Instrumentation

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A control post of a steam turbine.

Pneumatic PID controller. Instrumentation is defined as the art and science of measurement and control.[1]

An instrument is a device that measures and/or regulates process variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure. Instruments include many varied contrivances that can be as simple as valves and transmitters, and as complex as analyzers. Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes such as refineries, factories, and vehicles. The control of processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation. Instrumentation can also refer to handheld devices that measure some desired variable. Diverse handheld instrumentation is common in laboratories, but can be found in the household as well. For example, a smoke detector is a common instrument found in most western homes. Output instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, and relays. These devices control a desired output variable, and provide either remote or automated control capabilities. These are often referred to as final control elements when controlled remotely or by a control system. Transmitters are devices that produce an output signal, often in the form of a 420 mA electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, pressure, or ethernet are possible. This signal can be used for informational purposes, or it can be sent to a PLC, DCS, SCADA system, LabView or other type of computerized controller, where it can be interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system. Control Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field and changing the field parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops.

Contents
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1 History 2 Measurement 3 Control 4 Instrumentation engineering 5 Instrumentation technologists and mechanics 6 See also 7 External links 8 References

[edit] History
In the early years of process control, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows.[dubious discuss] As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators were needed to monitor the process. Later years the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The basic air signal used during these years was 3-15 psig.[dubious discuss] In the 1970s electronic instrumentation began to be manufactured by the instrument companies. Each instrument company came out with their own standard signal for their instrumentation, 10-

50ma, 0.25-1.25Volts, 0-10Volts, 1-5volts, and 4-20ma, causing only confusion until the 4-20ma was universally used as a standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves.[unreliable source?] The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. The next evolution of instrumentation came with the production of Distributed Control Systems (DCS). The pneumatic and electronic control rooms allowed control from a centralized room, DCS systems allowed control from more than one room or control stations. These stations could be next to each other or miles away. Now a process operator could sit in front of a screen and monitor thousands of points throughout a large unit or complex.[vague]

[edit] Measurement
Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values). These parameters include:

Pressure, either differential or static Flow Temperature Levels of liquids etc. Density

Viscosity Other mechanical properties of materials Properties of ionising radiation Frequency Current

Voltage Inductan ce Capacita nce Resistivi ty

Chemical composition Chemical properties Properties of light Vibration Weight

[edit] Control

Control valve. In addition to measuring field parameters, instrumentation is also responsible for providing the ability to modify some field parameters.

[edit] Instrumentation engineering

Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in electrical, pneumatic domains etc. They typically work for industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of improving system productivity, reliability, safety, optimization, and stability. To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.

[edit] Instrumentation technologists and mechanics

Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting and repairing and maintenance of instruments and instrumentation systems. This trade is so intertwined with electricians, pipefitters, power engineers, and engineering companies, that one can find him/herself in extremely diverse working situations

Electronics interview questions on Communication System

Monday, March 16, 2009, 11:40:26 AM | noreply@blogger.com (UGY) Sample interview questions for ECE branch: (Communication Systems) 1. Expand ECE. Electronics & Communication Engineering. 2. What is Electronic? The study and use of electrical devices that operate by controlling the flow of electrons or other electrically charged particles. 3. What is communication? Communication means transferring a signal from the transmitter which passes through a medium then the output is obtained at the receiver. (or)communication says as transferring of message from one place to another place called communication. 4. Different types of communications? Explain. Analog and digital communication. As a technology, analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal (the human voice) and translating it into electronic pulses. Digital on the other hand is breaking the signal into a binary format where the audio or video data is represented by a series of "1"s and "0"s. Digital signals are immune to noise, quality of transmission and reception is good, components used in digital communication can be produced with high precision and power consumption is also very less when compared with analog signals. 5. What is engineering? The application of science to the needs of humanity and a profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with

