Infrastructure Planning

Flood Prone Urban Settlement

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CASE CITY : Mumbai

SHAMBHAVI SINHA
BP/863/2020
Urbanization is inevitable and essential for future economic growth. What happens in cities and
towns, particularly in the developing world, will determine global economic growth, poverty
alleviation, environmental sustainability, and quality of life. Today, urban areas regularly experience
increasing population, inadequate infrastructure, poverty, growth of informal settlements, and
environmental degradation, which do not pose a good picture for future sustainable development. In
addition to these challenges, many cities across the globe are hotspots of vulnerability due to climate
change and variability and are at risk from extreme and recurrent weather events. Flooding and
waterlogging pose severe hazards to the human population in many parts of the world. Indian
metropolitan cities are no exception, and it is high time to delineate these hazard-prone regions and
implement proper mitigation and adaptation strategies at the city scale. This review article provides
an assessment regarding quantification, management, and climate change impacts of flood risks in
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, the most populated India cities. The flood impacts considered
in the existing or prevailing analyses are associated with adverse effects on the population, land use
of cities, transportation, and economy caused by different riverine and urban flooding types.
However, coastal flooding, tsunami, and storm surge effects are less studied. Mumbai and Kolkata
are relatively progressive in the assessment of flood risks and adaptation. The present article also
suggests strategies to evaluate the relative progress in assessing past and future threats and
adaptation. We also discuss the mitigation and adaptation strategies considering the historical
importance of these cities. We propose that the strategy be implemented considering public opinion
and initialized at the grassroots level. Though it is technically challenging to re-plan the city
structures in the current scenario, it is possible to adapt to and mitigate the effects of natural hazards
through proper planning and management with the integrated cooperation and involvement of
citizens and government

Urban Floods

Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed
catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.
Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times (in a matter of minutes). Urban
areas are densely populated and people living in vulnerable areas suffer due to flooding, sometimes
resulting in loss of life. It is not only the event of flooding but the secondary effect of exposure to
infection also has its toll in terms of human suffering, loss of livelihood and, in extreme cases, loss of
life.
Urban areas are also centres of economic activities with vital infrastructure which needs to be
protected 24x7. In most of the cities, damage to vital infrastructure has a bearing not only for the
state and the country but it could even have global implications. Major cities in India have witnessed
loss of life and property, disruption in transport and power and incidence of epidemics. Therefore,
management of urban flooding has to be accorded top priority.

Increasing trend of urban flooding is a universal phenomenon and poses a great challenge to urban
planners the world over. Problems associated with urban floods range from relatively localized
incidents to major incidents, resulting in cities being inundated from hours to several days.
Therefore, the impact can also be widespread, including temporary relocation of people, damage to
civic amenities, deterioration of water quality and risk of epidemics.

URBAN FLOOD RISK IN INDIA

There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years
whereby major cities in India have been severely affected. The most notable amongst them are
Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmedabad in 2001, Delhi in 2002 and 2003, Chennai in 2004, Mumbai in
2005, Surat in 2006, Kolkata in 2007, Jamshedpur in 2008, Delhi in 2009 and Guwahati and Delhi in
2010.

A special feature in India is that we have heavy rainfall during monsoons. There are other weather
systems also that bring in a lot of rain. Storm surges can also affect coastal cities/ towns. Sudden
release or failure to release water from dams can also have severe impact. In addition, the urban
heat island effect has resulted in an increase in rainfall over urban areas. Global climate change is
resulting in changed weather patterns and increased episodes of high intensity rainfall events
occurring in shorter periods of time. Then the threat of sea-level rise is also looming large,
threatening all the coastal cities. Cities/towns located on the coast, on river banks, upstream/
downstream of dams, inland cities and in hilly areas can all be affected.

ISSUES IN URBAN FLOODING

Among the important cities of India, the average annual rainfall varies from 2932 mm in Goa and
2401 mm in Mumbai on the higher side, to 669 mm in Jaipur on the lower side. The rainfall pattern
and temporal duration is almost similar in all these cities, which receive the maximum rainfall from
the south-west monsoons. The average rainfall for the month of July in Mumbai is 868 mm and this
far exceeds the annual average rainfall of 611 mm in London.

