MARIAN COLLEGE OF BALIUAG, INC.

908 Gil Carlos St., Baliwag, Bulacan

COLLEGE DEPARTMENT
Telefax: 761-0673

COURSE TITLE / COURSE CODE: CONTENT PEDAGOGY IN THE MOTHER

TONGUE / MTB1

DESCRIPTION: This course includes both the content and pedagogy of the mother-tongue. The
subject matter content includes the structure of the mother-tongue as a language, literature in the
mother tongue, methods and techniques of teaching the language, development of instructional
materials, and assessment.

COURSE OUTCOMES / AIMS:

1. Identify the importance of MTB-MLE in the curriculum.

2. Develop appropriate cognitive and reasoning skills enabling children to operate equally
in different languages.
3. Utilize different teaching strategies in teaching mother tongue.

SCHEDULE / DAY / HOURS: 3 HOURS A WEEK / SATURDAY / 8:00 AM – 11:00 AM

TOPICS: (Midterm)

3. Learning Languages and Using Languages to Learn

3.1. First Language Acquisition
Source: https://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/CLILmatrix/pdf/1UK.pdf

Figure 1. Language Learning. Image taken from

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ednewsdaily.com%2Fyoutube-kids-launches-learn-a-
language%2F&psig=AOvVaw2L9ZEXWJGD7L2ENSALVPUf&ust=1600241692800000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CA0QjhxqF
woTCNja4oHT6u

There is much scientific research on how we learn languages, which now gives us greater
understanding of the role of ‘acquiring language’ in relation to ‘learning language’. Infants and
young children can be very good at acquiring languages when they are used in the home, and this
is one reason why people sometimes think that we learn languages best when we are very young.
Older children and adults tend to be taught languages, usually in language learning classrooms or
increasingly through computer-aided programs. Successful language learning can be achieved
when people have the opportunity to receive instruction, and at the same time experience real-life
situations in which they can acquire the language.

First Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is a process which can take place at any period of one's life. In
the sense of first language acquisition, however, it refers to the acquisition (unconscious
learning) of one's native language (or languages in the case of bilinguals) during the first 6 or 7
years of one's life (roughly from birth to the time one starts school).
For children learning their native language, linguistic competence develops in stages,
from babbling to one word to two word, then telegraphic speech. Babbling is now considered
the earliest form of language acquisition because infants will produce sounds based on what
language input they receive. One-word sentences (holophrastic speech) are generally
monosyllabic in consonant-vowel clusters. During two-word stage, there are no syntactic or
morphological markers, no inflections for plural or past tense, and pronouns are rare, but the
intonation contour extends over the whole utterance. Telegraphic speech lacks function words
and only carries the open class content words, so that the sentences sound like a telegram.

Characteristics of First Language Acquisition

1. It is an instinct. This is true in the technical sense, i.e. it is triggered by birth and takes
its own course, though of course linguistic input from the environment is needed for the
child to acquire a specific language. As an instinct, language acquisition can be compared
to the acquisition of binocular vision or binaural hearing.

2. It is very rapid. The amount of time required to acquire one's native language is quite
short, very short compared to that needed to learn a second language successfully later on
in life.

3. It is very complete. The quality of first language acquisition is far better than that of a
second language (learned later on in life). One does not forget one's native language
(though one might have slight difficulties remembering words if you do not use it for a
long time).

4. It does not require instruction. Despite the fact that many non-linguists think that
mothers are important for children to learn their native language, instructions by parents
or care-takers are unnecessary, despite the psychological benefits of attention to the child.

3.1.1. Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing

Reading, writing, speaking and listening – the four foundational skills of language
learning.
When we learn a language, there are four macro skills that we need for success in
communication. These are reading, writing, speaking and listening. We usually listen first,
then we will learn to speak, then we will learn how to read then write.
The skills work in pairs. When you’re reading or listening, you’re consuming a
language. However, when you’re writing or speaking, you’re producing a language.
Reading Skills
Reading is a fundamental skill for learners, not just for learning but for life (Traves 1994)
with reading being defined as ― “…the ability to draw meaning from the printed page and
interpret this information appropriately” (Grabe & Stoller, 2002).

Why we need to develop reading skills

L1 literacy leads to L2 literacy development awareness. Reading itself builds on oral
language levels and key factors that influence (L2) reading skill development include the
ability to comprehend and use both listening and speaking skills because you need to:

• Hear a word before you can say it

• Say a word before you can read it
• Read a word before you can write it

What this tells us is that young learners need a firm foundation in auditory and oracy
skills before they can become proficient readers and writers of ANY language. Learning
to read and then to write means the young learner has to link what they have heard or
spoken to what they can see (read) and produce (write).

