Transfer Function and Block Diagram

H.I.
Jaafar
Chapter 2
Transfer Function and Block Diagram
❖ Definition of transfer function

❖ Open-loop, closed-loop & control
action transfer function
❖ Block diagram reduction technique
❖ Signal flow graph
❖ Mason’s Rule
DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

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Mathematical Model
❑ Before designing a controller, a mathematical model of the physical

system must be developed.
❑ A mathematical model is defined as a set of equations that represents
the dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
❑ The initial step to develop a mathematical model is to apply the
fundamental physical laws of science and engineering.
Examples:
1. Electrical networks – Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s laws (voltage and current)
2. Mechanical systems – Newton’s laws (forces and torques)

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Mathematical Model
❑ The mathematical model is not unique – it can be represented in many

ways.
Examples:
1.Transfer function in the frequency domain ( 𝑠 -domain). Suitable for
transient and frequency response analysis of single-input, single-output,
linear, time-invariant systems.
2.State-space representation in the time domain ( 𝑡 -domain). Suitable

for modern control technique that involve with multi-input, multi-output.
❑ This will lead to a mathematical model that describe the relation
between the system’s input and output.

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Mathematical Model
❑ Example: DC Motor
1. State-space representation:
𝑑 𝜃 0 1 0 𝜃 0
𝜃ሶ = 0 −𝑏/𝐽 𝐾/𝐽 𝜃ሶ + 0 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 0 −𝐾/𝐿 −𝑅/𝐿 𝑖ሶ 1/𝐿
𝑖ሶ
𝜃
𝑦= 1 0 0 𝜃ሶ
𝑖ሶ
2. Transfer function:
𝜃(𝑠) 𝐾
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝑏 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐾 2 𝑠
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State-Space Representation
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
❑ State equations: A set of simultaneous, first order differential equations with
𝒏 state variables
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢
❑ Output equation: The algebraic equation that expresses the output variables
of a system as linear combinations of the state variables and the inputs
where 𝒙 is the state vector, 𝒙ሶ is the derivative of 𝒙 with respect to 𝒕, 𝒚 is the output vector and 𝒖 is the
input or control vector. 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪, 𝑫 are system, input, output and feedforward matrices, respectively.

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❑ For a linear and SISO system, the dynamics is:
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥

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❑ How about the block diagram with 𝑫?:
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢

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Transfer Function
Why Transfer Function is

chosen?
• Convenient way to represent a linear,

time-invariant system in terms of its
input-output relationship.
• Easy to model as a block diagram.

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Transfer Function

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Transfer Function

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Transfer Function
❑ In order to simplify the method of solution, the following table can be

used:

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Transfer Function

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Transfer Function
❑ Through the Laplace transform, the input, output and system are
distinct and separate parts.
❑ Thus, several block diagram can be interconnected together to form a

bigger/complete system.

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Example 2.1
❑ Find the Laplace Transform for the following time functions:

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Block Diagram
❑ Control system may consists of a number of components.

❑ To simplify the analysis of control system components, a diagram
called block diagram is used to represent the components and system.
❑ A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the
function performed by each component and the flow of signals.
❑ The arrowhead pointing toward the block indicates the input signal
while the arrowhead leading away from the block represent the output
signal.
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Block Diagram
❑ Summing point:
• From Figure (a) and Figure (b), a circle with a cross is the symbol that
indicates a summing point operation. The plus (+) or minus (-) sign at each
arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be added or subtracted. For
system with minus (-) sign, it has negative feedback as shown in Figure (a)
while system with plus (+) sign has positive feedback as shown in Figure
(b).
Figure (a): Negative feedback Figure (b): Positive feedback

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Block Diagram
❑ Branch point:
• A branch point is a point, from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing point as shown in Figure (c)
below:
Figure (c): Branch point

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Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

System
unity feedback
and
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System

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System

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System
So, what is the overall Closed-Loop Transfer

Function (CLTF)?

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System
❑ Closed-Loop Transfer Function (CLTF):

------ (1)
------ (2)
------ (3)
❑ From the figure, the overall transfer function that relate output, 𝐶(𝑠) to
the input, 𝑅(𝑠) can be derived as follows:
❑ Substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (3), hence:
------ (4)

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System
❑ Substitute Eq. (4) into Eq. (1), yield:
❑ Re-arrange the equation:
❑ Finally, the completed CLTF is obtained as:

numerator
denominator

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System
❑ When denominator is setting equal to zero, it is known as characteristic

equation that very useful in control system analysis.
❑ Noticed that the above derivation of CLTF is for negative feedback loop.
❑ For positive feedback loop, the CLTF is given as:

