ECE131: BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Fundamental of AC Circuits
UNIT-2
Dr. Krishan Kumar
LECTURE-8 /9/10/11/12/13/14
 Topics
Unit II
L-8/9-Fundamentals of A.C. circuits : alternating current and
voltage, concept of notations (i, v, I, V), definitions of amplitude,
phase, phase difference, RMS value and average value of an AC
signal,
L-10/11-complex representation of impedance, steady state analysis
of ac circuits consisting of RL, RC and RLC (series), resonance in series
RLC circuit,
L-12/13/14 power factor and power calculation in RL, RC and RLC
circuits, three-phase circuits- numbering and interconnection (delta
or mesh connection) of three phases, relations in line and phase
voltages and currents in star and delta
 AC Fundamentals
➢ Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction

➢ In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in

magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.
➢ Sinusoidal ac Voltage

One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.

Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.

➢ Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic signal.

➢ Symbol for an ac Voltage Source

Lowercase letter e is used

to indicate that the voltage varies with time.

4
 Sinusoidal ac Current

➢ During the first half-cycle, the ➢ During the second half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive voltage polarity reverses
➢ Therefore, the current is in the ➢ Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction. counterclockwise direction.
➢ Since current is proportional to voltage, its
shape is also sinusoidal

5
How AC flow

External Video Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jIrHkRJVK-U

Ac and DC
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcIDRet787k&t=267s
 Peak Value[Ip]
Peak Value[Ip]
Refer to figure, it is the maximum value of voltage [Vp] or
Current [Ip]. The peak value applies to both positive and
negative values of the cycle.
 POLL

The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies like a sine function with time such
a voltage is called … … and the current driven by it in a circuit is called the … …

(a) DC voltage, AC current

(b) AC voltage, DC current

(c) AC voltage, DC voltage

(d) AC voltage, AC current

.
 POLL

The frequency of an alternating current is

A. The speed with which the alternator runs

B. The number of cycles generated in one minute
C. The number of waves passing through a point in one second
D. The number of electrons passing through a point in one second
 L-10
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE

An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy

to electrical energy in the form of alternating current

Principle: A conductor moving relative to a magnetic

field develops an electromotive force (EMF) in it.
(Faraday's Law).

This emf reverses its polarity when it moves under

magnetic poles of opposite polarity.
Generating AC Voltages

11
 Generating ac Voltages (Method A)
➢ One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant
angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field

➢ The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut

➢ its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the
field. Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany
12
 Generating ac Voltages
➢ Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,

Time Scales ➢ Often we need to scale the output voltage in time.

➢ The length of time required to generate one cycle depends on the
velocity of rotation.
600 revolutions in 1 minute = 600 rev / 60 s
= 10 revolutions in 1 second.

The time for 1 revolution = one-tenth of a second

= 100 ms

13
 Generating ac Voltages (Method-
L-11 2)
➢ AC waveforms may also be created electronically using function (or signal)
generators.
➢ With function generators, you are not limited to sinusoidal ac. gear.

➢ The unit of Figure can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms,

including sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.
➢ Waveforms such as these are commonly used to test electronic

14
 Instantaneous Value
➢ As the coil voltage changes from instant to instant. The value of voltage at any
point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

➢ The voltage has a peak value of 40 volts ✓ at t = 0 ms, the voltage is zero.
➢ The cycle time of 6 ms. ✓ at t=0.5 ms, the voltage is 20V.

15
 Voltage and Current Conventions for ac
➢ First, we assign reference polarities for the source and a reference direction for
the current.
➢ We then use the convention that, when e has a positive value, its actual polarity is the same as the
reference polarity, and when e has a negative value, its actual polarity is opposite to that of the
reference.

➢ For current, we use the convention that when i

has a positive value, its actual direction is the
same as the reference arrow,
➢ and when i has a negative value, its actual
direction is opposite to that of the reference.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

16
Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany
17
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
➢ Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
✓ Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

➢ Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

➢ In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich Hertz,
1857–1894).

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

18
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
➢ Period: ➢ The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

➢ It is the inverse of frequency.

➢ The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding

points ( Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace).

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

20
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum

value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

21
Average Value: The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating voltage and currents over one
complete cycle is called Average Value.

If we consider symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or voltage waveform, the positive half cycle will be
exactly equal to the negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a complete cycle will be zero.The
work is done by both, positive and negative cycle and hence the average value is determined without
considering the signs.

