3.

2 Sensors
In mechatronic engineering applications there is the need to measure physical
quantities such as displacements, speeds, forces, pressures, temperatures,
stresses, flows, and so on. These measurements are performed using physical
devices called sensors, which are capable of converting a physical quantity to a
more readily manipulated electrical quantity as discussed in section 3,1. There
are many commercially available sensors but we will discuss the ones that are
frequently used in mechatronics applications. Sensors are a fundamental
building block

When you have finished this chapter you should be able to:
understand the fundamentals of distance sensors;
understand the fundamentals of movement sensors;
understand the fundamentals of proximity sensors;
understand the fundamentals of stress/strain/force sensors;
understand the fundamentals of temperature sensors
The key factors to consider when selecting a sensors are:
(a) the field of view and range;
(b) accuracy;
(c) repeatability and resolution;
(d) responsiveness in the target-domain;
(e) power consumption;
(f ) hardware reliability;
(g) size; and
(h) interpretation reliability.

2
3.2.1 Distance/Displacement
(a) The potentiometer
Potentiometers are variable resistance device employed to measure linear or
rotary displacement. The principle of operation relies on an increase in
electrical resistance with displacement. A change in the linear or angular
displacement of a potentiometer varies the effective length of its conductor, and
therefore the resistance of the device. This change in resistance can be related
to the displacement through a change in output voltage. Potentiometers have a
tendency for non-linearity, and care must be taken when a high degree of
accuracy is required.

There are two main types of potentiometers:

• Rotary potentiometer
• Linear potentiometer
Although the basic constructional features of these potentiometers vary, the
working principle of both is the same. 3
(a) Rotary potentiometer (b) Linear potentiometer

4
Example: Car fuel Gauge- Sending Unit
The sending unit is located in the fuel tank of the car. It consists of a float,
usually made of foam, attached to the end of a thin, metal rod (see figure (a)
on next slide). The end of the rod is mounted to a variable resistor. The
variable resistor consists of a strip of resistive material connected to the
ground on one side. A wiper connected to the gauge slides along this strip of
material, conducting the current from the gauge to the resistor. When the tank
is full, the float rotates the wiper close to the grounded side of the strip, and
there is less resistive material in the path of the current, so the resistance is
small. When the tank is empty, the float drops and the wiper rotates to the
other end of the strip, where there is more resistive material in the current's
path, so the resistance is large and current is low. The gauge uses this
information to display the level of fuel in the tank.

5
(a) A fuel pump unit to which the fuel gauge sending unit (b) Sending Unit
is attached.

6
(b) LVDT
LVDT- LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential
Transformer which is a mutual-inductance device with three
coils and a core a device for measuring position or
displacement. It is essentially composed of a primary coil, two
secondary coils that are connected in series, and an iron core.
An external a.c. power source energizes the primary coil and
the two secondary coils are used as pickup coils.
When the iron core is centred between the two secondary coils
the output voltage amplitude is zero (because the induced
voltage is same magnitude). When the core moves from the
middle to either side, the difference in output voltage between
the two secondary coils appears, which has a linear relationship
with the core movement.

7
The output voltage is 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 . The typical output of the LVDT is shown
below. X measures the movement of the core either side of the centre position

In terms of movement, the core has a range in which the output is linear.
Beyond this range of motion, the resulting voltage is nonlinear.

8
3.2.2 Velocity
(a) Electromagnetic Angular Velocity transducer/ Inductive Pickups/ Gear tooth
Sensors
Several measurement techniques for rotational velocity utilize transducers that
generate electrical signals, which are indicative of angular velocity. One of the most
basic is illustrated in the figure below. This transducer consists of a toothed wheel and
a magnetic pickup; the pickup consists of a magnet and a coil. As the toothed wheel
rotates, an emf is induced in the coil as a result of changes in the magnetic field. As
each ferromagnetic tooth passes the pickup, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit
changes in time, yielding a voltage in the coil given by 𝐸 = 𝐶𝐵 𝑁𝑡 𝜔 sin 𝑁𝑡 𝜔𝑡