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Block Diagram Reduction Technique
❑ Closed-loop control system may contain large number of blocks and

may involve multiple feedbacks or feedforwards.
❑ It is necessary to reduce the block diagram to simplify form before an
overall transfer function can be obtained.
❑ The rules of block diagram reduction techniques (detail inside notes).
Rule 1: Combining blocks in cascade
Rule 2: Combining blocks in parallel
Rule 3: Moving a summing point ahead of a block
Rule 4: Moving a summing point beyond of a block
Rule 5: Moving a take-off point ahead of a block
Rule 6: Moving a take-off point beyond of a block
Rule 7: Eliminating a feedback loop
Rule 8: Interchanging summing points
Rule 9: Splitting a summing point
Rule 10: Moving a take-off point ahead of a summing point
Rule 11: Moving a take-off point after a summing point
Rule 12: Removing a block from a forward path
Rule 13: Removing a block from a feedback path
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Example 2.2
❑ Q1. Simplify the blocks diagram in figure below

❑ Q2. Obtain the overall transfer function.

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Solution
❑ Step 1: Cascading blocks G1, G2, and parallel blocks G3 and G4 (Rule 1).
❑ Step 2: Eliminate unity negative feedback loop (Rule 7).

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Solution
❑ Step 3: Cascading the two blocks (Rule 1).
❑ Hence, the overall transfer function is obtained as:

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Signal Flow Graph
❑ Signal flow graph is an alternate approach for graphically represented

control system dynamics.
❑ It consists of ‘branches’ which represent systems and ‘nodes’ which
represent signal.
❑ A system is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction
of signal flow through the system.
Branch (System) Node (Signal)

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Signal Flow Graph
❑ The following figure shows the interconnection of the systems and the
signals. Each node is the sum of signals flowing into it.

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Signal Flow Graph Technique
FOUR (4) steps to convert from block diagram to signal flow graph
❑ Step 1: Determine the nodes based on Input, Output, Summing point,
Branch point or In between cascade block.
❑ Step 2: Draw the signal nodes accordingly.
❑ Step 3: Interconnect all the nodes.
❑ Step 4: Insert all the related gains of the block. If no gain, put 1.

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Example 2.3
❑ The following example will enhance the conversion technique of block

diagram to signal flow graph.

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Solution

2 3
5 7
1 4 8 9
Note: input (node 1), output (node 9), summing point (node 2, node 3, node 7),
branch point (node 4, node 5, node 6, node 8), In between cascade block (none)

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Solution
❑ Step 2: Draw the signal nodes accordingly.
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

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Solution
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

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Solution
1
𝑅(𝑠) 1 𝐺1 1 𝐺2 1 𝐺3 1 𝐶(𝑠)
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1
−𝐻2 6
−𝐻3
−𝐻1
“-ve” because of
negative feedback

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Example 2.4
❑ The following example will enhance the conversion technique of block

diagram to signal flow graph.

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Solution

2
3 4 5
1 6
Note: input (node 1), output (node 6), summing point (node 2),
branch point (node 4, node 5), In between cascade block (node 3)

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Solution
❑ Step 2: Draw the signal nodes accordingly
1 2 3 4 5 6

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Solution
1 2 3 4 5 6

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Solution
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 1 𝐶(𝑠)
1 2 3 4 5 6
−𝐻1
𝐻2
“-ve” because of
negative feedback
“+ve” because of
positive feedback

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Mason’s Rule

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Mason’s Rule
❑ Let’s assume that the block diagram was converted as signal flow
graph as below:
Based on this signal flow graph:

𝑘 = 2 only 2 forward path
Definition:
Forward path, 𝑘 – How many forward
path that we found in the one direction
of signal flow from the input node, 𝑅(𝑠)
to the output node, 𝐶(𝑠).
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Mason’s Rule
graph as below:

𝑇1 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺6 𝐺7
𝑇2 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐺7
Definition:
Forward path gain, 𝑇𝑘 – The product of
gains by traversing a path from the input
node, 𝑅(𝑠) to the output node, 𝐶(𝑠) in
one direction of signal flow.
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Mason’s Rule
graph as below:

Loop gain:
1. 𝐺2 𝐻1
2. 𝐺4 𝐻2
Definition:
3. 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻3
Loop gain – The product of gains by
traversing a path that starts at a node 4. 𝐺4 𝐺6 𝐻3
and ends at the same node.

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Mason’s Rule
graph as below:

Loop gain:
1. [𝐺2 𝐻1 ][𝐺4 𝐻2 ]
2. [𝐺2 𝐻1 ][𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻3 ]
Definition:
3. [𝐺2 𝐻1 ][𝐺4 𝐺6 𝐻3 ]
Non-touching loop gain taken two at a
time – The two of loop gains are not
touching each others.