So, the only positive half cycle is considered to determine the average value of alternating quantities of
sinusoidal waves.
Example-
Divide the positive half cycle into (n) number of equal parts as shown in the above figure
Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates

The Average value of current I = mean of the mid ordinates

av
What is R.M.S Value ?
That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known resistance for a given period of time
than as a result the same quantity of heat is produced by the alternating current when flows through the
same resistor for the same period of time is called R.M.S or effective value of the alternating current.
R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of instantaneous values.
Let I be the alternating current flowing through a resistor R for time t seconds, which produces the same
amount of heat as produced by the direct current (Ieff). The base of one alteration is divided into n equal
parts so that each interval is of t/n seconds as shown in the figure below.
Let i1, i2, i3,………..in be the mid ordinates
Then the heat produced in

Since Ieff is considered as the effective value of this current, then the total heat produced by this current
will be
Ieff = square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values = R.M.S
value

Root Mean Square is the actual value of an alternating quantity

which tells us an energy transfer capability of an AC source.

The ammeter records the RMS value of alternating current and voltmeter
record’s the root mean square (R.M.S) value of alternating voltage. The
domestic single-phase AC supply is 230 V, 50 hertz, where 230 V is the R.M.S
value of alternating voltage.

The values of voltage and the current system in a DC circuit is constant, so

there is no issue in evaluating their magnitudes, but in an AC system, the
alternating voltage and current vary from time to time and hence it is
necessary to evaluate their magnitudes.
 Example

What does '6V AC' really mean? Is it the RMS or peak voltage?
If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is the
RMS value.
Reason-In everyday use, AC voltages (and currents) are always given as RMS
values because this allows a sensible comparison to be made with steady DC
voltages (and currents), such as from a battery.

For example
a 6V AC supply means 6V RMS with the peak voltage about 8.6V.

So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean?

First square all the values, then find the average (mean) of these square values
over a complete cycle, and finally find the square root of this average. That is
the RMS value.
Derivation of RMS Value
 POLL

A sinusoidal alternating current of 6 amps is

flowing through a resistance of 40Ω. Calculate the
average voltage and the peak voltage of the
supply.
A 216.2 V,339.4 V
B 216.2 V,329.4 V
C218.2 V,339.4 V
Solution
 POLL

A heater is rated as 230 V, 10 kW, A.C. The value

230 V refers to
(A) Average voltage
(B) r.m.s. voltage
(C) Peak voltage
(D) None of the above
Answer

Option: B
 LECTURE-12

• Review-Generation of AC Voltage
• Relationship between ω, T, and f
• Introduction to Phasors and Phase
difference,
• Representation of impedance
 Review -Generation of Alternating Voltage

Generation of Alternating Voltage

The voltage which changes polarity at regular interval of time is known as the
alternating voltage. The one complete cycle of an alternating quantity consists
two half cycles. And the direction of a half cycle changes after every particular
interval of time. The machine which generates the alternating voltage is
known as the alternator.
The alternating voltage is generated in two ways.
•By rotating the coil inside the uniform magnetic field at constant speed
•By rotating the magnetic field around the stationary coil at the constant
speed.
In small AC generators, the coil rotates between the magnetic field, whereas in
large ac generator the magnetic field rotates around the coil because of some
economical consideration.
 Generating ac Voltages (Method A)
➢ One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant
angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field

➢ The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut

➢ its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the
field. Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany
37
External video Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH48EMgKE
 The Basic Sine Wave Equation
The voltage produced by the previously described
generator is:

• Em: the maximum coil voltage and

• α : the instantaneous angular position of the coil.

➢ For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.)

➢ Note that a 0° represents the horizontal position of the coil and that one
complete cycle corresponds to 360°.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

39
 Radian Measure
➢ In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,
➢ Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

41
 Relationship between ω, T, and f
➢ Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be
represented as either:

➢ Substituting these into:

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

➢ We could replace the angle α as:

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

42
 Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts
➢ If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t =0
s, it has a phase shift.
➢ Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the
right

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

43
 Phasor Difference
➢ Phase difference refers to the angular displacement
between different waveforms of the same frequency.

➢ The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and the
other is lagging.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

48
 AC Waveforms and Average Value
➢ Since ac quantities constantly change its value, we
need one single numerical value that truly represents
a waveform over its complete cycle.
Average Values: ➢ To find the average of a set of marks for example, you add
them, then divide by the number of items summed.
➢ For waveforms, the process is conceptually the same. You
can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle, then
divide by the number of points used.
➢ The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not
consist of discrete values.
Average in Terms of the Area Under a Curve:

Or use area

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany

49
 POLL

The angular frequency of an alternating quantity is a mathematical quantity obtained by

multiplying the frequency f of the alternating quantity by a factor
a. π/2
b. π
c. 2π
d. 4π
Answer

Option: c
 POLL

The frequency of emf generated by a generator

depends upon its
a. Speed
b. number of poles
c. machine rating
d. nature of supply
e. both (a) and (b)
Solution

OPTION: e,
since f = P*N/120
 POLL

An ac generator running at 1000 rpm produces emf

of 50 Hz. The number of poles on the generator is
a. 2
b. 4
c. 6
d. 8
 Solution

Option: c
Since P = 120*f/N = 120*50/1000 = 6
 PHASORS

In an a.c. circuit, the e.m.f. or current vary sinusoidally with

time and may be mathematically represented as
E = E0 sin ωt and I = I0 sin (ωt ± θ)

where θ is the phase angle between alternating e.m.f. and

current and ω= 2πf.

