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8 Metamorphic Minerals and

Metamorphic Rocks

8.1 Metamorphic rock from Tanzania containing green zoisite,


red corundum, and black hornblende

8 Metamorphic Minerals and


Metamorphic Rocks
KEY CONCEPTS

Metamorphic minerals and rocks form when rocks undergo


changes in chemistry, texture, or composition.
Temperature and pressure are the most important causes
of metamorphism.
Different metamorphic textures characterized different
kinds of metamorphic rocks.
Chemical reactions of many sorts occur during
metamorphism.
Different parent-rock compositions produce different
kinds of metamorphic rocks.
The composition of the parent rock determines the
metamorphic minerals and rocks that may form.

8.1 The Causes of Metamorphism

8.2 Creating metamorphic


rocks

Metamorphic rocks, and the processes that create them, are key
parts of the rock cycle that also includes igneous and
sedimentary rocks and processes. Most metamorphic rocks form
when heat, pressure, or chemically reactive fluids cause
changes in preexisting rocks. The preexisting, or parent
rocks, are called protoliths. Protoliths can be igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic rock of all sorts. The changes
that occur during metamorphism may involve changes in rock
texture, in the minerals present, and sometimes in overall
rock composition. These changes record geologic processes and
events of the past. Metamorphic petrologists study metamorphic
rocks to interpret those histories.

8.3 Regional metamorphism


is more intense at depth
The most significant causes of metamorphism are mountain
building processes (tectonism) that bury, while heating and
squeezing, rocks. This kind of metamorphism, called regional
metamorphism, creates large metamorphic terranes, regions
characterized by distinctive metamorphic rocks and intensity
of metamorphism that may vary laterally. Regional metamorphism
occurs because both pressure and temperature increase with
depth in Earth (Figure 8.3). The deeper the rocks, the greater
the metamorphism. The photos in Figures 8.4 and 8.5 below show
two outcrops of regional metamorphic rocks.

8.4 Outcrop of schist, Green 8.5 Outcrop of gneiss near


Mountains, Vermont Sudbury, Ontario

Mountain building brings rocks from deep in Earth to the


surface. So, many examples of regional metamorphism are found
in mountain belts, for example the outcrop in Green Mountains
in Figure 8.4, above. Other examples are found in Precambrian
shields, relatively flat-lying areas that may be thousands of
kilometers across, that are the exposed roots of ancient
mountains. The gneiss seen in Figure 8.5 is from the Canadian
Shield in central Ontario.
8.6 Contact metamorphism around a
pluton

Although most regional metamorphism, which accounts for most


metamorphism, occurs at relatively deep levels within Earth,
metamorphism can also occur at shallow levels or even at
Earth’s surface. This occurs when magma that intrudes the
crust rises close to, or all the way to, the surface. In such
cases, heat from the magma can cause contact metamorphism that
affects shallow or surface rocks. The effects of contact
metamorphism may be profound, because of the high temperature
contrast between magmas and upper crustal rocks.

As seen in Figure 8.6, contact metamorphism leads to the


development of metamorphic zones called contact aureoles, or
skarns, that wrap around an intrusion. Aureoles and may be
anywhere from a few centimeters to many kilometers thick. The
formation of contact aureoles frequently involves
metasomatism, a change in rock composition due to flowing
metamorphic fluids. The width of an aureole mainly depends on
the size of the intrusion and how much fluid (mostly H 2O and
CO2) it gives off. Aureoles often develop concentric zones or
layers, each containing a distinct mineral assemblage that
reflects the maximum metamorphic temperature attained and the
amount of metasomatism.

Occasionally metamorphism occurs without significant tectonism


or magmatism. Metamorphism may occur because of hot water
flowing through rock in areas next to hot springs or other
geothermal areas. And, sometimes, water flowing through vast
regions of the crust alters rocks far from mountain belts.
These changes, mostly chemical in nature, can occur without
significant increases in temperature and pressure.

8.7 Metamorphism along a 8.8 Shatter cones caused


fault zone. Knapsack for by a meterorite impact.
scale. Cap-aix-Oies, Quebec

Metamorphism can also occur when rocks grind together in fault


zones or when meteorites impact Earth, leading to dynamic
metamorphism. Dynamic metamorphism, also called shock
metamorphism or cataclastic metamorphism, is an uncommon form
of metamorphism. It occurs because of sudden pressure exerted
by faults or meteorite impacts. The results are often the
fracturing and granulation of rocks and sometimes the creation
of high-pressure minerals such as coesite or stishovite, both
polymorphs of quartz. The two photos above (Figures 8.7 and
8.8) show examples: metamorphism of rocks along a fault zone,
and shatter cones created by a meteorite impact in Quebec.
Shatter cones are akin to the damage that a pebble does when
it strikes the windshield of your car.

Regional and contact metamorphism account for most metamorphic


rocks. Dynamic metamorphism is in a distant third place. Some
geologists have also described another kind of metamorphism,
called burial metamorphism, but it is really just high-
temperature diagenesis.

8.1.1 Prograde vs Retrograde Metamorphism


Metamorphic grade is a general term we use to describe the
temperature at which metamorphism occurs. Metamorphic grade is
important, not just because different kinds of rocks and
minerals form at different temperatures, but because
temperature affects chemical reaction rates. Rocks
metamorphosed at low temperature may change only very slowly,
and some changes may not go to completion. Rocks that form at
high temperatures generally do not have the same problems.
However, there are many kinds of metamorphic rocks, and some
of them are more chemically reactive than others.

8.9 Sheared serpentinite


with pencil for scale,
Marin County, California

Low-grade metamorphic rocks form at low temperatures,


generally between 150 and 450 °C. They mostly form at low
pressures, too. At the lower end of this range, diagenesis
overlaps metamorphism. Low-grade metamorphic rocks are often
fine grained. Because they are hard to study and frequently do
not represent chemical equilibrium, many metamorphic
petrologists prefer to study higher-grade rocks. The photo in
Figure 8.9 shows a serpentinite, an example of a low-grade
metamorphic rock. It contains serpentine and chlorite, both
hydrous minerals, that formed during metamorphism of a mafic
protolith.
Medium-grade metamorphism, forming at temperatures between 400
and about 600 °C, often produces rocks containing conspicuous
metamorphic minerals we can easily see and study. Many schists
are medium-grade rocks.

8.10 Garnet granulite, a


high-grade metamorphic rock

High-grade metamorphic rocks, which form at temperatures


greater than about 600 °C, are usually quite coarse-grained
and contain minerals easily identified in hand specimen. Most
form at high pressures. The high-grade rock shown in Figure
8.10 contains conspicuous cm-sized red garnet, black
hornblende, and white plagioclase feldspar.

Depending on its composition, a high-grade metamorphic rock


may undergo partial melting, also called anatexis, so both
metamorphic and igneous processes contribute to its evolution.
When this happens, the rock, strictly speaking, is no longer a
metamorphic rock. We call the resulting partially melted rocks
migmatites, which means “mixed rocks.” For some composition
rocks, partial melting may begin at temperatures as low as 700
°C. Other kinds of rocks, especially those that contain little
H2O, may remain completely solid to temperatures as great as
1100 °C.
8.11 Prograde and
retrograde metamorphism

Prograde metamorphism occurs when low-grade or unmetamorphosed


rocks change mineralogy or texture in response to a
temperature increase. If the metamorphism is gradual and
predictable, we call it progressive metamorphism. During
progressive metamorphism, a series of reactions occur as the
degree of metamorphism increases. Rock mineralogy changes
multiple times before equilibrating at the highest temperature
conditions. While this idea makes a convenient conceptual
model, it is not correct for all metamorphic rocks. For
example, many metamorphic rocks are deep in Earth where
pressure and temperature are great. They were never
unmetamorphosed rocks at low pressure and temperature. Other
rocks go from low temperature to high temperature, perhaps
because of rapid intrusion of a pluton, so rapidly that they
skip intermediate stages. Still other rocks may only partially
equilibrate during metamorphism. Finally, some metamorphic
rocks form by retrograde reactions (metamorphism in response
to temperature decrease). This is especially true for mafic
rocks that were metamorphosed at high-grade conditions. Upon
uplift and cooling, retrograde metamorphism may replace
original high-temperature mineral assemblages with low-grade
minerals. Figure 8.11 compares paths of prograde and
retrograde metamorphism.
8.12 A large diamond
crystal in kimberlite. The
largest crystal is about 7
mm across.

One of the most intriguing questions about metamorphic rocks


is: Why do we find high-grade minerals at the surface of Earth
where they are unstable? The laws of thermodynamics say that
rocks will change mineralogy in response to increasing
temperature (prograde metamorphism), so why don’t they undergo
opposite (retrograde metamorphism) changes when temperature
decreases as the rock reaches Earth’s surface? If rocks always
went to equilibrium, we should have no samples of high-grade
rocks or minerals to study. Yet, we do. For example, we have
samples of diamond-bearing kimberlite, like the specimen seen
in this photo, that are unstable and should break down at
Earth’s surface.

Several considerations help answer these questions:

• Prograde metamorphic events are usually of much longer


duration than retrograde events, giving minerals more time
to achieve equilibrium.

• Prograde metamorphism liberates fluids not present when


retrogression occurs. The fluids act as fluxes to promote
prograde metamorphism; their absence may hinder
retrogression. And, the absence of fluids means that some
low-grade minerals cannot form.