Strategies in Teaching Reading to Beginning Learners

1. Beginning reading: learning letters
Especially if the children‘s own language has a different alphabet it is important
that they become familiar with the shapes of letters and can begin manipulating them.
The following holistic (they require using the body and space rather than pencil and
paper) activities help to give children a strong imprint of the shape of letters in their
mind‘s eye:
2. Beginning reading: introducing letters
Before introducing letters, consider how children learn their mother tongue.
a. Foundations – the sound system of the native tongue
b. Phonics approach
3. Beginning reading: recognition
Games are motivating and help make language memorable, so try to think of lots
of fun ways to practice the new letters and sounds that you are introducing to the
children.
4. Beginning reading: learning words
It is a short journey from letters to words. In order to introduce words, show
pictures and words together and sound out the phonics.
a. Word building
b. Worksheets
c. Word searches and crossword puzzles

Writing Skills
Every educated child in developed countries learns the rudiments of writing in his/her
native language , but very few learn to express themselves clearly with logical, well-developed
organization that accomplishes an intended purpose.
Teaching Writing to little students must focus on the following:

• Handwriting ability
• Correct spelling
 • Writing sentences that are grammatically correct
• paragraph construction
• logical development of main idea

Strategies in Teaching Writing to Beginning Learners

1. Handwriting letters, words, and punctuation marks
2. Listening cloze selection tasks
3. Picture-cued tasks
4. Form completion tasks
5. Converting numbers and abbreviations to words
6. Intensive (controlled) writing
7. Grammatical transformation tasks
8. Picture sequencing tasks
9. Vocabulary assessment tasks
10. Ordering tasks
11. Paraphrasing
12. Writing Prompts

Listening Skills
Listening is the most important skill in communication. It is a mental operation involving
processing sound waves, interpreting their meaning, and storing them in memory. It is a
communication technique that requires the listeners to understand, interpret, and evaluate what
they hear. It paves the way for other skills to tower over the others because of its significance in
terms of speech, discussion and freedom of expression. They serve as an approach to make
everybody comprehend which is being said.

Strategies in Teaching Listening to Beginning Learners

1. Top-Down Strategies
These are techniques which are listener-based; the listener taps into background
knowledge of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This
background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret
what is heard and anticipate what will come next.
a. listening for the main idea
b. predicting
c. drawing inferences
d. summarizing
2. Bottom-Up Strategies
These activities are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message,
that is, the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning.
a. listening for specific details
b. recognizing cognates
c. recognizing word-order patterns

Speaking Skills
Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth. To speak, we create sounds
using many parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal cords, tongue, teeth
and lips.
Strategies in Teaching Speaking to Beginning Learners
In teaching speaking, the aims of instruction are:
1. to produce the speech sounds and sound patterns;
2. to use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the first language;
3. to select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience,
situation and subject matter;
4. to organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence;
5. To use language as a means of expressing values and judgments; and
6. To use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called
fluency.

Principles in Teaching Speaking:

1. Focus on both fluency and accuracy
2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques
3. Encourage the use of authentic language
4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction
5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening
6. Give students opportunities to initiate real communication
7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies

3.2. Second Language Acquisition

3.2.1. General Principle of SLA

Second Language Acquisition, Second Language Learning, or L2 Acquisition is the

acquisition of a second language after the mother tongue has been (largely) acquired. It usually
refers to acquisition which begins after puberty, i.e. typically adult language acquisition.
Sometimes replaced by the term further language acquisition.
The logical problem of language acquisition is that it would seem impossible to learn
anything about a certain language without first already knowing something about language in
general. That is the child must know what to expect in language before he/she can actually order
the data he/she is presented with in his/her surroundings and ascribe meanings to words he/she
encounters.
A central theme in SLA is that of interlanguage, the idea that the language that learners
use is not simply the result of differences between the languages that they already know and the
language that they are learning, but that it is a complete language system in its own right, with
its own systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are exposed to the
targeted language. The order in which learners acquire features of their new language stays
remarkably constant, even for learners with different native languages and regardless of whether
they have had language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can have a
significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as language
transfer.