9
The angular velocity can be found either from the amplitude (remember 𝐸 = 𝑁
d𝜙/d𝑡) or the frequency of the output signal. This angular measurement method
is utilized in automobiles as shown on the figure on the right. On the left is the is
a graph of the output of the sensor

Inductive pickup output

Crankshaft speed sensor
10
3.2.3 Force
(a) Piezoelectric Load Cells
Piezoelectric load cells are used for tensile or compressive force measurement. “Load cell’’ is
a term used to describe a transducer that generates a voltage signal as a result of an applied
force, usually along a particular direction. Piezoelectric load cells often consist of an elastic
member and a deflection sensor. These deflection sensors employ the piezoelectric effect to
sense deflection. Piezoelectric materials are characterized by their ability to develop a charge
when subjected to a mechanical strain. The most common piezoelectric material is single-
crystal quartz.

11
The voltage output generated by the piezoelectric material is proportional to
the deformation of the load cell. The frequency response of piezoelectric
transducers is very high, since the frequency response is determined primarily
by the size and material properties of the quartz crystal. The Piezoelectric load
cells are therefore suitable for application in the areas of dynamic loading
where strain gauge load cells often fail at high dynamic loading cycles.

The piezoelectric effect is dynamic, which means the electrical output of a

gauge is a non-static impulse function. The voltage output is useful only when
the applied force or strain is changing and does not measure static values.
Quartz is load cells have typical static sensitivities ranging from 0.05 to 10
mV/N, and a frequency response up to 15,000 Hz. The principle of operation
of a piezoelectric load cell is shown in the Figure below.

12
3.2.4 Acceleration
(a) Seismic transducer
A seismic transducer is for acceleration and vibration measurements. The
measurement of acceleration is required for a variety of purposes, such as
rotating machinery, and automotive engineering. A seismic transducer consists
of three basic elements, as shown below: a spring-mass-damper system, a
protective housing, and an appropriate output transducer. The output is a direct
indication of either displacement or acceleration.

Mass

13
To accomplish a specific measurement, the housing of this basic seismic
transducer is rigidly attached to the object whose acceleration is to be
measured. To illustrate the relation between the relative displacement of the
seismic mass and acceleration, consider the case in which the input to the
seismic instrument is a constant acceleration. The response of the instrument is
illustrated in the Figure below. At steady-state conditions, under this constant
acceleration, the mass is at rest with respect to the housing. The spring deflects
an amount x proportional to the force required to accelerate the seismic mass m.

The relationship between a constant acceleration

and the displacement of the seismic mass is
linear for a linear spring where 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥. And
since the mass is known, Newton’s second law
yields the corresponding acceleration as 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
14
3.2.5 Mechanical Power
Prony brake is a device used to measure shaft power. A typical Prony brake
arrangement, and indeed the operating principles of power measurement are
shown in the figure below.

𝑃 = 𝜔𝜏
𝜏 =𝐹x𝑅
𝜔 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

A Prony brake is used to measure power output of a prime mover like an IC

engine. It serves to provide a well- defined load for the engine, with the power
output of the engine dissipated as thermal energy in the braking material. By
adjusting the load, the power output over a range of speeds and throttle settings
can be realized. The power is measured by recording the torque acting on the
torque arm and the rotational speed of the engine. 15
3.2.6 Temperature
(a) The Thermocouple
The most common method of measuring and controlling temperature uses an electrical
circuit called a thermocouple. A thermocouple consists of two electrical conductors that are
made of dissimilar metals and have at least one electrical connection. This electrical
connection is referred to as a junction. A thermocouple junction may be created by welding,
soldering, or by any method that provides good electrical contact between the two
conductors. The output of a thermocouple circuit is a voltage, and there is a definite
relationship between this voltage and the temperatures of the junctions that make up the
thermocouple circuit.