The quantities, such as alternating e.m.f. and alternating

current are called phasor.
Thus a phasor is a quantity which varies sinusoidally with
time and represented as the projection of rotating vector.
 Phasor Diagram
The generator at the power station which produces our A.C. mains rotates through 360 degrees
to produce one cycle of the sine wave form which makes up the supply (fig 1).
In the fig 2 there are two sine waves.
They are out of phase because they do not start from zero at the same time. To be in phase they
must start at the same time.
The waveform A starts before B and is LEADING by 90 degrees.
Waveform B is LAGGING A by 90 degrees.

Fig 1 Fig 2
The next left hand diagram, known as a PHASOR DIAGRAM, shows this in another way.
 Phase and Phase Difference
The fraction of a cycle or time period that has elapsed since an alternating current or voltage last
passed a given reference point, which is generally the starting point, is called its phase.

Phase of the alternating current or voltage may be expressed in time measured in seconds or
fraction of a time period or the angle expressed in the degree or radians.

If two alternating current or voltages act simultaneously in the same circuit, they may do so in
such a manner that their peak values do not occur at the same time.

The time interval between two positive peak values of a.c. current or voltage is known as the
phase difference.
 Review Phase/phase dofference

External video link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_oujF9RHK8
 L-13 Resistance, Reactance, Impedance,
Inductance
Resistance (unit – ohms)(Symbol R)
Resistance is a force that tends to resist the flow of electrical current. Resistance is usually
created deliberately by a resistor, a device used to create resistance in a circuit.

Reactance (unit – ohms) (Symbol X)

Whereas resistance is created by a resistor to achieve some effect, reactance is by-product of
certain electrical components.

There are two basic types of reactance: capacitive reactance and inductive reactance.

The capacitive reactance is created by capacitors, while inductive reactance is created by

inductors.
Like resistance, reactance is expressed in ohms, and it behaves in much the same way as
resistance, in the sense that it tends to restrict the flow of current through a circuit.
**Reactance and impedance only exist in the world of AC (alternating current).
 Resistance, Reactance, Impedance,
Inductance
The formula for calculating inductive reactance is as follows:
XL = 2. π. f. L = Lω
XL = the inductive reactance (ohms)
f= the frequency of the AC flowing through the circuit (Hz) L = the inductance of
the inductor (henries).

The formula for capacitive reactance is as follows:

Capacitive reactance is defined as:)Xc=1/ωC=1/2πfCwhere XC is the capacitive
reactance, ω is the angular frequency, f is the frequency in Hertz, and C is the
capacitance.
XC = the capacitive reactance (ohms) f = the frequency (Hz)
C = the capacitance of the capacitor (farads)
The total impedance of a circuit is the square root of the sum of the squares of
the resistance and reactance.
Z = ( (R2) + (X2) )0.5
Z = impedance (ohms) R = resistance (ohms) X = reactance (ohms)
 What is Power Factor

Power factor, expressed as a percentage, is an indicator of

the amount of total current that can be used to create
work (active power).
The closer the power factor is to 1.00 (100%), the lower
the amount of current needed to do said work.

For example
a load with a power factor of 0.80 means that only 80% of
the power is being used effectively to do work. In a
perfect world, all power drawn from the power system
would be converted to useful work, but this is not so in
the real world.
 Concept of Power Factor
For AC circuits, both inductor and capacitor offer certain amount of impedance given by

The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and capacitor stores electrical energy
in the form of electrostatic energy. Neither of them dissipates it.
Further there is a phase shift of 90 to 0°between voltage and current.
Hence for the entire circuit consisting of resistor, inductor and capacitor, there exists some phase difference
between the source voltage and current.
The cosine of this phase difference is called electrical power factor.
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined
as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power
flowing in the circuit.
This factor (0 < cosφ < 1 ) represents the fraction of total power that is used to do
the useful work
Apparent Power, S=VI units are V Amperes
True Power or Active power, P = VI cosφ, units are Watts, W Reactive Power, Q = VI sinφ,
Cosφ = True Power or Active power /Apparent Power
Active (useful /Real power) and
Apparent (total) power.
 External vodeo

External Video link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NF4VRKa7LSM
 What Affects Power Factor?