General Principle of SLA

Language acquisition is a long-term process.
Language acquisition occurs over time with learners moving through developmental
stages and gradually growing in proficiency. Individual learners however move through these
stages at variable rates.
Adults who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in at
least three ways: children are still developing their brains whereas adults have mature
minds, and adults have at least a first language that orients their thinking and speaking.
Although some adult second-language learners reach very high levels of proficiency,
pronunciation tends to be non-native. This lack of native pronunciation in adult learners is
explained by the critical period hypothesis. When a learner's speech plateaus, it is known as
fossilization.

Stages of SLA
Stephen Krashen divides the process of second-language acquisition into five stages:
preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced
fluency.
The first stage, preproduction, is also known as the silent period. Learners at this stage
have a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but they do not yet speak their second language.
Not all learners go through a silent period. Some learners start speaking straight away, although
their output may consist of imitation rather than creative language use. Others may be required to
speak from the start as part of a language course. For learners that do go through a silent period,
it may last around three to six months.

The second of Krashen's stages of acquisition is early production, during which learners
are able to speak in short phrases of one or two words. They can also memorize chunks of
language, although they may make mistakes when using them. Learners typically have both an
active and receptive vocabulary of around 1000 words. This stage normally lasts for around six
months.

The third stage is speech emergence. Learners' vocabularies increase to around 3000
words during this stage, and they can communicate using simple questions and phrases. They
may often make grammatical errors.

The fourth stage is intermediate fluency. At this stage, learners have a vocabulary of
around 6000 words, and can use more complicated sentence structures. They are also able to
share their thoughts and opinions. Learners may make frequent errors with more complicated
sentence structures.

The final stage is advanced fluency, which is typically reached somewhere between five
and ten years of learning the language. Learners at this stage can function at a level close to
native speakers.

Krashen has also developed a number of hypotheses discussing the nature of second
language learners' thought processes and the development of self-awareness during second
language acquisition. The most prominent of these hypotheses are Monitor Theory and the
Affective Filter hypothesis.

3.2.2. Five Goals of Language Learning

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses,

representing the goals of Language Learning:

• the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;

• the Monitor hypothesis;
• the Input hypothesis;
• the Affective Filter hypothesis; and
• the Natural Order hypothesis.
 The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of the five hypotheses in
Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language teachers. According
to Krashen there are two independent systems of foreign language performance: 'the acquired
system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first
language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in
which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative
act. The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a
conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example
knowledge of grammar rules.
A deductive approach in a teacher-centered setting produces "learning", while an
inductive approach in a student-centered setting leads to "acquisition".
Therefore, the first goal is to combine the aspects of the acquired system and the learned
system for optimum language learning.

The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and
defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of
the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator,
while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a
planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met:
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language
performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is minor, being used only to correct
deviations from "normal" speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.
Therefore, the second goal of language learning is to distinguish between the L1 and L2
and take note of the differences.

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second
language – how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned
with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and
progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step
beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i',
then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to
level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the
same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus,
ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
Therefore, sufficient and natural comprehensible input is the third goal for language
learning.

The Affective Filter hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective
variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables
include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety and personality traits. Krashen claims that learners
with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, a low level of anxiety and extroversion
are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem,
anxiety, introversion and inhibition can raise the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that
prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is
'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not
sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
Therefore, a learning environment which nurtures language learning is the fourth goal.
 Finally, the less important Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings
(Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested
that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For
a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This
order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and
although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there
were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of
language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order
hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the
studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The final goal of language learning, therefore, is time and fit for a given level.

ACTIVITY 1: Answer the essay questions that follow based on the previous discussion. You
can consult the internet for your answers if a need arises, but make sure to cite your sources as
references. (10 pts. each)

1. Explain the differences between First Language Acquisition and Second Language
Acquisition.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. How important is developing the macro skills—Listening, Speaking, Reading and

Writing—to Language Learning?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Which do you think is the most important among the goals of language learning? Justify
your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. Classroom Strategies
4.1. First Language Development

It is more than likely that teachers will have students in different stages of the language
acquisition process. What can be done to differentiate instruction according to language level?
Here are some suggestions for appropriate instructional strategies according to stages of
language acquisition.

Language Stages Strategies

-Emphasize listening comprehension by using
read-alouds and music.
 -Use visuals and have students point to
pictures or act out vocabulary.

-Speak slowly and use shorter words, but use

correct English phrasing.

-Model "survival" language by saying and

showing the meaning. For example, say,
"Open your book," and then open a book
Pre-production while the student observes.