• Prograde reactions are mostly endothermic, which means


they consume heat. The heat that causes metamorphism
naturally fuels the reactions. In contrast, retrograde
reactions are mostly exothermic – they give off heat. There
is no outside energy driving the reactions.

• At low temperature, reactions are very sluggish; they may


not have time to reach equilibrium.

• More complex, low-grade minerals often have difficulty


nucleating and growing.

8.2 Pressure and Temperature


Metamorphism, which may affect any kind of rock, occurs over a
wide range of pressure and temperature conditions. This leads
to tremendous variation in metamorphic rocks and the minerals
they contain. Most of the metamorphic minerals we see form at
temperatures of 150 to 850 °C and at pressures of 1 bar to 10
kbar. Exceptions, however, do exist (see Box 8.1, below).

8.2.1 Heat and Temperature

8.13 The ways that heat


moves

Heat is, perhaps, the most significant cause of metamorphism.


Heat is thermal energy that can move (flow) from one place to
another or from one substance – such as rock, magma, or water
– to another. Thermal energy is high for substances at high
temperature and low for substances at low temperature.
Three processes transfer heat: conduction, convection, and
radiation; but within Earth, heat transfer by radiation is
insignificant. Conductive heat transfer occurs when heat flows
naturally from a place of high temperature to one of low
temperature with no associated movement of matter. Thus, for
example, heat is always flowing from Earth’s hot interior to
the cooler surface by conduction. And if a (hot) magma
intrudes the (cooler) crust, the magma will cool as heat is
conducted grain-by-grain into the surrounding rock, causing
the surrounding rock to warm while the magma cools. This
warming initially occurs only next to the magma body, but,
over time, heat is conducted farther away. Magmatic intrusions
can affect a large area.

Convective heat transfer, which is more efficient than


conductive heat transfer, is the transfer of heat due to the
flow of material, such as the flow of hot water or hot air.
Within Earth, convection occurs mostly because of flowing
water and flowing magmas. Heat transfer by water can have a
significant, although generally quite local, effect. Heat
transfer by convecting magmas can be much more significant and
can warm huge regions of the crust. And in Earth’s mantle, the
slow creep of solid rock due to plate tectonics also moves
heat by convection.
● Box 8-1: Extremes of Metamorphism
Most metamorphic rocks we see were formed at temperatures of less than 800 to 850 °C and pressures
less than 10 kbar. Yet, petrologists do occasionally find rocks that were metamorphosed at
pressures greater than 10 kbar or temperatures greater than 850 °C.

8.14 Talc-kyanite schist from the Dora Maira massif


The talc-kyanite schists from the Dora Maira Massif, Italy, are examples of extremely high-
pressure rocks. The Dora Maira rocks have been called whiteschists because of their very light
color (Figure 8.14). Besides talc and kyanite, they contain pyrope (white to pink Mg-garnet),
phengite (a white mica related to muscovite), and quartz as major minerals. Coesite (a high-
pressure polymorph of SiO2) and ellenbergite (another high-pressure mineral) are found as small
inclusions in some of the pyrope crystals. Whiteschists are unusual rocks that have been reported
from multiple different places.

8.15 The Dora Maira whiteschists and Napier Complex metapelites represent extremes of metamorphism
Chopin (1984) and others have concluded that the Dora Maira rocks may have originated as shallow
crustal rocks but were subsequently metamorphosed at about 35 kbar pressure and temperatures of
700 to 750 °C. While the temperature is not extreme, the pressure is; 35 kbar is equivalent to a
depth in Earth of more than 100 km (see the diagram in Figure 8.15). There are few places where
rocks metamorphosed at that depth are found at Earth’s surface – especially if their protoliths
originally came from the shallow crust. The Dora Maira rocks were carried to great depth and
returned to the surface during the Alpine Orogeny in southern Europe.

8.16 Sapphirine (blue) is a rare high-temperature aluminous mineral. Red garnet and quartz are
also seen in this photo.
Metapelites (metamorphosed clay-rich sediments) of the Napier Complex, Enderby Land, Antarctica,
are examples of extremely high-temperature metamorphism. An example is found in Figure 8.16. The
rocks contain distinctive high-temperature mineral assemblages, which include the relatively rare
minerals pigeonite, osumilite, and sapphirine. Several studies concluded that the Napier rocks
were metamorphosed at pressures of 7 to 8 kbar and temperatures of more than 1,000 °C, perhaps as
high as 1,075 °C. How did these rocks get so hot, and how did they escape melting? The answer to
the first question is not known. Some investigators believe that a magmatic heat must have been
involved. The answer to the second is that the rocks are of a composition that does not melt
easily when water is absent. The Napier rocks were apparently metamorphosed in the absence of
water.
8.17 The temperature
increase with depth in
Earth in various
settings. The numbers
in the columns are
temperature in ̊
C.

Different places on Earth get their heat by different


combinations of conduction and convection. Earth’s geothermal
gradient, the rate at which temperature increases with depth,
averages about 25 to 35̊ C/km near the surface in most places.
This gradient, also called a geotherm, is mostly due to
conductive heat flow. The left column in Figure 8.17 shows
temperature-depth relationships for a normal geotherm typical
of regions where all heat transfer is by conduction.

In mountain belts and other places where volcanic activity


occurs, convective heat flow due to rising magmas contributes
much more heat than normal conduction. Consequently,
temperature increases faster with depth than is normal (middle
column, Figure 8.17). In some places, next to large igneous
intrusions, contact metamorphism occurs and extremely high
temperatures may persist for short times before the intrusions
cool.

In subduction zones (right column, Figure 8.17), generally


cooler temperatures are present. Descending slabs of wet cool
ocean lithosphere, which have been continuously carried to
depth for millions of years, cool the crust and upper mantle
below. So, the rate of temperature increase with depth is less
than normal.

8.2.2 Pressure and Depth

8.18 Lithostatic
pressure

After heat, pressure is the most significant cause of


metamorphism. If pressure is applied to a rock, the rock may
change size or texture, or perhaps develop new minerals to
replace old ones. Burial causes rocks to experience
lithostatic pressure, also called confining pressure.
Lithostatic pressure is the same in all directions (Figure
8.18), and thus can cause an object to become smaller without
altering its overall shape. This kind of pressure is
equivalent to the pressure that swimmers feel on their ears
when they go to the bottom of the deep end of a swimming pool.
The pressure on a swimmer’s ears accrues because of the weight
of water pushing down from above. Within Earth, the weight of
rock, which is commonly three times denser than water, causes
lithostatic pressure to build up quickly with depth. As shown
in Figure 8.17, pressure of around 12 kbar is reached at 40
kilometers depth, although pressure depends, in part, on the
density of overlying rocks. Typical metamorphic rocks form at
pressures of 0 to 10 kbars, but we find higher pressure rocks
in some places. High-pressure rocks are rare because to get to
very high pressure requires that rocks are buried to great
depth – an uncommon occurrence. Subsequently, getting the
rocks back to the surface so we can see them is even more
problematic.

8.2.3 Directed Stress

8.19 Directed stress


causes deformation

Directed stress, sometimes called differential pressure, is


also a force applied to an object, but the force is not the
same in all directions. For example, when we squeeze a lemon,
we are applying directed stress. When we stretch a rubber
band, we are also applying directed stress. The drawing in
Figure 8.19 shows greater stress being applied horizontally
than vertically, causing compression in one dimension. Within
Earth, directed stress is common due to plate tectonic
processes that push large pieces of lithosphere together or
pull pieces apart. Unlike lithostatic pressure, high levels of
directed stresses are not sustained for long because rocks
deform to reduce the stress. Directed stress, thus, is
commonly associated with rock folding or faulting.
8.20 Gneiss may be
created when directed
stress is applied to a
granite

Directed stress can cause new minerals to form within a rock,


but much more commonly it produces deformation, fracturing, or
textural changes only. Mineral grains may rotate, align,
become distorted, or disintegrate. Figure 8.20 shows how
directed stress can change granite (igneous rock) into gneiss
(metamorphic rock). Directed stress may also cause
recrystallization as grains dissolve and regrow in other
places, or combine to produce larger crystals. Sometimes,
directed stress causes shearing, which means that different
parts of a rock slide past each other.

8.21 A mylonite, a
highly deformed rock
from Otrøy in the
Western Gneiss Region,
Norway

During shearing, mineral grains can become elongated in one


direction, and fractures can develop that give a rock a planar
texture. This figure (8.21) shows a rock called mylonite, a
highly deformed kind of rock created when fine sheared
material recrystallizes. The sample is from Norway’s Western
Gneiss Region. Directed stress, parallel to the layering in
this rock, caused feldspar (white) and biotite (black) grains
to become elongated as shearing took place. While this was
occurring, metamorphism produced wine-red garnet crystals – a
single large one is near the left side of the photo and many
small ones are scattered throughout. The 1-euro coin is 2.3 cm
across, for scale.

