SEMICONDUCTER MEMORY

CHAPTER 1
ORGANIZATOIN
1.1INTRODUCTION

The basic element of a semiconductor memory is the memory cell. Although a

variety of electronic technologies are used, all semiconductor memory cells share
certain properties

 They exhibit two stable (or semi-stable) states, which can be used to
represent binary 1 and 0.
 They are capable of being written into (at least once), to set the state.
 They are capable of being read to sense the state

1.2 MEMORY CELL OPERATION

Most commonly, the cell has three functional terminals capable of carrying an
electrical signal. The select terminal, as the name suggests, selects a memory cell
for a read or write operation.The control terminal indicates read or write. For
writing, the other terminal provides an electrical signal that sets the state of the cell
to 1 or 0. For reading, that terminal is used for output of the cell’s state. The details
of the internal organization, functioning, and timing of the memory cell depend on
the specific integrated circuit technology used and are beyond the scope of this
book, except for a brief summary. For our purposes, we will take it as given that
individual cells can be selected for reading.

Fig 1.1 Memory Cell Operation

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1.3MODULE ORGANIZATION

If a RAM chip contains only 1 bit per word, then clearly we will need at least a
num-ber of chips equal to the number of bits per word. As an example, Figure
1.2 shows

Fig 1.2 256-KByte memory organization

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Fig 1.3 1MByte memory organization

how a memory module consisting of 256K 8-bit words could be organized. For
256K words, an 18-bit address is needed and is supplied to the module from
some external source (e.g., the address lines of a bus to which the module is
attached). The address is presented to 8 256K 1-bit chips, each of which
provides the input/output of 1 bit. This organization works as long as the size of
memory equals the number of it’s per chip.

In the case in which larger memory is required, an array of chips is needed.

Figure 1.3 shows the possible organization of a memory consisting of 1M word
by 8 bits per word. In this case, we have four columns of chips, each column
containing 256K words arranged as in Figure 1.3. For 1M word, 20 address
lines are needed. The 18 least significant bits are routed to all 32 modules. The
high order 2 bits are input to a group select logic module that sends a chip
enable signal to one of the four columns of modules.

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CHAPTER 2
VOLATILE MEMORY

2.1INTRODUCTION

Volatile memory is computer storage that only maintains its data while the device
is powered. Most RAM (random access memory) used for primary storage in
personal computers is volatile memory. RAM is much faster to read from and write
to than the other kinds of storage in a computer, such as the hard disk or removable
media. However, the data in RAM stays there only while the computer is running;
when the computer is shut off, RAM loses its data.

Volatile memory contrasts with non-volatile memory, which does not lose content
when power is lost. Non-volatile memory has a continuous source of power and
does not need to have its memory content periodically refreshed. 

RAM technology is divided into two technologies: dynamic and Static.

The two basic forms of semiconductor random access memory are dynamic RAM
(DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM). SRAM is faster, more expensive, and less
dense than DRAM, and is used for cache memory. DRAM is used for main
memory

To compensate for the relatively slow speed of DRAM, a number of advanced

DRAM organizations have been introduced. The two most common are
synchronous DRAM and Ram-Bus DRAM. Both of these involve using the system
clock to provide for the transfer of blocks of data.

2.2 DYNAMIC RAM

A dynamic RAM (DRAM) is made with cells that store data as charge on
capacitors. The presence or absence of charge in a capacitor is interpreted as a
binary 1 or 0. Because capacitors have a natural tendency to discharge, dynamic
RAMs require periodic charge refreshing to maintain data storage. The term
dynamic refers to this tendency of the stored charge to leak away, even with power
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continuously applied. Figure 2.1 is a typical DRAM structure for an individual cell
that stores 1 bit.

The address line is activated when the bit value from this cell is to be read or
written. The transistor acts as a switch that is closed (allowing current to flow) if a
voltage is applied to the address line and open (no

Fig 2.1 Dynamic RAM

(DRAM) cell

Current flows) if no voltage is

present on the address line. For
the write operation, a voltage
signal is applied to the bit line;
a high voltage represents 1,
and a low voltage represents 0.
A signal is then applied to the
address line, allowing a
charge to be transferred to the
capacitor.

For the read operation, when the

address line is selected, the
transistor turns on and the
charge stored on the capacitor is fed out onto a bit line and to a sense amplifier
The sense amplifier compares the capacitor voltage to a reference value and
determines if the cell contains a logic 1 or a logic 0. The readout from the cell
discharges the capacitor, which must be restored to complete the operation.

