COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:

Research
Methods
Presented by Jerick Kiunisala
OVERVIEW:

I. What Is the Mind? II. Goals of Research.

A.cognition 1. Data gathering
B.mind operation 2. Data Analysis

3. Theory development
4. Hypothesis formation
5. Hypothesis testing
6. Application to setting
outside of research
environment
OVERVIEW:

III. Early pioneers in cognitive IV. Experiments on Human

psychology Behavior

i. causal relationship
ii. independent variable
A.In the lab of Henry Roediger iii. dependent variable
B.Other Pioneers iv. control variable

v. confounding variable
vi. randomly assign participants
OVERVIEW:

V. Research in Cognitive VI. Psychobiological Research

psychology. 1. Techniques in
1. subtraction method psychobiological research
2. causality 2. postmortem & vivo studies
3. correlation 3. cognitive functioning by
cerebral activity in animal

participants.

OVERVIEW:

VII. Self-Reports, Case Studies, VIII. Computer Simulations and

and Naturalistic Observation Artificial Intelligence.
1. methods 1. Computers and Cognitive
2. importance research
3. misreports and quality of 2. Computer simulations
information.

I. What Is the Mind?

A.cognition
B.mind operation
I. What Is the Mind?

I. What Is the Mind?

“He was able to call to mind what he was doing on the day of the accident.” (The mind as
involved in memory.)
If you put your mind to it, I’m sure you can solve that maths problem.” (The mind as
problem-solver.)

“I haven’t made up my mind yet” or “I’m in two minds about this.” (The mind as used to
make decisions or consider possibilities.)
“He is of sound mind and body,” or “When he talks about his encounter with aliens, it sounds
like he is out of his mind.” (A healthy mind being associated with normal functioning, a non-
functioning mind with abnormal functioning.)
“A mind is a terrible thing to waste.” (The mind as valuable, something that should be used.)
“He has a brilliant mind.” (Used to describe people who are particularly intelligent or
creative.)
I. What Is the Mind?

I. What Is the Mind?

The mind creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory,
emotions, language, deciding, thinking and reasoning.

The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it
to achieve our goals.
II. Goals of Research.

1. Data gathering
2. Data Analysis
3. Theory development
4. Hypothesis formation
5. Hypothesis testing
6. Application to setting outside of research
environment
(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011)
II. Goals of Research.

II. Goals of Research.

i. Describe Cognitive Phenomena
ii. to know the what, how, and why.
1. Data gathering

i. Empirical aspect of the scientific enterprise.

ii.Use of statistical means of analyzing the data.
iii. researchers seek ways to explain cognition as well as to describe it.
iv. observations and inferences
2. Data Analysis
3. Theory development
4. Hyphothesis formation
5. Hyphothesis testing
6. Application to setting outside of research environment
7. repeat process for a more solid theory
II. Goals of Research.

II. Goals of Research.

i. Describe Cognitive Phenomena
ii. to know the what, how, and why.

A. Theory - is an organized body of general explanatory principles regarding a phenomenon,

usually based on observations.
i. a theory predicts
ii. generates hypotheses

B. Hypotheses - tentative(indefinite) expected empirical consequences of the theory

i. the outcomes of research.
C.Statistical significance
i. indicates the likelihood that a given set of results would be obtained if only chance
factors were in operation.
ii. statistical significance level .05
iii. Rejecting the null and failng to reject the null
II. Goals of Research.

II. Goals of Research.

6. Application to setting outside of research environment (Pinel & Barnes, 2021, pp. 32 )
i. Pure research (benefits the foundation of science)- is motivated primarily by the curiosity of the
researcher-it is done with the purpose of acquiring knowledge. (EX. behavior of axons - To what extent
does caffeine consumption affect classroom concentration? - What are the factors that contributes to
the halo effect phenomenon)

ii. Applied research(benefits the now) - is intended to bring about some direct benefit to human kind.
(EX. what type of programs can be implemented to reduce violence in school settings.-organizational
psychologist for direct improvement efficiencies through HR programs)

iii. importance of understanding principles before applications (this is an experimental treatment for
you rare illness)

iv. translational research - research that aims to translate the findings of pure research into useful
applications for humankind. (Translational research also refers to those activities conducted to bridge
the gap between drug discovery in preclinical models and drug development in humans. It has been
used to refer to the entire enterprise of medicine: “from bench to bedside and from bedside to bench”)
(Prinz, 2010)
III. Early pioneers in
cognitive psychology

