...
In this passage, the writer has set out...

Emphasize, Stress (vurgu) ve Point out (işaret)

Sorularında yapı ve anlam bakımından vurgulanmış cümlelerin önceliği vardır.
The passage describes/emphasizes...
The writer/author emphasis /stresses/ points out that/the fact that...
The point made in the passage is that...
The passage/writer makes the point that...
As clearly stressed in the passage: Paragrafda açıkca vurgulandığı gibi

Direkt Bilgi soruları, Elimination (eleme):

Ne zaman, Kim, Nerede, Hangi vb. Bu sorularda yorum yapılmaz ve direk metinden cevaplar
bulunabilir. Bu tip sorular eleme soruları olup şıklar sırasıyla doğru yanlış süzgeçinden
geçirilmelidir. Sınavın hazırlanışı itibariyle ve test süresi kısalılması açısından doğru yanıt
genellikle ilk şıklarda (a, b, c) gizlidir.
The stated (explicit: açık) main idea. (metinde açıklaması olan, bahsedilen ana fikir.)
It is stated /argued / suggested in the passage that...

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 It is pointed out / explained in / suggested in the passage that...
It is obvious from the passage that...
It is clear from the passage that...
The passage/writer explains / suggests that...
The writer is of the opinion that...
The author argues that...
The point made in the passage is that...
As (it is) mentioned/explained in the passage (that),...
We can understand from the passage that...
We see in the passage that...
According to the writer/ author/passage,...

State: belirtmek, söylemek

Suggest: önermek, öne sürmek
Refer: değinmek, adlandırmak
Obvious: apaçık, ortada, besbelli
Essential: gerekli, zorunlu

Yorum Soruları: Bu sorular uğraştıracak olanlardır. Yorum yaparak seçeneklerden hangisinin

doğru olduğunu soran soru türüdür.

Imply: ima etmek: Bu tip sorularda dolaylı bilginin önceliği vardır.

It is implied in / shown in the passage that…: hangisi ima edilmektedir.
The writer implies that ….: ne ima edilmektedir?
The passage implies that

Infer: anlam çıkarmak: Bu tip sorularda dolaylı bilginin önceliği vardır.

One infers from the passage that...
We can infer from the passage that...: den anlam çıkarmak.
It can be inferred from the passage that...: metinden aşağıdaki anlamlardan hangisini
çıkardınız?

Conclude: sonuç çıkarmak

One can/ may conclude from the passage that...
The author concludes that

Understand /learn:
One understands from the passage that...
From the passage we understand/learn that...
We learn from the passage (that)...
We can understand / infer from the passage (that)...
As (it) can be understood from the passage...
It is understood from the passage...

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 Paragraf soruları yanıtlanırken
Soruların doğru yanıtlanması için paragraf birden fazla dikkatlice okunmalıdır. Paragrafın anafikri,
yazarın düşüncesi, konudaki tanımlamalar, iddialar belirlenmelidir. Genellikle sorular paragrafın
ana düşüncesi, yardımcı düşüncesi, konusu, başlığı ve anlatımla ilgilidir. Paragraf okunurken
önyargılar, kabullenmeler bir kenara bırakılmalıdır. Paragrafta sözü edilen konu üzerinde
durulmalıdır. Paragrafta ne savunulursa onun doğru olduğu kabullenerek soruya yaklaşılmaldır.

Paragrafı okumadan önce kendinize şu soruyu sorun: Bu konuyla ilgili ne biliyorum? En çok ne
anlatılabilir? Nasıl gelişebilir? Başlık, bu soruları bilinçli tahmin etmenize yardımcı olacaktır.
Paragrafı okumadan önce sorular bir göz gezdirin.

Okurken kendinize sorun: beklediğim gibi gelişiyor mu? Tam emin olmadı iseniz paragrafı
yeniden okuyun. Bilinmeyen sözcüklerle ilgili çok fazla endişelenmeyin; anlamlarını tahmin
etmeye çalışın.

Okuduktan sonra, kendinize sorun: Ana noktalar nelerdi? Okuduğunu anlama testinin amacı
pasajı ne kadar iyi anladığınızı görmektir ve soruların çoğu derinlemesine veya ayrıntılı bir şekilde
test eder.

Paragrafı dikkatle okuyun. Ardından, soruları dikkatli bir şekilde okuyun ve sorularını, atıfta
bulunduğu pasajın bölüm (ler) ile eşleştirin. Bu, sanırım, bilgiyi gözden kaçırmamak, bilgiyi
taramak için gerektiğinde yeniden okunmalıdır.

Remember, you are being tested on:

• Paragrafın anlaşılması, açıkca ne ifade edildi?
Skimming (reading for the gist): Paragrafa ait genel anlam ve açık ifade
Paragraftan çıkarılan anlamlar

• Yazarın bakış açısı, görüşü veya perspektifi, Açıkça belirtilmesinden ziyade paragraftan ne
anlaşılmaktadır?
Foregrounding: Öne çıkanlar; Kim, Ne, Nerede, Ne zaman, Nasıl?