Power factor refers to the relationship between active (useful

power) and the apparent (total) power. This relationship is a
measure of how effectively electricity is being used.

Linear Resistive Loads.

In an AC system, loads are categorized by the way they draw
current. A linear resistive load is a purely resistive load with
neither inductive nor capacitive components, such as electric
space heaters and incandescent lighting.
 Resitive Load

Linear resistive loads. Voltage and current are in phase with power
factor equal to 1.0 for purely resistive loads.

Linear Non-Resistive/Reactive Loads.

It is unusual to find purely resistive loads; most loads have an
additional reactive component. These non-resistive/reactive loads
make up a large percentage of all loads. The current waveform is
shifted from the voltage waveform so that it is “out of phase.” If the
load is inductive, the current lags the voltage; if the load is
capacitive, the current leads.
 POLL

A resistance of R1-7 ohm is connected in series

with an inductance of 31.8mH. The circuit is
connected to a x V. and 50Hz sinusoidal supply.
The current in the circuit is 8.2A. Calculate the
value of x.
a) 10V
b) 50V
c) 100V
d) 120V
 Solution

Answer: c

Explanation:
XL=2*π*f*L= 10 ohm. Z_2=(R_2+XL_2)
Therefore, the total impedance Z = 12.2ohm.
V=IZ, therefore V = 12.2*8.2 = 100V.
 POLL

Improving power factor

(a) Reduces current for given output
(b) Increases loss in line
(c) Increases the cost of equipment
(d) All of above
 SOLUTION

Option (a)
 POLL

Low power factor has a drawback of

(a) Increased transmission and distribution
losses
(b) Poor voltage regulation
(c) High cost of equipment for given load
(d) All of above
Option (d)
 LECTURE-10

L-10
• Power factor and power calculation in RL,
RC and RLC circuits,
• Three-phase circuits- numbering and
interconnection (delta or mesh connection)
of three phases,
• Relations in line and phase voltages and
currents in star and delta
 AC resistor circuits
Pure resistive AC circuit: Resistor voltage and current are in phase.

v=Vm sinωt i=Im sinωt p=vi P=VI=I2R

Units of power are watts (W)

 AC inductor circuits
Where e is the induced emf in the inductor

Inductor Voltage lead inductor by 90o

v=Vm sinωt
i=Im sin(ωt-π/2) P=VI cosφ
Since φ=90o Cosφ=0, P=0
 Series resistor-inductor circuits

Voltage lead inductor current .

voltage leads current by 90o

Example
To calculate current in the above circuit, we first need to give a phase angle reference for
the voltage source, which is generally assumed to be zero. (The phase angles of resistive and
inductive impedance are always 0° and +90°, respectively, regardless of the given phase
angles for voltage or current).

As with the purely inductive circuit, the current wave lags behind the voltage
wave (of the source), although this time the lag is not as great: only 37.016° as
opposed to a full 90° as was the case in the purely inductive circuit.
For the resistor and the inductor, the phase relationships between voltage and current haven’t changed.
The voltage across the resistor is in phase (0° shift) with the current through it, and the voltage across the
inductor is +90° out of phase with the current going through it. We can verify this mathematically:

The voltage across the resistor has the exact same phase angle as the current through it, telling us that
E and I are in phase (for the resistor only).
 POLL

The apply voltage in RL circuit must be equal to:

.

A- sum of voltage drop across resistor and inductor

B- difference of voltage drop
C- voltage drop across resistor
D- All of the above
 SOLUTION

sum of voltage drop across resistor and inductor

 If frequency increases or decreases in RL
circuit, resistance ____.
A- remains constant
B- decreases
C- increases
D- Both A and B
Remains constant
 L-14 AC Capacitor Circuits
de/dt is the rate of change of instantaneous voltage Capacitors oppose changes in voltage by drawing or
supplying current as they charge or discharge to the new voltage level.
The flow of electrons through a capacitor is directly proportional to the rate of change of voltage across
the capacitor. This opposition to voltage change is another form of reactance.
Expressed mathematically, the relationship between the current through the capacitor and rate of
voltage change across the capacitor is as such: e (e) over time, in volts per second.

capacitor voltage lags capacitor current by 90o

v=Vm sinωt and i=Im sin(ωt+π/2) P=VI cosφ; Since φ=90o Cosφ=0, P=0
Series Resistor-capacitor Circuits
 External Video Link

External Video link

R,L,C, AC Circuit
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyFf5LQbZNg
 Example