8.2.4 Metamorphic Fluids

8.22 Fluid inclusions in a


crystal of zoisite

Metamorphism often involves fluids, most commonly water-rich


but sometimes dominated by carbon dioxide, sulfur, or other
components. Many mineral grains contain fluid inclusions that
have trapped samples of fluids that once flowed through them.
Figure 8.22 shows a fluid inclusion that contains liquid, gas
bubbles, and minerals that crystallized from the trapped
fluid. The color is an artifact of the way the photo was
taken.
Metamorphic fluids may be magmatic (expelled by magmas as they
crystallize), meteoric (derived from precipitation that
infiltrates the ground), released during subduction of wet
lithosphere, or products of reactions that release H2O or CO2
from minerals. Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs when warm
fluids significantly alter protolith rocks. This kind of
metamorphism can affect large areas and be part of regional
metamorphism, or it can be localized and part of contact
metamorphism. In either case, the metamorphism involves hot,
generally water-rich fluids that flow through cracks and along
grain boundaries. The fluids act as catalysts and fluxes that
promote reactions and large crystal growth. More important,
the fluids may cause metasomatism that changes the composition
of the protolith by adding or removing specific elements. The
resulting rock may be of a much different composition than its
parent. Metasomatism creates many kinds of products. It can,
for example, create ore deposits by concentrating minerals
(most commonly copper, iron, or lead sulfides) in host rocks
where they did not exist previously.

8.3 Metamorphic Textures


8.3.1 Grain size and Porphyroblasts

8.23 A garnet-muscovite
schist from Syros, Greece.
The garnet porphyroblasts
are nearly as large as the
1-euro coin.

Textural changes take place as rocks undergo prograde


metamorphism, and rocks develop metamorphic fabrics. A general
coarsening of grain size is typical as small mineral grains
recrystallize to form larger ones. This is Ostwald ripening in
action (refer to the discussion in Chapter 4). While minerals
that are already present recrystallize, new metamorphic
minerals may grow and modify rock texture. If minerals develop
into large crystals that contrast in size with other minerals
in a rock, we call the large crystals porphyroblasts. Fine-
grained material around the porphyroblasts is the groundmass.
The garnets in Figure 8.23 are good examples of porphyroblasts
surrounded by groundmass.

8.3.2 Lineations and Foliations


Porphyroblasts are one kind of metamorphic fabric, but there
are others. In some deformed rocks, mineral grains assume a
distinctive arrangement that gives metamorphic rocks a
lineation, long mineral grains all pointing in the same
direction, or a foliation, minerals lining up to give a planar
fabric. Lineation occurs when amphiboles, kyanite,
sillimanite, and other minerals that form long thin crystals,
lie parallel in a rock. The photo below in Figure 8.24 shows
lineation caused by aligned hornblende (amphibole) crystals.
8.24 Aligned crystals of black 8.25 Foliated metamorphic
hornblende give this rock rock (slate) with a bedding
lineation. The crystals are up plane. A quarter for scale.
to 2 cm long.

Alignment of clays, micas, graphite, or other platy minerals,


the separation of a rock into light and dark layers, or
parallel fracturing leads to planar fabrics called foliation.
The photo on the right above (Figure 8.25) shows foliation
(vertical fracture traces) that cuts across a bedding plane
separating rock of different compositions.

8.3.3 Slate

8.26 Green slate from


Pawley, Vermont. About 8 cm
across.
Slates, which form during low-grade metamorphism of shales,
comprise primarily microscopic clay grains, perhaps with some
minor mica. Metamorphism may obliterate the original bedding
as foliation develops perpendicular to the direction of
maximum stress. This foliation, slaty cleavage, gives slates a
property called fissility – an ability to break into thin
sheets of rock with flat smooth surfaces. The photo in Figure
8.25 above shows an example of slaty cleavage. Figure 8.26,
seen here, is another example of slate. The minerals in this
rock cannot be identified in hand specimen, but in thin
section quartz, feldspar, and chlorite can be seen. Slates
come in many colors, but various shades of gray are most
common. Thin sheets of slate have historically been used for
paving or roofing stone.

8.3.4 Phyllite

8.27 Example of a phyllite

Figure 8.27 shows a sample of phyllite, a shiny foliated rock


created by further metamorphism of slates. The foliation is
due to parallel alignment of very small – mostly microscopic –
muscovite, chlorite, or other micas, sometimes with graphite.
Phyllites, which form at higher metamorphic grades than
slates, sparkle because clay minerals have metamorphosed to
produce small grains of mica. Thus, foliation of phyllites is
different from the foliation in slates that stems from clay
mineral alignment, and different from foliation in schists
because schists always contain visible mica grains. Like
slates, phyllites exhibit fissility.

Phyllites are typically black, gray, or green, and the fine-


grained micas and graphite, which are too small to see without
a microscope, give phyllites the silky/shiny appearance, or
sheen, called a phyllitic luster. It is this luster – which is
absent from slate and schist – that really defines a phyllite.
Additionally, although not seen in Figure 8.27, layering in
some phyllites is deformed, giving the rocks a sort of wavy or
crinkly appearance.

8.3.5 Schist

8.28 muscovite schist

Schists, which form under medium-grade metamorphic conditions,


contain medium-to-coarse flakes of aligned mica that we can
easily see. This photo (Figure 8.28) shows a typical schist.
Schists are higher- grade rocks than phyllites, and most form
when phyllites are further metamorphosed. Thus, the precursors
of schists are shale, slate, and phyllite. Less commonly,
however, schist may form by metamorphism of fine-grained
igneous rocks, such as tuff or basalt. Large and aligned flaky
minerals, easily seen with the naked eye, define schists.
These minerals are most commonly muscovite (such as in this
photo) or biotite in parallel or near-parallel orientations
that give the rocks schistosity – the ability to be broken
easily in one direction but not in other directions.
Most schists are mica schists, but graphite, talc, chlorite,
and hornblende schists are common. Quartz and feldspar are
present in mica schists, often deformed or elongated parallel
to the micas, and many other minerals are possible. If schists
contain prominent minerals, we name them accordingly. So the
schist in Figure 8.23 is a garnet schist, and the one in
Figure 8.28 is a muscovite schist, or simply a mica schist.
Photos of staurolite schist and kyanite schist are included
later in this chapter.

8.3.6 Gneiss
At higher grades, metamorphic rocks may develop compositional
layering because different minerals concentrate in layers of
contrasting colors. We call such rocks gneisses. The defining
characteristics of most gneisses, such as the gneisses seen in
Figure 8.29 and Figure 8.30, are that the rocks are medium- to
coarse-grained and contain alternating layers of light and
dark-colored minerals that give the rock foliation called
gneissic banding. The banding in the garnet gneiss (Figure
8.30) is not particularly well-developed but is present.

8.29 A biotite-quartz 8.30 A garnet gneiss. The


gneiss. The specimen is garnets are up to 5 mm
6.8 cm across. across.

Gneisses, the highest temperature-pressure kinds of foliated


metamorphic rock, typify many regions that have undergone
high-temperature metamorphism. Gneissic banding most commonly
forms in response to directed stress. Sometimes, layering may
form solely due to chemical processes that concentrate
different minerals in different layers. The felsic light-
colored layers typically contain quartz and feldspars, and the
more mafic darker layers typically contain biotite,
hornblende, or pyroxene. Accessory minerals such as garnet are
common.

8.31 Deformed granitic


gneiss

Sometimes gneissic banding is deformed, as seen in Figure


8.31. This gneiss, from the Czech Republic, contains pink K-
feldspar rich layers alternating with darker layers that
contain biotite. Metamorphism produced parallel layers of
contrasting mineralogy (and color) and subsequent deformation
caused the layers to deformed. Figure 8.5 shows another
example of a deformed gneiss.

Gneisses are often named based on their protoliths, and


petrologists use the general terms orthogneiss for gneisses
derived from igneous rocks, and paragneiss for gneisses
derived from sedimentary rocks. More specific names abound –
for example, pelitic gneisses form by metamorphism of
originally clay-rich sedimentary rocks, granitic gneisses
(such as the one shown in Figure 8.31) form by metamorphism of
granites, and mafic gneisses form by metamorphism of mafic
igneous rocks. Sometimes key minerals are often included in
rock names. For example, a garnet gneiss is a gneiss that
contains conspicuous garnet crystals.
8.32 Augen gneiss

Some gneisses do not display well-defined dark- and light-


colored banding but still maintain less distinct foliation.
For example, the foliation in kyanite gneiss may come from
alignment of light-colored kyanite crystals in an otherwise
quartz- and muscovite-rich rock. An augen gneiss, such as the
gneiss shown in Figure 8.32, contains large feldspar crystals
– “eyes” (augen is German for eyes) – stretched in one
direction. The gneiss in this photo is oriented so the stretch
direction (and, thus, the foliation) is horizontal.

8.3.7 Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks

8.33 Biotite hornfels,


about 7 cm across, from
Riverside County,
California

Some metamorphic rocks are fine-grained and lack metamorphic


fabrics. For example, hornfels are dark colored fine-grained
rocks lacking both lineation and foliation. Many hornfels form
at low pressure from contact metamorphism of a mudstone or
shale. These rocks may contain no visible layering or
fractures and appear as a homogeneous mass. Most hornfels are
quite hard and durable because constituent grains are tightly
bound together. Figure 8.33 shows an example of biotite
hornfels, the most common kind of hornfels. These rocks are
dark brown and sometimes have a slight sheen due to
microscopic grains of biotite. Other hornfels may have
different colors; the color depends on the minerals present.
Some hornfels contain grains that become visible after
weathering (because different minerals weather in different
ways) but, because of the generally uniform rock color, are
invisible otherwise.