• Örneklemeler, ayrıntılı ve detaylı bilgiler. (Exemplification, Scanning)

Yapılan açıklalamalar ve verilen örneklerin konunun özüne katkısı nedir? Yazar, açıklama ya
da detay cümlesi verirken konunun özüne hangi katkıda bulunmak istemiştir?

• Şablonlama tekniği - Sorulan kısmın metindeki karşılığı

Keyword: Anahtar kelimeler (Worthwhile – rewarding, intimate – sincere)
Referalls: Metinde geçen isimsel ifadelerin tekrar edilmemesi için kullanılan zamirsel ifadeler
Guessing the underlined words (altı çizili kelimenin tahmin edilmesi)
“significant” in line 10 probably means…………….. [Signifcant=important: önemli]

• Pargrafın tense yapısı ve yönünün belirlenmesi

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 Paragrafın anlatım doğrultusu (+) mi, (-) mi?
Avantaj (Pros), ve dezavantaj (Cons) bölümleri

15. Ekler

15.1. Conversation

Getting acquainted

How greetings are used

"Hello" is used as a greeting in formal and informal situations. In British English the variants
"Hallo" and "Hullo" are also used. "Hi" is an informal greeting with the same meaning as "Hello".
"Hey" (an interjection for attracting attention) is sometimes used very informally in the meaning
"Hello".
- Hello, Maria! Nice to see you. – Hi, Rita! Nice to see you.
- Hi, Tom! Good to see you again. – Hello, Jim! It's good to see you.
- Hey, Mike! How's it going? (informal)
- Morning, Jim. Evening, Betty. (informal)
- How do you do? (formal)

"Good morning" and "Good afternoon" are generally used as greetings. "Good day" and "Good
evening" may be used at meeting or parting. "Good night" is used for saying goodbye at
nighttime, especially before going to sleep.

"How are you?" is a very common greeting and a question asking about a person's health and
well-being; it is used in formal and informal situations.
- Hello! How are you? – Fine, thank you. How are you?

"How are you doing?" is a little more informal than "How are you?" and is used in the same way.
"How are you doing?" is very common.
- Hi! How are you doing? – Fine, thanks. And you?

Saying good-bye:
- Good-bye! Bye! It was nice seeing you. Keep in touch. Take care now. See you tomorrow.
See you.

Holiday greetings:
- Merry Christmas! Happy New Year! Have a nice holiday! Have a nice holiday! The same to
you. You too.

Birthday greetings:

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 - Happy birthday! Happy birthday to you! Love and best wishes for a happy birthday!

Congratulations:
- Congratulations! Your new book is great! Congratulations on your new book!
- I'd like to congratulate you. Your test paper is the best in the class.
- My congratulations! Your results are excellent. Let me congratulate you on your excellent
results.

Wishing luck:
- Good luck! Good luck to you! Good luck with your new project!
- I wish you luck in your ventures! I wish you luck on your trip to the north. I wish you luck and
all the best.
- I'll keep my fingers crossed for you. I wish you the best of everything in your life.

The verb "meet" is used in the meaning "get acquainted with new people", and the verb "see" is
used in the meaning "meet someone you already know". Miss Brown (unmarried); Mrs. Brown
(married); Ms. Brown (married / unmarried).
- Hello! My name is Nick. – Nice to meet you, Nick.
- Hi, Anna! Nice to see you. How's your little sister?
- I'd like to introduce a friend of mine, Mary Brown.
- This is Anatoly. Anatoly is from Turkey.
- I'm very glad to meet you. It's a pleasure to meet you, Ms. Brown.
- Please call me Nina.

Phrases for getting acquainted:

- Mrs. Spencer, I'd like to introduce a friend of mine, Anita Green.
- Let me introduce myself. My name is Tom Smith.
- George, I'd like you to meet my brother Boris.
- George, this is Alan. Alan and I work together. Alan, this is Marina.
- Hi! I'm Cahit Karakus. (informal)
- It's nice to meet you. Glad /Nice to meet you. – I'm glad to meet you, too. It's a pleasure to
meet you.

Example:
- Professor Smith, this is Ella Davis, a friend of mine. Ella, this is Professor Smith, my son's
college teacher.
- How do you do?
- Hello! Pleased to meet you.
- What subject do you teach, Professor Smith? I teach educational psychology.
- How interesting! Psychology is a very interesting subject.
- Yes, it is. What do you do?
- I work as a proofreader.

The function of small talk is to express polite interest and good attitude, and to prevent
uncomfortable silence.
- Is it your first trip to the United States, Anatoly? No, I was here three years ago.
- How long have you been here? I've been here for a week already.
- What is your impression of Boston?I like it very much. Boston is a very interesting city.