The resistor will current regardless of frequency, while the capacitor

will offer 26.5258 Ω of reactance to AC current at 60 Hz.
Because the resistor’s resistance is a real number (5 Ω ∠ 0°, or 5 + j0
Ω), and the capacitor’s reactance is an imaginary number (26.5258 Ω
∠ -90°, or 0 - j26.5258 Ω),
the combined effect of the two components will be an opposition to
current equal to the complex sum of the two numbers.
The term for this complex opposition to current is impedance, its
symbol is Z, and it is also expressed in the unit of ohms, just like
resistance and reactance. In the above example, the total circuit
impedance is:
 Current Calculation

To calculate current in the above circuit, we first need to give a phase angle
reference for the voltage source, which is generally assumed to be zero. (The
phase angles of resistive and capacitive impedance are always 0° and -90°,
respectively, regardless of the given phase angles for voltage or current.)

As with the purely capacitive circuit, the current wave is leading the voltage wave (of the source),
although this time the difference is 79.325° instead of a full 90°.
 RLC Circuit

Then the individual voltage drops across each circuit element of R, L and C element will be “out-of-phase”
with each other as defined by:
(t) = Imax sin(ωt)
The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with current
The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o
The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o
Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
For the series RLC circuit above, this can be shown as:
 RLC

Individual Voltage Vectors

Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit

 Example

Series RLC Circuit

A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitor of 100uF
are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total circuit impedance, the
circuits current, power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram.

Voltages across the Series RLC Circuit, VR, VL, VC.

Phasor Diagram
 POLL

In a series RLC circuit, the phase difference between the current in

the inductor and the current in the resistor is?
(Value in degree)

a) 0
b) 90
c) 180
d) 360
 Solution

Answer: a
Explanation: In a series RLC circuit, the phase difference between
the current in the inductor and the current in the resistor is 0
because same current flows in the inductor as well as the resistor.
 POLL

In a series RLC circuit, the phase difference between the

current in the capacitor and the current in the inductor is?
(Value in degree)
a) 0
b) 90
c) 180
d) 360
 POLL

Answer: a

Explanation: In
a series RLC circuit, the phase difference
between the current in the inductor and the current
in the capacitor is 0 degree because same current
flows in the inductor as well as the capacitor.
 POLL

In a series RLC circuit, the phase difference between the

current in the circuit and the voltage across the capacitor
is?
(Value in degree)

a) 0
b) 90
c) 180
d) 360
 SOLUTION

Answer: b
In a series RLC circuit, voltage across capacitor
Explanation:
lags the current in the circuit by 90 degree so, the phase
difference between the voltage across the capacitor and
the current in the circuit is 90degree.
 Phase in Electricity

A phase is the current, or the voltage among an existing wire as well as a neutral
cable.
A single-phase (1-phase) has less power, requiring two wires; while, three-phase
(3-phase) requires more, including three or four wires.

Single-Phase Power
In the distribution of power, a single-phase uses the phase and neutral
wires. Phase wire carries the current load, while the neutral wire
provides a path where the current returns.
It creates a single sine wave (low voltage).

The common voltage for a single-phase power starts at 230V. Also, its
frequency approximates to 50Hz.
Single-phase motors require extra circuits to work since a single-phase
supply connecting to an AC motor doesn’t generate a rotating magnetic
field. The power output of a single-phase supply is not constant,
meaning its voltage supply rises and falls.
 Advantages/Disadventages of using Single-
Phase Power
Advantages
• Single-Phase Power require only a small amount of power to function, including fans,
heaters, television, refrigerator, and lights.
• The design and operation are plain and ordinary.
• It has a lightweight and compact unit, which the current through the line will be less when
the transmission of voltage is high.
• Due to the reduction of Isqr R, the current is low.
• Meaning, single-phase power ensures the unit to operate at optimum with an increased
efficiency of its transmission.
• Single-phase power is best to use with fractional, or lower horsepower units up to 5 HP.
Disadvantages
• Small single-phase motors need an additional circuitry such as Motor Starters (similar to
starter capacitors in fans and pumps), since its single-phase supply is insufficient for an
initial start-up.
• Industrial motors require heavy electronic loads. Ergo, it cannot run on a single-phase
supply.
 Three-Phase Power

• Three-phase power provides three alternating currents, with three

separate electric services, the power output of a three-phase power
remains to be constant, and it never drops into zero.

