INFORMATION

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

[Concepts and Application]
 Concept of Information Communication Technology

1.1 Information Communication Technology versus Information System

Information and Communications Technology or (ICT), is often used as an extended synonym
for information technology (IT), but is a more specific term that stresses the role of unified
communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless
signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-
visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. The
term ICT is now also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks
with computer networks through a single cabling or link system.
Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and telecommunications
equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data, often in the context of a business
or other enterprise. Several industries are associated with information technology, such as
computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-
commerce and computer services.
In a business context, the Information Technology Association of America has defined
information technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation,
support or management of computer-based information systems".
Yekini and Lawal (2012) Sees ICT as: a powerful collection of elements which include
computer hardware, software, telecommunication networks, workstations, robotics and smart
chips, which is also at the root of information systems

1.2 Information System (IS)

An information system (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software
that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data. The study
bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and
computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a
computer science discipline. Computer Information System(s) (CIS) is a field studying
computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware
designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over
design.
Information system is a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which
humans and/or machines perform work using resources to produce specific products
and/or services for customers.
There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems,
office systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, database
management systems, and office information systems.
"Information systems specialists are the people that integrate information technology solutions
and business processes to meet the information needs of businesses and other enterprises.

Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on IS that includes software, hardware, data, people,
and procedures. A second managerial view includes people, business processes and
Information Systems.
1.3 ICT Literacy
Since we live in information society, everyone is expected to be ICT literate. The ICT literacy
entails.
Awareness: As you study computers, you will become aware of their importance, versatility,
pervasiveness, and their potential for good and ill in our society.
Knowledge: You will learn what computers are and how they work. This requires learning
some technical jargons that will help you deal with the computer and with people that work
with computers. Interaction: This implies learning to use a computer to perform some basic
tasks or applications.

1.4 Impact of ICT on Society

There are both positive and negative impacts of ICT in this modern society. Some these impact
are discussed below:

1.4.1 Positive Impacts

i. Faster Communication Speed: In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to
be sent. Now with the Internet, news or messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business
partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection
speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant.
It saves time and is inexpensive.
ii. Lower Communication Cost: Using the Internet is cost effective than the other modes of
communication such as telephone, mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access
to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any
basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is
relatively cheap.
iii. Reliable Mode of Communication: Computers are reliable. With the internet, information
could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at any time. This makes it a reliable mode
of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by humans. If the data
passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term
GIGO. GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output
produced according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
iv. Effective Sharing of Information: With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared
by people all around the world. People can share and exchange opinions, news and
information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet. This enable
knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based society.
v. Paperless Environment: ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This
term means information can be stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of
paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant messaging also helps in
creating the paperless environment.
vi. Borderless Communication: Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity,
accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless source for services and information.
Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.
vii.Create Employment: Although many employment areas have suffered job losses, other areas
have grown and jobs have been created.

1.4.2 Negative Effects

i. Individualistic and introvert: Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication
rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more individualistic and
introvert.
ii. Moral decedent and threats to the society: Some ICT users use ICT tools for, fraud,
identity theft, Pornography, Hacking etc. That could result to a moral decedent and generate
threats to the society.
iii. Health Problems: A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently.
Computer users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In
order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment can be introduced.
Unemployment Situation: Some jobs have been lost as a result of computers being used to
do the same work that people used to do, for examples: Manufacturing: Many factories now
have fully automated production lines. Instead of using people to build things, computer-
controlled robots are used.
iv. Secretarial Work: Offices used to employee many secretaries to produce the documents
required for the business to run. Now people have personal computers, they tend to type and
print their own documents. Accounting Clerks: Companies once had large departments full
of people whose job it was to do calculations (e.g. profit, loss, billing, etc.) .A personal
computer running a spreadsheet can now do the same work. Newspaper Printing: It used to
take a team of highly skilled printers to typeset (layout) a newspaper page and to then print
thousands of newspapers. The same task can now be performed far more quickly using
computers with DTP software and computer-controlled printing presses.
 Introduction to Computer System

2.1 Description of Computer System

Computer is a device that is capable of automatically accepting (i.e. input), storing and
processing data into useful information (i.e. output), at a very high speed, under the control of
stored instructions (i.e. program). A computer could also be defined as a machine for
manipulating data according to a list of instructions (programs). Computer is the backbone of
ICT.

2.2 Parts of a Computer

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the
"computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts,
which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand,
refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.)
The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your
system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has
similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package.

2.2.1 System Unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information.
The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or
microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random
access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the
computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.
Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables
plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not
part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

Figure 2a. System Unit

2.2.2 Storage
Computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store information on a metal or plastic
disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.

2.2.3 Hard disk drive

Computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack of platters
with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information, they
usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs
and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

Figure 2b. Hard disk drive

2.2.4 CD and DVD Drives

Computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the
system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives can
also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of
your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

Figure 2c. CD

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive,
you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs.

2.2.5 Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes.
Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also
retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk
drives are less popular than they used to be, although some computers still include them. Why
are floppy disks "floppy"? Even though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's just the sleeve.
The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material
 Figure 2d. Floppy disk
.
2.2.6 Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although
mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small,
oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice
are wireless. A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to
scroll smoothly through screens of information.

Figure 2e. Mouse

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same
direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your

screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item
and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is
the main way to interact with your computer.