Stormwater drainage systems in the past were designed for rainfall intensity of 12 – 20 mm. These
capacities have been getting very easily overwhelmed whenever rainfall of higher intensity has been
experienced. Further, the systems very often do not work to the designed capacities because of very
poor maintenance. Encroachments are also a major problem in many cities and towns. Natural
streams and watercourses have formed over thousands of years due to the forces of flowing water in
the respective watersheds. Habitations started growing into towns and cities alongside rivers and
watercourses. As a result of this, the flow of water has increased in proportion to the urbanization of
the watersheds. Ideally, the natural drains should have been widened (similar to road widening for
increased traffic) to accommodate the higher flows of stormwater. But on the contrary, there have
been large scale encroachments on the natural drains and the river flood plains. Consequently the
capacity of the natural drains has decreased, resulting in flooding. Improper disposal of solid waste,
including domestic, commercial and industrial waste and dumping of construction debris into the
drains also contributes significantly to reducing their capacities. It is imperative to take better
operations and maintenance actions.

Mumbai city:

Mumbai is currently the sixth-largest urban agglomeration in the world, with a population of 20.7
million. The city is the financial capital of India, with a large commercial and trading base. It
plays host to many industries, multinational companies, and critical financial institutions. The city
is also an important international seaport and strategic from the defense perspective. Mumbai is
located on the western seacoast of India on the Arabian Sea and was originally a cluster of
seven islands, as seen in Figure 1 below. Since the 17th century, these islands have been
joined through drainage and reclamation projects and construction of causeways and
breakwaters to form the modern-day landmass.
The average annual rainfall of Mumbai City as recorded by the Colaba meteorological station of
IMD located at the southernmost tip of the city while that for the suburbs is 2300 mm as
recorded at Santa Cruz, located 27 km away to the north. Monsoon rainfall occurs primarily from
June to October, and about 70 % of the average annual rainfall occurs in July and August, and
50 % of this occurs in just 2 or 3 events. During these 2-3 events, it usually rains uniformly over
the city, and severe flooding occurs in many parts. The Municipal Corporation of Greater
Mumbai is administered Mumbai and is divided into two revenue districts, viz. Mumbai city
district (which has been formed due to the merging of seven islands by massive reclamation
from the sea during 1784-1845) (Figure 1). Historically, these seven islands were ceded to King
Charles II of England as dowry in 1661 by the Portuguese. In 1668, the islands were leased to
the East India Company for a sum of £10. In 1877, the control was passed to the British crown.
The land reclamations have continued, and in 1961 the Mumbai suburban district was formed,
which comprise the erstwhile island of Salsette and the former Trombay Island. A small part in
the north Salsette Island, however, lies with the Thane Municipal Corporation. The
Salsette-Mumbai creek and the Thane creek together separate Mumbai from mainland India.
Thus, Mumbai is surrounded by the Thane creek and the Arabian Sea.

There has been a rapid and uncontrolled all-around growth of the city - the influx of migrant
workers has seen the population rise from 9.9 million in 1981 to 13.0 million in 1991 and 20.7
million in 2014. However, the Greater Mumbai Municipal Corporation area covers an area of
437.71 sq km (excluding 200 sq km green belt) and is divided into 24 municipal wards (Figure
2). The average population density is 27,209 persons per sq km. At the same time, some areas,
for example, Ward 'A', has a daytime (floating) population density of as much as 394,390
persons per sq km, and the night-time population is 200,000 persons with a density of 17,528
persons per sq km. There are many vulnerable informal settlements, many of them located on
the flood plains of the Mithi River and the open stormwater drains. About 65% of the Mumbaites
live in informal settlements, and over 2,768,910 structures - residential, commercial, and
industrial are listed with the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM). The Mumbai
population is projected to reach 25 million before 2025. The municipal area is highly susceptible
to frequent flooding and witnesses severe disruptions annually. In addition, this area falls in an
active seismological zone. The city is strongly oriented in a north-south direction. A majority of
the population resides in the suburbs in the north and commutes to the city located in the south.
The rail network constitutes the city's lifeline, and over 6 million people are transported daily by
Mumbai's suburban railway system alone- this is almost 50% of the total number of passengers
traveling daily by train in India. Thus, any disruption due to flooding results in economic and
social disruption - loss of livelihood to the individuals and loss of business to commerce and
industry. A new authority called the Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority was
set up in 1975 as an apex body for planning and coordinating development activities in the
Region. The jurisdiction covers Mumbai and the neighboring municipalities of Thane, Kalyan,
Navi Mumbai, Bhiwandi, Virar, and other municipal councils in the geographical area.
,
City Infrastructure with Reference to Drainage:
The drainage system of Mumbai is a mix of simple drains and a complicated network of rivers,
creeks, drains, and ponds. A network of closed drains below the roads has evolved in the city -
the roads have evolved by covering the old drains in the city while there are open drains in the
suburbs (Figure 3). The southern city area has long complex networks which drain relatively
large low-lying areas, while short drains from small areas drain directly to the sea. From 1870 to
1930, many royal commissions of inquiry were set up. They found that sanitation designs were
based on empirical considerations due to lack of knowledge of the monsoon rainfall and
expertise during the 1870s. A system of "trial and error" was used. The history of drainage of the
south city area is exceptional due to its unique history of reclamation in between the original
seven separate islands (James, 1917). In 1672, Mumbai consisted of seven separate islands.
During 1672-1845, the municipal interests of the city were looked after by the Board of
Conservancy, and intensive reclamation of the spaces between the islands was undertaken with
the reclaimed ground being below the high-water level. This is one of the main reasons why
many parts of Mumbai still experience severe flooding during intense rainfall, particularly at
times of the high tide. Water usually recedes during low tide, but if the rainfall persists for 7-10
hours and the next tidal cycle starts, it becomes difficult for the water to recede and compound
the flooding.