• In a three-phase power supply, it requires four wires, namely one

neutral wire and three-conductor wires. These three conductor wires
are 120-degree distant from each other. Also, each AC Power Signal
is 120 degree out of phase with each other.
 Advantages/Disadventages of a Three-Phase Power

Advantages
1.Do not require any starters to three-phase motors used in big
industries, since it has sufficient phase difference to supply initial
torque for the motor to start.
2.Three-phase power supply requires less conducting materials to
transmit and distribute electrical power. Hence, it becomes more
economical when it speaks about costs.
3.As the number of phases increases in the system, the DC voltage of a
three-phased power becomes smoother and more advantageous.
Disadvantages
Since the system voltage is quite high, the three-phase power supplies
and motors maintain a high cost of insulation. Insulation depends on
the voltage of the unit, while its size of the wire depends on the
current.
Three-phase power units cannot handle overload. Meaning, when it
results in damage, the cost of repair is higher since changing individual
components is expensive.
 Differences between Single-Phase Power and Three-Phase
Power
In a single-phase power supply, it only requires two wires, namely Phase and Neutral.
On the other hand, a three-phase power supply only works through three wires,
including three-conductor wires and a neutral wire.
Thus, the costs of cabling and total installation are both reduced when you deliver
three-phase power directly to your server cabinets.
Voltages
In a single-phase power supply, it only suffices to 230V, whereas a three-phase power
supply maximizes up to 415V.
Its place of utility
Residential homes usually utilize lower power supply, requiring less quantity of power
to function your mobile devices and home appliances. In contrast, commercial and
industrial companies require heavier electronic load. Hence, it utilizes a three-phase
power supply to function.
Efficiency
A single-phase power cannot start by themselves, requiring external devices such as
Motor Startups. As its opposite, a three-phase power can start by itself without
requiring any external devices. Also, it can even reverse the directions of two
conductors.
Application

A single-phase power supply generates a

lower amount of electricity to support
homes and non-industrial businesses,
whereas a three-phase power supplies
power grids, data centers, aircraft,
shipboard, and other electronic loads larger
than 1,000 watts.
 Delta and star connection

In a three-phase circuit, there are two types of connections. One is known as Star Connection, and the
other one is Delta Connection. A star connection has a common or a star point to which all the three
terminals are connected forming a star shape as shown below:

In delta connection, all the three terminals are connected together forming a closed loop. In this, there is
no common or neutral point, and it is used for power transmission for short distances. The connection
diagram is shown below:
3 Phase Star Connection – Figure 9.21 shows a balanced three-phase, Y-connected system.
The voltage induced in each winding is called the phase voltage (Vph).

Likewise VRN, VYN and VBN represent the rms values of the induced voltages in each phase.
The voltage available between any pair of terminals is called the line voltage (VL).

Likewise VRY, VYB and VBR are known as line voltages. The double subscript notation is
purposefully used to represent voltages and currents in polyphase circuits. Thus, VRY
indicates a voltage V between points R and Y, with R being positive with respect to point Y
during its positive half cycle.
Similarly, VYB means that Y is positive with respect to point B during its
positive half cycle; it also means that VRY = -VYR.
The phasors corresponding to the phase voltages constituting a three-phase system can be
represented by a phasor diagram as shown in Fig.
From Fig. 9.22, considering the lines R, Y and R, the line voltage VRY is equal to the phasor sum
of VRN and VNY which is also equal to the phasor difference of VRN and VNY (VNY = -VYN).
Hence, VRY is found by compounding VRN and VYN reversed. To subtract VYN from VRN, we
reverse the phasor VYN and find its phasor sum with VRN as shown in Fig. 9.22. The two
phasors, VRN and -VYN are equal in length and are 60° apart.
From Fig., considering the lines R, Y and R, the line voltage VRY is equal to the
phasor sum of VRN and VNY which is also equal to the phasor difference of
VRN and VNY (VNY =-VYN).

Hence, VRY is found by compounding VRN and VYN reversed. To subtract

VYN from VRN, we reverse the phasor VYN and find its phasor sum with VRN as
shown in Fig.
The two phasors, VRN and -VYN are equal in length and are 60° apart.
It is seen from the above fig that;
•Line voltages are 120° apart from each other
•Line voltages are 30° leading from the corresponding phase
voltages
•The angle Ф between line currents and respective line voltages
are (30°+Ф), i.e. each line current is lagging (30°+Ф) from the
corresponding line voltage.
 Difference Between Star and Delta Connection