-Gesture, point and show as much as possible.

-More advanced classmates who speak the

same language can support new learning
through interpretation.

-Avoid excessive error correction. Reinforce

learning by modeling correct language usage
when students make mistakes.
-Continue the strategies listed above, but add
opportunities for students to produce simple
language.

-Ask students to point to pictures and say the

new word.

-Ask yes/no and either/or questions.

Early Production -Have students work in pairs or small groups

to discuss a problem. Have literate students
write short sentences or words in graphic
organizers.

-Model a phrase and have the student repeat it

and add modifications. Teacher says, "This
book is very interesting." The student repeats
it and says, "This book is very boring."
Continue with as many modifications as
possible.

-Avoid excessive error correction. Reinforce

learning by modeling correct usage.
-Introduce more academic language and skills
by using the same techniques listed above, but
beginning to use more academic vocabulary.

-Introduce new academic vocabulary and

model how to use it in a sentence.

-Provide visuals and make connections with

student's background knowledge as much as
possible.

-Ask questions that require a short answer and

Speech Emergent are fairly literal.
 -Introduce charts and graphs by using easily
understood information such as a class survey
of food preferences.

-Have students re-tell stories or experiences

and have another student write them down.
The ELL student can bring these narratives
home to read and reinforce learning.

-In writing activities, provide the student with

a fill-in-the blank version of the assignment
with the necessary vocabulary listed on the
page.

-Provide minimal error correction. Focus only

on correction that directly interferes with
meaning. Reinforce learning by modeling the
correct usage.
-Have students work in pairs and groups to
discuss content.

-During instruction, have students do a

"Think, pair, share" to give the student an
opportunity to process the new language and
concept.

-Ask questions that require a full response

with explanation. If you do not understand the
student's explanation, ask for clarification by
paraphrasing and asking the student if you
heard them correctly.

-Ask questions that require inference and

justification of the answer.

-Ask students if they agree or disagree with a

statement and why.

Beginning Fluency -Model more advanced academic language

structures such as, "I think," "In my opinion,"
and "When you compare." Have students
repeat the phrases in context.

-Re-phrase incorrect statements in correct

English, or ask the student if they know
another way to say it.

-Introduce nuances of language such as when

to use more formal English and how to
interact in conversations.

-Have students make short presentations,

providing them with the phrases and language
used in presentations ("Today I will be talking
about") and giving them opportunities to
practice the presentation with partners before
getting in front of the class.
 -Continue to provide visual support and
vocabulary development.

-Correct errors that interfere with meaning,

and pre-identify errors that will be corrected
in student writing, such as verb-tense
agreement. Only correct the errors agreed
upon.

-You may want to assist in improving

pronunciation by asking a student to repeat
key vocabulary and discussing how different
languages have different sounds.
-Identify key academic vocabulary and
phrases and model them. Ask students to
produce the language in class activities.

-Use graphic organizers and thinking maps

and check to make sure the student is filling
them in with details. Challenge the student to
add more.
-Help the student make connections with new
vocabulary by instructing him or her in the
etymology of words or word families such as,
"important, importance, importantly."

-Create assessments that give students an

opportunity to present in English after they
have an opportunity to practice in pairs or
small groups.

-Introduce more academic skills, such as

brainstorming, prioritizing, categorization,
Intermediate Fluency summarizing and compare and contrast.

-Ask students to identify vocabulary by

symbols that show whether the student
"knows it really well, kind of knows it, or
doesn't know it at all." Help students focus on
strategies to get the meaning of new words.

-Have a "guessing time" during silent reading

where they circle words they don't know and
write down their guess of the meaning. Check
the results as a class.

-Introduce idioms and give examples of how

to use them appropriately. For example, "Let's
wind up our work." What's another way you
could use the phrase "wind up?"

-Starting at this level, students need more

correction/feedback, even on errors that do
not directly affect meaning. They should be
developing a more advanced command of
syntax, pragmatics, pronunciation, and other
 elements that do not necessarily affect
meaning but do contribute to oral fluency.

-It may also be helpful to discuss language

goals with the student so you can assist in
providing modeling and correction in
specified areas.
-Students at this level are close to native
language fluency and can interact well in a
variety of situations. Continue to develop
language skills as gaps arise by using the
strategies listed above. Although the student
may seem completely fluent, he or she still
benefit from visual support, building on
background knowledge, pre-teaching
vocabulary and making connections between
Advanced Fluency content areas.