Most detention ponds have been lost to development, and it is estimated that urbanization has
contributed to increased runoff by 2-3 times. However, an open ditch was left for drainage
purposes - known as the old main drain- from the town center to the Flats, emptying itself into a
tidal estuary. In 1824, arching over this drain was started and completed in phases by 1856. The
arching and the walls of the drains consisted mostly of roughly dressed stone; there was no
foundation in many parts, but where it existed, it was of rubble. The width of the old drain varied
from 2 ft to 20 ft 3 in while the height varied from 2 ft to 9ft 10 in, and the gradients were from 1
in 450 to 1 in 5000. This drain carried all the surface water in the monsoon and all the
year-round sewage, which was discharged by gravity or by hand. Due to the inadequate slopes,
it functioned as a vast elongated cesspool during the non monsoon months.

Economic impact

An increase in temperature will lead to an increase in rainfall intensity and frequency. Extreme
precipitation is likely to increase substantially over the western coast and west-central India.
Overall, the summer monsoon rainfall will show a 20% increase over the present rate.
Simulations with climate models and observations indicate that rainfall extremes such as the
Mumbai deluge of 2005 could become more frequent in India under climate change. Both 2005
and 2006 had spells of excessive rainfall that normally would have occurred once in about 100
years. It has been observed that till 1989 the average rainfall of Mumbai was 2129 mm.
However, in 2005-2006 the average annual rainfall was found to be 3214 mm, an increase of
50%. Besides the rainfall-related issue, energy consumption will also be a major issue. An
increase in rainfall and a rise in the mean sea level (MSL), in addition to the poor drainage of
the city, will increase the frequency of floods. Almost one-fourth of Mumbai comprises low-lying
areas (below or at MSL). Therefore, low-income groups and poor residents living in vulnerable
locations (accounting for nearly 50% of Mumbai’s population) will be affected more. A
conservative estimate shows that about 40% population will be affected in the city of Mumbai,
as shown in Figure 4. Frequent floods and salt-water intrusion will affect the structural stability of
high-rise buildings, which are mushrooming at an increasing rate. Floods, especially in the
low-lying areas of the city, will result in the dislocation of people and also deaths. A study
conducted by the United States Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) and leading
accounting company KPMG has revealed that Mumbai incurred a loss of Rs 14,000 crore due to
floods. The hefty amount was lost for various reasons in the period between 2005 and 2015.
The US agencies hired to study the floods that wreak havoc in the city year after year also
revealed that 3,000 people died due to rain-related incidents during this period. This figure
includes the over thousand people who lost their lives in the July 26, 2005 deluge that had
brought the Maximum City to a standstill. Human health is another major area where the impact
of climate change could be very severe. Such an impact would translate mainly into three major
illnesses – diarrhea, malaria, and leptospirosis. The tourism sector will also be hit by climate
change. It is likely to suffer a loss of Rs 19,63,500 crores by the year 2050. An economic
analysis has been performed to understand these impacts with a view to planning out
adaptability strategies for the city for the period up to 2050. These cost considerations take into
account the most conservative figures with regard to the period of impact, and the population
affected, loss of earnings, and material damage.
The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) :