2.2.7 Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a
typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:
 The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on
where they are used.
 The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter
numbers quickly.
 The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a
document or webpage.
 Figure 2f. Keyboard

Note: We can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform
with a mouse.

2.2.8 Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the
monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer
screen can show still or moving pictures.
There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid
crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the
advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more
affordable.

Figure 2g. LCD monitors (left); CRT monitor (right)

2.2.7. Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your
computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and
other materials. Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home. The two
main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular
printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color and can produce high-
quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better
able to handle heavy use.

Figure 2h. Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)

 2.2.9 Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with
cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

Figure 2i. Computer Speakers

2.2.9. Modem
To connect our computer to the Internet, we need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and
receives computer information over a telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems are
sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-speed modems are usually separate
components.

Figure 2j. Cable Modem

2.3 Advantages of Computer System

Below are some advantages of computer systems
i. Accuracy and Reliability: The results produced by a computer are extremely correct and
reliable. What is often called ‗computer errors‘ are actually human mistakes; invalid data and
errors are corrected easily.
ii. Speed: The speed of computer makes it the machine ideal for processing large amounts of data;
e.g. accounting, banking operations etc.
iii. Storage/Memory Capability: Computer systems can store tremendous amounts of data,
which can then be retrieved fast and efficiently. The volume of information we deal with today is
far beyond what we can handle manually.
iv. Productivity: Computers are able to perform dangerous, boring, routine jobs, such as adding
long list of numbers, punching holes in metal or monitoring water levels. Most workers (e.g. in
banks) will appreciate increased productivity when computers are used to do their jobs.
Flexibility: Computer could be used for various purposes e.g. multiprogramming, batch
processing, real-time processing, data collection, bank transaction processing etc. Automatic
 operation: Computer performs data processing automatically under the control of internally
stored programs.
Configuration and adaptability: Different or suitable peripherals may be used by business
organizations to suit their business processing requirements.

2.4 Disadvantages of Computer System

Some of the dis-advantages of computers are discussed below
i. Cost of initial setup may be high.
ii. Cost of maintenance may be high.
iii. Inefficient feasibility study before implementation may hamper business operations.
iv. Lack of skilled personnel may hamper computer operations and results obtained.
v. Requires regular electrical power supply.
vi. Excessive exposure to computer may result in some health problem such as poor eye
sight, wrist pain, back ache, neck pain etc.
vii. Computer virus attack may infect and destroy Data/information, which will
automatically affect business operations.
viii. It may lead to unemployment, because one computer can do the job of about 10 persons.

2.5 Application of Computer in Society

Computers have moved into many facets of our lives. There is virtually no area of human
endeavor that computer usage has not penetrated. Though we cannot exhaust listing all the areas
of application of computers, the following are some key areas of computer application:

i. Science: One of the most important advantages of computers is in the field of science for
research and development. The computers have played a major role in most of what we know
about ourselves and the universe. The satellites, the telescopes and almost all the research tools
make use of computers in some or the other way. The huge calculations required for space
science, safe communication between scientists, storage of all the gathered information are some
of the computer uses in science and technology.
ii. Medical: The important use of computers in the medical field is for research and development.
The high end machines used for diagnosis and cure of many diseases are nothing but computers.
For example, the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), CT scan, ultrasound devices, etc are
amongst the uses of computers in hospitals. Even many surgical procedures, known as
laparoscopic surgeries, need the help of computers. Web conferencing helps doctors treat people
remotely.
iii. Education: Computer uses in the field of education are infinite. The Internet is a huge source of
information. There are online universities that deliver online degrees and distance learning is
spreading far and wide. Many schools and colleges have started making use of audio-visual ways
of imparting knowledge. A horde of tools that need a computer, help students in many ways.
iv. Banking: The banking sector has improved on fronts such as security, ease of use, etc. with the
help of computers. Most of the banking operations can be done online, known as Internet
banking, and you don't have to walk up to the bank for virtually anything. You can withdraw
money from ATMs and deposit money in any branch, thanks to the networking affected by the
use of computers. The complete banking experience has also become safer.
v. Crime Investigation: High end computer devices have ensured that justice is more effective.
CCTV cameras and other computer operated security systems have reduced the amount of crime.
And if it still happens there are many ways to track down the criminal in no time. Forensic
science employs computers for many of its operations related to investigations.
vi. Entertainment: The field of entertainment has been revolutionized by computers. Animation,
graphic image manipulation etc has made the entertainment experience hundred times better.
Computer gaming is achieving new landmarks in terms of technology. Movie making, editing,
music composition etc everything needs computers. This is only the tip of the iceberg and the
uses of computers in society are many more. But then the development of computer technology
has also given rise to many vices like identity theft.
vii. Government: The Government can use computers for the processing of immigration, tax
collection/administration, keeping tracks of criminals, computing budgets and statutory
allocations, Civil Service Records, computing wages, salaries, gratuities and pensions etc.
viii. Communication: Any computer has any potential to link up with other computers through
communication systems such as telephone lines or satellite. This link-up facilitates exchange of
memos, reports, letters, data/information, and even having meetings among people in
geographically dispersed locations.
ix. Robotics: Robots are information machines with the manual dexterity to perform tasks too
unpleasant, too dangerous, or too critical to assign to human beings. For example, robots are
used in defense to perform underwater military missions; robots could be used for welding or
paint-spraying in factories, and in car assembling.
x. Business/Commerce: Products are packaged with zebrastriped symbols (Universal Product
Code {UPC}) that can be read by scanners at supermarket checkout stands to determine prices of
commodities. It has become a commonplace for companies and consumers to transact business
among themselves with the help of computers. It could be in form of Business-to-Business
{B2B} or Business-to-Consumer {B2C}. Computers have been found useful in payroll
preparation, inventory control, auditing operations, personnel records keeping, preparation of
consumer utility bills, financial market transactions etc. xi. Energy: Energy companies use
computers and geological data to locate oil, coal, natural gas and other mineral resources. Meter-
readers use hand-held computers to record how much energy is used in a month in homes and
businesses. Computers can analyze the fuel consumption in our cars.