Although the DRAM cell is used to store a single bit (0 or 1), it is essentially an
analog device. The capacitor can store any charge value within a range; a threshold
value determines whether the charge is interpreted as 1 or 0.

2.2.1 TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS DYNAMIC RAM

There are many type of synchronous dynamic RAM memories. So it categorized as

the following bellow.

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FPM DRAM (Fast page mode DRAM) An older type of asynchronous DRAM

that improved on previous types by allowing repeated accesses to a single "page"
of memory to occur at a faster rate. Used in the mid-1990s.

 EDO DRAM (Extended data out DRAM) An older type of asynchronous

DRAM which had faster access time than earlier types by being able to
initiate a new memory access while data from the previous access was still
being transferred. Used in the later part of the 1990s.
 VRAM (Video random access memory) An older type of dual-
ported memory once used for the frame buffers of video adapters(video
cards).
 This was a reorganization of the DRAM memory chip, which added a clock
line to enable it to operate in synchronism with the computer's memory
bus clock. The data on the chip is divided into banks so it can work on
several memory accesses simultaneously, in separate banks. It became the
dominant type of computer memory by about the year 2000.
 DDR SDRAM (Double data rate SDRAM) this was an increased data
rate modification, enabling the chip to transfer twice the memory data
(two consecutive words) on each clock cycle by double pumping,
transferring data on both the leading and trailing edges of the clock
pulse. Extensions of this idea are the current (2012) technique being
used to increase memory access rate and bandwidth. Since it is proving
difficult to further increase the internal clock speed of memory chips,
these chips increase data rate by transferring data in larger blocks:
 DDR2 SDRAM transfers 4 consecutive words per internal clock
cycle
 DDR3 SDRAM transfers 8 consecutive words per internal clock
cycle.
 DDR4 SDRAM transfers 16 consecutive words per internal clock
cycle.
 RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) an alternate double data rate memory
standard that was used on some Intel systems but ultimately lost out to
DDR SDRAM.
 SGRAM (Synchronous graphics RAM) a specialized type of SDRAM
made for graphics adaptors (video cards). It can perform graphics-related
operations such as bit masking and block write, and can open two pages
of memory at once.
 PSRAM (Pseudo static) this is DRAM which has circuitry to
perform memory refresh on the chip, so that it acts like SRAM, allowing

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the external memory controller to be shut down to save energy. It is used

in a few portable game controllers such as the Wii.

Fig 2.2 synchronous dynamic RAM

2.3 STATIC RAM

A static RAM (SRAM) is a digital device that uses the same logic elements used in
the processor. In a SRAM, binary values are stored using traditional flip-flop logic-
gate configurations. A static RAM will hold its data as long as power is supplied to
it.

Figure 2.2 is a typical SRAM structure for an individual cell. Four transistors (T1,
T2, T3, T4) are cross connected in an arrangement that produces a stable logic state.
In logic state 1, point C1 is high and point C2 is low; in this state, T1 and T4 are
off and T2 and T3 are on.1 In logic state 0, point C1 is low and point C2 is high; in

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this state,T1 and T4 are on and T2 and T3 are off. Both states are stable as long as
the direct current (dc) voltage is applied.

Unlike the DRAM, no refresh is needed to retain data. As in the DRAM, the
SRAM address line is used to open or close a switch. The address line controls two
transistors (T5 and T6).When a signal is applied to this line, the two transistors are
switched on, allowing a read or write operation. For a write operation, the desired
bit value is applied to line B, while its complement is applied to line. This forces
the four transistors (T1, T2, T3, T4) into the proper state. For a read operation, the bit
value is read from line B.

Fig 2.3 Static RAM (SRAM) cell

2.4 INTERLEAVED MEMORY

Main memory is composed of a collection of DRAM memory chips. A number of
chips can be grouped together to form a memory bank. It is possible to organize
the memory banks in a way known as interleaved memory. Each bank is
independently able to service a memory read or write request, so that a system with
K banks can service K requests simultaneously, increasing memory read or write
rates by a factor of K. If consecutive words of memory are stored in different

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banks, then the transfer of a block of memory is speeded up. Appendix E explores
the topic of interleaved memory.

2.5 SUMMARY
Generally the volatile memories contain static RAM and dynamic RAM. Both
static and dynamic RAMs are volatile; that is, power must be continuously
supplied to the memory to preserve the bit values. A dynamic memory cell is
simpler and smaller than a static memory cell. Thus, a DRAM is more dense
(smaller cells more cells per unit area) and less expensive than a corresponding
SRAM. On the other hand, a DRAM requires the supporting refresh circuitry. For
larger memories, the fixed cost of the refresh circuitry is more than compensated
for by the smaller variable cost of DRAM cells. Thus, DRAMs tend to be favored
for large memory requirements. DRAM is used for main memory.