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Other useful phrases:
- What is your name? My name is Cahit Karakus.
- Where are you from? I'm from Turkey. Anna is from Canada. Tom is American.
- Marie is from France. Marie is French. I'm from Saint Petersburg.
- Have you ever been there?
- It's a beautiful city.
- You should visit it some day.
- What do you think of New York? I like it (here) very much.
- Well, everything seems so new to me.
- Don't worry, you will get used to it soon.

Personel Questions:
Personal questions include various questions about a person's private life, age, appearance,
salary, religion, and the like. Depending on their character, personal questions may be perceived
as tactless, embarrassing, improper, familiar, or rude.
- How old are you?
- What's your telephone number? What's your address?
- Are you rich? Do you live alone?
- Are you married? Why don't you get married?
- Is Anna your girlfriend?
- You have a boyfriend, don't you?
- Why don't you have children?
- Is your watch expensive?
- I like your dress. How much did it cost?
- You have a great car! How much did you pay for it?
- I like your bracelet. Is it real gold?
- Your ring is so beautiful. Is it a real diamond?
- This is a nice jacket. Is it real leather?
- How often do you go to the church?
- How much do you weigh?

Responses to personal questions

Usually, people avoid answering personal questions in general conversation. For example,
questions like "How much did your ring cost?" may be answered with "Oh, it was not too
expensive" or "Oh, it was rather expensive" or "I don't know. It was a gift". For such occasions,
English has quite a few phrases of different emotional coloring, ranging from neutral and polite to
angry and rude.
- That's a long story.
- I'd rather not say.
- That's a little personal. That's a little private. That's personal. That's private.
- No personal questions, please. No comment.
- Why should I tell you?
- That's nobody's business. That's none of your business. None of your business!

736
 - How dare you ask me that! How dare you!

Sometimes people ask permission to ask a personal question.

- Would you mind if I asked you a personal question?
- May I ask you a personal question?
- Can I ask you a personal question?
- Can I ask you something personal?

About Myself
- My name is Cahit Karakus. I am Cahit Karakus.
- I'm 55 years old. I'm fifty-five years old. I'm fifty-five.
- I was born on May 13, 1960.
- I was born in 1960 in a small town near Malatya.
- I was born in Yesilyurt and grew up there. I went to college in Istanbul.
- I graduated from school in 1984. I finished school in 1984.
- My family moved to Malatya from Porga a hundred years ago.
- My father is an employee. (a scientist, a surgeon, a bus driver, a pilot)
- My mother is a nurse. (a doctor, a teacher, a designer, an engineer)
- I haven’t a brother. If I have a brother, his name would be Napolyon.
- He was younger than I am. He was three years younger/older than I am. (Informal: He is
younger than me. He is three years younger than me.)
- My younger sister Mary is a schoolgirl.
- I'm single. I'm not married. I'm married. I have a family.
- I have two children, a boy and a girl. I have two sons, fifteen and nine.
My daughter is two years old.
- We live in a nice apartment in a modern building. We live on a quiet street near a large park.
- My address is 35 Ivanova St., Apt. 61. (thirty-five Ivanova Street, Apartment sixty-one)
- I live at 26 Lesnaya St., Apt. 18. (at twenty-six Lesnaya Street, Apartment eighteen)
- I like to read and walk with my dog.
- I like basketball and old movies.
- My hobby is photography. My hobby is taking pictures of birds.
- My wife loves traveling. She collects coins from different countries.
- My wife likes to cook. We like classical music.

What do you do? What business are you in?

- I'm an engineer. I'm a sales manager. I'm a secretary. I am a librarian.
- I work at a bank. And you? I work at a department store. I work in a restaurant.
- I work as a teacher. I work as a software consultant. I work for a newspaper.
- I'm in computers. I'm in advertising. I'm in real estate.

Do you study or work? I'm a student at the State University.

- I am a student of economics at the State University.
- I am studying mathematics at the State University.
- I studied law at the Institute of Law.

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 Opinion

Asking for help:

- Excuse me, could you help me?
- Would you mind helping me?
- Excuse me, I need some help.
- Can you help me, please?
- Could you do me a favor?

Offering help:
- Can I help you?
- Do you need some help?
- Do you need any help?
- Is there anything I can do?
- How can I help?

Saying thank you:

- Thank you.
- Thank you very much.
- Thanks (less formal). Thanks a lot. (less formal)
- Thank you for your help.
- I really appreciate it.
- I really appreciate your help.
- You've been a great help.

Responding to thanks:
- You are welcome.
- Don't mention it. Any time (informal).
- That's all right. / It's all right.
- That's OK. / It's OK.

Apologizing:
- I'm sorry.
- Sorry.
- I'm sorry I'm late.
- I'm sorry I said it.
- I didn't mean it.
- Excuse me, please.
- Please forgive me.
- I'd like to apologize for losing your book.
- Please forgive me.