2.6 Types of Computer System

Classifications of computer vary and also depend on some criterion as discussed below:
Criterion 1: Types by Data Processed
There are three (3) types of computers according to this classification criterion:
i. Analog Computers: An analog computer measures and operates on data that are represented in
the form of continuous variables e.g. voltage, pressure, temperature, distance, speed etc.
Examples of analog computers include car speedometer, multimeter, fuel pump at filling stations
etc.
ii. Digital Computers: A digital computer represents and processes data in discrete/numerical
form, using binary system. It produces discrete output. Most computer systems we see around us
today are digital computers; they are found in our homes and business environments. Some wrist
watches today have digital computers embedded in them. Examples include desk calculators,
adding machines, personal computers etc.
iii. Hybrid Computers: A hybrid computer combines the features of both analog and digital
computers. It can accept continuous, discrete or both type of input. Its output could be in the
form of discrete or continuous values or the combination of both. This type of computer is
commonly found in highly scientific environments. Example is the electronic calculating scale
used in food stores.

Criterion 2: Computer Types by physical size

In classifying computer according to physical size, there are four (4) types, namely and
computers in this category are digital in nature:
Microcomputers: Microcomputers are the smallest in size; they are the cheapest; and they have
the least operational speed and memory capacity. They are made for single user and single-
tasking. They are portable (i.e. they can be moved about easily), easy and simple to learn and
use. The microprocessor of a microcomputer is made of integrated circuits, called chip, mounted
a single circuit board. It has interfaces for input, output and storage devices. Examples include
IBM Personal Computers and compatible systems, Compaq, Dell etc. Microcomputers come in
different shapes and sizes: Personal Computer (PC) System: is a microcomputer designed for
independent use by an individual at work or in the home mainly for business purposes. Some
PCs are called Home Computers because they have limited capability designed for domestic use
with programs that are typically used for computer games and controlling family finances.
Minicomputers: Minicomputers are medium-sized, generalpurpose digital computers; a bit
larger than microcomputers but smaller than mainframe computers. They are multi-user (i.e.
supports many users at a time) and multi-tasking (i.e. ability to perform many tasks
simultaneously). Compared with microcomputers, they have larger memory size, higher
processing speed, more numerous and faster input/output devices; and they are costlier. They are
used in small-scale industries. Examples of mini-computer include: PDP-8, PDP-11, Honeywell-
DPS6, DEC‘s VAX series, Texas instrument DS990, IBM 8100 etc.
Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are generally more powerful in terms of
processing speed than minicomputers. They have larger memory storage memory/capacity and
cost more than minicomputers. They are multi-user and multi-tasking oriented, supporting full
range of programming languages, used for commercial and scientific research purposes, with
sophisticated devices attached. They can access numerous terminals/workstations on a network.
They use different types of peripheral devices such as tapes and disks. They are operated by
well-trained experts. Examples of mainframe computers include: NCR 8000, IBM 370,
Super computers: Supercomputers are the largest, fastest and most expensive computers. They
are often referred to as Maxi-computers. They can be seen as technological improvement on
mainframe computers. They are often used in scientific environments such as in space studies
and weather forecast. Examples include: CRAY-1, CRAY-2

Criterion 3: Computer Types by Purpose

There are two types of computers according to classification by purpose:
i. General purpose computers: General purpose computers are designed to solve wide range of
problems such as science, technology, education, business etc. Complex calculations are
performed within fractions of a second and results obtained fast. Most Personal Computers (PCs)
are general purpose computers.
ii. Special purpose computers: Special purpose computers are designed for a particular
job/purpose only; to solve problems of a restricted nature. They are also called dedicated
computers. Most special purpose computers are put within some other devices or systems, such
that the computers are not accessed directly. These types of computers are called Embedded
Computers. Examples include computers designed for use in digital watches, micro-wave oven,
in petrol pumps or in weapons guidance systems.