judgment to develop ways to use economically the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind. 6. Difference between electronic and electrical. Electronics work on DC and with a voltage range of -48vDC to +48vDC. If the electronic device is plugged into a standard wall outlet, there will be a transformer inside which will convert the AC voltage you are supplying to the required DC voltage needed by the device. Examples: Computer, radio, T.V, etc... Electric devices use line voltage (120vAC, 240vAC, etc...). Electric devices can also be designed to operate on DC sources, but will be at DC voltages above 48v. Examples: are incandescent lights, heaters, fridge, stove, etc... 7. What is sampling? The process of obtaining a set of samples from a continuous function of time x(t) is referred to as sampling. 8. State sampling theorem. It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken care that the sampling rate is equal to or greater than twice the cut off frequency and the minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate. 9. What is cut-off frequency? The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum response. 10. What is pass band? Passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter without being attenuated. 11. What is stop band? A stopband is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit, such as a filter or telephone circuit, does not let signals through, or the attenuation is above the required stopband attenuation level. 12. Difference between mobile and a cell phone. There is no difference, just language use, which differs from country to country, so in Britain it is called a mobile, and in USA and South Africa and other places a cell phone. Even in Europe the name differs. The Germans call it a "handy", which in English has completely another meaning as an adjective, meaning useful. In Italy it is called a telofonino or "little phone". This difference in British and American English is also evident in many other things we use every day, like lifts and elevators, nappies and diapers, pickups and trucks. The list goes on and on, any student of English has to decide which he or she will use, as the default setting. 13. Explain RF? Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits or electromagnetic radiation. 14. What is modulation? And where it is utilized? Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signals. Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal onto a carrier signal.

These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air easily and are capable of travelling long distances. The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the information bearing signal. Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal over long distances. 15. What is demodulation? Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it needs to turn it to base-band. 16. Name the modulation techniques. For Analog modulation--AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM Digital modulation--OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK, CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM 17. Explain AM and FM. AM-Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal. FM-Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.

18. Where do we use AM and FM? AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz. FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. 19. How does a mobile work? When you talk into a mobile telephone it converts the sound of your voice to radiofrequency energy (radio waves). The radio waves are transmitted through the air to a nearby base station. The base station then sends the call through the telephone network until it reaches the person you are calling. When you receive a call on your mobile phone the message travels through the telephone network until it reaches a base station near to you. The base station sends out radio waves, which are detected by your telephone and converted back to speech. Depending on the equipment and the operator, the frequency that each operator utilises is 900MHz, 1800MHz or 2100MHz. The mobile phone network operates on the basis of a series of cells. Each cell requires a radio base station to enable it to function. There are three types of base station and each has a particular purpose:
1. The Macrocell is the largest type and provides the main coverage for mobile phone

networks.
2. The Microcell is used to improve capacity in areas where demand to make calls is high,

such as shopping centres.

3. The Picocell only has a range of a few hundred metres and may be used to boost weak

signals within large buildings.

Each base station can only cope with a certain number of calls at any one time. So if demand exceeds the capacity of a base station an additional base station is needed. 20. What is a base station? Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the wireless network. 21. How many satellites are required to cover the earth? 3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to each other. The life span of the satellite is about 15 years. 22. What is a repeater? A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. 23. What is attenuation? Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal. Signals may attenuate exponentially by transmission through a medium, or by increments calculated in electronic circuitry or set by variable controls. Attenuation is an important property in telecommunications and ultrasound applications because of its importance in determining signal strength as a function of distance. Attenuation is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc) and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in question. 24. What is multiplexing? Multiplexing (known as muxing) is a term used to refer to a process where multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several phone calls may be transferred using one wire. 25. What is CDMA, TDMA, FDMA? Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various radio communication technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency. An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to communicate with each other. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different directions (spatial division). In CDMA, they would speak different languages. People speaking the same language can understand each other, but not other people. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can understand each other. 26. Difference between CDMA and GSM. These are the two different means of mobile communication being presently used worldwide. The basic difference lies in the Multiplexing method used in the aerial communication i.e. from Mobile Tower to your mobile and vice versa. CDMA uses Code Division Multiple Access as the name itself indicates, for example you are in a hall occupied with number of people speaking different language. You will find that the one language you know will be heard by you and the others will be treated like noise. In the same manner each CDMA mobile communication takes place with a "code" communicating between them and the other end if one is knowing that code then only it can listen to the data being

