This international standard was de veloped in accordance with inter nationally recognized principles on standardi zation established in the

Decision on Principles f or the

De velopment of International Standards, G uides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Tec hnical B arriers to Trade (TB T) Committee.

Designation: E94/E94M − 17

Standard Guide for

Radiographic Examination Using Industrial Radiographic
Film1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E94/E94M; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´ ) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.

1.Scope document. For informat ion on this important aspect of

2
1.1 This guide covers satisfactory X-ray and gamma -ray radiography, reference should be made to the current document
radiographic examination as applied to industrial radiographic of the National Co mmittee on Radiat ion Protection and
film recording. It includes statements about preferred practice Measurement, Federal Register, U.S. Energy Research and
without discussing the technical background which justifies the Develop ment Administration, National Bureau of Standards,
preference. A b ibliography of several textbooks and standard and to state and local regulat ions, if such exist. For specific
documents of other societies is included for addit ional infor- radiation safety information refer to NIST Handbook ANSI
mat ion on the subject. 43.3, 21 CFR 1020.40, and 29 CFR 1910.1096 or state
regulations for agreement states.
1.2 This guide covers types of materials to be examined;
radiographic examination techniques and production methods; 1.6 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-
radiographic film selection, processing, viewing, and storage; pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The
maintenance of inspection records; and a list of availab le values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents;
reference rad iograph documents. therefore, each system should be used independently of the
other. Co mb ining values fro m the t wo systems may result in
NOTE 1—Further information is contained in Guide E999, Practice non-conformance with the standard.
E1025, T est Methods E1030, and E1032.
1.7 If an NDT agency is used, the agency should be
1.3 The use of d igital radiography has expanded and follows
qualified in accordance with Specification E543.
many of the same general principles of film based radiography
but with many important differences. The user is referred to 1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the
standards for dig ital radiography [E2597, E2698, E2736, and safety problems, i f any, associated with its use. It is the
E2737 for dig ital detector array (DDA) radiography and responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
E2007, E2033, E2445/ E2445M, and E2446 for co mputed priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
radiography(CR)] if considering the use of digital radiography. bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. (See 1.5.)
1.9 This international standard was developed in accor-
1.4 Interpretat ion and Acceptance Standard s—
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
Interpretation and acceptance standards are not covered by this ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
guide, beyond listing the available reference radiograph docu- Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
ments for castings and welds. Designation of accept - reject mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
standards is recognized to be within the cognizance of product Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
specifications and generally a matter of contractual agreement
between producer and purchaser. 2. Referenced Documents
1.5 Safety Practices—Problems of personnel protection 2.1 ASTM Standards:3
against X rays and gamma rays are not covered by this E543 Specificat ion for Agencies Performing Nondestructive
Testing
E746 Pract ice for Determin ing Relative Image Quality Re-
1 This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc- sponse of Industrial Rad iographic Imag ing Systems
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.01 on Radiology
(X and Gamma) Method.
Current edition approved June 1, 2017. Published August 2017. Originally
approved in 1952. Last previous edition approved in 2010 as E94 - 04(2010). DOI: 3 For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or

10.1520/E0094_E0094M-17. contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
2 For ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code applications see related Guide SE- Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
94 in Section V of that Code. the ASTM website.