8.34 Metamorphosed basalt from 8.35 Metamorphosed pillow


near Ely, Minnesota basalt, Italy

Greenstones, which are a specific kind of hornfels, form by


metamorphism of basalts. Figure 8.34 shows a 9-cm wide sample
of greenstone from Ely, Minnesota. The greenish color is due
to chlorite or epidote that grew during metamorphism. Figure
8.35 shows an outcrop of greenstone in Italy. The rock
originated as an ocean-floor basalt, and contains rounded
structures called pillows, indicative of submarine eruption.
8.36 Blue calcite marble
from the western Adirondack
Mountains, New York

Many nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are dominated by a single


mineral. In these rocks, individual mineral grains or
crystals, which may start small, recrystallize (grow together)
during metamorphism to produce larger crystals. Figure 8.36,
for example, shows an 8-cm wide rock consisting only of coarse
blue calcite. This rock had a limestone protolith.
Petrologists use the term marble for all metamorphic carbonate
rocks – rocks that form from limestone or dolostone –
dominated by calcite or dolomite. (This sometimes leads to
confusion because builders and others use the same word to
describe any polished slab of rock.)

8.37 An example of
quartzite

Quartzite, also a common nonfoliated metamorphic rock, forms


by metamorphism of sandstone. Most sandstones comprise mainly
quartz and so do quartzites. Figure 8.37 shows a typical
example. It consists of small quartz crystals that have grown
together so that no grain boundaries are visible without a
microscope. The recrystallization produced a typical hard and
shiny quartzite (sometimes described as frosty), and during
metamorphism any original sedimentary textures were erased.
Common quartzites are white or gray, but minor components may
add color. The pink color in this sample comes from hematite
that may have been part of the cement that held the sandstone
together. If the protolith sandstone contained minerals
besides quartz, so too will the product quartzite. Thus,
feldspar, titanite, rutile, magnetite, or zircon may be
present in small amounts. And, if the protolith contained some
clay, micas and other aluminous minerals may be present.

8.38 Garnet granulite from


Lower Silesia, Poland

This figure (8.38) shows an example of a garnet granulite.


Many granulites are foliated, but this one is not. Granulites
form at the highest grades of metamorphism and can form from
many sorts of protoliths. This rock contains black biotite,
light-colored K-feldspar and many conspicuous red garnets. The
abundant biotite and garnet tell us that the rock is aluminum-
rich, suggesting it has a sedimentary origin. Figure 8.10
shows a different granulite; it contains hornblende and
plagioclase besides large garnets. The garnet porphyroblasts
in Figure 8.10 are 1-2 cm wide. The garnets in this granulite
are only a few millimeters wide at most.

8.4 Metamorphic Reactions


8.4.1 Different Kinds of Reactions
Examples of Metamorphic Reactions
Solid-solid reactions:
xxxandalusite = sillimanite
xxxAl2SiO5 = Al2SiO5
xxxgrossular + quartz = anorthite +
2 wollastonite
xxxCa3Al2Si3O12 + SiO2 = CaAl2Si2O8 + 2
CaSiO3
Dehydration reactions:
xxxmuscovite + quartz = K-feldspar
+ sillimanite + vapor
xxxKAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2 + SiO2 =
KAlSi3O8 + Al2SiO5 + H2O
xxxkaolinite + 2 quartz =
pyrophyllite + vapor
xxxAl2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2 SiO2 =
Al2Si4O10(OH)2 + H2O
Hydration reaction:
xxxenstatite + 2 H2O = 2 brucite +
2 quartz
xxxMg2Si2O6 + 2 H2O = 2 Mg(OH)2 + 2
SiO2
Carbonation reaction:
xxxforsterite + 2 CO2 = 2 magnesite
+ quartz
xxxMg2SiO4 + 2 CO2 = 2 MgCO3 + SiO2

As discussed in Chapter 4, under any pressure and temperature,


the most stable mineral assemblage is the one with the lowest
Gibbs free energy. So, when a rock is heated or squeezed,
chemical reactions occur that may consume old minerals and
create new ones. These reactions may be of several types. The
table seen here gives examples of different types of
metamorphic reactions.

Solid-solid reactions involve no H 2 O, CO 2 , or other vapor


phase. The first example of a solid-solid reaction contains
only two minerals, both Al2SiO5 polymorphs. This reaction may
occur when a metamorphosed shale is heated to high
temperature. But most metamorphic reactions involve more than
two minerals, and many involve H2O or CO2. The second solid-
solid reaction is more typical and involves four minerals.
Dehydration reactions and decarbonation reactions, such as the
examples in this table, liberate H 2 O and CO 2 , respectively.
Hydration reactions and carbonation reactions consume H2O and
CO2, respectively.

Metamorphic reactions involve changes in mineralogy or in


mineral composition. A mineral assemblage is at chemical
equilibrium if no such changes are occurring. If the
assemblage has the lowest Gibbs free energy possible for the
given conditions, it is at stable equilibrium. In principle,
all rocks tend toward stable equilibrium. Whether they reach
it depends on many things, including temperature, grain size,
and reaction kinetics. If reactions cease before a rock has
reached stable equilibrium, the rock is at metastable
equilibrium. Many metamorphic rocks contain metastable
minerals.

We call a stable mineral assemblage representative of a given


set of pressure-temperature conditions a paragenesis. When
conditions change, metamorphic reactions may create a new
paragenesis as some minerals disappear and others grow. Such
reactions may be prograde or retrograde. Most of the reactions
in the table above are prograde, but the two examples of
carbonation and hydration reactions are retrograde reactions
that often affect mafic rocks.

Prograde metamorphism involves the breakdown of minerals


stable at lower temperature to form minerals stable at higher
temperature. Some prograde reactions are solid-solid
reactions, but most involve the release of H2O or CO2 that flow
along cracks or grain boundaries. As temperature increases,
minerals containing H2O or CO2 become increasingly unstable,
causing dehydration or decarbonation, and the release of H2O or
CO2 as intergranular fluid. If we ignore H2O and CO2, we find
that most prograde metamorphism is nearly isochemical, meaning
that the rock is the same composition before and after
metamorphism. Sometimes, however, flowing fluids and
metasomatism can be the dominant forces controlling
metamorphism.

Retrograde metamorphism is, in many ways, just the opposite of


prograde metamorphism. H2O- and CO2-free minerals react with
fluids to produce hydrous or carbonate minerals. Mg-silicates
such as forsterite (Mg 2 SiO 4 ), and enstatite (Mg 2 Si 2 O 6 ), for
example, may react to form talc or serpentine (both hydrated
Mg-silicates), brucite (Mg hydroxide), or magnesite (Mg
carbonate), at low temperature. In contrast with prograde
reactions, retrograde reactions are often quite sluggish. They
may not go to completion and frequently do not reach stable
equilibrium. Sometimes retrogression only affects parts of a
rock or parts of some grains in a rock.

8.4.2 Metamorphic Phase Diagrams


8.39 The stability of different
aluminosilicate minerals

The laws of thermodynamics allow us to predict which minerals


form under particular conditions. We use phase diagrams like
the ones seen in Figure 8.39 to show the conditions at which
particular minerals or mineral assemblages are stable. The
diagram on the left, for example, depicts stability fields for
kyanite, sillimanite, and andalusite, the Al2SiO5 polymorphs.
The different fields are the ranges of pressure and
temperature where each polymorph is stable. The reaction lines
separating the fields show the conditions at which chemical
reactions occur.

The diagram on the right shows the same information, but the
reactions are labeled, not the stability fields. Petrologists
use both kinds of diagrams. These diagrams tell us that rocks
containing kyanite form at low temperature and high pressure,
rocks containing andalusite form at low pressure, and those
containing sillimanite form at high temperature. The diagram
also allows us to make predictions: for example, if a rock
containing andalusite is metamorphosed at high temperature,
the andalusite will change into sillimanite.

Phase diagrams for simple chemical systems may only contain a


few reactions. The aluminosilicate diagram (above in Figure
8.39) is an example. All the minerals considered have the same
composition and are related by three reactions:
kyanite = andalusite (reaction 1)
Al2SiO5 = Al2SiO5

andalusite = sillimanite (reaction 2)


Al2SiO5 = Al2SiO5

kyanite = sillimanite (reaction 3)


Al2SiO5 = Al2SiO5

Reactions between kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite are


only three of many that involve minerals of Al2O3, SiO2, and H2O
chemical system. Other minerals consist of these same
components. The phase diagram seen below in Figure 8.40 is a
more complete phase diagram for the system. It includes all
stable minerals and reactions. Some of the reactions give off
water vapor, labeled as H2O. Eight minerals are involved but
most have restricted stability fields.

Stable Minerals in
the System:
Al2O3 – SiO2 – H2O

Mineral Formula
kaolinite

(Ka)

quartz (Qz)
Al4(Si4O10)(OH)8
pyrophyllite
SiO2
(Py)
diaspore Al2Si4O10(OH)2

(Dsp) AlO(OH)

kyanite (Ky) Al2SiO5

andalusite Al2SiO5

(And) Al2SiO5
sillimanite Al2O3
(Sill)
corundum

(Co)
8.40 Minerals and reactions in the system Al2O3 –
SiO2 – H2O

According to this phase diagram, at low temperature, kaolinite


(a clay mineral) and quartz are stable together, but as
temperature increases to almost 300 ̊ C, kaolinite and quartz
react to produce pyrophyllite and H2O vapor. With a bit more
heating, any leftover kaolinite decomposes to pyrophyllite,
diaspore, and H 2 O vapor. Pyrophyllite itself breaks down at
higher temperatures – around 400 ̊
C, so pyrophyllite is only be
stable over a limited range of temperature. At temperatures
over about 450 °C, the only stable minerals are corundum,
quartz, and the three Al2SiO5 polymorphs (andalusite, kyanite,
sillimanite), but corundum and quartz cannot be found
together.

