Cellular and Mobile Communication

CELLULAR & MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Class_1
Monday, July 13, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1
INTRODUCTION
TO
CELLULAR & MOBILE COMMUNICATION COURSE
INSTITUTE VISION :
To be a centre of excellence in engineering and management education, research and

application of knowledge to benefit society with blend of ethical values and global
perception.
INSTITUTE MISSION:
1. To provide world class engineering education, encourage research and development.
2. To evolve innovative applications of technology and develop entrepreneurship.
3. To mould the students into socially responsible and capable leaders.
Department of ECE Vision
To be a guiding force enabling multifarious applications in Electronics and Communications

Engineering, promote innovative research in the latest technologies to meet societal needs
Department of ECE Mission
1. To provide and strengthen core competencies among the students through expert
training and industry interaction.
2. To promote advanced designing and modeling skills to sustain technical development
and lifelong learning in ECE.
3. To promote social responsibility and ethical values, within and outside the department.
(E414C) CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
(Professional Elective-III)
Course Objectives: The Student will

1. have an overview of wireless and mobile communications in different generations.
2. study the operation of basic cellular system and performance criterion, handoff mechanism.
3. understand the design of cellular mobile system.
4. develop the ability to search, select, organize and present information on new technologies in
mobile and cellular communications.
Course Outcomes: The Student will be able to
1. identify the difference between mobile and cellular communication.
2. measure the performance of a cellular system.
3. explain why to use hexagonal shaped cells.
4. differentiate between analog and digital cellular systems.
Course Syllabus:
Unit-1 Introduction to Cellular Mobile Radio Systems :
Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems, Basic Cellular Mobile System, First,
second, third and fourth generation cellular wireless systems, Uniqueness of mobile radio
environment-Long term fading, Factors influencing short term fading.
Parameters of mobile multipath fading-Time dispersion parameters, Coherence bandwidth,
Doppler spread and coherence time, Types of small scale fading.
Unit-2 Fundamentals of Cellular Radio System Design :
Concept of frequency reuse, Co-channel interference, Co-channel Interference reduction factor,

Desired C/I from a normal case in a Omni directional antenna system, system capacity,
Trunking and grade of service, Improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems- Cell
splitting, Sectoring, Microcell zone concept.
Measurement of real time Co-Channel interference, Design of antenna system, Antenna
parameters and their effects, Diversity techniques-Space diversity, Polarization diversity,
Frequency diversity, Time diversity. Adjacent channel interference, Near end far end
interference, Cross talk, Effects on coverage and interference by power decrease, Antenna
height decrease, Effects of cell site components, UHF TV interference .
Unit-3 Cell Coverage for Signal and Traffic:
Signal reflections in flat and hilly terrain, Effect of human made structures, Phase difference
between direct and reflected paths, Constant standard deviation, Straight line path loss slope,
General formula for mobile propagation over water and flat open area, Near and long distance
propagation, Path loss from a point to point prediction model in different conditions, merits of
Lee model .
Unit-4 Cell Site and Mobile Antennas:
Sum and difference patterns and their synthesis, Coverage-omni directional antennas,
Interference reduction- directional antennas for interference reduction,
Space diversity antennas, Umbrella pattern antennas, and Minimum separation of cell site
antennas, mobile antennas.
Unit-5 Frequency Management and Channel Assignment& Handoffs:
Numbering and grouping, Setup access and Paging channels, Channel assignments to cell sites
and mobile units, Channel sharing and Borrowing, Sectorization, Overlaid cells, Non fixed
channel assignment,
Handoff initiation, Types of handoff, Delaying handoff, Advantages of handoff, Power
difference handoff, Forced handoff, Mobile assisted and soft handoff. Intersystem handoff,
Introduction to dropped call rates and their evaluation.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Mobile Cellular Telecommunications – W.C.Y. Lee, Mc Graw Hill, 2nd Edn., 1989.
2. Wireless Communications - Theodore. S. Rapport, Pearson education, 2nd Edn., 2002.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Principles of Mobile Communications – Gordon L. Stuber, Springer International, 2nd

Edn., 2001.
2. Modern Wireless Communications-Simon Haykin, Michael Moher,Pearson Eduction, 2005.
3. Wireless communications theory and techniques, Asrar U. H .Sheikh, Springer, 2004
Class_02
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni
Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

2020
UNIT I
Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems,

Basic Cellular Mobile System, First,
second, third and fourth generation cellular wireless systems,

2020
Example of a Cellular Network:
Reference: COAI

2020
Introduction:
 In 1897, Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio’s ability to provide
continuous contact with ships sailing the English channel.
 During the past 10 years, fueled by

 Digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements
 New VLSI technologies
 Other miniaturization
technologies (e.g., passive
components)
 The mobile communications industry has grown by orders of magnitude.
 The trends will continue at an even greater pace during the next decade.

2020
 In 1934, AM mobile communication systems for municipal police radio systems.
 Vehicle ignition noise was a major problem.
 In 1946, FM mobile communications for the first public mobile telephone service
 Each system used a single, high-powered transmitter and large tower to cover
distances of over 50 km.
 Used 120 kHz of RF bandwidth in a half-duplex mode. (push-to-talk release-to-
listen systems.)
 Large RF bandwidth was largely due to the technology difficulty (in mass-
producing tight RF filter and low-noise, front-end receiver amplifiers.)
 In 1950, the channel bandwidth was cut in half to 60kHZ due to improved
technology.
 By the mid 1960s, the channel bandwidth again was cut to 30 kHZ.
 Thus, from WWII to the mid 1960s, the spectrum efficiency was improved only a
factor of 4 due to the technology advancements.

2020
 Also in 1950s and 1960s, automatic channel truncking was introduced
in IMTS(Improved Mobile Telephone Service.)
 offering full duplex, auto-dial, auto-trunking
 became saturated quickly
 By 1976, has only twelve channels and could only serve 543
customers in New York City of 10 millions populations.
 Cellular radiotelephone
 Developed in 1960s by Bell Lab and others
 The basic idea is to reuse the channel frequency at a sufficient distance to
increase the spectrum efficiency.
 But the technology was not available to implement until the late 1970s.
(mainly the microprocessor and DSP technologies.)
Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

2020
 In 1983, AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System, IS-41) deployed by
Ameritech in Chicago.
 40 MHz spectrum in 800 MHz band
 666 channels (+ 166 channels), per Fig 1.2.
 Each duplex channel occupies > 60 kHz (30+30) FDMA to maximize
capacity.
 Two cellular providers in each market.

2020
 In late 1991, U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC, IS-54) was introduced.
 to replace AMPS analog channels
 3 times of capacity due to the use of digital modulation (DQPSK), speech

coding, and TDMA technologies.
 could further increase up to 6 times of capacity given the advancements of

DSP and speech coding technologies.
 In mid 1990s, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA, IS-95) was introduced
by Qualcomm.
 based on spread spectrum technology.
 supports 6-20 times of users in 1.25 MHz shared by all the channels.
 each associated with a unique code sequence.