A.In the lab of Henry Roediger

B.Other Pioneers

(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011)

III. Early pioneers in cognitive psychology

Germany Edwin G. Boring, the great historian of psychology, wrote that the “application of
the experimental method to the problem of mind is the great outstanding event in the
study of the mind, an event to which no other is comparable” (1929, p. 659)

1. 1620 Sir Francis Bacon

2. 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig

3. Zaromb and Roediger (2011) gave students lists of words to remember in preparation for
a test that would be given two days later.
conditions: conclusion:
a SSSSSSSS The general finding is that retrieval (or reciting, as Bacon
b.STSSSTSS called it) during a test provides a great boost to later
c.STSTSTSTST retention, much more so than repeated studying
(Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).
Learning, C., & GOLDSTEIN. (2021). Cognitive psychology 2ND EMEA EDITION.
Annabel Ainscow.
IV. Experiments on
Human Behavior

1. causal relationship
2. independent variable
3. dependent variable
4. control variable
5. confounding variable
6. randomly assign participants
IV. Experiments on Human Behavior

In controlled experimental designs, an

experimenter will usually conduct research in a
laboratory setting. The experimenter controls as
many aspects of the experimental situation as
possible.
IV. Experiments on Human Behavior

1. causal relationship.
Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors
(independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant).

a. independent variable b.dependent variable c. control variable

independent variable The variable being measured, These irrelevant variables
The experimental factor so called because it may that are held constant are
that a researcher depend on manipulations of called control variables.
manipulates. the independent variable.
d. confounding variable e. randomly assign participants
are a type of irrelevant The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an
variable that has been left experiment such that all persons have the same chance of
uncontrolled in a study (e.g being in a given condition. (Note the distinction between
time of test conducting) random assignment in experiments and random sampling in
surveys. Random assignment helps us infer cause and effect.
Random sampling helps us generalize to a population.)
Myers, D. (2009). Social psychology. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages.
V. Research in
Cognitive psychology.

1. techniques in measurement
2. correlation

(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011)

V. Research in Cognitive psychology.

1. Operationalization.

In cognitive-psychological research, though the dependent variables may be quite

diverse, they often involve various outcome measures of accuracy (e.g., frequency of
errors), of response times, or of both.

a. subtraction method
V. Research in Cognitive psychology.

a. subtraction method - which involves estimating the time a cognitive process takes by
subtracting the amount of time information processing takes with the process from the
time it takes without the process (Donders, 1868/1869).

1.Helmholtz 2. Donders
-Sort of precursor to donder, a. Eat an apple or a pear.
Stimulated a nerve of muscle 1.Stimulus detection
distant to the muscle it self 2.stimulus discrimination.
and measured how long it 3.deciding.
took for the limb to move. 4. execute motion.
Result 27 ms.
TED. (2015, April 28). How to control someone else’s arm with your brain | Greg Gage [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSQNi5sAwuc
V. Research in Cognitive psychology.

a. subtraction method

1. Simple reaction time task.

-simple tasks (light turns on you press button)
-detection + motor execution

2. Go/ no go RT tasks:
-respond right for the right lamp; don't respond
for the left lamp.
- Detection + discrimination + motor execution

3. choice reaction
task.
-Detection + discrimination + deciding + motor
execution .

Chris Paffen. (2019, November 7). Donders [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0uc7VEIxxe8
V. Research in Cognitive psychology.

2. correlation
a statistical relationship between two or more attributes, such as characteristics of the
participants or of a situation.

i. The correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship.

ii. positive relationship - indicates that as one variable increases (e.g., vocabulary size), another
variable also increases (e.g., reading comprehension). ↑ ↑
1 st variable 2nd variable

iii. negative relationship - indicates that as the measure of one variable decreases (e.g.,
fatigue), the measure of another decreases (e.g., alertness). ↓ 1st variable ↓ 2nd variable

iv. No correlation—that is when the coefficient is 0—indicates that there is no pattern or

relationship in the change of two variables (e.g., intelligence and earlobe length).

v. Correlation is not equal to causality- as such, experimental data rather than correlational data
may be required or preferred.
VI. Psychobiological
Research

1. Techniques in psychobiological research

2. postmortem & vivo studiespostmortem
3. cognitive functioning by cerebral activity in
animal participants.