Every year before the rains hit, the BMC makes a last-minute attempt to de-silt and clean up the
city’s natural and man-made drainage systems. And every year, the BMC fails. After the
devastating floods of 2005, the BMC allocated INR 2500 crore for BRIMSTOWAD (USD 364.2
million), the Brihanmumbai Storm Water Disposal System. By 2017, the project's cost had
increased to INR 4500 crore (USD 655.74 million). Thirteen years after the drainage system was
first approved, most of the city’s low-lying areas and slum settlements are yet to receive any
respite from the annual deluge. During the 2011 floods, the BMC commissioned eight pumping
stations along with 58 other projects. And, in 2018, only five pumping stations are operational,
and less than 30 of the planned flood protection projects are complete. In 2013, the BMC
committed to spending INR 1400 crore (around USD 204.01 million) on setting up sewage
treatment plants along the Mithi river. While the money has been spent, the Mithi remains an
open sewer coursing through Mumbai. In 2015, having spent INR 200 crore(USD 29.148
million) to build a new pumping station, the BMC claimed that the city was now ‘rain ready.’ And
yet again, Mumbai flooded.

What future for Mumbai in with current infrastructure?

One study of the Konkan coast from Dahanu to Vengurla (just north of Mumbai) over the past
20 years has shown a sea-level rise of 5-6 cm. This has led to seawater intruding up to 1 km
inland, causing damage to farmland and mangroves. Studies indicate tidal patterns are
becoming more erratic, while precedent shows us that civic bodies and infrastructure are not
prepared for these changes. The standard response has been the construction of bunds. These
prove expensive and inefficient, costing around INR 60,000 per meter (USD 874.32) of bund
construction. Further, they are built only in sections, thus providing limited protection against
extreme events.
Some climate change projections indicate that around 40% of Greater Mumbai could be
underwater by the end-century due to continuing sea-level rise. Sea level rise is projected to
increase by between 24 and 66 cm for Mumbai. Monsoon rainfall for the Konkan administrative
division of Maharashtra (includes the Mumbai Metropolitan Region) is projected to increase by
between 10% and 30% by midcentury (2021-2040). Annual mean temperatures for the same
period are projected to rise by 1.1°C1.28°C. Warmer air can hold more water, increasing the
likelihood of more extreme rainfall events and longer dry spells between extreme rainfall events.
In 2014, the Maharashtra State Action Plan on Climate Change identified that a repeat
occurrence of the 2005-like rainfall event would flood several areas (especially the low-lying
areas) in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, even after the drainage capacity is expanded. This
shows that the steps taken by the BMC towards flood resilience are not sufficient to prepare the
city for future climate-related extreme events.
The BMC needs to integrate climate change adaptation strategies into its policy decisions to
avoid a repetition of the 2005 flood impacts. The State Action Plan has several
recommendations to improve Mumbai’s adaptive capacity to floods and extreme rainfall.
Foremost amongst these are strengthening the stormwater drainage network and improving
groundwater percolation. Enhancing coordination between identified implementation agencies
such as the Disaster Management Department, Storm Water Drainage Department, and the
BMC would go some way towards making Mumbai ‘rain ready’.
 Rising sea levels will result in increased salinity of coastal groundwater, endanger wetlands and
inundate valuable land, directly affecting the lives and livelihood of coastal communities.
Projections made by an ADB study indicate that total losses in Mumbai could increase as much
as a triple by 2080 compared to the present. Another study estimates that the probability of a
flood event (similar to the 2005 incident) is likely double, with a tripling of losses (direct and
indirect), amounting to $690-1890 million by 2080. And these estimates do not consider the
potential loss of life. The historical trends and future projections all point to the increasing
intensity of rainfall, rising sea levels, and an increase in extreme weather events. The high
population density of Mumbai, growing development on reclaimed lands, under-capacitated
drainage systems overburdened with garbage and plastics combine to exacerbate the effects of
rainfall events and climate change. These factors suggest that a recurrence of the 2005 floods
is a matter of ‘when’ not ‘if.’ The city has some tough decisions to take, but to begin with,
improving the drainage system alone can reduce losses by as much as 70%. In addition,
extending insurance coverage could halve the indirect losses that emanate from Mumbai’s
annual floods.