2020
Limitations of Conventional Mobile Telephone Systems
 operational limitations
 limited service capability
 poor service performance
 inefficient frequency spectrum utilization.
Inefficient Spectrum Utilization:

 The spectrum utilization measurement is defined as the maximum
number of subscribers that could be served per channel is
 N= Number of subscribers /Number of channels

2020
 The typical values for N in conventional mobile systems is limited to 37 to 53. In
this system, each channel can serve only one customer at a time in whole area.
 In this case, if 53 customers are associated per channel, then blocking probability
is typically 50 percent during busy hour, which is very poor service performance.
 It is not efficient utilization of spectrum.

2020
Solution for the problem:
To achieve this, each channel should be able to serve multiple subscribers simultaneously, so
that larger number of customers can be accommodated in frequency-slot allotted for the
service area. The major approaches for efficient utilization of RF spectrum .

2020
 Single Side Band (SSB), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) and similar
other modulation techniques which require less bandwidth per user.
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system in which many users can use
same spectrum at the same time and the user is distinguished by a distinct code
allotted to him.
 Cellular system which re-uses the allocated spectrum in different geographical

locations, which are located beyond radiation coverage of each other. This
cellular concept solved a major problem faced by mobile telephone system world-
wide, i.e. spectrum scarcity.

2020
Poor Service Performance:
 In conventional mobile systems, frequency reuse technique was not available,
hence the number of customers allotted per channel was quite large(typically 37
to 53) which created a large blocking probability during busy hour.
 Large number of calls did not mature during the busy hour, deteriorating the
service performance. This limited bandwidth allocation leaded to poor service
performance.

2020
Limited Service Capability:
In this system, there was no provision for hand-off, and hence when a mobile
User moved from one geographical zone to other, his call was dropped and user had
to initiate the call again. The limitation of service capability was overcome by
handoff mechanism provided in cellular mobile telephone system.

2020
Expectation from Cellular Communication
 Connectivity
 Mobility
 Value Added service
 Efficient call processing
 And many more

2020
A Basic Cellular network has following components
 Mobile Unit
 Cell Site (Base Station)
 MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office)
 System interconnects and
 Communication protocol

2020
2020
2020
2020
2020
Comparison:
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Period 1980 – 1990 1990 – 2000 – 2010 2010 – (2020) (2020 -
2000 2030)
Bandwidth 150/900MHz 900MHz 100MHz 100MHz 1000x
BW pr
unit
area
Frequency Analog signal 1.8GHz 1.6 – 2.0 GHz 2 – 8 GHz 3 – 300
(30 KHz) (digital) GHz
Data rate 2kbps 64kbps 144kbps – 100Mbps 1Gbps <
2Mbps – 1Gbps
Characteristic First wireless Digital Digital High speed,
communicatio broadband, all IP
n increased speed
Technology Analog cellular Digital CDMA, UMTS, LTE, WiFi WWWW

cellular EDGE
(GSM)
2020
Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

2020
2020
2020
1

2020
Examples of Mobile Radio Systems

2020
 In FDD,
 A device, called a duplexer, is used inside the subscriber unit to enable the
same antenna to be used for simultaneous transmission and reception.
 To facilitate FDD, it is necessary to separate the XMIT and RCVD
frequencies by about 5% of the nominal RF frequency, so that the
duplexer can provide sufficient isolation while being inexpensively
manufactured.
 In TDD,
 Only possible with digital transmission format and digital modulation.

 Very sensitive to timing. Consequently, only used for indoor or small area
wireless applications. 1

2020
Paging Systems
City 1
Land Line Link Paging Terminal
PSTN
City 2
PAGING CONTROL Land Line Link

Paging Terminal
CENTRE
City N
Paging Terminal

2020
 Paging receivers are simple and inexpensive, but the transmission system
required is quite sophisticated. (simulcasting)
 designed to provide ultra-reliable coverage, even inside buildings

 Buildings can attenuate radio signals by 20 or 30 dB, making the choice of
base station locations difficult for the paging companies.
 Small RF bandwidths are used to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at
each paging receiver, so low data rates (6400 bps or less) are used.

2020
Wireless Local Loop
 In the telephone networks, the circuit between the subscriber's equipment (e.g.
telephone set) and the local exchange is called the subscriber loop or local loop.
 Copper wire has been used as the medium for local loop to provide voice and
voice-band data services.
 Since 1980s, the demand for communications services has increased
explosively. There has been a great need for the basic telephone service, i.e. the
plain old telephone service (POTS) in developing countries.
 Wireless local loop provides two-ways a telephone system…………..
 Wireless local loop includes cordless access system, proprietary fixed radio
access system and fixed cellular system. It is also known as fixed radio
wireless. This can be in an office or home.
 Broadband Wireless Access (BWA), Radio In The Loop (RITL), Fixed-Radio
1
Access (FRA) and Fixed Wireless Access (FWA).

2020
Cordless Telephone System
 To Connect a Fixed Base Station to a Portable Cordless Handset

 Early Systems (1980s) have very limited range of few tens of meters [within a
House Premises]
 Modern Systems [PACS, DECT, PHS, PCS] can provide a limited range &
mobility within Urban Centers
Cordless Handset
Fixed Base
PSTN Station

2020
 Limitations of Simple Mobile Radio Systems
 The Cellular Approach
 Divides the Entire Service Area into Several Small Cells
 Reuse the Frequency
 Basic Components of a Cellular Telephone System
 Cellular Mobile Phone: A light-weight hand-held set which is an outcome of
the marriage of Graham Bell’s Plain Old Telephone Technology [1876] and
Marconi’s Radio Technology [1894] [although a very late delivery but very
cute]
 Base Station: A Low Power Transmitter, other Radio Equipment
[Transceivers] plus a small Tower
 Mobile Switching Center [MSC] /Mobile Telephone Switching
Office[MTSO]
 An Interface between Base Stations and the PSTN
 Controls all the Base Stations in the Region and Processes User ID and
other Call Parameters
 A typical MSC can handle up to 100,000 Mobiles, and 5000 Simultaneous
Calls
 Handles Handoff Requests, Call Initiation Requests, and all Billing &
System Maintenance Functions 1

2020
1

2020
 The Cellular Concept
 RF spectrum is a valuable and scarce commodity

 RF signals attenuate over distance
 Cellular network divides coverage area into cells, each served by its own base
station transceiver and antenna
 Low (er) power transmitters used by BSs; transmission range determines cell
boundary
 RF spectrum divided into distinct groups of channels
 Adjacent cells are (usually) assigned different channel groups to avoid
interference
 Cells separated by a sufficiently large distance to avoid mutual interference can
be assigned the same channel group  frequency reuse among co-channel
cells