N., & Schneider, K. A. (2015). High-resolution structural
McKetton, L., Williams, J. D., Viviano, J., Yücel, Y. H., Gupta,
magnetic resonance imaging of the human subcortex <I>In Vivo</I> and postmortem. Journal of Visualized
Experiments, (106). https://doi.org/10.3791/53309
VI. Psychobiological Research

investigators study the relationship

between cognitive performance and
cerebral events and structures.
VI. Psychobiological Research

A. . Techniques used in psychobiological research

i. Technique for studying individuals brain, such as postmortem (after death) and thereafter
relating findings to cognitive function prior deaths .

ii. Technique for studying images showing structures of brain in individuals with cognitive
deficit.

iii. Techniques for obtaining information about cerebral processes during normal
performance of cognitive activity.
VI. Psychobiological Research

1. postmortem & vivo studies.

i.Postmortem studies offer first insights.

ii. ethical constraints of studying live bodies with cognitive circumstances.

iii. fortunately, improvements in technology is showing fruit and are at the fore front of
cognitive and dynamic cerebral activity studies on humans.
VI. Psychobiological Research

1. postmortem & vivo studies.

Muni,, F., Gitau,, M., Turker,, F., & Crouch, B. (2019, December 12). Pierre Paul Broca — History of psychology 0.1 documentation. Welcome to History of Psychology’s
documentation! — History of Psychology 0.1 documentation. https://history-of-psychology.readthedocs.io/en/latest/broca.html
VI. Psychobiological Research

2. Studies of normal cognitive functioning by cerebral activity in animal participants.

i. human subjects may pose ethical constraints, or may just be impractical.

ii. comparative psychology

.
VI. Psychobiological Research

ii. Technique for studying images showing structures of brain in individuals with cognitive deficit.
VII. Self-Reports, Case
Studies, and Naturalistic
Observation
1. methods
2. importance
3. misreports and quality of information.

(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011)

VII. Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation

1. methods

1. Self reports - an individual’s own account

of cognitive processes. low ecological
validity low in experimental realism (the
extent to which participants experience the
experimental situation as intended)
VII. Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation

1. methods

2. Case studies - in-depth studies of

individuals. high ecological validity &
mundane realism.

Learning, C., & GOLDSTEIN. (2021). Cognitive psychology 2ND EMEA EDITION.
Annabel Ainscow.
VII. Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation

1. methods 3. Naturalistic observation - detailed

studies of cognitive performance in
everyday
situations and non-laboratory
contexts. high ecological validity and
mundane realism.

Learning, C., & GOLDSTEIN. (2021). Cognitive psychology 2ND EMEA EDITION.
Annabel Ainscow.
VII. Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation

2. importance
i. Importance of non experimental research - generate descriptions of rare events or
processes that we have no other way to measure.

ii. Consistency of observed cognitive processes in all settings observed (lab vs natural
world)

iii. Importance of case study - Uncommon Phenomenon that have cognitive implications.

Genie, a girl who was locked in a room until the age of 13 and thus provided with severely
limited social and sensory experiences;

Phineas Gage (rail road traumatic brain injury).

iv. Ecology - organism and the environment

This consideration may be used to complement findings from laboratory experiments for
better applications.
VII. Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation

3. misreports and quality of information.

i. intentional & unintentional misreports(ommiting of unflaterring information info/ not
understanding the question & not remembering the answer)

ii. Limitations of self report- Cognitive processes may be altered by the act of giving the
report. (spenditure of psychic energy - sigmund frued)

iii. Cognitive processes may occur outside of conscious awareness

Preventive measures
1. verbal protocol- participants thoughts and ideas are described aloud. (narration of decision
making)

2.An alternative to a verbal protocol is for participants to report specific information regarding a
particular aspect of their cognitive processing. (approximation - feeling)
VIII. Computer
Simulations and
Artificial Intelligence.