Criterion 4: Computer Types by generations/Technology Age

There are five (5) generations of computers as at date based on this criterion.
i. First Generation Computers: These are computer systems manufactured during the
1940s. Their features include:
The CPU was made of vacuum tubes or thermionic valves.
 Primary memory made of magnetic drum.
 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor used cathode ray tube.
 Very bulky in size, occupied space, and very costly.
 Used machine language programming.
 Complex and cumbersome to operate.
 Generated a lot of heat.
Examples are: EDSAC, EDVAC, LEO, UNIVAC I and UNIVAC II.
ii. Second Generation Computers: These are computer systems manufactured during the
1950s. Their features include:
 The CPU was made of electronic transistors.
 Primary memory made of magnetic core.
 Cost less, faster, smaller and more reliable than first generation systems.
 Less complex and easier to operate compared with first generation.
 Generated less heat than first generation.
Examples: LEO Mark III, ATLAS, Honeywell 800, UNIVAC III, IBM 7000 series, etc.
iii. Third Generation Computers: These are computer systems manufactured around the 1960s
and early 1970s.
Features:
 The CPU was made of Small Scale Integrated (SSI) Circuits, built on one Silicon Chip.
 The SSI circuits evolved to Medium Scale Integrated (MSI) circuits.
 The MSI eventually evolved into Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits, leading to greater
degrees of integration of electrical components.
The various evolutions of IC technologies gave rise to computer systems which were
smaller in size, cheaper, faster, more reliable and durable than first and second generation
systems.
 It was the era of minicomputers and microcomputers, resulting in higher awareness of
computer technology.
 The VDU were in colours.
 Primary memory made of magnetic core and solid state semi-conductors.
 Less complex and easier to operate compared with first and second generations.
 Used high level language e.g. COBOL for operation. Examples: ICL 1900 series, IBM
360 series etc.
iii. Fourth Generation Computers: These are computer systems manufactured around the
late 1970s to 1985. Features include the following:
 The CPU was made of Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC), called microchips;
i.e. thousands of components in a very small space.
 There was a thin line demarcation between third and fourth generations.
 The VLSI circuits gave rise to computer systems which were more compact, cheaper,
faster, more reliable and durable than first, second and third generation systems.
 It was the era of microcomputers, resulting in higher awareness of computer technology.
 Invention of microprocessors, which gave birth to pocket calculators, digital watches and
the inclusion of micro hips in other devices.
 Use of fourth generation query language (4GLs).
 The VDU were in various designs – RGB, EGA, CGA, VGA colour monitors.
Primary memory made of solid state semi-conductors.
 Less complex and easier to operate compared with first and second generations.
 Evolution of more application areas of computers.
iv. Fifth Generation Computers
The research into the fifth generation computers started about 1985 and continued into 1990. The
features are as follows:
 This generation is characterized by the advent of Artificial intelligence, i.e. the ability of
computer system to exhibit behaviors like an intelligent person.
 Speech recognition/processing
 Parallel architecture/processing – where a computer system have hundreds of processors
that could all be working on different parts of a single complex problem simultaneously.
 Pattern recognition –
 Expert system – an application program that has the capability of making judgments and
decisions like a human expert in a particular field of profession. It is an interactive system
that puts users through question-and-answer session to clarify issues and make
recommendations, e.g. in medicine.
 Multimedia system – PC + Sound Card + Speakers + CD Drive
 Semi-conductor memory.

2.7 Social Implication of Computer System

The society in which we live has been so profoundly affected by computers that historians refer
to the present time as the information age. This is due to the ability to store and manipulate large
amounts of information (data) using computers. As an information society, we must consider
both the social and ethical implications of our use of computers. By ethical questions we mean
asking what are the morally right and wrong ways to use computers and this could be explain as
follows:
Ergonomics: this is the science that studies safe work environments. Many health-related
issues, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and computer vision syndrome (CVS), are related to
prolonged computer use.
Environmental concern: Power and paper wastes are environmental concerns associated with
computer use. Suggestions for eliminating these concerns include recycling paper and printer
toner cartridges and turning off monitors and printers when not in use.
Employee monitoring: Employee monitoring is an issue associated with computers in the
workplace. It is legal for employers to install software programs that monitor employee
computer use. As well, email messages can be read without employee notification. The invasion
of privacy is a serious problem associated with computers.
Information: Because computers can store vast amounts of data we must decide what
information is proper to store, what is improper, and who should have access to the information.
Every time you use a credit card, make a phone call, withdraw money, reserve a flight, or
register at school, a computer records the transaction. These records can be used to learn a great
deal about you—where you have been, when you were there, and how much money was spent.
Should this information be available to everyone?
Computers are also used to store information about your credit rating, which determines your
ability to borrow money. If you want to buy a car and finance it at a bank, the bank first checks
your credit records on a computer to determine if you have a good credit rating. If you purchase
the car and then apply for automobile insurance, another computer will check to determine if
you have traffic violations.
The Ethical Responsibilities of an IT Professional
IT (information technology) professional has responsibilities that relate to system reliability.
System reliability involves installing and updating appropriate software, keeping hardware
working and upto-date and maintaining databases and other forms of data. Professional ethics
helps a professional choose what to do when faced with a problem at work that raises a moral
issue. One can certainly study what professionals do when faced with such problems, and
confine the enquiry to the description. Our concern here, however, is to assist with making
choices – an approach called prescriptive professional ethics.
Governments, schools, and employers rely on IT professionals to maintain their computer
systems. In addition to ensuring system reliability, an IT professional must take responsibility
for the ethical aspects of the career choice. The lists below are the most commonly reported
behaviors IT professional which is unethical;

i. Plagiarism
ii. Failure to protect confidential data
iii. Failure to share credit on a report
iv. Fabrication of data
v. Criticize the ability/integrity of colleague for own gain
vi. Holding back or disguising data
vii. Design of sampling strategy to favor a specific outcome
viii. Destruction of data that contradicts desired outcome
ix. Deliberately not reporting an incident
 Computer Hardware System

4.1 Description of Hardware

Desktop computer before is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts,
which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware.
The figure below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system.
Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop
computer has similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package.