2020
Cellular Systems: Reuse channels to maximize capacity
• Geographic region divided into cells
• Frequencies/timeslots/codes reused at spatially-separated
locations.
• Co-channel interference between same color cells.
• Base stations/MTSOs coordinate handoff and control functions
• Shrinking cell size increases capacity, as well as networking burden
BASE
STATION
MTSO

2020
Trends in Cellular radio and Personal Communications
 PCS/PCN: PCS calls for more personalized services whereas PCN refers to
Wireless Networking Concept-any person, anywhere, anytime can make a call
using PC. PCS and PCN terms are sometime used interchangeably
 IEEE 802.11: A standard for computer communications using wireless
links[inside building].
 ETSI’s 20 Mbps HIPER LAN: Standard for indoor Wireless Networks
 IMT-2000 [International Mobile Telephone-2000 Standard]: A 3G universal,
multi-function, globally compatible Digital Mobile Radio Standard is in
making
 Satellite-based Cellular Phone Systems
 A very good Chance for Developing Nations to Improve their Communication
Networks

2020
1

2020
1

2020
Cellular and Mobile
Communications
1G to 5G
Bijaya Kumar Muni
Class 1.3 & 1.4
1
• Contents to be Discussed
Beyond 3rd Generation.
 Fourth-generation cellular communication system.
 Fourth-generation mobile technology.
 Fully IP-based wireless internet.
100 Mbps (outdoor) and 1Gbps (indoor).
 End-to-end QoS (Quality of service).
 High security.
Any services, anytime, anywhere.
4G will make us as a part of the Internet.
Always Be Connected (ABC).
2
4th Generation
Wireless World Research Forum defines 4G as:
-A network that operates on Internet technology,

combines it with other applications and technologies
such as Wi-Fi, and runs at speeds ranging from 100
Mbps (in cell-phone networks) to 1 Gbps(in local
Wi-Fi networks).
• 4G is used broadly to include several types
of broadband wireless access communication
systems along with cellular telephone systems.
• The goal of 4G systems is to incorporate and

integrate different wireless access technologies
and mobile network architectures so as to
achieve a seamless wireless access infrastructure.
4
1G
5
• 1G (First Generation) is the name given to the
first generation of mobile telephone networks.
• Circuit-switched technology.
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).
• Analog system.
• Basic mobility.
• Poor voice quality.
• Poor security.
6
• Frequency: 150MHz
/ 900MHz
• Bandwidth: • From 1980 to 1990
Analog • Bad voice quality
telecommunicatio • Poor battery, cellphones
n (30KHz) • Big cellphones
• Characteristic: First
wireless
communication • Better than nothing, at
least its wireless and
• Technology:
mobile
Analog cellular
• Capacity (data
rate): 2kbps
2G
8
2G
• Digital data can be compressed and multiplexed much
more effectively than analog voice encodings.
•Multiplexing -multiple analog message signals or digital
data streams are combined into one signal.
• Frequency: 1.8GHz (900MHz), digital
telecommunication
• Bandwidth: 900MHz (25MHz)
• Characteristic: Digital
• Technology: Digital cellular, GSM
• Capacity (data rate): 64kbps
• Why better than 1G?

9
• From 1991 to 2000
• Allows txt msg service
• Signal must be strong or else weak digital signal
• 2.5G
– 2G cellular technology with
GPRS
– E-Mails
– Web browsing
– Camera phones
• Allows for lower powered radio signals that require less
battery power.
• Digital voice data can be compressed and multiplexed
much more effectively than analog.
• CODEC introduction -program that encodes and decodes
digital data stream or signal.
•Translates data from digital to analog and vice .
Speaker
Voice CODEC
0101110
11
2G
•Advantages:
• The digital voice encoding allows digital error
checking
•increase sound quality
•lowers the noise level
Going all-digital allowed for the introduction of
digital data transfer.
•SMS –“short message service”
•E-mail
12
2G
Disadvantages
• Cell towers had a limited coverage area.
• Built mainly for voice services and slow data.
13
2.5G
(Upgraded 2.0G)
14
• Lies somewhere between 2G and 3G.
• The development of 2.5G has been viewed as a

stepping-stone towards 3G.
• Was prompted by the demand for better data

services and access to the internet.
• Provides faster services than 2G, but not as

faster as advanced as the newer 3G systems.
15
• Extends the capabilities of 2G systems by
providing additional features, such as a packet-
switched connection(GPRS) in the TDMA-based
GSM system, and enhanced data rates (HSCSD
and EDGE).
GPRS: General Packet Radio Services.

EDGE: Enhanced Data for Global Evolution.
HSCSD: High Speed circuit-switched data.
16
3G
Dreams are necessary to life.
17
3G
• Large capacity and broadband capabilities.
•Allows the transmission of 384kbps for mobile
systems and up to 2Mbps.
•Increased spectrum efficiency –5Mhz–

-A greater number of users that can be simultaneously
supported by a radio frequency bandwidth.
• High data rates at lower incremental cost than 2G.

• Global roaming
18
3G
• CDMA –Code Division Multiple Access.
• Does not divide up the channel by time or frequency.
• Encodes data with a special code associated with each
channel.
19
• Frequency: 1.6 – 2.0
GHz • From 2000 to 2010
• Bandwidth: 100MHz • Called smartphones
• Characteristic: Digital • Video calls
broadband, increased • Fast communication
speed
• Mobil TV
• Technology: CDMA,
UMTS, EDGE • 3G phones rather
expensive
• Capacity (data rate):
144kbps – 2Mbps

Data Rates Comparison (Kbps)
10000
1000
2G
100 2.5G
3G
10
1
Lower speed Higher speed
21
Steps To 4G
22
• Frequency: 2 – 8 GHz • From 2010 to today
(2020?)
• Bandwidth: 100MHz
• MAGIC
• Characteristic: High
– Mobile multimedia
speed, all IP
– Anytime, anywhere
• Technology: LTE, WiFi – Global mobile support
• Capacity (data rate): – Integrated wireless
100Mbps – 1Gbps solutions
– Customized personal
service
• Good QoS + high security
• Bigger battery usage
4G System Architecture
CDMA GSM/UMTS IEEE Cellular IEEE LAN
2G CDMA IS-95A GSM TDMA IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.11