Phase diagrams like this permit prediction of the pressures


and temperatures at which individual minerals and specific
mineral assemblages will form. Conversely, these diagrams
allow us to estimate the pressure and temperature of formation
for some rocks containing specific minerals. For example,
rocks containing kaolinite and quartz are constrained to have
formed at temperatures below about 300 °C. If andalusite
accompanies the kaolinite and quartz, pressure is restricted
to less than 1 kbar.
● Box 8-2: Using Phase Diagrams
If a rock contains a specific mineral assemblage at
equilibrium, we can use an appropriate phase diagram to put
restrictions on the conditions at which the rock formed. For
example, the diagram in this box is modified from Figure
8.40. It lists all the different 3-mineral assemblages that
are stable within fields between reactions. (For simplicity,
only assemblages in the high-pressure fields are labeled.)
The different assemblages are consistent with the reactions
shown.

8.41 Minerals and reactions in the system Al2O3-SiO2-H2O


But, besides 3-mineral assemblages, different pairs of
minerals are stable within the different fields. And
individual minerals are stable in different parts of the
diagram. In all, there are 87 different mineral combinations
stable in different parts of the diagram. If we labeled them
all, the diagram would become very messy. This is why most
phase diagrams only have reactions labeled.
Consider a rock that contains only diaspore. This diagram
says it could have formed in any of the fields 1 through 5.
In Field 6, diaspore is not stable and breaks down to
corundum and H2O. Suppose a rock contains diaspore with
pyrophyllite. It is stable in Fields 1, 2, and 3, but not at
higher temperatures because the two minerals would react to
kyanite and H2O. And, consider a rock that contains
pyrophyllite, diaspore, and H2O. It is stable in Field 3 only.
At lower temperature the minerals react to produce kaolinite,
and at higher temperature pyrophyllite and diaspore react to
produce kyanite. What about four minerals together? Four
minerals can only be stable if conditions lie on one of the
reaction lines. Thus, we see that the more minerals present,
the more restricted the conditions of formation. This is true
for all chemical systems at equilibrium, not just minerals in
rocks.
8.5 Metasedimentary Rocks and
Minerals
Compositional Classes of
Metamorphic Rocks
rock class protolith
shale and related
metapelites
sediments

metasandstones sandstones

limestone or
metacarbonates
dolostone

metamorphosed iron
iron-rich sediments
formation

metagranites granitic rocks

metabasalts basaltic rocks

Metamorphic rocks may contain all the minerals common in


sedimentary and igneous rocks, plus many minerals exclusive to
metamorphic rocks. The two most important factors controlling
mineralogy are the composition of the rock and the pressure-
temperature conditions of metamorphism. For convenience, we
divide the most common rock types into general compositional
classes. The table seen here lists the most important classes
considered by petrologists.

The composition of a metamorphic rock, which is the


composition of the protolith, is key because it controls the
metamorphic minerals that may be present. Metamorphic minerals
in metapelites, metacarbonates, metabasites, metagranites,
etc., are all different because of differences in rock
chemistry. Metapelites typically contain micas and may also
contain staurolite, garnet, and other aluminous minerals.
Besides containing calcite or dolomite, metacarbonates may
contain Ca-Mg silicates. Metagranites usually contain the
minerals that igneous granites contain. And, metabasites
commonly contain plagioclase, pyroxenes, and amphiboles. In
the discussions below, we look at the minerals common in rocks
of different compositions. The focus is mostly on prograde
minerals, but rocks of any composition may undergo retrograde
metamorphism or alteration that produce a variety of low-
temperature minerals.

8.5.1 Metamorphosed Pelitic Rocks


(Metapelites)
Metapelites derive from the metamorphism of shale and other
clay-rich sediments. When metamorphosed, dehydration reactions
change clay minerals into new minerals containing less H2O. At
low grade this leads to the formation of chlorite and
muscovite. At higher grade, biotite forms. Foliated textures
develop as muscovite and biotite crystallize, so metapelites
may be slates, phyllites, schists or gneisses depending on
grade. Examples are shown earlier in this chapter in Figures
8.23 and 8.26 through 8.30.

Metapelites are rich in Al, Si, and K and may contain


substantial amounts of Fe and Mg, so minerals containing these
elements dominate metapelitic rocks. The table below lists the
most common and important minerals in these rocks. The
minerals in the left column may exist in low-grade rocks,
those in the right column are exclusively in high-grade rocks,
and the ones in the middle are generally in medium-grade
rocks.

Common Minerals in Metapelites


low grade → high grade
quartz muscovite staurolite
SiO2 KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (Fe,Mg)2Al9Si4O23(OH)

kaolinite kyanite cordierite


Al4(Si4O10)(OH)8 Al2SiO5 (Mg,Fe)Al4Si5O18
pyrophyllite andalusite K-feldspar
Al2(Si4O10)(OH)2 Al2SiO5 KAlSi3O8

chlorite biotite sillimanite

(variable chemistry) K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Al2SiO5

chloritoid garnet (almandine) orthopyroxene


(Fe,Mg)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4 (Ca,Fe,Mg,Mn)3Al2Si3O12 (Mg,Fe)2Si2O6

8.42 Minerals as indicators of metamorphic


grade in metapelites

The chart in Figure 8.42 shows typical minerals in metapelites


at different grades. Quartz and Na-rich plagioclase are in
rocks of all grades. Kaolinite, pyrophyllite and chloritoid
may also be present at low grade but are less common and are
omitted from this figure. There is a great deal of overlap and
many of these minerals exist together. Some persist over a
wide range of temperatures. Some are present in low-pressure
rocks but not in high-pressure rocks. Either muscovite or
biotite are generally present except at the highest grades.
8.43 Barrovian zones of metamorphism.
The insert map shows where, in
Scotland, these zones are found.

The most classic example of regionally metamorphosed pelites


is in the Scottish Highlands where, in the late 19th and early
20th centuries, George Barrow mapped a large region of
variable metamorphic grade. The map seen in Figure 8.43
derives from Barrow’s work. In this region, metamorphic grade
increases from southeast to northwest. Barrow recognized that
the higher-grade metamorphic rocks he was mapping were once
unmetamorphosed shales. He mapped different metamorphic zones
based on the metamorphic minerals that were present. Each of
Barrow’s zones is characterized by a particular index mineral
that reflects metamorphic grade. Thus, the zone names in this
map.

Rocks similar to the ones described by Barrow, are found


worldwide. They are said to be the results of Barrovian
metamorphism, a tribute to Barrow. In North America, Barrovian
metamorphism is particularly well exposed and studied in the
Appalachian Mountains and in the Canadian Shield. Most
metapelites in Scotland experienced Barrovian metamorphism,
but in an area just north of Aberdeen, metamorphism occurred
at slightly lower pressures than classic Barrovian
metamorphism. We call this kind of metamorphism Buchan
metamorphism, named after the Buchan region where it is found.
Besides Scotland, other classic occurrences are in Japan and
Spain, but Buchan terranes are found worldwide. Metamorphic
rocks in these areas may contain cordierite and andalusite,
two low-pressure minerals commonly absent from Barrovian
terranes.

The photos below show typical medium-grade metapelites. Figure


8.44 contains garnet porphyroblasts and Figure 8.45 contains
staurolite porphyroblasts. The porphyroblasts in both photos
are centimeters across. Muscovite surrounds them. Figure 8.46
contains conspicuous blades of blue kyanite surrounded by
quartz, some of which is stained reddish by hematite. Figure
8.47 contains centimeter-sized crystals of blue cordierite.
Cordierite can be difficult to identify unless it has this
diagnostic blue bottle glass appearance. Figures 8.23 and
8.28, earlier in this chapter, also show examples of typical
medium-grade metapelites.

8.45 A staurolite-muscovite
schist from Michigamme,
8.44 A garnet-muscovite schist
Michigan
8.47 Blue cordierite with
8.46 Blue kyanite in a schist quartz, from Brazil.
Centimeter ruler for scale.

8.48 Stable mineral assemblages in metapelites

Figure 8.48 shows pressure-temperature stability fields for


common pelitic mineral assemblages. Besides the minerals
listed, quartz and plagioclase are present under all
conditions. The bounding white lines are really diffuse
boundaries and the reactions that relate one assemblage to
another are complex.

Many metapelitic rocks contain an Al2SiO5 polymorph


(andalusite, kyanite, or sillimanite) besides the mineral
listed. Red lines and text in this phase diagram show the
stability fields for the different polymorphs: kyanite at high
pressure, sillimanite at high temperature, and andalusite at
low pressure. At medium- or high-grade, Barrovian metamorphism
often yields rocks containing kyanite or sillimanite with
garnet. At lower pressures, Buchan metamorphism may produce
rocks with andalusite, and often cordierite instead of garnet.
Muscovite is generally absent at the highest temperatures
because it dehydrates to K-feldspar, sillimanite, and water
vapor (at temperatures above the blue dashed line). Note that
the order of minerals with increasing metamorphic grade in
this phase diagram, and in Figure 8.42, matches the order of
metamorphic zones mapped by Barrow in Scotland (Figure 8.43).