Figure 4a: The Computer System

The computer system components parts were described in chapter 2 of this book and almost all
the components described are parts of computer hardware. In this chapter the computer
hardware will be describe based on the computer hardware configuration which include both the
directly visible and invisible hardware. This hardware configuration is as given in figure 4b
below.
 Figure 4b. Computer Hardware Configuration
Note: Computer Hardware can be divided basically into two; the CPU and Peripherals. CPU is
made up of control unit, Arithmetic and logic unit and Main memory. While the peripheral is
made up of Input devices, Output devices and Backing storage.
The components of computer hardware based on the diagram in figure 4b are the CPU and
Peripherals (input and output units).
4.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
This is an integral part of system unit of computer system that made up of other components
like; the main storage, the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit.

Main Storage
The Main Storage contains two types of memory chips, named the
Random-Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM). RAM is a memory that has
the same access time for all locations. It is used to store data and program temporarily whenever
they are needed in main memory. It is constantly being re-used for different data items or
programs as required. Static RAM holds its memory so long as there is a power supply.
Dynamic Ram (DRAM) has to be refreshed by reading and rewriting the contents very
frequently. RAM is volatile, that is, the con-tents of RAM are lost when the power supply is
switched off. ROM (integrated circuit) is used to store vital data and programs which need to be
held within the main memory at all times. The contents of ROM are permanently set during the
manufacture of the computer.
However, there are other ways of putting programs and data into ROM. Programmable Read-
Only Memory (PROM) is a type of ROM that is manufactured as an empty storage array and is
later permanently programmed by the user. Erasable PROM (EPROM) is a type of PROM
whose data can be erased by a special process so new data can be written as if it were a new
PROM. Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) consists of adder/subtractor, electronic circuit and working
registers to which operands may be transferred during an operation. The ALU performs the
- Arithmetic Operations - Data Handling
Operations - Logical Functions.
 The data to be processed are taken from main storage, stored in the working registers, processed
and the results placed back in the main storage.
Control Unit
The Control Unit examines the individual instructions in the users‘program one by one,
interprets each instruction and causes the various circuits to be activated to perform the
functions specified. Some of the functions of the control unit are:
i. It co-ordinates the various parts of the computer system to form a composite integrated data
processing system.
ii. It controls the transfer of data between and within the working stores as required by the program.
iii. It controls input/output. Once the program controller has initiated a read/write operation, the
control unit continues to monitor the operation to ensure that it is satisfactorily completed.
iv. In time-sharing or on-line systems, the control unit coordinates the several concurrent peripheral
operations while data is processed internally within the CPU.

4.3 Peripherals Input & Output Devices

4.3.1 Input Device
Computer Input is the process of transferring data from computer sensible media into the main
storage of the computer. The equipment which converts data been captured on a source
documents into machine sensible form is called an input device. The following terms are related
to inputting data into computer.

- Data Capture is the term used to describe the process of collecting data in machine sensible
form at its source.
- Data Collection is the term used to describe the process of recording the data on source
document and subsequently converting it into machine sensible form for input to the
computer.
- Data Conversion is the process of transforming the data on source documents into machine
sensible form before carrying out the input operation.

Type of Input Device

- Direct Input Devices allow data to be input into the computer without any need for data
conversion. Examples are: keyboard terminals, mouse, trackballs, scanners, joystick, bar-
code readers, touch screens, OCR, OMR and MICR equipment.
- Indirect Input Devices accept data from source documents and convert it into computer-
sensible form for subsequent input into the computer. Examples are: magnetic tape, magnetic
disk, compact disk and diskette drives.

Input devices can also be classified as manual or automated. Manual input devices include
keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, bar-code readers, scanners, and touch screens. Automated
input devices include MICR, OCR, OMR, magnetic stripe and smart cards.

Computer keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a
typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys like:
- The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where
they are used.
- The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter
numbers quickly.
- The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a
document or webpage. Some modern keyboards come with "hot keys" or buttons that give
you quick and one-press access to programs, files, or commands. Other models have volume
controls, scroll wheels, zoom wheels, and other gadgets. For details about these features,
check the information that came with your keyboard or computer, or go to the manufacturer's
website.

Figure 4c. Modern computer keyboard

Electronic Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although
mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small,
oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail.
Some newer mice are wireless. When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your
screen moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on
where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item
and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is
the main way to interact with your computer.
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary
button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most often. Most
mice also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and
webpages more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button.
Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can perform other functions.
 Figure 4d. Parts of a mouse

Trackballs
A trackball is like a mouse turned upside down. It is a stationary device related to the mouse. It
has a roller ball with only its top exposed outside its case. The cursor on the screen is moved
whenever the roller ball is turned. Pressing buttons on the trackball activates various activities
represented by the icon selected.

(a) A mouse (b) A trackball

Touch Screens
Touch screen is a special screen that is able to detect the position on the screen that a user‘s
finger is touching or pointing at. A standard computer screen is covered by two very thin pieces
of plastic. Embedded into the plastic is a fine wire and that is linked to the computer. When
someone touches the grid, the computer can deduce exactly where the touch is made.

Joysticks
Joysticks are used more on video games than with PCs. A joystick has a short vertical handle
that can be tilted forwards and backwards, left and right. A joystick allows the user to point to
objects on the screen in the same way as a mouse, but it is more convenient for following a
moving target. It may have one or more buttons on it.

Light Pen
A light pen allows the user to point the pen at different parts of a screen to select an option or
draw a graphic, so it is like very accurate Touch screens. The use of light pens is quite rare.