1. Computers and Cognitive research

2. Computer simulations

(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011)

VIII. Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence.

1. Computers and Cognitive research

i. Indirect influence - through models of human cognition based on models of how computers
process information. (computer to human)

a.information-processing approach - an approach

that traces
sequences of mental operations

involved in cognition

Learning, C., & GOLDSTEIN. (2021). Cognitive psychology 2ND EMEA EDITION.
Annabel Ainscow.
VIII. Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence.

2. Computer simulations

ii. Direct influence - through computer simulations and artificial intelligence. (human with
computer)

A. Research conceptualizing and programming.

a. brute force

b. simulation

OpenAI five: 1v1 Shadow Fiend bot beats top professional Dota 2 players at The International 7. (2021, July 21). OpenAI. https://openai.com/five
VIII. Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence.

2. Computer simulations

ii. Direct influence - through computer simulations and artificial intelligence. (human with
computer)
a. brute force - A researcher constructs an algorithm that considers extremely large
numbers of moves in a very short time. (highest level chess games; not meant to
represent human cognition)

OpenAI five: 1v1 Shadow Fiend bot beats top professional Dota 2 players at The International 7. (2021, July 21). OpenAI. https://openai.com/five
VIII. Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence.

2. Computer simulations
ii. Direct influence - through computer simulations a
artificial intelligence. (human with computer)
b. Simulation - looks at how chess grand masters
solve chess problems and then seeks to function
the way they do.

OpenAI five: 1v1 Shadow Fiend bot beats top professional Dota 2 players at The International 7. (2021, July 21). OpenAI. https://openai.com/five/
TEDx Talks. (2018, October 29). Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence Need Each Other | Marvin Chun |
TEDxKFAS [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=97iYdJE9mQ4
OpenAI. (2019, September 17). Multi-Agent Hide and Seek. YouTube. Retrieved August 25, 2022, from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kopoLzvh5jY
 IX. Putting it all together.

Cognitive science is a cross-disciplinary field

that uses ideas and methods from cognitive
psychology, psychobiology, artificial intelligence,
philosophy, linguistics, and anthropology
(Nickerson, 2005; Von Eckardt,
2005).

IX. Putting it all together.

linguistics ?

biological psychology ?

philosophy?

anthropology ?

technological advances like artificial intelligence?

 IX. Putting it all together.

linguistics (e.g., How do language and thought interact?)

biological psychology (e.g., What are the physiological bases for cognition?)

philosophy(e.g., What are its implications for human nature?)

anthropology (e.g., What is the importance of the cultural context for cognition?)

technological advances like artificial intelligence (e.g., How do computers process information?)

“Man has an instinctive

tendency to speak, as
we see in the babble of
our young children, but
no child has an
instinctive tendency to
bake, brew, or write.”
welcome to cognitive
psychology!
References
Learning, C., & GOLDSTEIN. (2021). Cognitive psychology 2ND EMEA EDITION. Annabel Ainscow.
McKetton, L., Williams, J. D., Viviano, J., Yücel, Y. H., Gupta, N., & Schneider, K. A. (2015). High-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging of the
human subcortex <I>In Vivo</I> and postmortem. Journal of Visualized Experiments, (106). https://doi.org/10.3791/53309
Muni,, F., Gitau,, M., Turker,, F., & Crouch, B. (2019, December 12). Pierre Paul Broca — History of psychology 0.1 documentation. Welcome to History of
Psychology’s documentation! — History of Psychology 0.1 documentation. https://history-of-psychology.readthedocs.io/en/latest/broca.html
Myers, D. (2009). Social psychology. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages.
OpenAI five: 1v1 Shadow Fiend bot beats top professional Dota 2 players at The International 7. (2021, July 21). OpenAI. https://openai.com/five/
Pinel, J., & Barnes, S. (2021). Biopsychology (11th ed.). Pearson.
Prinz, J. (2010). From bench to bedside - translational research in psoriasis. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 24,
1-4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2010.03829.x
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2011). Cognitive psychology (6th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing Company.