A final point is that SRAMs are generally somewhat faster than DRAMs. Because
of these relative characteristics, SRAM is used for cache memory (both on and off
chip).

CHAPTER 3
NON-VOLATILE MEMORY

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

Non-volatile memory, nonvolatile memory, NVM or non-volatile storage is

computer memory that can retrieve stored information even after having been
power cycled. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory, flash
memory, ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM), most types of magnetic computer storage
devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early
computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.

Non-volatile memory is typically used for the task of secondary storage, or long-
term persistent storage. The most widely used form of primary storage today is a
volatile form of random access memory (RAM), meaning that when the computer
is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost. However, most forms of non-
volatile memory have limitations that make them unsuitable for use as primary
storage. Typically, non-volatile memory either costs more or has a poorer
performance than volatile random access memory.

Several companies are working on developing non-volatile memory systems

comparable in speed and capacity to volatile RAM. IBM is currently developing
MRAM (Magnetoresistive RAM). Not only would such technology save energy,
but it would allow for computers that could be turned on and off almost instantly,
bypassing the slow start-up and shutdown sequence. In addition, Ramtron
International has developed, produced, and licensed ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM),
a technology that offers distinct properties from other nonvolatile memory options,
including extremely high endurance (exceeding 1016 read/write cycles for 3.3 V
devices), ultra-low power consumption (since F-RAM does not require a charge
pump like other non-volatile memories), single-cycle write speeds, and gamma
radiation tolerance. Other companies that have licensed and produced F-RAM
technology include Texas Instruments, Rohm, and Fujitsu.

Non-volatile data storage can be categorized in electrically addressed systems

(read-only memory) and mechanically addressed systems (hard disks, optical disc,
magnetic tape, holographic memory, and such). Electrically addressed systems are
expensive, but fast, whereas mechanically addressed systems have a low price per
bit, but are slow. Non-volatile memory may one day eliminate the need for
comparatively slow forms of secondary storage systems, which include hard disks.

3.2 TYPE OF ROM

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As the name suggests, a read-only memory (ROM) contains a permanent pattern of

data that cannot be changed. A ROM is nonvolatile; that is, no power source is
required to maintain the bit values in memory. While it is possible to read a ROM.
This is designed to hold permanent data, and in normal operation is only read from,
not written to. Although many types can be written to, the writing process is slow
and usually all the data in the chip must be rewritten at once. It is usually used to
store system software which must be immediately accessible to the computer, such
as the BIOS program which starts the computer, and the software (microcode) for
portable devices and embedded computers such as microcontrollers

An important application of ROMs is micro-programming, discussed in Part Four.

Other potential applications include

 Library subroutines for frequently wanted functions

 System programs
 Function tables

For a modest-sized requirement, the advantage of ROM is that the data or program
is permanently in main memory and need never be loaded from a secondary stor-
age device.

A ROM is created like any other integrated circuit chip, with the data actually
wired into the chip as part of the fabrication process. This presents two problems:

 The data insertion step includes a relatively large fixed cost, whether one or
thousands of copies of a particular ROM are fabricated.
 There is no room for error. If one bit is wrong, the whole batch of ROMs
must be thrown out.

There are three common forms of read-mostly memory:

 EPROM,
 EEPROM,
 Flash Memory.

3.2.1 EPROM

An EPROM is an erasable ROM that can be changed more than once. However,
writing new data to an EPROM requires a special programmer circuit. EPROMs
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have a quartz window that allows them to be erased with ultraviolet light, but the
whole device is cleared at one time. A one-time programmable (OTP) device uses
an EPROM chip but omits the quartz window in the package; this is less costly
manufacture.

The optically erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is read and

written electrically, as with PROM. However, before a write operation, all the
storage cells must be erased to the same initial state by exposure of the packaged
chip to ultraviolet radiation. Erasure is performed by shining an intense ultraviolet
light through a window that is designed into the memory chip. This erasure process
can be performed repeatedly; each erasure can take as much as 20 minutes to per-
form. Thus, the EPROM can be altered multiple times and, like the ROM and
PROM, holds its data virtually indefinitely. For comparable amounts of storage,
the EPROM is more expensive than PROM, but it has the advantage of the
multiple up-date capability.

3.2.2 EEPROM

An electrically erasable programmable read-only memory EEPROM uses electrical

signals to erase memory. These erasable memory devices require much time to
erase data and to write new data; they are not usually configured to be programmed
by the processor of the target system. Data is stored by use of floating gate
transistors which require special operating voltages to be applied to trap or release
electric charge on an insulated control gate for storage sites.