1
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 E94/E94 M − 17
E747 Pract ice fo r Design, Manufacture and Material Group- 2.3 Federal Standards:
ing Classification of Wire Image Quality Indicators (IQI) Title 21, Code of Federal Regulat ions (CFR) 1020.40, Safety
Used for Rad iology Requirements of Cabinet X-Ray Systems 5
E801 Practice for Controlling Quality of Rad iographic Ex- Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.96, Ion-
amination of Electronic Devices izing Radiat ion (X-Rays, RF, etc.)5
E999 Gu ide fo r Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radio- 2.4 Other Document:
graphic Film Processing ISO 18917 Photography—Determination of residual thiosul-
E1000 Gu ide for Radioscopy phate and other related chemicals in processed photo-
E1025 Pract ice for Design, Manufacture, and Material graphic materials—Methods using iodine-amy lose, meth-
Grouping Classificat ion of Hole -Type Image Quality In- ylene blue and silver sulfide
dicators (IQI) Used for Radiology NBS Handbook ANSI N43.3 General Radiat ion Safety In -
E1030 Pract ice for Rad iographic Examination of Metallic stallations Using NonMedical X-Ray and Sealed Gamma -
Castings Ray Sources up to 10 MeV6
E1032 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Weld-
ments 3. Terminology
E1079 Practice fo r Calibration of Trans mission Densitom- 3.1 Definitions—For defin itions of terms used in this guide,
eters refer to Terminology E1316.
E1254 Gu ide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed
Industrial Rad iographic Films 4. Significance and Use
E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
4.1 Within the present state of the radiographic art, this
E1390 Specification for Illu minators Used for Viewing In-
guide is generally applicable to available materials, processes,
dustrial Radiographs
and techniques where industrial radiographic films are used as
E1735 Test Method for Determining Relative Image Quality
the recording media.
of Industrial Radiographic Film Exposed to X-Rad iation
fro m 4 to 25 MeV 4.2 Limitations—This guide does not take into consideration
E1742 Practice for Rad iographic Examination the benefits and limitations of nonfilm radiography such as
E1815 Test Method for Classification of Film Systems for fluoroscopy, digital detector arrays, or computed radiography.
Industrial Radiography Refer to Gu ides E1000, E2736, and E2007.
E1817 Practice for Controlling Quality of Rad iological Ex- 4.3 Although reference is made to documents that may be
amination by Using Representative Quality Indicators used in the identification and grading, where applicab le, of
(RQIs) representative discontinuities in co mmon metal castings and
E2007 Gu ide for Co mputed Radiography welds, no attempt has been made to set standards of acceptance
E2033 Practice for Co mputed Radiology (Photostimu lable for any material or production process.
Lu minescence Method)
4.4 Radiography will be consistent in image quality (con-
E2445/ E2445M Pract ice for Performance Evaluation and
trast sensitivity and definit ion) only if all details of techniques,
Long-Term Stability of Co mputed Radiography Systems
such as geometry, film, filtrat ion, viewing, etc., are obtained
E2446 Practice for Manufacturing Characterizat ion of Co m-
and maintained.
puted Radiography Systems
E2597 Pract ice fo r Manufacturing Characterization of Dig i- 5. Equi pment and Configuration
tal Detector Arrays
E2698 Practice for Rad iological Examination Using Dig ital 5.1 To obtain quality radiographs, it is necessary to consider
Detector Arrays as a minimu m the fo llowing list of items. Detailed informat ion
E2736 Gu ide for Dig ital Detector Array Radio logy on each item is further described in this guide.
E2737 Pract ice for Digital Detector Array Performance 5.1 .1 Radiat ion source (X-ray or gamma),
Evaluation and Long-Term Stability 5.1 .2 Energy selection,
5.1 .3 Source size (X-ray focal spot dimension or gamma
2.2 ANSI Standards:
source size),
PH1.41 Specificat ions for Photographic Film Arch ival
5.1 .4 Ways and means to eliminate scattered radiation,
Records, Silver Type4
5.1 .5 Film system class,
PH2.22 Photography (Sensito met ry)—Determinat ion o f
5.1 .6 Source-to-film and object-to-film distance,
Safelight Conditions 4
5.1 .7 Image quality indicators (IQIs),
T9.1 Imaging Media (Film)—Silver-Gelat in Type Specifica-
5.1 .8 Screens and filters,
tions for Stability 4
5.1 .9 Geo metry of part or co mponent configuration,
T9.2 Imag ing Med ia —Photograph ic Processed Films,
5.1 .1 0 Identificat ion and location markers, and
Plates, and Paper Filing Enclosures and Storage Contain-
ers 4
5 Available from U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents,

732 N. Capitol St., NW, Mail Stop: SDE, Washington, DC 20401.

4 Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St., 6 Available from National Technical Inform ation Service (NTIS), U.S. Depart-

4th Floor, New York, NY 10036. ment of Commerce, 5301 Shawnee Rd, Alexandria, VA 22312.