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Mason’s Rule
graph as below:

Loop gain:
- None -
Definition:
Non-touching loop gain taken three at a
time – The three of loop gains are not
touching each others.

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Example 2.5

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Mason’s Rule
❑ Step 1: Identify the number of forward path.

𝑘=1
❑ Step 2: Identify the forward path gain.
𝑇1 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5
❑ Step 3: Identify the loop gain.
Loop gain:
1. 𝐺2 𝐻1
2. 𝐺4 𝐻2
3. 𝐺7 𝐻4
4. 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐺6 𝐺7 𝐺8
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Mason’s Rule
❑ Step 4: Identify the nontouching loop taken two at a time.

Loop gain:
1. [𝐺2 𝐻1 ][𝐺4 𝐻2 ]
2. [𝐺2 𝐻1 ][𝐺7 𝐻4 ]
3. [𝐺4 𝐻2 ][𝐺7 𝐻4 ]
❑ Step 5: Identify the nontouching loop taken three at a time.

Loop gain:
1. [𝐺2 𝐻1 ][𝐺4 𝐻2 ][𝐺7 𝐻4 ]

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Mason’s Rule
❑ Step 6: Update the Mason’s Rule formula with related information.

𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑘 𝑇𝑘 ∆𝑘 𝑇1 ∆1 (Since 𝑘 = 1)
= =
𝑅(𝑠) ∆ ∆
❑ Step 7: Identify the delta, ∆.

∆ = 1 − ෍ loop gain + ෍ nontouching loop taken two at a time − ෍ nontouching loop taken three at a time + ⋯
∆ = 1 − 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺4 𝐻2 + 𝐺7 𝐻4 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐺6 𝐺7 𝐺8 + 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐺4 𝐻2 + 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐺7 𝐻4 + 𝐺4 𝐻2 𝐺7 𝐻4 − 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐺4 𝐻2 𝐺7 𝐻4
❑ Step 8: Identify the delta 𝒌, ∆𝒌 .

Note: Eliminate or remove the loops that touch the 𝑘-th feedforward path in ∆ above. Therefore, ∆1 = 1 − 𝐺7 𝐻4
❑ Therefore, final transfer function is: 𝐶(𝑠) 𝑇1 ∆1 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 [1 − 𝐺7 𝐻4 ]

= =
DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering 𝑅(𝑠) ∆ ∆
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Example 2.6

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Solution

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Exercises
Are you ready?
Let’s Do it!

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Exercise 1
C(s)
❑ Develop a transfer function, that relates the input, R(s) and output,
R(s)
C(s) of the system using block diagram reduction and signal flow graph:

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Exercise 2
C(s)
R(s)

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Exercise 3
C(s)
R(s)

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Block Diagram Reduction

Vs Signal Flow Graph Techniques
Block Diagram Reduction Signal Flow Graph

It is a pictorial representation of the functions It is a graphical representation of a relationship
performed by each component and of the flow of between variables of a set of linear algebraic equations
signals written in the form of cause and effect relations
It can be used to represent linear as well as nonlinear
It can be used to represent only linear systems
systems
No direct formula is available to find the overall TF of Mason’s gain formula is available to find the overall TF
the system of the system
Step-by-step procedure is to be followed to find the TF TF can be obtained in one step
It is not a systematic method It is a systematic method
It indicates more realistically the signal flows of the It is constrained by more rigid mathematical rules than
system than the original system itself a block diagram

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H.I.

❖ Definition of transfer function

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ Before designing a controller, a mathematical model of the physical

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ The mathematical model is not unique – it can be represented in many

2.State-space representation in the time domain ( 𝑡 -domain). Suitable

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ For a linear and SISO system, the dynamics is:

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ How about the block diagram with 𝑫?:

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Why Transfer Function is

• Convenient way to represent a linear,

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ In order to simplify the method of solution, the following table can be

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ Thus, several block diagram can be interconnected together to form a

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ Find the Laplace Transform for the following time functions:

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

❑ Control system may consists of a number of components.

Figure (a): Negative feedback Figure (b): Positive feedback

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Figure (c): Branch point

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

So, what is the overall Closed-Loop Transfer

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

❑ Closed-Loop Transfer Function (CLTF):

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

❑ Substitute Eq. (4) into Eq. (1), yield:

❑ Re-arrange the equation:

❑ Finally, the completed CLTF is obtained as:

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop

❑ When denominator is setting equal to zero, it is known as characteristic

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram Reduction Technique

❑ Closed-loop control system may contain large number of blocks and

Block Diagram Reduction Technique

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram Reduction Technique

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram Reduction Technique

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering

Block Diagram Reduction Technique

DEKC 2113 – Control System Engineering