The circuit above shows the basic circuit of a thermocouple used for measuring
temperature, consisting of two junctions made from materials A and B that are at
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively.
The output of a thermocouple circuit is a voltage. The voltage is a result of the
Seebeck effect which refers to the generation of a voltage potential, or emf, in an
open thermocouple circuit due to a difference in temperature between junctions
in the circuit. The amount of induced emf is different for different metal
combinations and is proportional to the temperature difference of the junctions.
The Seebeck effect refers to an open circuit when there is no current flow. There
is a fixed, reproducible relationship between the emf and the junction
temperatures expressed by the Seebeck coefficient, 𝛼𝐴𝐵 , defined as
𝜕 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝛼𝐴𝐵 =
𝜕𝑇

17
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws
The basic thermocouple circuit shown below (left) can be used to measure the
difference between the two temperatures T1 and T2.

For practical temperature measurements, one of these junctions becomes a

reference junction, and is maintained at some known, constant reference
temperature, say T2. The other junction then becomes the measuring junction,
and the emf existing in the circuit provides a direct indication of the
temperature of the measuring junction T1. A very common reference junction
used to be an ice bath (shown on the right). Modern thermocouples use
electronic reference junctions, providing a convenient means of the
measurement of temperature. The following laws provide the basis necessary
for temperature measurement with thermocouples: 18
1. Law of homogeneous materials: A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a
circuit of a single homogeneous material by the application of heat alone, regardless
of how it might vary in cross section. Simply stated, this law requires that at least
two materials be used to construct a thermocouple circuit for the purpose of
measuring temperature.
2. Law of intermediate materials: The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces in a
circuit composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the circuit is
at a uniform temperature. This law allows a material other than the thermocouple
materials to be inserted into a thermocouple circuit without changing the output emf
of the circuit. As an example, consider the thermocouple circuit shown above where
the junctions of the measuring device are made of copper and material B is an alloy
(not pure copper). The electrical connection between the measuring device and the
thermocouple circuit forms yet another thermocouple junction. The law of
intermediate materials, in this case, provides that the measured emf will be
unchanged from the open-circuit emf, which corresponds to the temperature
difference between T1 and T2, if T3 = T4. Another practical consequence of this law
is that copper extension wires may be used to transmit thermocouple emfs to a
measuring device.
19
 3. Law of successive or intermediate temperatures: If two dissimilar homogeneous
materials that form a thermocouple circuit produce emf1 when the junctions are at T1
and T2 and produce emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3, the emf generated
when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be emf1 þ emf2. This law allows a
thermocouple calibrated for one reference temperature, say T2, to be used at another
reference temperature, such as T3, to determine temperature T1.

Thermocouple types
Some factors to consider when choosing thermocouple:
Type K : 0–1260 °𝐶
Type J: 0–760 °𝐶
- Temperature range
Type T: -200–370 °𝐶 - Oxidation (causes stability issues and shortens life)
Type E: 0–870°𝐶 due to moisture and oxidising atmostphere.
Type N: 0-1260 °𝐶
Type S: 538 -1481 °𝐶
Type B: 871-1704 °𝐶
20
3.2.7 Fluid Pressure
In pressure measurements, the primary sensor is usually an elastic element
that deforms or deflects under the measured pressure relative to a reference
pressure. The most commonly used reference pressure is the local absolute
atmospheric pressure. Several common elastic elements in use are such as the
Bourdon tube, bellows, capsule, and diaphragm.

Elastic elements for pressure sensing

21
The transducer element converts the elastic element deflection into a readily
measurable signal such as an electrical voltage or mechanical rotation of a
pointer. There are many methods available to perform this transducer function,
and we examine a few common ones. General categories for pressure
transducers are absolute, gauge, vacuum, and differential. These categories are
based on the reference pressure used.
• Absolute transducers have a sealed reference cavity held at a pressure of
absolute zero, enabling absolute pressure measurements. This category also
includes vacuum transducers, a special form of absolute transducer for low-
pressure measurements.
• Gauge transducers have the reference cavity open to atmospheric pressure
and are intended to measure above or below atmospheric pressure or both.
• Differential transducers measure the difference between two applied
pressures.
The following are some of the transducers.
22
(a) Bourdon Tube
The Bourdon tube is a curved metal tube having an elliptical cross section that mechanically
deforms under pressure. One end of the tube is held fixed and the input pressure is applied
internally. A pressure difference between the outside of the tube and the inside of the tube
brings about tube deformation and a deflection of the tube free end. The magnitude of the
deflection of the tube end is proportional to the magnitude of the pressure difference. Several
variations exist, such as the C shape, the spiral, and the twisted tube. The exterior of the tube
is usually open to atmosphere, but in some variations the tube may be placed within a sealed
housing and the tube exterior exposed to some other reference pressure, allowing for absolute
and for differential designs.