Responses to apologies:

738
 - That's all right. / It's all right.
- That's OK. / It's OK.
- Don't worry about it.
- Never mind. Don't mention it.
How to do something:
- What do you want? (not polite).
- What happened?
- What is the telephone number of the police department? (of the fire department, of the ticket
office, etc.)
- Do you know the telephone number of the hospital?
- Could you call a taxi /a doctor for me, please?
- Can I go with you? How long will it take to get there?
- How does this machine / device work? How does it work? How does this thing work?
- How do I operate the machine?
- How do I use this phone?
- How do you switch it on /off? How do I set the alarm clock?
- How do I fill out this form?
- How many copies do you need?
- What is it? / What is this?
- What does the word "fragile" mean?
- How much is it? How much does it cost?
- Where can I get it? Where can I find it? Where is the exit, please?
- How do I open it?
- Excuse me, how do I get out of here?

Asking for an opinion:

- What do you think about it? What do you think?
- What is your opinion? What is your point of view?
- What is your attitude to this problem?
- Alex, would you like to say something about it?

Asking to explain:
- I'm afraid I don't understand. Could you explain it, please?
- Would you mind explaining it in detail?
- What do you mean? Why? Why not?

Giving an opinion:
- I think that you should consult a specialist.
- In my opinion, you need a detailed plan of actions.
- In my view, it's a difficult task.
- The way I see it, it might be difficult to realize at the moment.
- As far as I know, it could be very expensive.
- As far as I'm concerned, time is the biggest problem.
- As for me, I'm not ready to speak to the boss about it.
- if you ask me, this is a crazy idea.

Adding information:
- In addition to that, we don't have enough people for this work.

739
 - I'd like to add that we will need new equipment for this project.
- What's more, this office is too small for all of us.
- Besides, there might be travel expenses.
- Also, we will need extra cash for food and other daily expenses.

Making a suggestion:
- I suggest getting a bank loan. Why don't we get a bank loan?
- How about using our out-of-town laboratory for this project?
- We could rent some equipment instead of buying it.
- You could publish an article about the project in a local newspaper.
- Wouldn't it be a good idea to start a fund-raising campaign?
- Let's ask James for help.

Asking for clarification:

- I'd like to know where you are planning to sell the product.
- What do you mean by saying that we don't have enough people?
- Do you mean that we should hire someone to manage the project?
- Could you be more specific, please? What are you trying to say?

Explaining and clarifying:

- I mean that we will have to move to a different office and hire more people.
- What I am trying to say is that we don't have enough money for this project.
- What I wanted to say was that we could use volunteers.
- In other words, we are not ready yet.
- You misunderstood. Let me explain.

Asking for agreement:

- Do you agree? What do you think? Right? Is that right?
- Wouldn't you agree with that? Don't you agree with that? You agree, don't you?

Agreeing:
- I agree. I agree with you on this. I agree with Alexander.
- I agree completely. I couldn't agree more. That's true. That's right.
- You are right. Right. Of course. Certainly. Sure. Exactly. Definitely. I think so. I suppose so.

Disagreeing:
- That's not exactly true. I'm afraid I don't see it that way. Not really. I'm sorry, but it's not quite
right.
- I'm afraid I disagree. I'm afraid I can't agree with that. I don't really agree with you on that.
- To tell you the truth, I have a different opinion.
- Basically, I understand what you mean, but I think your conclusions are wrong.

Understanding:
- I understand. I see. I see what you mean. I see your point. I got it.

When you don't know the answer:

- I don't know. I really don't know. I'm afraid I couldn't say. Don't ask me. I have no idea. I wish
I knew.

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Doubt:
- I'm not quite sure about it. Maybe, but I'm not sure.
- I'm not sure that I agree with your argument.
- I have to think about it. I have mixed feelings about it.
- Are you sure that this information is correct / accurate?

Disbelief:
- It can't be true!
- I can't believe it.
- I don't believe it.
- Are you serious?
- You must be joking.

Approval:
- I think that it is a great idea.
- It's great!
- That's great!
- Great!
- It's very good!
- Very good!
- It's a good point.
- You did a great job.

Disapproval:
- I don't like this idea. I'm against this plan. I don't think it will work.
- It's too expensive.
- It will take too much time. It's too time-consuming.

Asking to repeat:
- I'm sorry, but could you repeat what you just said?
- I'm afraid I haven't heard what you said.
- Could you repeat it, please? Can you repeat it, please?
- What did you say? Sorry? Beg your pardon?

Attracting attention:
- Excuse me! Excuse me, is this Maple Street? Excuse me, sir, could you help me?
- Excuse me, madam, where is the nearest post office? Excuse me, miss, what time is it?
- Hey!