• The terminals of the three branches are connected to a common point. The
network formed is known as Star Connection. The three branches of the
network are connected in such a way that it forms a closed loop known
as Delta Connection.
• In a star connection, the starting and the finishing point ends of the three
coils are connected together to a common point known as the neutral
point. But in Delta connection, there is no neutral point. The end of each
coil is connected to the starting point of the other coil that means the
opposite terminals of the coils are connected together.
• In star connection, the line current is equal to the phase current, whereas
in delta connection the line current is equal to root three times of the
phase current.
• In Star connection, the line voltage is equal to root three times of the phase
voltage, whereas in delta connection line voltage is equal to the phase
voltage.
• The speed of the star-connected motors is slow as they receive 1/√3 of the
voltage but the speed of the delta connected motors is high because each
phase gets the total of the line voltage.
• In star connection, phase voltage is low as 1/√3 times the line voltage,
whereas in delta connection phase voltage is equal to the line voltage.
• Star connections are mainly required for the Power Transmission Network
for longer distances, whereas in delta connection mainly in Distribution
networks and is used for shorter distances.
• In star connection, each winding receives 230 volts and in delta connection,
each winding receives 415 volts.
• Both 3 phase 4 wire and 3 phase 3 wire systems can be derived in the star
connection, whereas in Delta Connection only 3 phase 4 wire systems can be
derived.
• The amount of insulation required in star connection is low and in delta
connection high insulation level is required.
 Voltage & current in Start connection

star connected three phase system,

we must know about these two
concepts.
1.Line to line voltage
2.Line to neutral voltage.

The voltage between A and N is called as line to neutral

voltage. Similarly, voltage between A and B is called as line to
line voltage. Relation between these voltages as well as
current changes with the type of connection. So, it is
important to understand these relationships for different
connections.
Current is Star connected system
In case of star connection, line to neutral current is equal to line to line
current.

Voltage in Star connected system

But in case of voltage, it is different. Consider the above star connected 3
phase 4 wire system. If you apply the kirchoff’s voltage law to the above
circuit, you’ll find that, line to line voltage is \sqrt3 times the line to neutral
voltage.

Voltage which we receive in our home is the Line to neutral voltage I.e. 230
volts (in India) .
 Voltage, Current and Power Values in Star
Connection (Y)

Line Voltages and Phase Voltages in Star Connection

We know that the Line Voltage between Line 1 and Line 2 (from fig 3a) is

VRY = VR – VY …. (Vector Difference)

VR = VY = VB = VPH

then

VRY = 2 x VPH x Cos (60°/2)

= 2 x VPH x Cos 30°

= 2 x VPH x (√3/2) …… Since Cos 30° = √3/2

VRY = √3 VPH

Similarly,

VYB = VY – VB

VYB = √3 VPH

And

VBR = VB – VR

VBR = √3 VPH

Hence, it is proved that VRY = VYB = VBR is line voltages (VL) in Star Connection, Therefore, in Star
Connection;

VL = √3 VPH or VL = √3 EPH
 Line Currents and Phase Currents in Star Connection

It is seen from fig (3a) that each line is in series with individual phase winding, therefore, the
value of line current is same as in Phase windings to which the line is connected. i.e.;

Current in Line 1 = IR
Current in Line 2 = IY
Current in Line 3 = IB
Since, the flowing currents in all three lines are same, and the individual current in each line is
equal to the corresponding phase current, therefore;

IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase current

Line Current = Phase Current

IL = IPH

the value of Line Currents and Phase Currents are same

in Star Connection.
Power in Star Connection,

P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ or

P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ

Total Reactive Power = Q = √3 x VL x IL x SinФ

Where Cos Φ = Power factor = the phase angle between Phase Voltage and
Phase Current and not between Line current and line voltage.
Also, the total apparent power of the three phases;

Total Apparent Power = S = √3 x VL x IL Or,

S = √ (P2 + Q2)
 Delta Connection (Δ)

Delta or Mesh Connection (Δ) System is also known as Three

Phase Three Wire System (3-Phase 3 Wire) and it is the most
preferred system for AC power transmission while for
distribution, Star connection is generally used.

In Delta (also denoted by Δ) system of interconnection, the

starting ends of the three phases or coils are connected to the
finishing ends of the coil.
Or
the starting end of the first coil is connected to the finishing
end of the second coil and so on (for all three coils) and it
looks like a closed mesh or circuit as shown in fig (1).
In Delta configuration, at any instant, the EMF value of one
phase is equal to the resultant of the other two
phases EMF values but in the opposite direction.
 Delta connection.

Voltage in Delta connection

Now in case of delta connection, voltage
across each connection is same as line
voltage.

Current in Delta connection

But, in case of current, current across each element is different
than the line current. If you apply the Kirchhoff’s law and do
some math, you’ll find that the line current is root 3 times greater
than the current in each branch of delta connected system.
 Voltage, Current and Power Values in
Delta Connection (Δ)
It is seen in fig that there is only one phase winding between two terminals
(i.e. there is one phase winding between two wires).

Therefore, in Delta Connection, the voltage between (any pair of) two lines is
equal to the phase voltage of the phase winding which is connected between
two lines.