IS-136
2.5G CDMA IS-95B GPRS IEEE 802.11a
3G CDMA 2000, E-GPRS

EDGE
WCDMA
FDD/TDD
TD SCDMA
LCR-TDD
IEEE 802.11g
UMTS
Fixed Wi BRO
3.5G 1x Ev-DO
Rev O/A/B
HSDPA
FDD/TDD
HSUPA
WiMAX IEEE 802.11g
FDD/TDD
802.16d,
e
LTE HSPA+ Mobile WiMAX
3.9G UMB 802.20
E-UTRA 802.16e
IEEE 802.11n
24
Technology moving towards 4G
Mobility
4G
1995 2000 2005 2010+
High speed
3G LTE
3G
(IMT2000)
Mobile
Medium
CDMA/GSM/TDMA WiMAX
speed (WiBRO)
2G
(Digital)
CDMA/GSM/TDMA
High Speed
1G WPAN
WLAN
(Analog)
5 GHz
WLAN
Low speed 2.4 GHz
WLAN
Bluetooth
Data Rates
~14.4 kbps 144 kbps 384 kbps <50 Mbps <100 Mbps
25
3G VERSUS 4G
Technology 3G 4G
Frequency
1.8 - 2.5GHz 2 - 8GHz
Band
Bandwidth 5-20MHz 5-20MHz
Data Rates Up to 2Mbps 100Mbps moving - 1Gbps
stationary
Access W-CDMA VSF-OFCDM and VSF-
CDMA
FEC Turbo-codes Concatenated codes
Switching Circuit/Packet Packet
5G
• From X (2020?) to
• https://5g.co.uk/guides Y (2030?)
/5g-frequencies-in-the- • High speed and
uk-what-you-need-to-
know/ capacity
• Capacity (data rate): • Faster
1Gbps – ULIMITED? datatrasmission
than 4G
• Supports
– Interactive multimedia
– Voice streaming
– Buckle up.. Internett
• More efficient
Comparison
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Period 1980 – 1990 1990 – 2000 2000 – 2010 2010 – (2020) (2020 - 2030)
Bandwidth 150/900MHz 900MHz 100MHz 100MHz 1000x BW pr

unit area
Frequency Analog signal 1.8GHz 1.6 – 2.0 GHz 2 – 8 GHz 3 – 300 GHz
(30 KHz) (digital)
Data rate 2kbps 64kbps 144kbps – 100Mbps – 1Gbps <
2Mbps 1Gbps
Characteristic First wireless Digital Digital High speed, all
communicatio broadband, IP
n increased
speed
Technology Analog cellular Digital cellular CDMA, UMTS, LTE, WiFi WWWW
(GSM) EDGE
Future: 5G? 6G?
• 6G:
– Integrate 5G with satellite network for global
coverage
– Ultra fast Internet access
– Smart home/cities
• 7G:
– Space roaming
– World completely wireless
1G, 1980 – 1990
• A big strike by miners, uk
• Dianas wedding
• Movies:
– Indiana jones
– Back to the future
• Music:
– Michael Jackson
– Queen
– Prince
– Bruce springsteen
• The Berlin walls downfall
2G, 1990 - 2000
• Diana's divorce
• Bill Clinton president
• Movies
– Blackadder
– Titanic
– Lion king
– Toy story
• Music
– Spice girls
– Nirvana
• Rise of the Internett
3G, 2000 - 2010
• Bondevik and Stoltenberg
• Obama as president
• Filmer:
– Lord of the rings
– Harry potter
• Musikk:
– Beyonce
– The strokes
– Outkast
4th
Generation of
Cellular
Communication
• Seamless Roaming
• "Seamless" and "wireless," when put together,
represent a technology of wireless Internet that
hands you off to another network without
interruption so you may continue your activities
online without even noticing that you connected
into another network. Another name for it is
"seamless roaming."
36
Seamless Connection of Networks in 4G
Cellular 2.5G
(GSM etc.
Cellular 3G
(UMTS etc.
Digital
Audio/Video
Broadcast Connection Layer
Core IP Network
Cellular 4G
Short Range
PAN/LAN/
MAN/WAN
WLAN/
HIPER-LAN
38
Features of 4G:
•Faster and more reliable.
100 Mb/s (802.11g wireless = 54Mb/s, 3G = 2Mb/s)
•Lower cost than previous generations
•Multi-standard wireless system.
–Bluetooth, Wired, Wireless (802.11x)
•Ad Hoc Networking.
•IPv6 Core.
•OFDM used instead of CDMA.
•Potentially IEEE standard 802.11n
–Most information is proprietary.
39
3rd Generation versus 4th Generation:
Technology 3G 4G
Frequency
1.8 - 2.5GHz 2 - 8GHz
Band
Bandwidth 5-20MHz 5-20MHz
Data Rates Up to 2Mbps 100Mbps moving - 1Gbps
stationary
Access W-CDMA VSF-OFCDM and VSF-
CDMA
FEC Turbo-codes Concatenated codes
Switching Circuit/Packet Packet
40
4G
Technology
41
• Smart Antenna
• Beam radio signals directly at a users to follow the users

as they move.
•Allow the same radio frequency to be used for other

users without worry of interference.
•Seamless handoff between towers/access points.
•One transmit antenna, two receive antennas.

–Allows connection to two access points at once.
42
G4
• Earth's population stands at around 6.6 billion.
• The Internet has a population of just 1.3 billion.
22%
• IPv6 uses 128 bits for IPv6 addresses which allows

for 340 billion billion billion billion (3.4x1038)
unique addresses.
43
IPv6 vs. IPv4
Feature IPv4 IPv6
Deployed 1978 1999
Address format 129.5.255.2/16 2001:0ba0:01e0:d001:0000:000
0:d0f0:0010
Address Space Over 109; possible addresses Over 1038; possible addresses
Packet Size Variable size- time consuming to Fixed size (40 Octets)
handle More efficient
Special fields in Many types, often not supported by Eliminated for efficiency or
header venders . replaced by other features.
Security -limited: no authentication or -Authentication(validation of
encryption at IP level. packet origin).
-Dependence on higher level -Encryption(privacy of contents)
protocols; vulnerable to DoS and -requires administration of
address deception or spoofing attacks. “security associations” to
handle key distributions.
Quality of Service -Defined but not generally used -Flow labeling
-Priority
-Support for real-time data and
multimedia distribution. 44
• Conclusion:
4G system provides an end to end IP solution
where voice and data streamed multimedia can
be served to users on an ” Anytime, Anywhere ”
basis at higher data rates than previous
generation.
Wider bandwidth.
End-to-end QoS.
Higher security.
Offering any kind of services anytime, anywhere.
Affordable cost and one billing.
45
46
Class_04
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni
Monday, July 27, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology
UNIT I
Small Scale Multipath propagation
Small Scale Multipath Propagation
Small-scale Fading:
• Small-scale fading, or simply fading describes the rapid fluctuation of

the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel
distance
• It is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted

signal which arrive at the receiver at different times
– This interference can vary widely in amplitude and phase over time
Major fading effects are depicted as follows
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance

or time interval
1. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler

shifts (described later) on different multi-path signals
1. Time dispersions (echos) caused by multi-path propagation

delays
Fading Effects---------------------------------------------------
 Describes rapid fluctuations of the amplitude, phase of multipath delays

of a radio signal over short period of time or travel distance
 Caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted

signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times.
 These waves are called multipath waves and combine at the receiver
antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary widely in amplitude
and phase.
Fading Effects---------------------------------------------------
 Effects of multipath
 Rapid changes in the signal strength
 Over small travel distances, or
 Over small time intervals
 Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multiples signals
 Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays
 Multipath occurs because of
 Reflections
 Scattering
Multipath Means-----------------------------------
 At a receiver point
 Radio waves generated from the same transmitted signal
may come
 from different directions
 with different propagation delays
 with (possibly) different amplitudes (random)
 with (possibly) different phases (random)
 with different angles of arrival (random).
 These multipath components combine vectorially at the

receiver antenna and cause the total signal
 to fade
 to distort
Multipath Signals at Receiver
Component 1
Component 2
Component N
Receiver may be stationary or mobile.
Mobility in Multipath Propagation
 Some Objects in the radio channels may have dynamic or static position
 If objects are static(stationary)
 Motion is only due to mobile
 Fading is purely a spatial phenomenon (occurs only when the mobile

receiver moves)
 The spatial variations as the mobile moves will be perceived as
temporal variations
 ∆t = ∆d/v
 Fading will cause disruptions in the communication(depends on

the quality of receiver)
Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading
 Multipath propagation
 Presence of reflecting objects and scatterers cause
multiple versions of the signal to arrive at the receiver
 With different amplitudes and time delays
 Causes the total signal at receiver to fade or distort
 Speed of mobile
 Cause Doppler shift at each multipath component
 Causes random frequency modulation
 Speed of surrounding objects
 Causes time-varying Doppler shift on the multipath
components
Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading
 Transmission bandwidth of the channel

 The transmitted radio signal bandwidth and
bandwidth of the multipath channel affect the
received signal properties:
 If amplitude fluctuates or not
 If the signal is distorted or not
Doppler Effect
 Whe a transmitter or receiver is moving, the

frequency of the received signal changes, i.e. İt is
different than the frequency of transmissin. This is
called Doppler Effect.
 The change in frequency is called Doppler Shift.
 It depends on
 The relative velocity of the receiver with respect to
transmitter
 The frequenct (or wavelenth) of transmission
 The direction of traveling with respect to the direction of the
arriving signal.
A mobile receiver is traveling from point X to point Y
Speed = Distance/Time Time = Distance/Speed Distance = Speed × Time
Doppler Shift
 The Dopper shift is positive

 If the mobile is moving toward the direction of
arrival of the wave.
 The Doppler shift is negative
 If the mobile is moving away from the direction of
arrival of the wave.
A Multipath Channel as follow
Multipath
Channel
2nd MC
Base 1st MC
Mobile 2
Station
1st MC
4th MC
Multipath
Channel
2nd MC
3rd MC
Mobile 1
(Multipath Component)
Types Small-scale Fading:
FLIP CLASS ROOM TOPIC
Class_05 & 06
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni
Tuesday, August 4, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology
UNIT I
Power Delay Profile

Time Dispersion Parameters
Mean Excess Delay
RMS Delay Spread
Maximum Excess Delay
Relation between Bc and στ
Coherence Time

Multipath Propagation
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channel:
Impulse Response Model of multipath channel

Tuesday, August 4, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Tuesday, August 4, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Multipath Components Arriving at Receiver

Impulse Response of Multipath Channel (Ex: Baseband Channel):
Discrete time impulse response model of a multipath channel

Impulse Response of Multipath Channel (Ex: Baseband Channel)

Discrete time impulse response model of a multipath channel

Complex Baseband impulse response model of a multipath channel

Amplitude and Phase of multipath component

Multipath components arriving at same time

Multipath components arriving at same time

Addition of multiple multipath components

Addition of multiple multipath components

Impulse Response Model of multipath channel (Discrete time)

Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channel:.l
Impulse Response Model of multipath channel (Discrete time)
Discretize the multipath delay axis τ into equal time delay segments called Excess Delay Bins
Lets assume there are N multipath components ranging from 0 … … … . . (𝑁 − 1)
Depending on ∆τ two or more multipath signals may

Arrive in same time or Bin
They will be vectorially combine together

Impulse Response Model of Multipath Channel (Ex: Baseband Channel):
Excess Delay: relative Delay of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ multipath component as compared to

first arriving multipath component.
𝜏𝑖 : Excess Delay of 𝑖 𝑡ℎ multipath component
N∆t: Maximum excess delay
This model can be used to express transmitted radio frequency signals with
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ < 2/∆t

• Power Delay Profile: For small fading, the power delay profile of the
channel is found by taking the spatial average of baseband impulse
response.
Gain K relates to transmitter power

• Power Delay Profile: For small fading, the power delay profile of the
channel is found by taking the spatial average of baseband impulse
response.
Gain K relates to transmitter power


Time Dispersion Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channel

Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channel
Power Delay Profile, Maximum Excess Delay, Mean Excess Delay,

Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channel
Power Delay Profile, Maximum Excess Delay, Mean Excess Delay,

Power Delay Profile, Maximum Excess Delay, Mean Excess Delay, RMS Delay Spread


Coherence Bandwidth

Coherence Bandwidth

Coherence Time:

Coherence Time:

Coherence Time:

Future Class::
Little More,
Type of Fading
&
Problem solving


Types Small-scale Fading:

Class_7 & 8
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni
Monday, August 10, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

2020
UNIT I
Doppler spread and coherence time

Types of small scale fading.
Problem Solving
Revision of Unit I
Monday, August 10, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 01

2020
Small-scale Mobile radio propagation
 Small scale propagation implies signal quality in a short distance or time

range
 In this small range, fading or rapid fluctuation of the signal amplitude is

observed
 One cause of fading is multipath or the process of signals reaching the

receiver through different mechanisms such as LOS, reflection, diffraction
and scattering.

2020
Multipath effects
 Rapid changes in signal amplitude over a small distance or time

interval.
 Rapid changes in signal phaseover a small distance or time interval.
 Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delay.

2020
Causes of fading
 In urban areas, fading occurs because the height of mobile is lesser than
the height of surrounding structures, such as buildings and trees.

 Existence of several propagation paths between transmitter and
receiver.

2020
Factors influencing small signal fading
Multipath propagations
Speed of mobile (Doppler shift)
Speed of surrounding objects
Bandwidths of signal and channel

2020
Analysis of multipath channel
Transmitter
Receiver
Spatial position

2020
Convolution model for multipath signal
A2 x(t- t 2)
LOS
T, x(t)
R, y(t)
A1 x(t- t 1)
Received signal:
y(t) = A0 x(t) + A1 x(t - t 1) + A2 x(t - t 2) + ...