8.5.2 Metamorphosed Sandstones


(Metapsammites)

8.49 Metamorphosed
sandstone from South
Australia. Sample is 10 cm
across.
Compared with metamorphosed pelites, metamorphosed sandstones,
also called metasandstones or metapsammites, are often
nondescript. Normal sandstones are mostly quartz, perhaps with
some feldspar. When metamorphosed, they still contain quartz
and feldspar because these minerals are stable at all
metamorphic grades. At low grades, metasandstones typically
appear massive and homogeneous, containing light-colored
quartz and feldspar grains. The rock seen here (Figure 8.49)
is an example. Sometimes small micas and other dark minerals
may be scattered evenly throughout.

At higher grades metasandstone may recrystallize with quartz


grains growing together and becoming coarser. This produces a
quartzite, a hard, nonfoliated metamorphic rock. In
quartzites, the once separate quartz crystals become massive
quartz with no visible grain boundaries. As this happens,
original sedimentary textures are obliterated. Pure quartzites
are generally white or light colored (like the one in Figure
8.49) but iron staining often adds a red or pinkish
coloration. Figure 8.37, earlier in this chapter, shows
another example of an unremarkable quartzite.

So, many metasandstones have unexciting mineralogy, but if the


original sandstone contained some clay, any of the minerals
that can be in metapelites may be present. For example, the
greenish quartzite seen below (Figure 8.50) contains
disseminated green chlorite. And the kyanite quartzite in
Figure 8.51 contains conspicuous blades of blue kyanite.
Quartz usually dominates, and the amounts of other minerals
depend on how much clay was in the protolith. Foliation,
typical of metapelitic rocks, is usually lacking in these
rocks because micas are generally absent.
8.50 Quartzite from 8.51 Kyanite quartzite from
Sollières, southeastern Kapteeninautio, Finland.
France Sample is 28 cm across.

8.5.3 Metamorphosed Limestones and


Dolostones (Marbles)

8.52 Marble from near Tate,


Georgia, 7.6 cm across

Geologists generally call metamorphosed carbonate rocks


marbles, although this term is used in different ways by
building contractors and others. The metamorphism of limestone
or dolostone composed only of carbonate minerals produces few
mineralogical changes. A general increase in grain size may
take place – similar to what happens when sandstone turns into
quartzite, but no diagnostic minerals can form because of the
limited chemical composition and the high stabilities of both
calcite and dolomite. The photo in Figure 8.52 shows a marble
that contains only course crystals of white calcite. Figure
8.36, earlier in this chapter, showed a marble consisting only
of blue calcite.

However, most limestones contain some quartz and other


minerals besides carbonates. In these rocks, a series of
interesting Ca-silicates, Ca-Mg-silicates, and Ca-Al-silicates
form as metamorphism progresses. The table below lists the
most important of these minerals, roughly in order of their
appearance in response to increasing metamorphic grade.

Minerals Common in Metacarbonates


low grade → high grade
calcite talc grossular (garnet)
CaCO3 Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Ca3Al2Si3O12

dolomite tremolite periclase


CaMg(CO3)2 Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 MgO

quartz forsterite wollastonite


SiO2 (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 CaSiO3

phlogopite (Mg-rich
diopside monticellite
biotite)
CaMgSi2O6 CaMgSiO4
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

If quartz is present, the metamorphic reactions in marbles are


often decarbonation reactions that involve the breakdown of
carbonates to release CO2. If a pluton intrudes a limestone or
dolostone, contact metamorphism may cause CO2 to flow out of
the carbonate and combine with H2O that comes from the pluton.
The CO2-H2O fluid can have profound effects on the carbonate
nearby, and fluid composition controls the formation of many
minerals. Fluids may also cause significant metasomatism and a
significant change in rock chemistry.
8.53 Phlogopite in marble from 8.54 Tremolite and graphite
Orange County, New York in marble from Franklin, New
Jersey

8.55 Forsterite marble 8.56 Diopside marble from the


Adirondack Mountains, New
York

Phlogopite is typically one of the first minerals to form


during carbonate metamorphism. The first photo in the block
above (Figure 8.53) shows large, somewhat hexagonal, flakes of
phlogopite with calcite behind. The second photo (Figure 8.54)
shows gray blades of tremolite in a marble that also contains
small (hard to see) specs of graphite. The bottom left photo
(Figure 8.55) show a marble that contains green forsterite
(olivine). The last photo (Figure 8.56) shows a marble that
contains green diopside. These four photos are in order of
increasing metamorphic grade. The diopside marble is the
highest grade of the four.

8.5.4 Metamorphosed Iron Formations

8.57 Banded iron formation from


Dales Gorge, Western Australia

Ironstone is a general name we give to sedimentary rocks that


contain more than 15% iron. These rocks may contain iron
hydroxides (limonite), oxides (magnetite and hematite),
carbonates (siderite), or silicates (chamosite, Fe-rich
chlorite). They generally have a uniform, nonfoliated texture.
Iron formations are similar to ironstones but are mainly
Precambrian (ironstones are Phanerozoic). Iron formations
generally contain abundant chert and are often well banded
with bands ranging from centimeters to meters thick. The bands
consist of alternating iron- and chert-rich layers. Figure
8.57 photo shows an example of iron formation from western
Australia.

When ironstones and iron formations are metamorphosed, they


quickly lose any original hydrous minerals. But any of the
other original minerals may persist. At the lowest grades of
metamorphism, magnetite and hematite most commonly dominate.
If the original rock was rich in carbonate, siderite will be
present. And sometimes pyrite is present as well. At higher
grades, greenalite, minnesotaite, and glauconite (all iron
silicates) may form. At still higher grades, metamorphism may
produce actinolite, grunerite, hedenbergite, or fayalite. The
table below summarizes these relationships.

Common Minerals in Metamorphosed Iron Formations


low grade → high grade
quartz pyrite actinolite
SiO2 FeS2 Ca2(Fe,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2

hematite greenalite grunerite


Fe2O3 Fe2-3Si2O5OH4 Fe7Si8O22(OH)2

magnetite minnesotaite hedenbergite


Fe3O4 Fe3Si4O10(OH)2 CaFeSi2O6

siderite glauconite fayalite

FeCO3 (K,Na)(Fe,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2 Fe2SiO4

The photos below show minerals common in metamorphosed iron


formations. The hematite shown in Figure 8.58 is specular
hematite (more common hematite has a red earthy color).
Actinolite, seen in Figure 8.59, is a calcium-iron amphibole.
Grunerite (Figure 8.60) is an iron amphibole. Greenalite
(Figure 8.61) is an iron-rich variety of serpentine. Siderite
(the brown mineral in Figure 8.62) is an iron carbonate, and
pyrite (Figure 8.63) is iron sulfide. The pyrite in this photo
is somewhat tarnished.

8.58 Hematite from 8.60 Grunerite from near


8.59 Actinolite, northern
near Marquette, Marquette Michigan. 7 cm
Wisconsin
Michigan across
8.63 Centimeter – sized
8.62 Siderite with calcite
pyrite crystals in
from near Roxbury,
8.61 Greenalite metamorphosed iron
Connecticut. Photo is about 15
formation near Marquette,
cm across
Michigan

8.6 Metaigneous Rocks and Minerals


8.6.1 Metamorphosed Granitic Rocks
The quartz, K-feldspar, and plagioclase that make up most
granites and intermediate igneous rocks are stable at all
grades of metamorphism. So, metamorphism of granites may not
lead to significant mineralogical changes. However, many
granites contain mafic minerals, most commonly biotite and
hornblende. These minerals may dehydrate to produce new
metamorphic minerals at medium and high grade. The table below
lists the most common minerals in metamorphosed granites (also
called metagranites). At the highest grade, metagranites
become granulites, defined by the presence of orthopyroxene
formed by dehydration of mafic minerals. Figure 8.31, earlier
in this chapter, showed an example of a granitic granulite.
Accessory minerals found in unmetamorphosed granites may also
be present after metamorphism. At high grade, granitic rocks
sometimes develop gneissic banding, even if mineralogy has not
significantly changed.

Common Minerals in Metamorphosed Granitic Rocks


unmetamorphosed low grade high grade
Quartz biotite Fe-rich garnet (almandine)
SiO2 K(Fe,Mg)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Fe3Al2Si3O12
K-feldspar hornblende orthopyroxene
KAlSi3O8 (complex amphibole) (Fe,Mg)SiO3

8.64 Metagranite from western Norway.

The photo above (Figure 8.64) shows a metagranite from the


Western Gneiss Region of Norway. During metamorphism, K-
feldspar recrystallized to form very large pink crystals. Gray
glassy quartz, white plagioclase, and black biotite are also
present. This rock shows a significant amount of deformation,
recorded by the deformed sheets of biotite. Note the presence
of gneissic banding, most notably to the right of the marker
pen.