river to its ‘pre development conditions’. All authorities and experts point directly to the reduced
capacity of Mumbai’s storm water drains as the critical component of the complex problem of
urban flooding. Flood mitigation therefore, is a multidimensional issue and the complexity and
interplay of the many layers impact implementation plans. Besides cleaning and regular
maintenance of drains, widening of waterways, moderating the Mithi River water flow, de-silting
and dredging projects, hydrological examinations and aerial surveys have been conducted
towards addressing the main objective – increasing the drainage capacity

RAINS, DRAINS AND DELAYS: FLOOD MITIGATION IN MUMBAI

Global issues such as climate change, particularly temperature, convection and rain patterns,
rising sea waters, also contribute in no small measure to the broader problem. The historic city
drains, dating back to colonial era town planning, have over time grown into a “mix of simple
drains and a complicated network of rivers, creeks, drains and ponds. A network of closed
drains below the roads has evolved in the city – the roads have evolved by covering the old
drains in the city whilst there are open drains in the suburbs”
. As a high level official admitted, the severity of the 2005 flooding, aside from the inaction in
implementing BRIMSTOWAD, and other environmental factors, overwhelmed this hierarchical
network completely, and “the roads themselves had become storm water drains”. Civic
management of rising road levels is also a major concern and recent aerial mapping has
provided a contemporary picture of gradient changes. A wide variety of solutions and responses
have emerged over the interim period and Mumbai is expected to have a revamped storm water
drain system by 2014. Associated institutional responses have also emerged - revamping of the
disaster management strategy, upgrading of emergency control measures, and development of
real time flood warning systems. As is clear from the 2005 experience (and other global events),
the public health dimensions are all too obvious. Here too, measures in addressing medical/
paramedical inadequacies have emerged.

At the central level too, urban renewal projects, national guidelines for disaster management
and storm water drainage have been formulated. While there has been a concerted effort to
address urban flooding in the city, the continuing problems of congestion, pollution, waste and
resource management, seem to often outweigh the pace of response and reform. Cost
escalation of the project has also been a major concern. Originally pegged at Rs 1200 crore,
current estimates of the escalation place it at Rs 3900 crore. News reports regarding delayed
works and escalating costs point out also that rehabilitation of project-affected people has
contributed significantly. Civic officials have further indicated that the cost escalation estimate
mentioned in the Detailed Project Report (DPR) also may need to be revised along with further
delays. There has also been delay in the publication of a study commissioned to consultants
MWH Global, which is anticipated to recommend more pumping stations that currently
envisaged.

Suggestions:

1. Strengthen River Management and Construct Sponge Cities

A spongy city is an effective method to adapt to flood hazards. In recent years, comprehensive
rainwater planning measures—named the spongy city scheme—have been employed in
countries like Japan and China, as shown in Figure 8. The scheme related to a spongy city has
improved flexibility in terms of adapting to environmental changes and responding to natural
hazards caused by rain. Strengthened river management is a critical way to store and drain
water in flood hazards and to irrigate and replenish water in drought periods.
A suitable regional sponge city construction plan should be proposed based on local rainfall,
urban residential density, and population density. The significant benefits obtained from spongy
city construction include:
• The reduced possibility of urban inundation.
• The alleviation of urban waterlogging.
• Groundwater replenishment.
The numerous drainage and storage systems improve spongy cities' drainage and storage
capacity, which could prevent some small-scale floods. Regarding a super flood, although the
amount of water might exceed the storage capacity of the spongy city, the spongy city could still
delay the flood at the initial stage; this would increase the time not only for citizens to transfer to
a safe place but also for the government to take countermeasures. This is thus beneficial to
alleviate the hazardous results of floods. A high drainage capacity would also improve the
recovery time of cities from the flood. Besides, the silt in rivers should be cleaned up in time to
increase water storage volume during flood hazards. Let’s look at Tokyo, Since the
implementation of the spongy city in 2002, flooded areas and houses displayed a descending
trend from 1.37 to 0.33 km2 in 2002, 2004, and 2006, when the annual rainfall was 160, 199,
and 172 mm, respectively. In Japan, taking the Tokyo Sky Tree (Japan’s tallest tower) as an
example, an essential section of the drainage and storage system, the system can store 7000
tons of rainwater. Moreover, an underground reservoir of 4000 tons has been built at Shibuya
Station (transportation hub of Tokyo). When the rainfall exceeds 50 mm per hour, it can store
the rainwater in the surrounding area. At the same time, it is connected with Tokyo’s massive
underground drainage system to discharge rainwater after the peak of heavy rain. Under this
condition, the spongy city represents a preferred way to cope with flood events. Many spongy
cities have been applied in coastal cities in China, such as Shanghai, Xiamen, Ningbo, and
Shenzhen.
2. Establishment of an Early Warning System for Flood-Hazards :