transmitted i.e. the communication is in the coded form. On the other hand GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency. TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots and then allocating slots to multiple calls. In this way, a single frequency can support multiple, simultaneous data channels. 27. What is an Amplifier? An electronic device or electrical circuit that is used to boost (amplify) the power, voltage or current of an applied signal. 28. What is Barkhausen criteria? Barkhausen criteria, without which you will not know which conditions, are to be satisfied for oscillations. Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of the product of the transfer gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor of the feedback network ( the magnitude of the loop gain ) are less than unity. The condition of unity loop gain -A = 1 is called the Barkhausen criterion. This condition implies that | A|= 1and that the phase of - A is zero. 29. Explain Full duplex and half duplex. Full duplex refers to the transmission of data in two directions simultaneously. For example, a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk at once. In contrast, a walkietalkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can transmit at a time. Most modems have a switch that lets you choose between full-duplex and half-duplex modes. The choice depends on which communications program you are running. In full-duplex mode, data you transmit does not appear on your screen until it has been received and sent back by the other party. This enables you to validate that the data has been accurately transmitted. If your display screen shows two of each character, it probably means that your modem is set to half-duplex mode when it should be in full-duplex mode. 30. What is a feedback? And explain different types of feedback. Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. This is often used to control the dynamic behaviour of the system. Types of feedback: Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and linearizes operation). Negative feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into the system's input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated. Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes referred to as "cumulative causation", is a feedback loop system in which the system responds to perturbation (A perturbation means a system, is an alteration of function, induced by external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as the perturbation. In contrast, a system that responds to the perturbation in the opposite direction is called a negative feedback system. Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output. 31. Advantages of negative feedback over positive feedback. Much attention has been given by researchers to negative feedback processes, because negative feedback processes lead systems towards equilibrium states. Positive feedback reinforces a given tendency of a system and can lead a system away from equilibrium states, possibly causing quite unexpected results. 32. Example for negative feedback and positive feedback.

Example for ve feedback is ---Amplifiers And for +ve feedback is Oscillators 33. What is Oscillator? An oscillator is a circuit that creates a waveform output from a direct current input. The two main types of oscillator are harmonic and relaxation. The harmonic oscillators have smooth curved waveforms, while relaxation oscillators have waveforms with sharp changes. 34. What is a transducer and transponder? A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer. In telecommunication, the term transponder (short-for Transmitter-responder and sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP) has the following meanings:

An automatic device that receives, amplifies, and retransmits a signal on a different frequency (see also broadcast translator). An automatic device that transmits a predetermined message in response to a predefined received signal. A receiver-transmitter that will generate a reply signal upon proper electronic interrogation.

A communications satellites channels are called transponders, because each is a separate transceiver or repeater. 35. What is an Integrated Circuit? An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto a silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and very small size. 36. What is crosstalk? Crosstalk is a form of interference caused by signals in nearby conductors. The most common example is hearing an unwanted conversation on the telephone. Crosstalk can also occur in radios, televisions, networking equipment, and even electric guitars. 37. What is a rectifier? A rectifier changes alternating current into direct current. This process is called rectification. The three main types of rectifier are the half-wave, full-wave, and bridge. A rectifier is the opposite of an inverter, which changes direct current into alternating current. HWR- The simplest type is the half-wave rectifier, which can be made with just one diode. When the voltage of the alternating current is positive, the diode becomes forward-biased and current flows through it. When the voltage is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the current stops. The result is a clipped copy of the alternating current waveform with only positive voltage, and an average voltage that is one third of the peak input voltage. This pulsating direct current is adequate for some components, but others require a more steady current. This requires a fullwave rectifier that can convert both parts of the cycle to positive voltage. FWR- The full-wave rectifier is essentially two half-wave rectifiers, and can be made with two diodes and an earthed centre tap on the transformer. The positive voltage half of the cycle flows through one diode, and the negative half flows through the other. The centre tap allows the circuit to be completed because current cannot flow through the other diode. The result is still a pulsating direct current but with just over half the input peak voltage, and double the frequency. 38. What is resistor?

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR. 39. What is capacitor? A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters. Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This term is considered archaic in English, but most other languages use a cognate of condenser to refer to a capacitor. 40. What is inductor? An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of inductance. An inductor can take many forms. 41. What is conductor? A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc. Copper is a good conductor of electricity. 42. What is a semi conductor? A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator(An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical conductors without passing current through itself); it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically. 43. What is diode? In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional current property. 44. What is transistor? In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. The transistor is the fundamental building block of computers, and all other modern electronic devices. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits. 45. What is op-amp? An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp , is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1] and, usually, a single output. Typically the output of the opamp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation.