23
The Bourdon tube mechanical dial gauge is a commonly used pressure
transducer. A typical design is shown below, in which a mechanical linkage
converts the tube displacement into a rotation of a pointer. The Bourdon tube
gauges is simple, portable, and robust, lasting for years of use.

24
(b) Bellows and Capsule Elements
A bellows sensing element is a thin-walled, flexible metal tube formed into deep
convolutions and sealed at one end. One end is held fixed and pressure is
applied internally. A difference between the internal and external pressures
causes the bellows to change in length. The bellows is housed within a chamber
that can be
• sealed and evacuated for absolute measurements,
• vented through a reference pressure port for differential measurements, or
• opened to atmosphere for gauge pressure measurements.
The capsule sensing element, is also a thin-walled, flexible metal tube whose
length changes with pressure, but its shape tends to be wider in diameter and
shorter in length.

25
A mechanical linkage is used to convert the translational displacement of the
bellows or capsule sensors into a measurable form. Common transducers are
the sliding arm potentiometer and the linear variable displacement (LVDT)
transducer to measure the bellows or capsule displacement.

Sliding arm potentiometer pressure transducer

26
(C) Diaphragms
A diaphragm is a thin elastic circular plate supported about its circumference. The
pressure differential on either side of the diaphragm acts to deform it. The magnitude
of the deformation is proportional to the pressure difference. Both membrane and
corrugated designs are used. Membranes are made of metal or non-metallic material,
such as plastic or neoprene. The material chosen depends on the pressure range
anticipated and the fluid in contact with it. Corrugated diaphragms contain a number
of corrugations that serve to increase diaphragm stiffness and to increase the
diaphragm effective surface area.
(i) Strain Gauge Elements
A common method for converting diaphragm displacement into a measurable
signal is to sense the strain induced on the diaphragm surface as it is deformed.
Strain gauges (devices whose measurable resistance is proportional to their
sensed strain) can be bonded directly onto the diaphragm, integrated within the
diaphragm material or onto a deforming element (such as a thin beam) attached
to the diaphragm so as to deform with the diaphragm and to sense strain.
27
 (ii) Capacitance Elements
Another common method to convert diaphragm displacement to a measurable signal is
a capacitance sensor. One version uses a thin metallic diaphragm as one plate of a
capacitor paired with a fixed plate to complete the capacitor. The diaphragm is exposed
to the process pressure on one side and to a reference pressure on the other or to a
differential pressure. When pressure changes, the diaphragm deflects, and the gap
between the plates changes, which causes a change in capacitance.

Remember
C = ε0 A/d

28
Strain Gauge pressure transducer Capacitive element pressure transducer
(iii) Piezoelectric Crystal Elements
Under the action of compression, tension, or shear, a piezoelectric crystal
deforms and develops a surface charge q, which is proportional to the force
acting to bring about the deformation. In a piezoelectric pressure transducer, a
preloaded crystal is mounted to indicated below.

As the diaphragm deforms under pressure, it applies a force normal to the

crystal axis and compresses the crystal thickness by a small amount, leading to
a charge on the piezoelectric crystal. A charge amplifier is used to convert
charge to voltage.
29
 3.2.8 Hall Effect –Magnetic Field Sensor
Magnetic sensors are solid state devices that are used in many different types of
applications such as sensing position, velocity or directional movement. They are a
popular choice of sensor due to their non-contact wear-free operation, their low
maintenance, and robust design since sealed hall effect devices are immune to vibration,
dust and water.
One of the main uses of magnetic sensors is in automotive systems for the sensing of
position, distance and speed. For example, the angular position of the crank shaft for the
firing angle of the spark plugs, the position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag
control or wheel speed detection for the anti-lock braking system (ABS).
One of the common magnetic sensors whose output signal is a function of magnetic
field density (B) around it is called the Hall Effect Sensor. The next slide explains how
it works.
30
Hall Effect