Interrupting the speaker:

- I'm sorry to interrupt you, but could you repeat the address, please?
- I'm sorry to interrupt, but there's a telephone call for Mr. Green.
- Forgive me for interrupting you, but I'd like to ask a question.

741
 - Excuse me for interrupting you, but I don't think this information is relevant to the subject of
our discussion.
- I'm sorry for the interruption.

Asking to repeat:
- Excuse me? I beg your pardon? Sorry?
- What did you say? I'm afraid I haven't heard what you said.
- Could you repeat it, please? Could you repeat what you just said, please?

Asking to explain:
- I'm afraid I don't understand. Could you explain it, please?
- What does this word mean? I'm afraid my English is not very good.
- Could you explain what you just said, please?

Saying that you understand:

- I understand. / I understood. I got it (informal). I see. I see what you mean. It's clear now.

Saying that you don't know:

I don't know. I'm afraid I couldn't say. I have no idea. I wish I knew.

Requests:
- Could you help me, please?
- Could you speak more slowly, please?
- Would you mind speaking less loudly? – Oh, I'm sorry.
- Could you lend me fifty dollars till Friday, please? – I'm afraid I can't.
- Could I borrow your pen for a minute? – Sure. Here it is.

Asking for permission:

- May I come in? – Yes, of course. Can I come in? (informal) – Sure.
- May I use /Could I use your telephone, please?
- Would you mind if I borrowed your calculator? – Of course not.

Asking to hurry:
- Could you do it a little faster, please? Please hurry up, or we'll be late.Hurry up!
- Come on, let's go! (informal) Come on! (informal) Show some speed, will you? (slang)

Asking to stop:
- Please stop shouting. (stop talking, crying, etc.) Stop it, please. Will you please stop for a
minute?
- Wait! Wait a minute. Hold it. That will do. That will be enough. That's enough.

Asking to stop because you don't like what someone is doing:

- Stop it right now! That's enough! Enough is enough! Stop bothering me!
- That's it! Cut it out! (slang) Oh, come off it! (slang) (Stop telling me tales!)

Warning:
- Watch out! Look out! Watch out for that bus! Watch your step. Watch those stairs.

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 - Watch your tongue. / Watch your mouth. / Watch your language. Be careful. Careful! Behind
you!

Giving advice:
- You should read this book.
- You should see a doctor.
- You'd better stay in bed for a couple of days.
- If I were you, I'd go to Spain.

Giving a compliment:
- You look great.
- You look wonderful.
- That's a great suit!
- What a lovely suit!
- I like your new hair style.
- You have a very nice house.
- You speak English very well.

Invitations:
- I would like to invite you to my birthday party (to dinner; to a restaurant; to a concert).
- Would you like to go to a concert tomorrow?
- Let's go for a walk in the park. How about a walk in the park?
- Why don't we go to a concert?

Accepting an invitation:
- Thank you for your invitation.
- Thank you.
- I'd love to.
- I'd like that very much.
- With pleasure.
- That's a great idea.

Declining an invitation:
- Thank you for the invitation, but I can't.
- I'm afraid I can't. I have to study.
- I'm sorry.
- I'm busy tonight (tomorrow; on Saturday).
- I'd like to, but I'm busy.
- I wish I could but I really can't.
- It's not a bad idea, but maybe some other time.

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 Place and Directions

Directions: north, south, east, west, left, right; north-east, north-west, south-east, south-west.
- The weather is good today, except in the south-west.

Where to find something

- Excuse me, could you help me, please?
Pardon me, can you help me, please?
May I ask you a question, please?
- I'm new in town. I'm a tourist. Where can I find a map of Chicago?
- I'd like to know where the Sheraton Hotel is, please.
How do I get to the Hilton Hotel, please?
- Excuse me, do you know where Benson Street is, please?
- Where is the bus stop, please?
How do I get to the center of the city, please?
- Does this bus go to the train station? (to the center of the city, to the university, to the park,
etc.)
- How much is the fare, please? What is the fare, please?
- Could you give me change for ten dollars, please? Is there a bank near here?
- Could you tell me where the nearest bank is? When does the bank open /close?
- When does the train leave/ arrive?
- Where is the nearest supermarket, please? (grocery store, food store, bakery, department
store, restaurant, etc.)
- Is the food market open today? When is the best time to go there? What time is it?
- Could you tell me where the restrooms are? (in a public place)
- Excuse me, where is the men's room, please? (the ladies room, the bathroom in an
apartment)

Example-1:
- Excuse me! Excuse me, sir! Excuse me, madam! Excuse me, miss!
- Could you tell me how to get to the bank, please?
- Sure. When you leave the hotel, turn left and walk three blocks.
- Make a left turn at the bookstore. You will see a cafe and a post office. The bank is next to
the post office.
- Thanks a lot. You're welcome.