2020
System definition of multipath
x(t) h(t) y(t)

2020
Modeling of the baseband multipath model
 Mathematical model
r(t) = c(t) * hb(t, )
hb(t,)
t3
t2
t1
t0
o 1 2  N-2  N-1
2020
Excess delay concept
The delay axis ,  o<=  <=  n-1 is divided into equal time delay segments called
excess delay bins.
0=0
1=
2=2
 N-1 = (N-1) 

2020
Delay component design
All multipath signals received within the bins are represented by a

single resolvable multipath component having delay  i .
Design equation for bin width :

Bandwidth of signal = 2/

2020
Final model for multipath response
N-1 j I
r(t) = ai e c[t –i]
i=0
 c(t) – Transmitted pulse
 r(t) – Received pulse
 N – Number of multipaths
 ai – Amplitude of multipath i
 qi – Phase of multipath i
 ti – Time delay of multipath i

2020
Wideband multipath signals
N-1 ji
Received signal r(t) =  ai e p[t–i]
i=0
Instantaneous received power:
N-1
|r(t)|2 =  |ak|2
k=0
=>Total received power = sum of the power of individual multipath
components.

2020
Narrowband multipath signals
Received signal
𝑁−1
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 𝑝[𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 ]
𝑖=0
Instantaneous received power:
2
𝑁−1
𝑟(𝑡) 2 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖
𝑖=0

2020
Conclusions
When the transmitted signal has a wide bandwidth >> bandwidth of the channel,
multipath structure is completely resolved by the receiver at any time and the received
power varies very little.
When the transmitted signal has a very narrow bandwidth (example the base band signal
has a duration greater than the excess delay of the channel) then multipath is not
resolved by the received signal and large signal fluctuations occur (fading).

2020
Example
Assume a discrete channel impulse response is used

to model urban radio channels with excess delays as
large as 100 s and microcellular channels with
excess delays not larger than 4 s. If the number of
multipath bins is fixed at 64 find:
(a)  
(b) Maximum bandwidth, which the two models
can accurately represent.

2020
Example

2020
Solution
For urban radio channel
Maximum excess delay of channel

 N = N   = 100  s.
N = 64
 = N /N = 100 s /64 = 1.5625 s
Maximum bandwidth represented accurately by

model
= 2/  = 1.28 MHz

2020
For microcellular channel
Maximum excess delay of channel
 N = N   = 4  s.
N = 64
  =  N /N = 4  s /64 = 62.5 ns
Maximum bandwidth represented accurately by

model =
2/   = 32 MHz

2020
Small-scale multipath measurements
Direct Pulse Measurements

Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Measurement
Swept Frequency Measurement

2020
Types of Small Scale Fading
Doppler Spread
Multipath time delay
Slow fading
Fast
Flat fading Fading
Frequency
Selective
Fading
Mechanisms that cause fading
2 main propagation mechanisms:
Multipath time delay spread

Doppler spread
These two mechanisms are independent of each other.

2020
Multipath terms associated with fading
T = Symbol period or reciprocal bandwidth

s
B = Bandwidth of transmitted signal
s
B = Coherence bandwidth of channel

c
B = 1/(50) where  is rms delay spread
c

2020
Calculation of Delay Spread
__ _
 2 =  2 - (  )2
Where:
_
 = ( ak2 ) / ( ak2)
__
 2 = ( ak2 2) / ( ak2)

2020
Fading effects due to Doppler spread
fc
fc = frequency incident signal
Received signal spectrum = fc +/- fd

fd = Doppler shift

2020
Doppler spread and coherence time
Doppler frequency shift : fd = (v / ) cos  ,
Wavelength  = c / fc
Maximum Frequency deviation = fm = v / 

Doppler Spread BD = fm
Coherence time = Tc = 0.423 / fm

2020
Mathematical estimation of fading
Flat fading
Mobile channel has constant gain and linear phase response.
Spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are maintained at receiver
Condition:
B << B
s c
>> 
=> T
s 

2020
Frequency selective fading
Mobile channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a
finite bandwidth
Condition:
B >B
s c
< 
=> T
s 

2020
Flat fading or frequency selective fading?
Common rule of thumb
If Ts ≥ 10  => Flat fading


If Ts < 10 
 => Frequency selective fading

2020
Fast fading channel
The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration.
This causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading, which leads to
signal distortion.
Condition:
T >T
s c
B < B
s D

2020
Slow fading channel
The channel impulse response changes at a much slower rate than the
transmitted signal
Velocity of mobile (or velocity of objects in channel)
Condition:
T < T
s c
B > BD
s

2020
Rayleigh and Ricean distributions
In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to

describe the statistical time varying nature of the received fading signal
When there is a dominant (non-fading) signal component present such as

LOS propagation path, the small scale fading envelope distribution is
Ricean

2020
Level crossing and fading statistics
Level crossing rate (LCR)

Rate at which the normalized Rayleigh fading envelope crosses a specified
level in a positive going direction.
LCR = NR = (2) fm e
-2
fm = Maximum Doppler frequency
 = R/Rms = specified level R, normalized to the rms value of fading

signal

2020
• Average fade duration
Average period of time for which the received signal is below a

specified level R.
__
2
 = e – 1
________
fm2

2020
Example
(a) For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the positive going level crossing rate
for  = 1, when the maximum Doppler frequency, fm, is 20 Hz.
(b) What is the average fade duration?

2020
Solution
=1
fm = 20 Hz
(a) Number of zero level crossings is:
NR =  2 (20) e
-1
= 18.44 Crossings/Sec
Maximum velocity of mobile
= fd  = 20 (3 X 108)/(900X106)
= 6.66 m/s

2020
(b) Average fade duration
__
2
 = e – 1
________
fm2
= e1– 1
________ = 0.034 s
1x 202

2020
2020
Class_9
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni
Sunday, August 16, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology
UNIT II
Cellular Concept
Frequency Reuse
Co-Channel
Interference
Sunday, August 16, 2020 ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 01
Cellular Systems
Frequency Range for GSM
f
960 MHz 124
Downlink
935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz
20 MHz
915 MHz 124
Uplink
1
890.2 MHz
t
Bandwidth per channel is 200 kHz

Each user is assigned channel for an uplink and a downlink
So at most 124 simultaneous calls. Wow!
Cellular Systems
UK
890 MHz 915 935
US
825 845 870 890
Japan
870 885 925 940
Cellular Systems
Cellular Systems
“Cell”Ular Structure
Cellular Systems
Description on Cell structure
Typical Cell sizes

• some cites few hundred meters
• country side few tens of kilometers
Advantages of cell structures:
• more capacity due to frequency reusage
• less transmission power needed
• more robust, tolerate failures
• deals interference, transmission area locally
Problems:
• fixed network needed for the base stations
• handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
• interference with other cells
Cellular Systems
Channels Reuse
Cell structure can reuse frequency only when certain distance is maintained
between cells that use the same channels.
Fixed frequency assignment:

• certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
• problem: different traffic load in different cells
Dynamic frequency assignment:

• base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already
used in neighbor cells
• more capacity in cells with more traffic assignment can also be based on
interference measurements
Cellular Systems
INSIDE THE CELL
• Center-excited cell where the tower is placed somewhat near the center
with a Omni-directional antenna
• Edge-excited cell where the towers are placed on three of the six corners
with sectored directional antennas.
Cellular Systems
Interference:
• Co-channel interference
Signals from cells that share a channel cause co-channel interference
Can’t remove it by increasing power.
• Adjacent channel interference
Signals from adjacent cells cause this.
Use filter to reduce it
But, available channels decrease for incoming calls.
Cellular Systems
Cellular Systems
Cellular Reuse Pattern
• Co-cells: Cells using the same carrier frequency
• Cluster: A group of cells among which the whole spectrum is shared and within
which no frequency reuse exists
• The number of cells per cluster defines the reuse pattern and this is a function of
the cellular geometry
Cellular Systems
Solving Problem in Cellular Systems
1. Solves the problem of spectral congestion and user capacity.
2. Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum without major

technological changes.
3. Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
4. Enable a fix number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number

of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.
Solution to cell organization:
• Partition the region into smaller regions called cells.