A more attractive form of read-mostly memory is electrically erasable

programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). This is a read-mostly memory that
can be written into at any time without erasing prior contents; only the byte or
bytes ad-dressed are updated. The write operation takes considerably longer than
the read operation, on the order of several hundred microseconds per byte. The
EEPROM combines the advantage of non-volatility with the flexibility of being
updatable in place, using ordinary bus control, address, and data lines. EEPROM is
more expensive than EPROM and also is less dense, supporting fewer bits per
chip. Another form of semiconductor memory is flash memory (so named because
of the speed with which it can be reprogrammed). First introduced in the mid-

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1980s, flash memory is intermediate between EPROM and EEPROM in both cost
and functionality.

Like EEPROM, flash memory uses an electrical erasing technology. An entire

flash memory can be erased in one or a few seconds, which is much faster than
EPROM. In addition, it is possible to erase just blocks of memory rather than an
entire chip. Flash memory gets its name because the microchip is organized so that
a section of memory cells are erased in a single action or “flash.” However, flash
memory does not provide byte-level erasure. Like EPROM, flash memory uses
only one transistor per bit, and so achieves the high density (compared with
EEPROM) of EPROM.

3.2.3 FLASH MEMORY

Another form of semiconductor memory is flash memory (so named because of the
speed with which it can be reprogrammed). First introduced in the mid-1980s,
flash memory is intermediate between EPROM and EEPROM in both cost and
functionality. Like EEPROM, flash memory uses an electrical erasing technology.
An entire flash memory can be erased in one or a few seconds, which is much
faster than EPROM. In addition, it is possible to erase just blocks of memory rather
than an entire chip. Flash memory gets its name because the microchip is
organized so that a section of memory cells are erased in a single action or “flash.”
However, flash memory does not provide byte-level erasure. Like EPROM, flash
memory uses only one transistor per bit, and so achieves the high density
(compared with EEPROM) of EPROM.

In this type the writing process is intermediate in speed between EEPROMS and
RAM memory; it can be written to, but not fast enough to serve as main memory.
It is often used as a semiconductor version of a hard disk, to store files. It is used in
portable devices such as PDAs, USB flash drives, and removable memory
cards used in digital cameras and cellphones.
The flash memory chip is a close relative to the EEPROM; it differs in that it can
only erase one block or "page" at a time. It is a solid-state chip that maintains
stored data without any external power source Capacity is substantially larger than
that of an EEPROM, making these chips a popular choice for digital cameras and
desktop PC BIOS chips.

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Flash memory devices use two different logical technologies—NOR and NAND—
to map data. NOR flash provides high-speed random access, reading and writing
data in specific memory locations; it can retrieve as little as a single byte. NAND
flash reads and writes sequentially at high speed, handling data in small blocks
called pages, however it is slower on read when compared to NOR. NAND flash
reads faster than it writes, quickly transferring whole pages of data. Less expensive
than NOR flash at high densities, NAND technology offers higher capacity for the
same-size silicon

3.3 SUMMARY
Non-volatile memory, nonvolatile memory, NVM or non-volatile
storage is computer memory that can retrieve stored information even after having
been power cycled. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only
memory, flash memory,ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM), most types of magnetic
computer storage devices optical discs, and early computer storage methods such
as paper tape and punched cards.

Non-volatile memory is typically used for the task of secondary storage, or long-
term persistent storage. The most widely used form of primary storage today is a
volatile form of random access memory (RAM), meaning that when the computer
is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost. However, most forms of non-
volatile memory have limitations that make them unsuitable for use as primary
storage.

Non-volatile data storage can be categorized in electrically addressed systems

(read-only memory) and mechanically addressed systems (hard disks, optical
disc, magnetic tape, holographic memory, and such). Electrically addressed
systems are expensive, but fast, whereas mechanically addressed systems have a
low price per bit, but are slow. Non-volatile memory may one day eliminate the
need for comparatively slow forms of secondary storage systems, which include
hard disks.

References
1. By Russell Kay, ComputerWorld. “Flash memory.” 7 June 2010.

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2. F-RAM Memory Technology, Ramtron.com, retrieved 30 January 2012

3. Abbot, D.PCI Bus Demystified.New York: Elsevier, 2004.

4. Adamek, J. Foundations of Coding.New York: Wiley, 1991.

5. http://www.hynix.com/datasheet/pdf/flash/HY27UH08AG(5_D)M%20(Rev0.6).pdf

6. http://h18000.www1.hp.com/products/quickspecs/12128_div/12128_div.pdf