Example-2:
- Could you tell me where the Science Museum is, please? It is on the corner of Maple Street
and Lincoln Road.
- How do I get there from here, please? Go down this street and turn right at the traffic light.
- Walk two blocks and turn right onto Maple Street.
- Go past the department store and the flower market, and you'll see the Science Museum
across the street.
- It is a large red-brick building. You can't miss it.

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 - Is it far from here? No, it's just a ten-minute walk. Thank you very much. You're welcome.

Example-3:
- Is there a restaurant near here, please? / Can you tell me if there is a restaurant near here?
- There is a restaurant around the corner, next to the toy store. Thanks. Don't mention it.
- Excuse me, where is the nearest pharmacy? / Excuse me, do you know where the nearest
drugstore is?
- There is one next to the grocery store on King Street.
- Do you see the square opposite the bank? King Street starts behind the square.
- How long will it take to get there? About ten minutes. Thank you.

Example-4:
- Could you help me, please? I'd like to know how to get to the center of the city from here.
- The downtown bus stops in front of the hotel over there.
- Excuse me; does this bus go to the center of the city?
- No, you need the bus going in the opposite direction. The bus stop is on the other side of the
street.
- Oh, thank you.

Example-5:
- Excuse me, could you help me? I'm new in town. I'm a tourist.
- I'm lost. / I lost my way. Does this bus go to the amusement park?
- Is this the right bus for the beach? How do I get to the book fair, please?
- Sorry, you'll have to ask someone else.

Example-6:
- Would you mind giving me some directions? What are you looking for?
- The Central Exhibition. Do you know where it is?
Well, it's pretty far from here. You'd better take a bus.
- Is it a long ride? How long does it take to get there? About ten minutes by bus.
- Which bus do I take to get there?
Let me think. It's probably best of all to take Bus 5 on East Street.
- And where is East Street, please?
Walk down this street to the next intersection and turn right.
- You will be on East Street.
The bus stop will be near a small park on your right.
- Thank you. Any time. Have a nice day.

Example-7:
- Could you tell me the best way to get to Technical College? What street is it on? Green Street.
You can get there by bus or subway. I think it would be better to take the subway.
- Where is the subway entrance, please? It is around the corner over there.
- Which subway train do I take?
Take any train going downtown and get off at the next station. Then change to the train going to
Green Street. Thank you. You are welcome.

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Example-8:
- Excuse me, can you help me? I'm looking for Redwood Travel Agency. / I'm trying to find
Redwood Travel Agency. It's on the fifth floor. Go to the end of this hall and turn left. The
elevators are there.
- The receptionist on the fifth floor will help you to find their office.
- Thank you. One more question, please. Could you tell me where the restrooms are?
- They are on the second floor. Take the escalator to the second floor, turn right and go down the
hallway.
- The restrooms are on the left, opposite the stationery store. Thank you very much.

Example-9:
- Excuse me, where's the exit, please? Through the lobby and down the stairs. Thank you.

Shoping:
- I have to go to the supermarket to buy some food.
Where is the nearest supermarket?
Where is the grocery store / food market, please?
Excuse me, where can I find dairy products?
Excuse me, could you tell me where the dairy section is?
It's on aisle 4, next to the bakery section.
- I'd like three sesame rolls, please. A package of hamburger rolls, please.
- I'd like a pound of cheese, please. I'd like a half pound of butter, please.
- I'd like a package of cottage cheese and a container of sour cream, please.
- Three cups of strawberry yogurt, please. A carton of milk /orange juice, please. A quart of milk,
please.
- A jar of mayonnaise, please, and a bottle of tomato sauce / a bottle of ketchup.
- Two big oranges, please, two pounds of red apples, and a package of sweet cherries.
- I'd like a head of cauliflower, please. A bunch of carrots, please.
- Two pounds of tomatoes, a pound of onions, a bag of potatoes, and a package of hot dogs,
please.
- Four pork chops, a pound of ground beef, and four fish steaks, please.
- Six frozen hamburgers and one small chicken, please.
- A pound of ham and a pound of smoked sausage, please.
- A dozen eggs, please. A box of spaghetti /flakes /chocolates /chocolate, please.
- A six-pack of beer and a twelve-pack of mineral water, please.
- Two bottles of spring water, please. A can of lemonade, please.
- A bottle of red wine, please. Four rolls of toilet paper, please.
- Two packs of Winston cigarettes and a pack of chewing gum, please.
- How much are these nectarines? How much does it come to? How much is it?
- It's sixty-four dollars and thirty cents. They are three dollars a pound.
- Here's sixty-five dollars. Thank you.
- Here's your change. Have a nice day!

746
 Hotel

- I'm going to visit Chicago next month.

- Could you recommend a good hotel?
- I'd like to stay at a quiet inexpensive hotel not far from the center.
- I would like to stay at a large modern hotel downtown.