Since the phase sequence is R → Y → B, therefore, the direction of voltage

from R phase towards Y phase is positive (+), and the voltage of R phase is
leading by 120°from Y phase voltage. Likewise, the voltage of Y phase is
leading by 120° from the phase voltage of B and its direction is positive from Y
towards B.
If the line voltage between;
Line 1 and Line 2 = VRY
Line 2 and Line 3 = VYB
Line 3 and Line 1 = VBR
Then, we see that VRY leads VYB by 120° and VYB leads VBR by 120°.
Let’s suppose,

VRY = VYB = VBR = VL …………… (Line Voltage)

Then

VL = VPH

I.e. in Delta connection, the Line Voltage is equal to the Phase Voltage.

Line Currents (IL) and Phase Currents (IPh) in Delta Connection

It will be noted from the NEXT SLIDE (fig-) that the total current of each Line is equal to the
vector difference between two phase currents in Delta connection flowing through that line. i.e.;
•Current in Line 1= I1 = IR – IB The current of Line 1 can be found by determining the
•Current in Line 2 =I2 = IY – IR vector difference between IR and IB and we can do that
•Current in Line 3 =I3 = IB – IY by increasing the IB Vector in reverse, so that, IR and IB
{Vector Difference} makes a parallelogram.
The diagonal of that parallelogram shows the vector
difference of IR and IB which is equal to current in Line
1= I1.
Moreover, by reversing the vector of IB, it may indicate
as (-IB), therefore, the angle between IR and -IB (IB,
when reversed = -IB) is 60°. If,

IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase currents

Then;
The current flowing in Line 1 would be;
IL or I1 = 2 x IPH x Cos (60°/2)
= 2 x IPH x Cos 30°
= 2 x IPH x (√3/2) …… Since Cos 30° = √3/2
IL= √3 IPH
i.e. In Delta Connection, The Line current
is √3 times of Phase Current.
Similarly, we can find the reaming two Line currents
as same as above. i.e.,
I2 = IY – IR … Vector Difference = √3 IPH
I3 = IB – IY … Vector difference = √3 IPH
As, all the Line current are equal in magnitude i.e.
I1 = I2 = I3 = IL
Hence
IL = √3 IPH
It is seen from the fig above that;
The Line Currents are 120° apart from each other
Line currents are lagging by 30° from their
 Power in Delta Connection

Power / Phase = VPH x IPH x CosФ

And the total power of three phases;

Total Power = P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ ….. (1)

We know that the values of Phase Current and Phase Voltage in Delta
Connection;

IPH = IL /√3 ….. (From IL = √3 IPH)

VPH = VL
Putting these values in power eq……. (1)

P = 3 x VL x ( IL/√3) x CosФ …… (IPH = IL / /√3)

P = √3 x√3 x VL x ( IL/√3) x CosФ …{ 3 = √3x√3 }
P = √3 x VLx IL x CosФ …
Power in Delta Connection,

P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ …. or

P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ

Where Cos Φ = Power factor = the phase angle

between Phase Voltage and Phase Current (not
between Line current and line voltage).
 Application of Star & Delta Connection

Generally, star connection is used where you need a neutral and two separate
voltages, like our distribution system.

Delta connection is generally preferred where neutral conductor is not needed

like for transmission of high voltage power. Also, delta connection is preferred
where 3rd harmonics needs to controlled.

Star and delta connections are almost used everywhere when we talk about 3
phase system.

You’ll generally find 3 phase transformer connected in different combinations of

star and delta connection. For example,

Star – star connected transformer is generally used as an auto transformer.

Delta – delta connected transformer is generally used for high voltage
transmission.
 POLL

In star connected system, VRY is equal to?

a) VYR
b) -VYR
c) 2VYR
d) 3VYR
 SOLUTION

Answer: b
Explanation:
The voltage available between any pair of terminals is
called the line voltage. The double script notation is
purposefully used to represent voltages and currents in
poly phase circuits. In star connected system, VRY = – VYR.
 POLL

The relation between VRY, Vph in a star

connected system is?
a) VRY = Vph
b) VRY = √3Vph
c) VRY = 3√3Vph
d) VRY = 3Vph
 SOLUTION

Answer: b
Explanation: The two phasors VYN and VBN are
equal in length and are 60⁰apart. The relation
between VRY, Vph in a star connected system is
VRY = √3Vph.
 POLL

In a star connected system, the relation between VYB,

Vph is?
a) VYB = Vph
b) VYB = 3√3Vph
c) VYB = 3Vph
d) VYB = √3Vph
 SOLUTION

Answer: d
Explanation: In a star connected system, the relation between VYB, Vph is VYB =
√3Vph. The line voltage VYB is equal to the phasor difference of VYN and
VBN and is equal to √3Vph.
Any Queries