An early warning system for flood hazards based on information science and artificial
intelligence technology should be established. The prediction of hazards is a complicated
systematic process because it involves many fields, such as nature, society, and the economy.
The different range and degree of the selected index factors for natural hazards prediction can
interact with each other on the spatial scale, which results in the increased complexity of natural
hazard prediction. Figure 9 shows the framework of an early warning system for flood hazards.
This system includes four subsystems: a monitoring and data collection system, data processing
system, dynamic disaster early warning system, and management system. It could be
established through the India Meteorological Department (IMD). In the monitoring and data
collection system, the data are collected using advanced technologies: remote sensing (RS),
geographic information system (GIS), and global positioning system (GPS). The collected data
in the monitoring and data collection system include temperature, wind speed, rainstorm
intensity index, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, and total cloud cover. The dynamic
early warning system utilized these collected data to predict the precipitation.

3. Other Recommendations

Apart from the suggestions mentioned above, flood hazard awareness should be increased. For
example, the population should stay away from dangerous areas. The people (in dangerous
areas) should leave after receiving early warning of flood hazards. Besides, additional technical
flood protection measures are also important. Infrastructure, such as dams, dikes and
reservoirs, should be built and maintained in time to mitigate the impacts of flood hazards.
Furthermore, houses especially in flood prone areas should be built with improved engineering
standards, which can give houses a better adaptive ability during flood hazards

The Mithi River Development Authority was set up to examine and implement restoration of the
river to its ‘pre development conditions’. All authorities and experts point directly to the reduced
capacity of Mumbai’s storm water drains as the critical component of the complex problem of
urban flooding. Flood mitigation therefore, is a multidimensional issue and the complexity and
interplay of the many layers impact implementation plans. Besides cleaning and regular
maintenance of drains, widening of waterways, moderating the Mithi River water flow, de-silting
and dredging projects, hydrological examinations and aerial surveys have been conducted
towards addressing the main objective – increasing the drainage capacity

Increasing Storm Water Drainage Capacity of Mithi River and Mumbai City drains, 3CD Sound
Practice Manual Mumbai Marooned, An Enquiry into the Mumbai Floods 2005 the construction
of pumping stations due to finalization of automatic screen cleaning mechanisms. To add to
these woes, speculation regarding financial mismanagement has been widely reported and the
Maharashtra Chief Minister alleged corrupt practices last year. A major contributing factor is
illegal encroachments. Experts and new reports continue to point out that work is periodically
delayed or stalled due to land issues. Land acquisition, rehabilitation of dwellers/squatters and
delays due to other disputes is a recurring problem in Mumbai, and the solution, primarily
juridical and political, lies also in innovative policy changes. Major civic and infrastructure works
in Mumbai consistently face implementation issues due to land related problems. The need for
heightened and sustained evaluation, optimum communication, timely responses, long-term
realistic policy changes at the highest level, effective micro-management and implementation at
the ground level, seem critical factors in addressing flood mitigation in Mumbai

References:
Government of Maharashtra, March 2006, Fact Finding Committee on Mumbai floods. MCGM
(2006). Fact Finding Committee on Mumbai Floods, Final Report. Volume I, March 2006.
Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. MCGM (2014).
Flood Preparedness Guidelines 2014. Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai.
http://www.mumbaimonsoon.com MCGM (2014a).
Greater Mumbai City Development Plan 2005 to 2025. Municipal Corporation of Greater
Mumbai. . City Map.
Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2007‐08.
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Maharashtra. GoM, (2014).
Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2014‐15. Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Government of Maharashtra. Kumar KR, Sahai AK, Kumar KK, Patwardhan SK, Mishra PK,
Revadekar JV, Kamala K, Pant GB. High-resolution climate change scenarios for India for the
21st century. Curent Science 2006 Feb; 90 (3): 334-345.
T.I. Eldho, ... A.T. Kulkarni, in Integrating Disaster Science and Management, 2018