Reserving a room on the phone:

- The Rose Hotel. May I help you?
- Hello! I'd like to reserve a single room/ a double room for six days starting on May sixth.
- I'd like to reserve a small suite. I'd like a room with a bed for a child.
- I'd like a room facing the park / overlooking the river. I'd like a room with a view of the lake.
- My name is Cahit Karakus, with double S.
- Would you like a smoking or non-smoking room, Mr. Karakus? Non-smoking, please.
- Yes, we'll have a non-smoking single room available on May sixth.
- What is the rate for a single room?
It's $70 a night plus tax.
It's seventy dollars a night plus tax.
- Great. Please reserve a single room for me.
- All right. We'll have the room for you on May sixth. Thank you very much.

Checking in at the hotel: Front desk / Reception desk

- Hello! My name is Jack Brown. I have a reservation for a single room. I'd like to check in.
Yes, Mr. Brown. How many nights are you going to stay?
Six nights. I'm going to leave on May twelfth.
- Do you have a credit card? Here it is.
- Please fill out the registration form. Here you are.
- Here's your key. Room 735 on the seventh floor. Enjoy your stay. Thank you.

If you don't have a reservation:

- Hello! Do you have any vacancies? I need a single room for three days.
- I'm afraid we don't have any vacancies. / I'm sorry. We are fully booked.
- Is there another hotel near here that might have vacant rooms?
- Try the Oak Hotel across the street. They might be able to offer something.
- Hello! I need a single room for three days. Do you have a reservation? I'm afraid I don't.
- Let me check whether we have any vacancies.
- We don't have any single rooms today, but there's a double room available.
- What is the daily rate for a double room? It's ninety-eight dollars per night plus tax.
- Is breakfast included? Yes. / Yes, it is.
- Can I see the room?Certainly. The bellboy / bellhop / bellman will show you the room.
- All right, I'll take this room.
- Do you have a credit card? I'll pay cash. Then you have to pay in advance. All right.

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Asking to deliver food to your room:
- Room Service. May I help you?
- Hello! Could you send breakfast to Room 465, please? I'd like orange juice, hot rolls with butter
and honey, and black coffee.
- Hello! This is Room 374. I'd like to order a bowl of hot tomato soup, a cheese sandwich, and
green tea with lemon, please.

Other questions about a hotel room:

- Does the room have a shower /a bath /air conditioning?
- Is there a safe deposit box in the room? Is there television in the room?
- Is there a telephone in the room? Are local calls free?

Asking about hotel services:

- Is there a restaurant in the hotel? When is breakfast served? Breakfast is served from 7:00 to
10:00.
- Can I get Internet access in the hotel? Where can I send a fax? Is there a business center in
the hotel?
- When does the business center open? When does it close?
- Is there a fitness center / a health club in the hotel? Does the hotel have a gym?
- Is there an exercise room / a workout room in the hotel? Is the use of the fitness machines free
of charge?
- Is there a swimming pool in the hotel? Until when is the swimming pool open?
- Does the hotel have any facilities for children? Is there a playroom for children in the hotel?
- What facilities for the handicapped does the hotel have? Are pets allowed in the hotel?
- Does the hotel offer any excursions around the city?
- Does the hotel provide a shuttle bus to the airport? Do I need to reserve a seat on the bus in
advance?
- The bus for the airport leaves from the hotel entrance every two hours. Advance reservation of
the seats is required.

Communication with the front desk clerk: (On the phone from the room or in person.)
- Front desk. Can I help you? Hello! This is Room 814.
- There is no hot water in my room. Could you send someone up to fix it?
- There are no towels / soap / shampoo / toilet paper in the bathroom. Can you send them up,
please?
- The bathroom light / the TV / the heating / the air conditioner in my room doesn't work.
- There is no stationery / TV program / Room Service menu in my room.
- Can you give me a wake-up call at 7:00 a.m., please?
- How do I get to the airport / to the center / to the photo exhibition from the hotel?
- Could you call a taxi for me, please?
- Could you recommend good toy stores and gift shops not far from here?
- Could you reserve a table for dinner for me, please? I'd like a table for four people for 7:00 p.m.
- Is there a laundromat near the hotel?
- I feel sick. Is there a doctor in the hotel? Could you find a doctor for me, please?
- Room 506. The key, please. Are there any messages for me, please?

748
Talking to the chambermaid:
- Hello! I'd like to press these trousers. Where can I find an iron?
- You can use an iron in the valet service room. It's next to the freight elevator.
- I'd like to have these shirts washed and pressed and this suit cleaned as soon as possible.
- Fill out laundry and dry cleaning slips, and I'll take the shirts and the suit to the laundry and dry
cleaning service. They will be ready today in the evening.
- Thank you very much.