Optical Scanners
Optical scanning devices read text or graphics and convert them into digital input for the
computer. Thus, optical scanning enables the direct entry of data from source documents into a
computer system. Optical scanners employ photoelectric devices to scan the characters being
read. Reflected light patterns of the data are converted into electronic impulses that are then
accepted as input into the computer system. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a form of
optical scanning.

Voice Recognition
Voice recognition systems analyse and classify speech or vocal tract patterns and convert them
into digital codes for entry into a computer system. Voice recognition systems with large
vocabularies require training the computer to recognise your voice in order to achieve a high
degree of accuracy

Magnetic Stripe
Swipe and credit cards have black iron oxide coating of magnetic stripe on the reverse side, and
it is this that the computer recognises. The black stripe holds information, such as customer
account numbers, that can be accessed only by a special magnetic reading device. The reading
device converts the information into computer usable form, for example, at the automated teller
machines found at banks and at credit card authorization terminals.

Smart Cards
Smart Cards embed a microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory into debit, credit,
and other cards. Smart debit cards enable the user to store a cash balance on the card and
electronically transfer some of it to others to pay for small items and services. The balance on
the card can be replenished in automated teller machines (ATMs) or other terminals. Smart
cards are widely used to make payments in parking meters, vending machines, pay telephones,
and retail stores.

Digital Cameras
Digital still cameras and digital video cameras (digital camcorders) enable the user to shoot,
store, and download still photos or full motion video with audio into a PC. Then image-editing
software can be used to edit and enhance the digitised images and include them in newsletters,
reports, multimedia presentations, and web pages.

Optical Character Readers

Optical character readers (OCR) are machines capable of reading printed documents directly
into the computer by recognising the shape of the different characters. Reading of documents
prepared in optical characters is accomplished by the use of a scanning device that reflects light
from the character on to a lens where it is focused on a photoelectric cell. The cell produces a
variable electric current that is unique for each character read. This process is termed optical
character recognition.

Optical Mark Readers

Optical mark readers (OMR) are machines that use an artificial light source to scan marks made
on OMR documents in order to determine their values. Marking is done in small horizontal
shape on documents with black media such as a soft pencil. On OMR documents,
predetermined positions are given certain values. The optical reader converts the mark in a
position to the appropriate value. This is termed optical mark recognition (OMR).

Magnetic Ink Character Readers

Magnetic ink character readers (MICR) are machines capable of reading magnetic ink
characters on MICR documents and passing the data into a computer. A MICR document has
human-readable characters printed in the normal way with the use of a specially designed font
but using a ferrous-based ink that is capable of magnetization.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) technology is employed by the computer systems
of the banking industry to read cheques magnetically.

On-Line Input
This entails data being transmitted directly to the computer by the use of terminals sited at a
distance from the computer and linked to it by communication arrangements. The computers‘
response is transmitted back to the terminal.

Bar Coding
Bar coding is the representation of code numbers or other data by bars or lines printed or
embossed on a data carrier. The data carrier may be a tag, ticket, label, plastic card or a
packet/can holding goods.

Bar Code Readers

A bar code reader functions as follows: The bar code is scanned by a laser, which measures the
thickness of the lines and the distance between them to decipher the code. Once read, the
information can be transmitted to a computer. These hardware devices are often used for point-
of-sale input systems in supermarkets and other outlets.

Output Devices
Computer output is the process of transferring data and information from the main storage of the
computer onto a human-sensible medium or a machine-sensible medium. The principal methods
of producing computer output are:

i. Displayed output on a VDU screen

ii. Printed output on paper
iii. Computer-sensible output on a magnetic medium
iv. Computer output on microform
v. Plotters
vi. Sound output

Video Output
Video monitors use cathode ray tubes (CRT) technology similar to the picture tubes used in
home TV sets. The clarity of the video display depends on the type of video monitor and the
graphic circuit board installed in the computer. The information displayed on the screen is
often referred to as soft copy. Monitors can be monochrome or colour. Monochrome monitors
give a display of varying intensity on a single colour, for example, white on black background
or orange/green on dark background. Colour monitors give a display with a range of colours
determined by the colour circuitry in the monitor and the computer.

Printers/ Plotters
A printer is a mechanical device used for producing human-readable information on paper. A
printer is connected to a computer for the sole purpose of transferring the information from the
computer to paper or other media. The version printed out on paper is often referred to as hard
copy. The three main categories of computer printers are line printers, serial/character printers
and laser printers. A plotter contains a pen that draws lines on paper. Plotters are devices used
for producing hard copies of complex graphics outputs in the form of graphs, charts, histograms
and diagrams. These devices are much better than ordinary printers at handling diagrams. The
technique has a wide range of use in fields such as scientific research, engineering and
management information systems. They are commonly used for such tasks as producing
technical drawings and road/rail networks.

Magnetically Encoded Output

Computer output, in coded form, are written onto a magnetic medium usually for the purpose of
storing updated records. The magnetic media used for the purpose include diskette, compact
disk, magnetic tape, and magnetic disks.

Sound Output
A sound output device reproduces previously recorded and stored sounds. Sound output devices
are the output equivalent of sound input devices. Sound output devices simply convey pre-
recorded information in audio form. Speech synthesis is the production of sounds resembling
human speech by electronic methods. A speech synthesis output device creates speech output
from text. Speech synthesis output devices are the flipside of automatic speech recognition input
devices. Speech synthesis devices convey information in audio form.