• Each cell gets at least one base station or tower
• Users within a cell talks to the tower
• How can we divide the region into cells?
Cellular Systems
Frequency Reuse
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within
a small geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the
channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.
• Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning

•seven groups of channel from A to G
•footprint of a cell - actual

radio coverage
•omni-directional antenna
v.s. directional antenna
Cellular Systems
• Hexagonal geometry has

– exactly six equidistance neighbors
– the lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are
separated by multiples of 60 degrees.
• Only certain cluster sizes and cell layout are possible.
• The number of cells per cluster, N, can only have values which satisfy
N  i2  ij  j2
• Co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, ex, i=3 and j=2.
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
v
(u1, v1)
u
D
(u2, v2)
3R
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
R = Cell radius
d = The distance between the center of two cells. d 2  i 2  ij  j 2
D = Reuse distance, that is, the distance between two co-cells.
A =Area of the hexagonal cluster.

i  u2  u1 j  v2  v1
a = Area of the hexagonal cell. D 2  i 2  ij  j 2
N = Reuse Factor (Number of cells per cluster)

A
N   D2
a
N  i 2  ij  j 2
Cellular Systems
Different Size Cluster:
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
(1,2)
k (1,2)
i
(1,2)
(1,2)
(1,2)
l n
(1,2)
Cellular Systems
Cellular Systems
Class_9(2.1)
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni

2020
UNIT II
Cellular Concept
Frequency Reuse
Co-Channel
Interference

2020
Cellular Systems
f
960 MHz 124
Downlink
935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz
20 MHz
915 MHz 124
Uplink
1
890.2 MHz
t


2020
Cellular Systems
UK
890 MHz 915 935
US
825 845 870 890
Japan
870 885 925 940

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems
Typical Cell sizes

Problems:

2020
Cellular Systems
Channels Reuse



2020
Cellular Systems
INSIDE THE CELL

2020
Cellular Systems
Interference:

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems




2020
Cellular Systems
Frequency Reuse


radio coverage
2020
Cellular Systems

N  i2  ij  j2

2020
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
v
(u1, v1)
u
D
(u2, v2)
3R

2020
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
R = Cell radius

i  u2  u1 j  v2  v1

A
N   D2
a
N  i 2  ij  j 2

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
(1,2)
k (1,2)
i
(1,2)
(1,2)
(1,2)
l n
(1,2)

2020
Cellular Systems
Different Cellular Cluster Structure
S I
R G J
G
F B
F B
Q A K
A
E C
E C
P D L
D
O M
N
7 cell Cellular Cluster


2020
Cellular Systems
H
H
S I
G J S I
R
R G J
F B
A K F B
Q
Q A K
E C
D L E C
P
P D L
O M
N O M
N

2020
Cellular Systems
H
S I H
R G J S I
F B R G J
Q A K F B
E C Q A K
P D L E C
O P D L
M
N H O M
S I N
R G J
F B
Q A K
E C
P D L
O M
N

2020
Cellular Systems
Distance calculation
(u1,v1) and (u2,v2) are centers of two cells

Distance D
D^2 = [ (u2-u1)^2 (cos 30)^2 +
{(v2-v1)+(u2-u1) sin 30}^2]
= [ (u2-u1)^2+(v2-v1)^2 +
(v2-v1)(u2-u1) ]
= [I^2 +J^2+IJ] where
(u1,v1) = (0,0) and (u2,v2) = (I,J)
Radius is R for a cell.
Distance between adjacent cells is 1.732 R

2020
Cellular Systems
Interference and System Capacity
• Sources of interference
– another mobile in the same cell
– a call in progress in the neighboring cell
– other base stations operating in the same frequency band
– noncellular system leaks energy into the cellular frequency band
• Two major cellular interference
– co-channel interference
– adjacent channel interference

2020
Cellular Systems
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity
• Frequency reuse - there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies
– co-channel cells
• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated
by a minimum distance.
• When the size of the cell is approximately the same
– co-channel interference is independent of the transmitted power
– co-channel interference is a function of
• R: Radius of the cell
• D: distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell
• Increasing the ratio Q=D/R, the interference is reduced.
• Q is called the co-channel reuse ratio

2020
Cellular Systems Interference and System Capacity
Co-channel Reuse Ratio
• For a hexagonal geometry

D
Q  3N
R
• A small value of Q provides large capacity

• A large value of Q improves the transmission quality - smaller level of
co-channel interference
• A tradeoff must be made between these two objectives

2020
frequencies

2020

• Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver can be expressed as
S S
 i0
I
I
i
i1
S: the desired signal power
Ii: interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell
base station
• The average received power at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna is approximated by
n
d close-in reference point
Pr  P0 
or  d0  d0
d P0:measued
Pr (dBm)  P0(dBm)  10n log  power TX
n is the path loss exponent whichranges

0
d
between 2 and 4.


• When the transmission power of each base station is equal, SIR for a
mobile can be approximated as
S R n
 i0
 D 
I n
i
i1
• Consider only the first layer of interfering cells
S  (D / R) n   3N  n
i0  6
I i0 i0
• Example: AMPS requires that SIR be

greater than 18dB
– N should be at least 6.49 for n=4.
– Minimum cluster size is 7

2020

• For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit being
at the cell boundary, the signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case
can be approximated as

2020
Adjacent Channel Interference and System Capacity
• Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in

frequency to the desired signal.
– Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the
passband
– Performance degrade seriously due to near-far effect.
receiving
filter
response
signal on adjacent signal on adjacent
channel channel
desired
signal
FILTER
interferen
interference desired ce
signal

2020
• Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful

filtering and channel assignment.
• Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell
as large as possible
• A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the adjacent
channel interference to an acceptable level.
• Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to
maintain a good quality link on the reverse channel
– long battery life
– increase SIR
– solve the near-far problem

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Class_9(2.3)
By
Bijaya Kumar Muni

2020
UNIT II
Frequency Reuse factor

Co-Channel
Adjacent Channel
S/I
Different Size Cluster
Cellular Capacity

2020
Cellular Systems
f
960 MHz 124
Downlink
935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz
20 MHz
915 MHz 124
Uplink
1
890.2 MHz
t