2
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 E94/E94 M − 17
5.1 .1 1 Radiographic quality level. layer, may be radiographed to an acceptable quality level
utilizing a particular X-ray mach ine or gamma ray source. In
6. Radi ographic Quality Level
all cases the specified IQI (penetrameter) quality level must be
6.1 Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) are devices placed shown on the radiograph. In general, satisfactory results can
within a radiographic set-up to indicate that a certain contrast normally be obtained for X-ray energies between 100 kV to
sensitivity and definition has been achieved. IQIs demonstrat- 500 kV in a range between 2.5 to 10 half value layers (HVL)
ing the required sensitivity level do not guarantee that a similar of material thickness (see Table 1). Th is range may be extended
size flaw in a part will be detected but indicate that the by as much as a factor of 2 in so me situations for X-ray
radiographic quality has been met. Information on the design energies in the 1 to 25 M V range primarily because of reduced
and manufacture of image quality indicators (IQIs) can be scatter.
found in Practices E747, E801, E1025, and E1742.
8. Radi ographic Equi valence Factors
6.2 Radiographic quality level is usually exp ressed in
percent of part thickness and diameter of feature to be detected. 8.1 The radiographic equivalence factor of a material is that
If a single percent nu mber is g iven, the feature d iameter is factor by which the thickness of the material must be mult i-
assumed to be twice the given percent thickness of the part. For plied to give the thickness of a “standard” material (often steel)
example, if 2% is g iven for one inch [25.4 mm] thick part, the which has the same absorption. Radiographic equivalence
feature diameter is 2 ×0.02 ×1 in. [25.4 mm] or 0.04 in. [1.016 factors of several of the mo re co mmon metals are g iven in
mm]. Image quality levels using hole-type IQIs (see Pract ice Table 2, with steel arbit rarily assigned a factor of 1.0.
E1025) are designated by a two part expression X-YT. The first Example: To radiograph 1.0 in. [25.4 mm] of alu minu m at 220
part of the expression X refers to the IQI thickness expressed as kV, mult iply 1.0 by the 0.18 (equivalence factor fo r alu minu m
a percentage of the specimen thickness. The second part of the at 220 kV) and this indicates that 1.0 in. [25.4 mm] of
expression YT refers to the diameter of the hole and is alu minu m is equivalent to 0.18 in. [4.57 mm] of steel when
expressed as a multip le of the IQI thickness, T. The image using 220 kV.
quality level 2-2T means that the IQI thickness T is 2% of the The factors may be used:
specimen thickness and that the diameter of the IQI imaged 8.1 .1 To determine the practical thickness limits for rad ia-
hole is 2 t imes the IQI thickness. If using wire IQIs, the wire tion sources for materials other than steel, and
set and wire nu mber are designated. Correspondence between 8.1 .2 To determine exposure for one metal fro m exposure
hole-type and wire-type IQIs is given in Practice E747. Hole- techniques for other metals.
and wire-type IQIs are the major types used for industrial
9. Fil m
radiography. Other types may also be used (for examp le, see
Practice E1817). The quality level usually required for rad iog- 9.1 Various industrial radiographic films are available to
raphy is 2 % (2-2T when using hole type IQI) unless a higher meet the needs of production radiographic work. Ho wever,
or lower quality is agreed upon between the purchaser and the definite rules on the selection of film are difficult to formu late
supplier. The level of inspection specified should be based on because the choice depends on individual user requirements.
the service requirements of the product. Great care should be Some user requirements are as follo ws: rad iographic quality
taken in specifying quality levels 2-1T, 1-1T, and 1-2T by first levels, exposure t imes, and various cost factors. Several
determining that these quality levels can be maintained in methods are available for assessing image quality levels (see
production radiography. Practices E746, E747, and E801). In formation about specific
6.3 If IQIs of material radiographically similar to that being products can be obtained from the manufacturers.
examined are not available, IQIs of the required dimensions 9.2 Various industrial radiographic films are manufactured
but of a lower-absorption material may be used. to meet quality level and production needs. Test Method E1815
6.4 The quality level required using wire IQIs should be provides a method for film manufacturer classification of film
systems. A film system consist of the film and associated film
equivalent to the 2-2T level of Practice E1025 unless a higher
or lower quality level is agreed upon between purchaser and processing system. Users may obtain a classification table fro m
supplier. Table 4 of Practice E747 provides a list of various
hole-type IQIs and the corresponding diameter of the wires to TABLE 1 Typical Steel HVL Thickness in Inches [mm] for
achieve the Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity (EPS) with the Common Energies
applicable 1T, 2T, and 4T holes in the plaque IQI. Appendix X1 kV / M V
Thickness,
Inches [mm]
of Practice E747 gives the equation for calculat ing other
equivalencies, if needed. 1 2 0 kV 0.10 [ 2. 5 ]
1 5 0 kV 0.14 [ 3. 6 ]
2 0 0 kV 0.20 [ 5. 1 ]
7. Energy Selection 2 5 0 kV 0.25 [ 6. 4 ]
7.1 X-ray energy affects image quality. In general, the lower 4 0 0 kV (I r 1 9 2 ) 0.35 [ 8. 9 ]
1 MV 0.57 [ 1 4. 5 ]
the energy of the source utilized the higher the achievable 2 M V (C o 6 0 ) 0.80 [ 2 0. 3 ]
radiographic contrast, however, other variables such as exces- 4 MV 1.00 [ 2 5. 4 ]
sive dose geometry and scatter conditions may override the 6 MV 1.15 [ 2 9. 2 ]
10 MV 1.25 [ 3 1. 8 ]
potential advantage of higher contrast. For a particu lar energy, 1 6 M V a n d hi g h e r 1.30 [ 3 3. 0 ]
a range of thicknesses which are a mu ltiple of the half value