Consider the following plate with a

current flowing in it and placed
under a magnetic field. The
electrons (current) moves from left
to right, and the magnetic field is
pointing into the page.
A particle with charge Q, velocity, 𝑣ҧ and moving within a magnetic field, 𝐵ത ,
experiences the Lorentz force given by;
𝐹 = 𝑄 𝑣ҧ x 𝐵ത
This equation tell us that the direction of the force is perpendicular to the
ത This force, pushes
directions of the velocity (𝑣)ҧ of Q and the magnetic field (𝐵).
the electrons up to the top edge of the conductor, leaving the positive charges on
the other edge. Note that 𝐵ത is perpendicular to both current and plate top face.
31
Because the negative electrons and the positive charges are now separated, there
is an un-even lateral charge distribution results and this results in an electric field,
𝐸. Because there is current flowing, the electric field exerts a force on the
electrons. The force is given by 𝐹ത = 𝑄 𝐸,
ത and is opposite to the Lorentz force.
An equilibrium state is reached where the two forces are equal. If we now
connect leads to the top and bottom edges of the plate, we get the Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻
because one edge is negative, and the other is positive.

32
 The general relation between the Hall voltage,
current, and magnetic field can be generalized
as:
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑦𝐼𝐵
This equation tells us that 𝑉𝐻 the Hall voltage,
is proportional the the magnitudes of the
current and magnitude of flux density 𝐵. 𝑦 is a
constant product sensitivity, called the Hall
coefficient . Note that 𝐵 is still field perpendicular to the plate surface. If we held
the current constant, say 100 mA using a current source like the one we used in the
laboratory, then the hall voltage is only a function of the 𝐵. That means if we fix
the current, this device can be used to measure the magnetic flux density.

From the figure, it is clear that the hall sensor has four terminals. Two for current,
and two for the resulting voltage. 33
Example:
(a) With aid of a diagram and mathematical equations, explain how a Hall
sensor works
(b) How you would set up a magnetic field measurement system using common
lab equipment?
(c) A measurement of a magnetic field in the airgap of an AC motor yielded 12.6
mV. Convert this measurement to tesla. Take the Hall coefficient as 0.862
mV/kG
(d) Mention four applications of Hall sensors

34
Model answers
(a) As explained the slides above.
(b) We use a programmable current source to supply a constant Hall current, e.g
100 mA. We then use a multimeter to to read the resulting Hall voltage as shown
in the figure below
Current from
current source

Hall Sensor

Voltage to wires to
multimeter Measurement system using a hall sensor. Clear labeling of devices and wiring
35
(c)
1 𝑇esla (T) = 10000 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 =10 kiloGauss (kG) (these are units of magnetic flux
density. You do not need to memorize this for now)

12.6 𝑚𝑉 1T
x = 1.46 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
0.862 mV/kG 10 𝑘𝐺
Just for perspective, the magnetic field density in most motors and generators is close
to this value.
(d)
Used in automotive systems for the sensing of position, distance and speed. For
example, the angular position of the crank shaft for the firing angle of the spark
plugs, the position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag control or wheel
speed detection for the anti-lock braking system (ABS).
Other uses; air-gap measurements, proximity sensors, brushless DC motors,
rotary speed sensors, gaussmeters
36
 End of Chapter Self Test
1. With aid of a diagram, show the arrangement of a general measurement system
and describe the function of each component.

2. With aid of a drawing, describe the principle of operation and application of each
of the following transducers.
• LVDT
• (Electromagnetic) Angular Velocity transducer
• Piezoelectric Load Cells
• Thermocouple
• Seismic transducer
• Prony brake
• Hall Sensors
• Bourdon Tube
• Diaphragms
• Piezoelectric Crystal Elements

37
-------------------------------------------End---------------------------------------------------

38