Backing Storage
Backing storage is an extension to a computer‘s internal storage. It is used for the off-line mass
storage of programs, data and files that are not currently being used for processing. The types of
common backing storage in use are magnetic tape, magnetic disk, compact disk, USB flash
drive and floppy disk.

Magnetic Tapes
The magnetic tape consists of a strip of plastic tape coated with a magnetic material deposited in
grains, each of which may be magnetized in one of two directions. A tape is held on a reel. A
tape drive is used for writing data onto magnetic tape from the processor and for reading data
from magnetic tape into the processor. The reading/writing operations are accomplished by a
pair of read/write heads.
Advantages of Magnetic Tape
i. It is relatively inexpensive, compared to the magnetic disk. ii. It has a large data
storage capacity.
iii. It is capable of transferring data to and from the main storage of the computer at very
high speed.
 iv. Transaction data can be recorded directly onto the magnetic tape by means of magnetic
tape encoding machines.
v. Old data may be erased and the tape used repeatedly.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Tape

i. It is only possible to access records serially. ii. Data can be accidentally
erased or overwritten. iii. It is not possible to read the records on tape visually.
iv. Updated information cannot be written back to the same location on the same tape.
v. Input data must be sorted into the sequence of the master file before updating can start.
vi. Stringent environment control is necessary in order to eliminate dust and static
electricity in the atmosphere.

Magnetic Disks
A magnetic disk or hard disk is a flat circular device, which is similar to a long-playing
phonograph record. It is made of metal and each of the recording surfaces is coated with a thin
layer of magnetisable iron oxide. Usually, six disks are held on a common axis, one above the
other, to form a disk pack. A disk pack is mounted on a disk drive mechanism. The disk drive is
used for writing data onto magnetic disk from the processor and reading data from magnetic
disk into the processor. The reading/writing operations are accomplished by using a pair of
read/write heads placed next to each recording surface.

Advantages of Magnetic Disk

i. A pack of disks has very high storage capacity. ii. Data on tracks may be
overwritten with new data. iii. Disks are ideal for storing subroutines, tables and rates.
iv. Disks may be used for real-time remote enquiry systems.
v. The speed of data transfer from the processor and to the processor is very high.
vi. Data can be input onto a disk without the need for sorting.
vii. Any item of data can be directly addressed, depending upon the method of the file
organisation used.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Disk

i. Disk storage devices are more expensive than many other storage media.
ii. Data may be accidentally erased or overwritten.
iii. It is more complex to program disk operations than for magnetic tape.
iv. Disk operations involve the locating of overflow records.

USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated
Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable,
and physically much smaller than an optical disc. Most weigh less than 30 grams (1.1 oz). As of
January 2013, drives of up to 512 gigabytes (GB) were available. A one-terabyte (TB) drive
was unveiled at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show and became available later that year.
USB flash drives are often used for the same purposes for which floppy disks or CDs were used,
i.e., for storage, back-up and transfer of computer files.
Advantages of USB Flash Drive
They are smaller, faster, have thousands of times more capacity, and are more durable and
reliable because they have no moving parts

Computer Software

5.1 Description of Computer Software

Computer software, or just software, is any set of machine readable instructions (most
often in the form of a computer program) that directs a computer's processor to perform specific
operations. Software is a general term. It can refer to all computer instructions in general or to
any specific set of computer instructions. It is inclusive of both machine instructions (the binary
code that the processor understands) and source code (more human understandable instructions
that must be rendered into machine code by compilers or interpreters before being executed). In
most computer platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad categories:
 Figure 5a: Organization of Computer Software
5.2 System Software
System software is a group of programs that contribute to the control and performance of the
computer system. System software manages and supports the operations of computer systems
and networks. They are usually provided by the computer manufacturers. System software is
made up of systems management programs and systems development programs.

System Management Programs manage the hardware, software, network, and data resources of
the computer system during its execution of the various information processing jobs of users.
Examples are operating systems, network management programs, database management
systems, and system utilities.
System Development Programs help users develop information system programs and
procedures and prepare user programs for computer processing. Examples are programming
language translators and editors.

5.3 Operating Systems

An operating system is a collection of programs which takes over the operation of the computer
to the extent of being able to allow a number of programs to be run on the computer without
human interventions by an operator. Examples of operating systems on mainframe and
minicomputers are IBM-OS/VS, IBM-OS/400 and ICL-VME. On microcomputers, examples
include MS-DOS, WINDOWS and LINUX.