-Offer challenge activities to expand the

student's vocabulary knowledge such as
identifying antonyms, synonyms and the use
of a thesaurus and dictionary.

-Demonstrate effective note-taking and

provide a template.

-Offer error correction on academic work and

on oral language. Because students at this
stage have achieved near-native fluency, they
benefit from support in fine-tuning their oral
and written language skills.

Recommendations
1. Scaffold instruction so students receive comprehensible input and are able to successfully
complete tasks at their level. Scaffolding includes asking students questions in formats
that give them support in answering, such as yes/no questions, one-word identifications,
or short answers. It also means providing the context for learning by having visuals or
other hands-on items available to support content learning.
2. Explicit vocabulary instruction is very important in accelerating ELL students' English
language development. Textbooks include lists of new vocabulary words based on grade-
level content, but ELL students need further vocabulary instruction. There are many
words in a text that may affect the ELL student's comprehension of the text that a teacher
may assume he or she knows. It is important for teachers to develop ways to help
students identify the words they don't know, as well as strategies for getting their
meaning.
3. Error correction should be done very intentionally and appropriately according to
student language ability. Students who are just beginning to speak English are already
nervous about using their new language skills and constant correction will not improve
their ability; it will just make them want to withdraw.
 4.1.2. Kinds of Classroom Talk

The talk of the classroom is necessarily academic in nature and includes a variety of
cognitive functions that help students explain their thinking and learn from others. For instance,
students need to be able to compare and contrast ideas, ask questions, and describe phenomena.
We find it useful to provide sentence starters related to the different types of thinking necessary
in any learning environment. We post these sentence starters around the room and refer to them
during guided instruction. In addition, we remind students of the language objectives for the
types of language they will use in their collaborative learning activity.
Classroom talk takes place when pupils:
• answer your questions;
• ask you and their classmates questions;
• answer questions asked by their classmates; and
• participate in group discussion.

As a teacher, you are an active participant in classroom talk when you:

• ask questions;
• answer questions;
• explain; and
• give instructions.

Why is classroom talk important in children’s learning?

Children retain what they learn as follows:
Hearing only: 20%
Seeing only: 30%
Hearing and visual support: 50%
Hearing, seeing and talking: 70%
Hearing, seeing, talking and doing: 90%

4.1.2.1. Talk in ‘Situations’

Talk in ‘Situations’ is also called Task-based Teaching, where students are given a task
and the center of the learning process moves to the students themselves and allows them to come
to the realization that language is a tool to tackle and (re)solve real-world problems.
The process of task-based learning itself teaches important skills. Students learn how to
ask questions, how to negotiate meaning and how to interact in and work within groups. Within
this group work, they are able to observe different approaches to problem solving as well as to
learn how others think and make decisions.

Types of Talk in ‘Situations’

Information gap activities are those that involve the transfer of information from one
person to another, from one form to another or from one place to another. For example, two
students might have different schedules, but they want to find time to get together to have tea.
They need to get relevant information from each other to determine when they are both free, as
well as when the available times coincide with when a tea house is open. This type of activity
allows students to request information, ask for clarification and negotiate both meaning,
particularly when misunderstandings occur, and appropriate conclusions to the task.
 Reasoning gap activities are those in which you ask your students to derive some
information from that which you give them. They are required to comprehend and convey
information, much as in an information gap activity, but the information that they are asked to
convey is not exactly the same that they comprehend. They are asked to use reason and logic to
decide what information to convey and what resolution to make for the problem at hand. For
example, you might ask your students to make a decision between speed and cost or cost and
quality, given a certain situation and various constraints.

Opinion gap activities are those that ask students to convey their own personal
preferences, feelings or ideas about a particular situation. On a higher level, you might ask them
to take part in a discussion or debate about a political or social issue. On a lower level, you might
ask them to complete a story. In these types of activities, there is no right or wrong answer, and,
therefore, there is no objective means by which to judge outcomes, outside of whether what the
students do or say addresses the task at hand. You might require them to speak or write for a
certain amount (words or time) and you might ask them to use certain constructions. Otherwise,
assessment is subjective rather than objective.

4.1.2.2. Talk in Drama

Talk in Drama, or Drama activities, besides being a fun and exciting way to break
through the glooms of the traditional language class, offer a variety of pluses that directly
contribute to the language student’s learning experience.

Reasons for using Drama Activities

1. To combine verbal and non-verbal communication.
2. To focus on contextual meaning.
3. To increase student motivation and interest.
4. To shift responsibility of practicing from the teacher to the students.