3
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 E94/E94 M − 17
TABLE 2 Approximate Radiographic Equivalence Factors for Several Metals (Relative to Steel)
kVMV
M e t al
100 kV 150 kV 220 kV 250 kV 400 kV 1 MV 2 MV 4 to 25 MV 192Ir 60Co 75Se

Magn esium 0.05 0.05 0.08

Aluminum 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35 0.5
Aluminum alloy 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.35 0.35 0.5
Titanium 0.54 0.54 0.71 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.6
Iron/all steels 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.4
Zinc 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.2
Brass 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.3
Inconel X 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Monel 1.7 1.2 1.1
Zirconium 2.4 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.6
Lead 14.0 14.0 12.0 5.0 2.5 2.7 4.0 2.3 8.0
Haf nium 14.0 12.0 9.0 3.0 11.0
Uranium 20.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4 14.0

the film manufacturer for the film system used in production to equalize the absorption of different sections, but the loss of
radiography. A choice of film class can be made as provided in detail may be h igh in the thinner sections.
Test Method E1815. Addit ional specific details regarding 11. 2 Collimating the beam by restricting its size with heavy
classification of film systems is provided in Test Method metal beam b lockers to only that area needed to expose the area
E1815. ANSI Standards PH1.41, ISO 417, T9.1, and T9.2 of interest is helpful in restrict ing scatter fro m areas in the part
provide specific details and requirements for film manufactur- outside the area of interest and the surrounding environment,
ing. including air scatter. Co llimators are usually p laced close to the
10. Filters source to min imize size and weight; however, co llimators may
be placed anywhere in the beam to help with scatter control.
10. 1 Definition—Filters are uniform layers of material
placed between the radiation source and the film. 12. Back-Scatter Protection
10. 2 Purpose—The purpose of filters is to absorb the softer 12. 1 Effects of back-scattered radiation can be reduced by
components of the primary radiation, thus resulting in one or confining the radiation beam to the smallest practical cross
several of the following practical advantages: section and by placing lead behind the film. In some cases
10. 2. 1 Decreasing scattered radiation, thus increasing con- either or both the back lead screen and the lead contained in the
trast. back of the cassette or film holder will furn ish adequate
10. 2. 2 Decreasing undercutting, thus increasing contrast. protection against back-scattered radiation. In other instances,
10. 2. 3 Decreasing contrast of parts of varying thickness, this shall be supplemented by additional lead shielding behind
thereby increasing radiographic latitude. the cassette or film holder.
10. 3 Location—Usually the filter will be placed in one of 12. 2 If there is any question about the adequacy of protec-
the following two locations: tion fro m back-scattered radiation, a characteristic symbol
10. 3. 1 As close as possible to the radiation source, which (frequently a 1⁄8 -in. [3.2-mm] th ick letter B) should be attached
minimizes the size of the filter and also the contribution of the to the back of the cassette or film holder, and a radiograph
filter itself to scattered radiation to the film. made in the normal manner. If the image of this symbol
10. 3. 2 Between the specimen and the film in order to absorb appears on the radiograph as a lighter density than background,
preferentially the scattered radiation from the specimen. It it is an indication that protection against back-scattered radia-
should be noted that lead foil and other metallic screens (see tion is insufficient and that additional precautions shall be
13.1) fulfill this function. taken.
10. 4 Thickness and Filter Material— The thickness and
material of the filter will vary depending upon the following: 13. Screens
10. 4. 1 The material radiographed. 13. 1 Metallic Foil Screens:
10. 4. 2 Thickness of the material radiographed. 13. 1. 1 Lead foil screens are common ly used in direct
10. 4. 3 Variation of thickness of the material radiographed. contact with the films, and, depending upon their thickness,
10. 4. 4 Energy spectrum of the radiation used. and composition of the specimen material, will exh ibit an
10. 4. 5 The improvement desired (increasing or decreasing intensifying action at as low as 90 kV. In addition, any screen
contrast). Filter thickness and material can be calculated or used in front of the film acts as a filter (Section 10) to
determined empirically. preferentially absorb scattered radiation arising from the
specimen, thus improv ing radiographic quality. The selection
11. Masking and Collimation of lead screen thickness, or for that matter, any metallic screen
11. 1 Masking or b locking (surrounding specimens or cov- thickness, is subject to the same considerations as outlined in
ering thin sections with an absorptive material) is helpful in 10.4. Lead screens lessen the scatter reaching the film regard-
reducing scattered radiation. Such a material can also be used less of whether the screens permit a decrease or necessitate an