Functions of Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) performs five basic functions in the operation of a computer system,
namely, providing a user interface, resource management, task management, file management,
as well as utilities and support services.
 1. The User Interface: This is the part of the operating system that allows the user to
communicate with it so that the user can load programs, access files, and accomplish other
tasks. The main types of user interfaces are
2. Resource Management: An operating system uses a variety of resource management
programs to manage the hardware and networking resources of a computer system, including
its CPU, memory, secondary storage devices, telecommunications processors, and
input/output peripherals. For example, memory management programs keep track of where
data and programs are stored.
3. File Management: An operating system contains file management programs that control the
creation, deletion, and access of files of data and programs. File management also involves
keeping track of the physical location of files on magnetic disks and other secondary storage
devices. So, operating system maintains directories of information about the location and
characteristics of files stored on a computer systems secondary storage device.
4. Task Management: The task management programs of an operating system manage the
accomplishment of the computing tasks of end-users. They give each task a slice of a CPU‘s
time and interrupt the CPU operations to substitute other tasks. Task management may
involve a multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the same time.
Multitasking may take the form of multiprogramming, where the CPU can process the tasks
of several programs at the same time, or timesharing, where the computing tasks of several
users can be processed at the same time.
5. System Utilities: Utility programs are type of system management software that are
marketed as separate programs or are included as part of an operating system. Utilities
perform miscellaneous housekeeping and file conversion functions. Examples include data
backup, data recovery, virus protection, data compression, and file defragmentation.
6.
5.4 Utilities and Service Programs
These are systems programs that provide facilities for performing common tasks of routine
nature. The main types include.
i. Sort is a program used to arrange records into a predetermined sequence by reference to a
record key.
ii. Editors are used at a terminal and provide facilities for the creation or amendment of
programs.
iii. File Copying is a program that copies data from one medium to another, for example,
from diskettes to hard disk.
iv. File Renaming is a program that changes the name of a file to another.
v. File Backup is a program that copies data or file from one medium to another for security
purposes.
vi. Disk Formatting is a program that prepares a disk or diskette for the purpose of receiving
and storing data.. vii. Dump is a program that is used to copy the contents of the main
storage onto an output medium such as paper.
viii. File maintenance is a program that carries out the process of insertion and deletion of
records in any file. It can also make amendments to standing data in records.
ix. Tracing and Debugging is used in conjunction with the testing of application
programs on the computer. Tracing involves dumping to locate errors. Debugging is the
process of eliminating errors from a program.
5.5 Programming Languages
A programming language describes the way in which the instructions that make up a computer
program are written. The three basic types of programming languages are machine language,
assembly language and high-level language.

5.6 Translators
A translator is a systems program that converts statements written in one programming language
into statements in the computer language. The statements in a programming language are called
source program. The statements in the computer language are called object program. The
three types of translators are Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters.
5.6.1 Assembler
An assembler (or a symbolic assembly program) is a program specially developed by the
computer manufacturer to assist the programmer in the preparation of machine-code programs
from programs written in symbolic language.
5.6.2 Compiler
A compiler is a program specially written by the computer manufacturer for the purpose of
translating a program written in high level language into machine language.
5.6.3 Interpreter
The interpreter is used to translate high-level language programs. It deals with the source
program one instruction at a time, completely translating and executing each instruction before
it goes on to the next.

The advantage of the Interpreter over a compiler is that it is suitable for interactive work, where
the programmer wishes to modify or test the program on-line as it is being developed.

5.7 Applications Software & Application Programs

Applications software is a group of programs that are developed to solve particular problems.
They directly provide the processing that users want to have performed. They may be produced
by the computer manufacturer or supplier, a software house, or the computer user. They are of
two types, application programs and application packages.

- Application programs are mostly written by the users to carry out a task, e.g. payroll
programs; hence they are also called user programs or tailor-made programs.
- Application packages are ready-made generalised programs with associated
documentations for solving business and other problems.

Advantages of Application Software

The user gets a well-tried and tested program. ii. Implementation is
quicker and possibly cheaper.
Systems design, programming and systems testing are minimised.
Systems documentation is provided with the packages.
Efficiency in terms of speed, storage requirements and accuracy.
Portability from the existing computer system to another.
 Disadvantages of Application Packages
i. It may be inefficient due to the inclusion of irrelevant features.
ii. It might be used even when it is not completely suitable to the particular application.
iii. The user is dependent on the supplier for the maintenance of the package.
iv. No immediate help on site when a serious problem occurs.
v. May not be updated in line with legislation, e.g. VAT rates.

5.8 Application Software Selection

There are various considerations before one select application software for his or her business
organization or individual personal uses. Some of the considerations are described as follows.

i. Comprehensiveness. The package must satisfy user‘s requirements.

ii. Cost. It should be affordable to the user.
iii. Reliability. The package should have been used by other organisations for some time with
considerable degree of success.
iv. Flexibility. It should be fairly easy to be amended, modified and upgraded.
v.Portability. The package should be suitable for use with any computer system acquired in the
future by the user.
vi. Interfacing. The package should link up conveniently with existing systems and routines.
vii. Peripherals. The input and output hardware devices required by the package should be
compatible with the user‘s existing devices.
viii. Storage. The package should be able to be accommodated within the main storage and
backing storage existing on the user‘s system.
ix. Documentation. It must be well documented. The procedures for input, processing and
output should be clearly documented.
x.Timing. The time required to process a particular application, such as payroll, should be
compared on a number of similar packages.

5.9 Software Suites

A software suite consists of most widely used productivity packages bundled together.
Examples are Microsoft Office, Lotus Smart Suite and Corel Word Perfect Office. Each suite
typically integrates software packages for word processing, spreadsheets, presentation graphics,
database management and personal information management. Each suite
may contain other programs such as programs for Internet access and web publishing.

Advantages of Software Suite

i. It costs a lot less than the total cost of buying its individual packages separately.
ii. All programs use a similar graphical user interface (GUI) of icons, tool and status bars,
menus, and so on, which gives them the same look and feel, and makes them easier to
learn and use.
iii. All programs share common tools such as spell checkers and help wizards to increase
their efficiency.
iv. The programs are designed to work together seamlessly, and import each other‘s files
easily, no matter which program is in use at the time. This makes them more efficient
and easier to use than using a variety of individual package versions.
Disadvantages of Software Suite
i. Many software suite features are never used by most end users.
ii. The suite takes up a lot of disk space.