8.6.2 Metamorphosed Mafic Rocks


(Metabasites)
Common Minerals in Metabasites
rock
minerals
names
zeolites

(variable Ca-Al silicates)

prehnite
low
Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 igneous
grade
pumpellyite rock with

(similar to epidote) secondary

Ca-rich plagioclase minerals

(Ca,Na)2(Si,Al)4O8

epidote

Ca2(Al,Fe)3(Si3O12)(OH)

chlorite
greenstone
(variable chemistry)

actinolite

Ca2(Fe,Mg)5(Si8O22)(OH)2
amphibolite
hornblende

(complex amphibole)
mafic
garnet (almandine-
gneiss
pyrope)(Fe,Mg)3Al2Si3O12

biotite

K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
mafic
high augite (pyroxene)
granulite
grade CaMgSi2O6

orthopyroxene (enstatite)
Mg2Si2O6

Metamorphosed basalts and other rocks of similar composition


are commonly called metabasites. This is because, geologists
once called basalts basic rocks. Compared with metasandstones
and metapelites, metabasites are relatively poor in Al and Si
and rich in Ca, Mg, and Fe. Many different minerals may form,
and metamorphic reactions are complex. Plagioclase and augite
are stable at all grades but other minerals are not. The most
important metamorphic minerals are Ca and Mg silicates.
Metabasites are generally more massive and less foliated than
pelitic rocks, but at higher grades they do form schist and
gneiss.

The table seen here lists the most common minerals in


metabasites. Low-grade minerals are at the top of the table,
and grade increases downward. Metamorphism often begins with
the formation of zeolites, or of prehnite. These minerals may
crystallize in vugs or cracks. They are secondary minerals in
many igneous rocks, and form by hydration of feldspars when
water flows through the protolith. Some petrologists do not
consider these minerals to be metamorphic minerals, while
others do.

The formation of greenstones is said by many to be the


beginning of metamorphism. Greenstones are fine-grained, very
low-grade metabasites that have a conspicuous light- to dark-
gray or green color. The characteristic green color comes from
fine-grained chlorite and epidote in the rocks. Greenstones
may also contain Na-rich plagioclase (albite), quartz,
carbonates, and zeolites. The photo below in Figure 8.65 shows
a typical greenstone outcrop in northern Minnesota. Figures
8.34 and 8.35, earlier in this chapter, showed other examples.

At slightly higher grades, metabasites become greenschists,


obtaining schistosity from parallel arrangements of the green
amphibole actinolite and chlorite. Figure 8.66, below, shows a
greenschist from the Homestake Gold Mine in Lead, South
Dakota. Although hard to see, the specimen contains native
gold near the bottom of the sample. If you enlarge the photo
you can see the gold.

At still higher grade, chlorite, epidote, and actinolite break


down by dehydration reactions, producing a specific kind of
rock called an amphibolite. The photo in Figure 8.67 is an
example. Amphibolites contain large grains of black hornblende
and whitish plagioclase in subequal proportions. Garnet,
biotite, and light-colored amphiboles such as anthophyllite or
cummingtonite may also be present.
8.66 Greenschist from the Homestake
Mine, South Dakota

8.65 Greenstone from Ely,


Greenstone Belt, Minnesota

8.67 Amphibolite from the Geopark


Prague, Czech Republic

With even more metamorphism, mafic rocks may become mafic


gneisses. At the highest grades, all amphiboles become
unstable and dehydrate to produce pyroxenes. Assemblages
including garnet and clinopyroxene, or orthopyroxene, are
diagnostic of mafic granulites. Figure 8.10 earlier in this
chapter, showed an example of a mafic granulite. Minor
minerals at all grades include many that are present in mafic
igneous rocks.

8.6.2.1 Metamorphic Facies


Pentti Eskola, a geology professor at the University of
Helsinki, introduced the idea of metamorphic facies in 1920.
He observed that the equilibrium mineral assemblage and
texture of metabasites vary with pressure and temperature.
Thus, rock mineralogy and texture record the conditions of
metamorphism. Eskola defined facies as general ranges of
pressure and temperature characterized by a distinct kind of
metabasite.

8.68 The P-T ranges for different


metamorphic facies

Facies diagrams, such as the one in Figure 8.68, are similar


to phase diagrams because they divide P-T space into small
areas associated with specific minerals or mineral
assemblages. The main differences between facies diagrams and
phase diagrams are that facies diagrams involve many chemical
components, the locations of different facies in P-T space are
not precise, and we often do not know the exact reactions that
relate one facies to another. Eskola originally identified
eight facies. Other petrologists have divided some to more
precisely represent pressure and temperature ranges. Each
facies name comes from its most characteristic metabasite
minerals or rock types. The table below summarizes key mineral
assemblages for each facies.

Key Mineral Assemblages in Mafic Rocks of Different


Metamorphic Facies
kind of metamorphic
diagnostic Minerals
Metamorphism Facies
orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene +
pyroxene hornfels
plagioclase
contact metamorphism
sanidine or tridymite or
sanidinite
pigeonite or glass

zeolite zeolites + quartz

prehnite or pumpellyite +
prehnite-pumpellyite
quartz

chlorite, epidote, albite,


low-pressure metamorphism greenschist
quartz

amphibolite hornblende + plagioclase

orthopyroxene or garnet +
granulite
clinopyroxene + quartz

blueschist glaucophane
high-pressure metamorphism
eclogite omphacite + garnet ± quartz

Zeolite minerals and clays characterize the zeolite facies.


This facies represents the lowest grade of metamorphism; it is
often hard to distinguish zeolite-facies metamorphism from
diagenesis. As temperature rises, the zeolite facies gives
way to the prehnite-pumpellyite facies, the greenschist
facies, the amphibolite facies, and the granulite facies.
Contact metamorphism produces two low-pressure, high-
temperature facies, the pyroxene-hornfels facies and the
sanidinite facies. The blueschist facies and the eclogite
facies occur at high pressure.

Eskola based his facies names on minerals and textures of


mafic rocks. The names of the facies are names of different
kinds of metamorphosed mafic rocks. But petrologists use the
same names when talking about rocks of other compositions.
This leads to some confusion. The table above lists key
mineral assemblages in mafic rocks, but the assemblages will
never be present in rocks of other compositions. For example,
pelitic or calcareous rocks do not form greenschists (green
mafic schists) or amphibolites (mafic rocks dominated by
amphibole and plagioclase) even when metamorphosed at
conditions within the greenschist or amphibolite facies. In
addition, for some rock compositions, several different
mineral assemblages may be stable within a single facies.
Further confusion arises because petrologists use some facies
names in a more restricted sense, referring to particular rock
types with important tectonic significance. Despite these
problems, the facies concept provides a convenient way to
discuss general ranges of pressure and temperature, and it
receives wide use.

8.6.2.2 Facies Series

8.69 Metamorphic facies series

As a model for progressive metamorphism, petrologists consider


different metamorphic facies series, the sequences of
metamorphic rocks that would form in different metamorphic
environments. The PT diagram in Figure 8.69 shows the most
important of these series.

Rocks undergoing contact metamorphism experience only low


pressure. They pass through the zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite,
low-pressure greenschist, pyroxene hornfels and sanidinite
facies with increasing temperature. Such rocks are common
anywhere magma has intruded shallow crustal rocks.

Rocks subjected to regional metamorphism during mountain


building experience a significant increase in both pressure
and temperature. They progress through the zeolite, prehnite-
pumpellyite, greenschist, amphibolite, and granulite facies.
Sometimes they follow a Buchan facies series (lower pressure)
and sometimes they follow a Barrovian facies series (higher
pressure).

Subduction carries relatively cool rocks to depth and high


pressures. So, some rocks related to subduction zones follow
the high P/T facies series, experiencing conditions in the
zeolite, prehnite – pumpellyite, blueschist, and possibly
eclogite facies. We find these rocks, typically, as blocks in
fault contact with greenschist facies rocks. Petrologists have
described blueschists from many places, but the two classic
examples of the blueschist facies series are rocks of the
Sanbagawa metamorphic belt of Japan and of the Franciscan
Complex of California.

8.6.3 Metamorphosed Ultramafic Rocks


Common Minerals in
Metamorphosed
Ultramafic Rocks
minerals
talc

Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

c
brucite

Mg(OH)2

c
magnesite

low MgCO3

grade c
serpentine

Mg6Si4O10(OH)8

c
olivine

(Mg,Fe)2SiO4

c
anthophyllite

(Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2

c
garnet (pyrope-

almandine)
high (Mg,Fe)3Al2Si3O12
grade
c
clinopyroxene

(diopside)

CaMgSi2O6

c
orthopyroxene

(enstatite)
Mg2Si2O6

Ultramafic rocks come from Earth’s mantle. Sometimes, during


tectonism, they make it to the surface so we can study them.
Most of the examples of metamorphosed ultramafic rocks that we
see are in ophiolites, slivers of Earth’s oceanic crust and
mantle uplifted and accreted onto continents. The outcrop
photo below (Figure 8.70) shows a rock of the Lizard Complex,
one of the best-known ophiolites.

8.70 Metamorphosed mantle in the Lizard


Complex, Cornwall, England

Mantle rocks are high-temperature, high-pressure rocks that


typically contain olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene
when unweathered. When weathered or metamorphosed at low
temperature, the original minerals often react to create low-
temperature minerals. Hydration and carbonation reactions
occur and produce hydrous and carbonate minerals. Magnesium
oxides and hydroxides may also form. Thus, unless metamorphic
temperatures are very high, metamorphism of ultramafic rocks
produces low-temperature minerals from high-temperature
minerals, essentially retrograde metamorphism.

The table above lists the most common minerals in


metamorphosed ultramafic rocks. Low-grade minerals are at the
top of the table and high-grade minerals at the bottom.
Ultramafic rocks are very Mg-rich, and often contain much
olivine. Because of their chemistry, Mg-silicates such as
talc, serpentine, anthophyllite, diopside, and enstatite are
also common in these rocks.
8.71 Outcrop of metamorphosed
ultramafic rock at Pyke Hill,
western Ontario

Low-grade metamorphism or alteration of olivine-bearing rocks


often produces a brownish, highly weathered, appearance, such
as seen in this outcrop photo (Figure 8.71). Typically, these
rocks contain serpentine that developed by hydration of
olivine. We call rocks rich in serpentine serpentinites.
Figure 8.9, near the beginning of this chapter showed another
example. Serpentine has three polymorphs: antigorite,
lizardite, and chrysotile. The photos below show examples of
each.