Checking out:
- Prepare my bill, please. I'm leaving tomorrow morning.
- What is the hotel's check-out time? Check-out time is 12:00 noon.
- Can I leave my luggage / baggage at the hotel for a couple of hours after I check out? Yes,
certainly.
- Hello, I'd like to check out. My name is Alexander Belkin, Room 432.
- Here's your bill, sir. Three hundred seventy-six dollars.
- Here you are. Thank you very much.
- You are welcome. Have a nice day!

Inviting people

- Hello, Maria. How are you?

Fine, thank you. How are you?
Fine, thanks. I would like to invite you to our annual party for new students.
How nice! I'd love to. Thank you for your invitation.
- Hello, Lina. I'm glad to see you. How are you? I'm fine, thank you. And you?
Fine, thank you. I was wondering if you would like to go with me to the new Italian restaurant
tonight.
I'm afraid I can't. I'm very busy tonight. But thanks for the invitation.
Well, maybe some other time. Good-bye!

Formal and informal phrases for invitations:

Formal polite phrases:
- Would you like to go to a concert (show, play, party, reception) with me?
- I would like to invite you to a concert (show, play, party, reception) tomorrow night.
- We would like to invite you to dinner (at our house; at a restaurant) tonight.
- I was wondering if you would like to attend a concert (ceremony, meeting) next Saturday.
- We would be very pleased if you would attend our wedding ceremony next week.

Informal phrases:
- Let's have dinner together sometime. Let's go to the cinema (to the movies). Let's go to a
football game.
- Do you feel like going to the beach? Why don't we go to a concert? How about a movie tonight?

749
- How about a cup of coffee in a nice quiet cafe?

Asking about someone's plans

- Are you free tomorrow evening? Have you made any plans for tomorrow?
- Do you have any plans for Saturday evening?
- Are you busy on Friday night? What are you going to do tomorrow evening? What are you
doing tonight?

Some people may feel uncomfortable if you ask about their plans, because if they say that they
are free, it will be more difficult for them to decline your invitation (if they don't want to accept it).
- In such cases they may respond in the following way:
- Why do you ask? I don't know yet. Why? I'm not sure about my plans yet.

Responses to invitations:
Accepting an invitation:
- I'd like that very much. I'd really like that. I'd love to.
- Thank you for the invitation. I'd love to. Thank you very much. I would like to come.
- That's a great (wonderful, good) idea. I'd love to go with you.
- What a great (wonderful, good) idea! I'd like that very much.

Declining an invitation:
- Thank you for the invitation, but I may be busy then (on Friday; next week).
- That's not a bad idea, but maybe some other time, OK?
- I'm afraid I won't be able to go.
- I'm sorry. I don't feel well. Oh, I'm sorry. I'm busy tonight. I wish I could, but I really can't.

Inviting someone to go with you:

- I'm going to the art museum. Would you like to go with me?
- I'm planning to visit the new auto exhibition. Do you want to come with me?
- I'm going to the central market. Do you want to join me?
- I'm going for a walk in the park. Would you like to come along?
- I have two tickets for a jazz concert next Friday. Would like to go to the concert with me?
- Would you like to see a movie tonight?

Invitation to a party:
- We are having a party next Saturday. Can you come?
- I would like to invite you to my birthday party this Saturday.
- Can you come over for dinner tomorrow? We would be glad to see you.
- We are going to have a picnic by the river next Sunday. Would you like to join us?
- We would like to invite you to our wedding reception next month.
- Tom and Vera are going to give a farewell party next Saturday. We've been invited.
- (Types of parties are described in Holidays and Parties in the section Vocabulary. Phrases for
conversation at a party are listed in At a Party in the section Phrases.)

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Other related phrases:
- Let's watch TV. What's on? There is a good film on Channel 15.
- I'd rather go to the theater. What's playing? My Fair Lady.
- Who's the leading lady? Who's playing Professor Higgins?
- I'd like two tickets for today's performance, please.
- Two seats in the orchestra, please.
- How do you like this play? What do you think of it? It's great. It's not bad. It's very interesting.
- How did you like the film? It was OK.
- It was terrible! I didn't like it at all.
- It was great! I liked it a lot.

Exam Questions

- You are at the airport in a foreign city. You want to hire a taxi to take you to your hotel, but first
you want to find out the fare so that the taxi driver can’t overcharge you.
You say to the taxistand attendant:
Excuse me, could you please tell me approximately how much it will cost me to go to the Smith
Hotel?

- As an eminent scholar in political science, you have been asked by the organizing committee of
an international conference to be one of their plenary speakers. You are pleased with the
invitation and wish to express your thanks to the committee for honouring.
You say:
Let me say how glad I am for the invitation you have extended to me. I really feel privileged to
speak at the plenary session. I am grateful to you all.

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16. References
1- http://dictionary.cambridge.org
2- https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org
3- http://usefulenglish.ru
4- http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/language/
5- http://www.osym.gov.tr/

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