2020
Cellular Systems
UK
890 MHz 915 935
US
825 845 870 890
Japan
870 885 925 940

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems
Typical Cell sizes

Problems:

2020
Cellular Systems
Channels Reuse



2020
Cellular Systems
INSIDE THE CELL

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Cellular Systems
Interference:

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Cellular Systems

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Cellular Systems

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Cellular Systems




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Cellular Systems
Frequency Reuse


radio coverage
2020
Cellular Systems

N  i2  ij  j2

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Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
v
(u1, v1)
u
D
(u2, v2)
3R

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Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
R = Cell radius

i  u2  u1 j  v2  v1

A
N   D2
a
N  i 2  ij  j 2

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Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems
REUSE PATTERN
(1,2)
k (1,2)
i
(1,2)
(1,2)
(1,2)
l n
(1,2)

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Cellular Systems
S I
R G J
G
F B
F B
Q A K
A
E C
E C
P D L
D
O M
N


2020
Cellular Systems
H
H
S I
G J S I
R
R G J
F B
A K F B
Q
Q A K
E C
D L E C
P
P D L
O M
N O M
N

2020
v
(u1, v1)
Cellular Systems
Different Cellular Cluster Structure D
G
G F B
G F B A
F B A E C
A E C D R
E C D G
G 3R
D F B
F B A
A E C
E C D
D

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Cellular Systems

v
B A E (u1, v1)
E C
C D G u
G D
F
F B A
A E (u2, v2)
E C D
3R

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Cellular Systems
H
S I H
R G J S I
F B R G J
Q A K F B
E C Q A K
P D L E C
O P D L
M
N H O M
S I N
R G J
F B
Q A K
E C
P D L
O M
N

2020
Cellular Systems
Distance calculation
(u1,v1) and (u2,v2) are centers of two cells

Distance D
D^2 = [ (u2-u1)^2 (cos 30)^2 +
{(v2-v1)+(u2-u1) sin 30}^2]
= [ (u2-u1)^2+(v2-v1)^2 +
(v2-v1)(u2-u1) ]
= [I^2 +J^2+IJ] where
(u1,v1) = (0,0) and (u2,v2) = (I,J)
Radius is R for a cell.
Distance between adjacent cells is 1.732 R

2020
Cellular Systems
Frequency reuse factor & Cellular capacity Variables
• Total available channels = S

• N “adjacent” cells (called a cluster) share S channels
• System has M clusters
• Each cell gets k channels
S=kN
•Capacity of the system is C = MkN
• Frequency reuse factor is 1/ N

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Cellular Systems
• Sources of interference
– another mobile in the same cell
– a call in progress in the neighboring cell
– other base stations operating in the same frequency band
– noncellular system leaks energy into the cellular frequency band
• Two major cellular interference
– adjacent channel interference

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Cellular Systems
frequencies

2020
Cellular Systems Interference and System Capacity v
(u1, v1)
Co-channel Reuse Ratio u

D
• For a hexagonal geometry

(u2, v2)
D
Q  3N
R
R
• A small value of Q provides large capacity 3R

• A large value of Q improves the transmission quality - smaller level of
co-channel interference
• A tradeoff must be made between these two objectives

2020
frequencies

2020

• Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver can be expressed as
S S
 i0
I
I
i
i1
S: the desired signal power
Ii: interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell
base station
• The average received power at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna is approximated by
n
d close-in reference point
Pr  P0 
or  d0  d0
d P0:measued
Pr (dBm)  P0(dBm)  10n log  power TX
n is the path loss exponent whichranges

0
d
between 2 and 4.


• When the transmission power of each base station is equal, SIR for a
mobile can be approximated as
S R n
 i0
 D 
I n
i
i1
• Consider only the first layer of interfering cells
S  (D / R) n   3N  n
i0  6
I i0 i0
• Example: AMPS requires that SIR be

greater than 18dB
– N should be at least 6.49 for n=4.
– Minimum cluster size is 7

2020

• For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit being
at the cell boundary, the signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case
can be approximated as

2020
• Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in

frequency to the desired signal.
– Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the
passband
– Performance degrade seriously due to near-far effect.
receiving
filter
response
signal on adjacent signal on adjacent
channel channel
desired
signal
FILTER
interferen
interference desired ce
signal

2020
• Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful

filtering and channel assignment.
• Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell
as large as possible
• A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the adjacent
channel interference to an acceptable level.
• Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to
maintain a good quality link on the reverse channel
– long battery life
– increase SIR
– solve the near-far problem

2020
Summary:
The lecture analyses and provides the description of cellular concept of co-
channel and adjacent channel. The interference in co-channel and adjacent
channel. Different cluster size. The frequency reuse factor derived in this
lecture for students.
Capacity of cluster analyzed. Etc.

2020
Cellular Systems

2020
Cellular Systems

2020

Cellular and Mobile Communication

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CELLULAR & MOBILE COMMUNICATION

To be a centre of excellence in engineering and management education, research and

1. To provide world class engineering education, encourage research and development.

2. To evolve innovative applications of technology and develop entrepreneurship.

3. To mould the students into socially responsible and capable leaders.

To be a guiding force enabling multifarious applications in Electronics and Communications

Department of ECE Mission

Course Objectives: The Student will

Unit-1 Introduction to Cellular Mobile Radio Systems :

Unit-2 Fundamentals of Cellular Radio System Design :

Concept of frequency reuse, Co-channel interference, Co-channel Interference reduction factor,

Unit-4 Cell Site and Mobile Antennas:

1. Principles of Mobile Communications – Gordon L. Stuber, Springer International, 2nd

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems,

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

 During the past 10 years, fueled by

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

 to replace AMPS analog channels

 3 times of capacity due to the use of digital modulation (DQPSK), speech

 could further increase up to 6 times of capacity given the advancements of

 based on spread spectrum technology.

 each associated with a unique code sequence.

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Inefficient Spectrum Utilization:

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

 It is not efficient utilization of spectrum.

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

 Cellular system which re-uses the allocated spectrum in different geographical

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Technology Analog cellular Digital CDMA, UMTS, LTE, WiFi WWWW

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

same antenna to be used for simultaneous transmission and reception.

 To facilitate FDD, it is necessary to separate the XMIT and RCVD

frequencies by about 5% of the nominal RF frequency, so that the

duplexer can provide sufficient isolation while being inexpensively

 Only possible with digital transmission format and digital modulation.

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

Land Line Link Paging Terminal

PAGING CONTROL Land Line Link

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

required is quite sophisticated. (simulcasting)

 designed to provide ultra-reliable coverage, even inside buildings

base station locations difficult for the paging companies.

 Small RF bandwidths are used to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology

 To Connect a Fixed Base Station to a Portable Cordless Handset

Wednesday, July 15, ECE Department JB Institute of Engineering & Technology