8.73 Lizardite with


8.72 Outcrop of a 8.74 Chrysotile, the
stichtite from
serpentinite containing most common asbestos
Tasmania. The specimen
primarily antigorite mineral
is 8.6 cm across
Antigorite, the most common serpentine mineral that forms
during metamorphism of ultramafic rocks, is stable over a wide
range of metamorphic conditions. The weathered outcrop in
Figure 8.72 is a typical occurrence. Lizardite (Figure 8.73),
named for occurrences in the Lizard Complex, Cornwall, and
chrysotile (Figure 8.74) are less common and form exclusively
at low pressures or at Earth’s surface. The green lizardite in
the middle photo above contains pinkish inclusions of
stichtite, a rare magnesium chrome carbonate. Chrysotile is
one of the few recognized asbestos minerals; fine fibers are
easily seen in Figure 8.74. The other asbestos minerals are
amphiboles.

While serpentine commonly dominates very low-grade ultramafic


rocks, several other minerals may also be present. The photos
below show talc (hydrated Mg-silicate), brucite (Mg-
hydroxide), and magnesite (Mg-carbonate). These minerals,
common in metamorphosed ultramafic rocks, can also form in
metacarbonates.

8.77 Magnesite forming


8.75 7 cm wide sample
8.76 Brucite from ultramafic rock
of talc
near Turin, Italy

At higher metamorphic grades, ultramafic rocks may contain


olivine, anthophyllite, enstatite, periclase, or spinel. And,
at the highest grades, garnet and pyroxene become stable.
Minerals in high-grade ultramafic rocks are the same as the
minerals in rocks of the mantle (where pressure and
temperature are great). In effect, such rocks originated as
high-grade metamorphic rocks. We saw photos of several
examples in Chapter 6 (Figures 6.118, 6.119, and 6.120).
8.7 High-Pressure Rocks and
Minerals
Common Minerals
in Metamorphosed High-
Pressure Rocks
minerals
glaucophane

Na2(Fe,Mg)3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
low
lawsonite
grade
CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2∙H2O

epidote

Ca2(Al2Fe)3Si3O12(OH)

jadeite

NaAlSi2O6

aragonite

CaCO3

kyanite

Al2SiO5

garnet (pyrope-almandine)
high (Mg,Fe)3Al2Si3O12
grade
omphacite
(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)Si2O6

Because of their tectonic significance, petrologists group


high-pressure metamorphic rocks into a class unrelated to rock
composition. These rocks include mainly blueschists and
eclogites, both quite rare. They come from deep in Earth, and
special conditions are required to create them and bring them
to Earth’s surface. Blueschist is a name given to one type of
rock that forms at conditions within the blueschist facies, a
facies characterized by high pressure and relatively low
temperature. Blueschist chemistry is variable. Compositions
range from pelitic to mafic. No matter their compositions,
they contain conspicuous mineralogy.
A blue amphibole, called glaucophane, is responsible for the
name of the facies. The blueschist seen below in Figure 8.78
is mostly glaucophane. Other common blueschist minerals
include a colorless to green Na-pyroxene called jadeite, green
or white lawsonite, and pale aragonite (the high-pressure
polymorph of calcite). Epidote, garnet, zoisite, quartz, and
other accessory minerals may also be present. Because they
form at low temperature, blueschists are often fine grained,
poorly crystallized, and difficult to study.

Eclogites, such as the one seen below in Figure 8.79, are


mafic rocks metamorphosed at high pressure and moderate-to-
high temperature. They contain the essential minerals pyrope
(Mg-rich garnet) and the green Na-rich clinopyroxene called
omphacite. Orthopyroxene may also be present in significant
quantities. Accessory minerals include kyanite, quartz,
spinel, titanite, and many others. Eclogites originate in the
deep crust or in the mantle. Many mantle xenoliths, carried up
as nodules within magma, are eclogites. Eclogites are also
found as layers or bands associated with some peridotites.
Quite commonly, eclogites undergo retrograde metamorphism and
so become partially changed into blueschists.

8.78 Blueschist from Marin


8.79 Eclogite from Almenning,
County, California. 4.7 cm
Norway. About 7.5 cm across.
across.

The photos below show some additional examples of high-


pressure minerals. The light-colored crystals in Figure 8.80
are lawsonite. Lawsonite has about the same composition as
anorthite. But plagioclase (including anorthite and albite
components) becomes unstable at high pressure, so the
anorthite part hydrates and we get lawsonite instead. The
green jadeite, in Figure 8.81, is an Na-rich pyroxene that is
only stable at high pressure. It forms because the albite
component in plagioclase changes by solid-solid reaction into
Na-pyroxene. Glaucophane, the inky blue mineral in the lower
left photo (Figure 8.82) is an Na-rich amphibole. Like
omphacite, it incorporates its sodium component from albite.
In this specimen, a silvery and greenish chrome mica,
fuchsite, accompanies the glaucophane. The green omphacite in
the lower right photo (Figure 8.83) is a pyroxene that
includes a few high-pressure components. And the pyrope (red
garnet) in the same sample formed by solid-solid reactions
involving pyroxenes.

8.80 Lawsonite crystals from Marin


8.81 Emerald green jadeite
County, California. The specimen is
from Myanmar
5.5 cm across
8.83 Green omphacite and red
8.82 Glaucophane with fuchsite from
pyrope from Nordfjord,
Brittany, France. The specimen is 6.5
Norway. The specimen is 10 cm
cm across
across

white line

white line
●Figure Credits
Uncredited graphics/photos came from the authors and other primary contributors to this book.
8.1 Zoisite, corundum, and hornblende, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.4 Green Mountains schist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.5 Outcrop of gneiss, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.7 Metamorphism along a fault, Qfl247, Wikimedia Commons
8.8 Shatter cones, jmgas, Wikimedia Commons
8.9 Sheared serpentinite, Nam Thai, Wikimedia Commons
8.10 Garnet granulite, Kurt Hollocher
8.12 Diamond in kimberlite, StrangerThanKindness, Wikimedia Commons
8.14 Talc-kyanite schist, pinterest.com
8.16 Sapphirine etc., Wikiwand.com
8.20 Gneiss, slideserve.com
8.21 Mylonite, anonymous, Wikimedia Commons
8.22 Fluid inclusions, Kazantseva Mary, Wikimedia Commons
8.23 Garnet-muscovite schist, Graeme Churchard, Wikimedia Commons
8.24 Aligned crystals of hornblende, Kurt Hollocher
8.26 Green slate from Pawley, Vermont
8.27 Phyllite, Kurt Hollocher
8.28 muscovite schist, anonymous, Wikimedia Commons
8.29 Biotite-quartz gneiss , James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.30 Garnet gneiss, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.31 Deformed granitic gneiss, Chmee2, Wikimedia Commons
8.32 Augen gneiss, Eurico Zimbres, Wikimedia Commons
8.35 Metamorphosed pillow basalt, Matt Affolter, Wikimedia Commons
8.36 Blue calcite marble, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.37 Quartzite, Kurt Hollocher
8.38 Garnet granulite, Piotr-Sosnowski, Wikimedia Common
8.44 Garnet-muscovite schist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.45 Staurolite-muscovite schist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.46 Blue kyanite in a schist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.47 Cordierite with quartz, Density, Wikimedia Commons
8.49 Quartzite, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.50 Quartzite, Gabriel Haute Maurienne, Wikimedia Commons
8.51 Kyanite quartzite, Siim Sepp
8.52 Marble, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.53 Phlogopite in marble, earthphysicsteaching.homestead.com
8.54 Tremolite and graphite in marble, Ogdensburg-Mineralogical-Society
8.55 Forsterite marble, modified from gimpf, flickr
8.57 Banded iron formation, Graeme Churchard, Wikimedia Commons
8.58 Hematite, ebay.com
8.59 Actinolite, Wisconsin Geological Survey
8.60 Grunerite, geology.today
8.61 Greenalite, erocks.com
8.62 Siderite with calcite, John Betts Fine Minerals
8.63 Pyrite, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.64 Metagranite, Woudloper, Wikimedia Commons
8.65 Greenstone, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.66 Greenschist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.67 Amphibolite, Chmee2, Wikimedia Commons
8.70 Lizard Complex, Ashley Dace, Wikimedia Commons
8.71 Pyke Hill, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.72 Serpentinite, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.73 Lizardite with stichtite, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.74 Chrysotile, Andrew Silver, Wikimedia Commons
8.75 Talc, Siim Sepp
8.76 Brucite, Andrew Silver, Wikimedia Commons
8.77 Magnesite, Prof.lumacorno, Wikimedia Commons
8.78 Blueschist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
8.79 Eclogite, Kevin Walsh, Wikimedia Commons
8.80 Lawsonite crystals, Kelly Nash, Wikimedia Commons
8.81 Jadeite from Myanmar, rruff.info
8.82 Glaucophane with fuchsite, Didier Descouens, Wikimedia Commons
8.83 Omphacite and pyrope, John Krygier, Wikimedia Commons

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