TOPICS FOR EC TECHNICAL SECTION communication system. antenna & wave propagation.

microwave & radar. control system. digital electronics. analog electronics. network theory. measurement. In all these topics first three topics cover almost 65% questions of your technical part. some of those question are: which is digital technique (1)PCM (2)PAM (3)AM (4)FM. moving type radar is (1) MTI (2) PHASED ARRAY RADAR (3) PULSED RADAR (4) N.O.T. decibel is (1)ratio of powers (2) voltege level (3)current level (4) N.O.T. 1.if impedence in delta n/w is purely inductive then impedence in star n/w will be (1) purely capacitive (2) purely inductive (3) partially inductive (4) resistive. 2.if R & F are reference input & negative feedback signal then error signal at amplifier`s input will be (1)R+F (2)R-F (3)R/F (4)R.F 3.wave length of a wave travelling in wave guide is (1)less than free space (2) more than free space (3) equal to free space (4)N.O.T. 5. Circuit of Astable multivibrator is given and asked to find which terminal(s) has to be grounged? 6. Ohms law? Ans: J= E 7. Angstorm( )=? Ans: 10^-10m 8. Unit of conductivity? Ans: -m. 9. How can an amplifier gives more o/p than i/p, dont u think its a violation of law conservation of energy? Ans: dc supply used for active devices hence law is not violated. 10. A question based on IC-555? 11. Which junction is formed by recrystallization..? 12. Calculate Doppler Frequency? 13. By increasing PRF of the Radar, what is effect on error in unambiguous range? 14. 2 Questions based on Radar Classification..? 15. Which of the following is the analog modulation.? a)PAM b) Delta c)PCM d). 16. Which of the following is digital modulation.?

a)PAM

b) Delta c).

17. A FM broadcast station having Frequency deviation of 100MHz, Calculate Modulation Index..? 18. A Question based on the definition of Geo-synchronous orbit..? 19. Howmany number of Geo-synchronous satellites are required to cover entire Globe..? Ans: 3 20. Calculate cutoff frequency of TE10 mode wider dimension is given as 2.5cms..? 21. Directivity is same as..? a) Same as Directive gain b) greater than directive gain c) smaller than directive gain d)None 22. DB is expessed a) Power ratio b)voltage level c) Current level d)None 23. The wave length of a wave travelling in wave guide is a) less than free space b) more than free space c) equal to free space 24. Which of the following is not an omnidirectional antenna..? 25. Which antenna is used for TV broadcasting..? Ans: Yagi-uda antenna.. 26. The standard time taken to scan one Horizontal line in TV as per FMCC standard..? Ans: 64sec. 27. A question based on the TV picture tube? 28. If impedance in delta n/w is purely inductive then impedance in star n/w will be a) purely capacitive b) purely inductive c) resistive d) Either capacitive or inductive depends on its magnitudes. 29. what is Laplace transform of integral of f(t)..? 30. Laplace transform of c1f(t)+c2f(t).? 31. Area under unit impulse signal is? Ans: 1 32. The next nos of (777)8 & (1111)2 are.? Ans: (1000)8 & (10000)2 33. In floating point representation, 853.29 can be represented as _____? 34. Shifting left and putting a zero in LSB is equivalent to..? Ans. multiply by 2. 35. If we require o/p equal to i/p then which flip-flop has to be used .? a) D-Flipflop b) D-Latch c) 36. Which of the following gate is used for making inverter..? Ans: NAND gate 37. In which technology the no. of gates are more than 12? Ans: MSI. 38. For an n-bit microprocessor the value of n is based on? a) Address bus b) Internal data bus c) External data bus d) None.

39. Address bus length of 80286 microprocessor is? 40. One more question based on microprocessor 41. Minimum RAM memory required in windows-95.? 42. which operating system is prefer for Servers? a). Windows 98 b). Windows NT 43. A Qstn on Rise Time from Control systems 44. A Qstn based on stability from control systems.. 45. In a feedback system the error signal is.? Ans: a)r+s b) r-s c) rs d) None