Drama Activities
1. Charades. The game of Charades has existed since the 16th century. Most people have
played one version or another of this game. In this case, Charades is an activity in which
one student mutely uses body language while the rest of the class tries to guess what
he/she is trying to communicate. This reinforces the connection between body language
and spoken language, and the activity is especially useful for vocabulary review.
2. Gibberish. This activity is meant to take the heat off of the student, allowing them to try
to experience communication without grammar, structure and vocabulary. On the other
hand, it also helps students to identify clues which leads to comprehension through
gestures, tone of voice and body language. This is a good activity for practicing reported
speech and general past tense explanations.
3. Draw an Object. In this activity, students will be guessing vocabulary based upon
drawings done by their classmates. Though it sounds like the popular picture drawing
game, it’s actually a double header activity, with two teams guessing at the same time.
This is another activity that’s great for vocabulary review.
4. Where are We? In this activity, students will be acting out different objects that are
characteristic of a certain place. Though they are miming the objects, students should also
use verbal language related to the room. For example, if they are in an operating room,
there will be a table, the instruments, the lighting. They could say “Nurse, hand me the
scalpel” or “How’s his pulse?”
 5. Mirror Talk. This activity is based on the mirror mimicking game many of us have
played as children. Instead of simply pretending to be a mirror and following the leader’s
movements, one student has to try to say the same thing the other is saying in unison, as
if it were a choral exercise.
6. Name Six. This is a fun vocabulary review activity that can be used as a warm-up. It’s
based on the old beanbag hot potato game many of us played as kids.

4.1.2.3. Reading Aloud

The read-aloud process has enormous benefits to literacy learning. Read-aloud is an

instructional practice where teachers, parents, and caregivers read texts aloud to children. The
reader incorporates variations in pitch, tone, pace, volume, pauses, eye contact, questions, and
comments to produce a fluent and enjoyable delivery. Reading texts aloud is the single most
important activity for building the knowledge required for successful reading (McCormick,
1977).
Trelease (2001) postulated that reading aloud is a powerful way to engage children in the
literacy process. Several researchers and practitioners have demonstrated the significant impact
of the read-aloud practice in different areas of reading development (Barrentine, 1996; Sipe,
2000). Klesius and Griffith (1996) concurred and explained that the read-aloud experience
increases students' vocabulary development and comprehension growth. They also noted its
potential to increase motivation to want to read while building the knowledge necessary for the
successful acquisition of reading and writing.
Reading aloud to children builds and supports their listening and speaking abilities and
enhances their overall language development (Barrentine, 1996; Sipe, 2000). Trachtenburg and
Ferruggia (1989) agreed after they examined the impact of oral language development through
the shared book experience with high-risk beginning readers. Both claimed their students
developed a rich language base and came to understand the power of words by listening to
stories, reading stories, and responding to stories through a variety of engagement activities.

4.1.2.4. Choral Reading

Choral reading is a literacy technique that helps students build their fluency, self-
confidence, and motivation in reading. During choral reading a student, or a group of students
reads a passage together, with or without a teacher. Choral reading can be done individually, in
small groups, or as a whole class. According to Reading Rockets (n.d.), there are three main
reasons why choral reading is beneficial, and they include:
• It provides a model of fluency
• It improves sight word recognition
• It allows practice and support
Typically, when teachers choose choral reading passages the passages include some type
of rhyme or rhythm. There are many different ways to do choral reading in a classroom, and here
are some examples:
1. Groups of students take turns reading different pages
2. Everyone in the class reads the whole passage together
3. Boys read lines 1-3, and girls read lines 4-6
4. Teacher models how to read a sentence, then the students read that sentence
together
 According to Jennings, Caldwell, and Lerner (2014), “because students find choral
reading enjoyable, they willingly practice the word recognition that helps them to give a polished
performance” (p.213). If students enjoy choral reading they might have more motivation when
they are reading, and this is very important for struggling readers and really any reader. Also,
Jennings et al. mentions that "low-achieving readers enjoy this activity [choral reading] because
it gives them the satisfaction of delivering a well-rehearsed, expressive rendition" (p. 213).
Students who have difficulties with fluency can really benefit from choral reading, because it
provides them with a model and practice.

ACTIVITY 2: Find three activities each that develop Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing
of young learners. Make sure to include the materials, procedure, and/or visual representations
for each activity.