4
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 E94/E94 M − 17
increase in the radiographic exposure. To avoid image unsharp- ness are required for successful use of fluorescent screens.
ness due to screens, there should be intimate contact between Additional information on the use of fluorescent screens is
the lead screen and the film during exposure. provided in Appendix X1.
13. 1. 2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness should be 13. 4 Screen Care—All screens should be handled carefully
used whenever they improve radiographic quality or penetram- to avoid dents and scratches, dirt, or grease on active surfaces.
eter sensitivity or both. The thickness of the front lead screens Grease and lint may be removed fro m lead screens with a
should be selected with care to avoid excessive filtrat ion in the solvent. Fluorescent screens should be cleaned in accordance
radiography of thin or light alloy materials, particularly at the with the recommendations of the manufacturer. Screens show-
lower kilovoltages. In general, there is no exposure advantage ing evidence of physical damage should be discarded.
to the use of 0.005 in. [0.13 mm] in front and back lead screens
below 125 kV in the radiography of 1⁄4 -in. [6.35-mm] or lesser 14. Radi ographic Image Quality
thickness steel. As the kilovoltage is increased to penetrate 14. 1 Radiographic image quality is a qualitative term used
thicker sections of steel, however, there is a significant expo- to describe the capability of a radiograph to show flaws in the
sure advantage. In addition to intensifying action, the back lead area under examination. There are three fundamental co mpo-
screens are used as protection against back-scattered radiation nents of radiographic image quality as shown in Fig. 1. Each
(see Section 12) and their thickness is only important for this component is an important attribute when considering a
function. As exposure energy is increased to penetrate greater specific rad iographic technique or application and will be
thicknesses of a given subject material, it is customary to briefly discussed below.
increase lead screen thickness. For radiography using radioac-
tive sources, the minimu m th ickness of the front lead screen 14. 2 Radiographic contrast between two areas of a radio-
should be 0.005 in. [0.13 mm] for irid iu m-192, and 0.010 in. graph is the difference between the film densities of those
[0.25 mm] for cobalt-60. areas. The degree of rad iographic contrast is dependent upon
both subject contrast and film contrast as illustrated in Fig. 1.
13. 2 Other Metallic Screen Materials: 14. 2. 1 Subject contrast is the ratio of X-ray or gamma-ray
13. 2. 1 Lead o xide screens perform in a similar manner to intensities transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen.
lead fo il screens except that their equivalence in lead fo il Subject contrast is dependent upon the nature of the specimen
thickness approximates 0.0005 in. (0.013 mm). (material type and thickness), the energy (spectral co mposition,
13. 2. 2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorption and hardness or wavelengths) of the rad iation used and the intensity
intensification than lead screens, but may provide somewhat and distribution of scattered radiation. It is independent of
better radiographic sensitivity with higher energy above 1 MV. time, milliamperage or source strength (curies), source distance
13. 2. 3 Go ld, tantalu m, or other heavy metal screens may be and the characteristics of the film system.
used in cases where lead cannot be used. 14. 2. 2 Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the
13. 3 Fluorescent Screens—Fluorescent screens may be used film system characteristic curve. Film contrast is dependent
as required providing the required image quality is achieved. upon the type of film, the processing it receives and the amount
Proper selection of the fluorescent screen is required to of optical density. It also depends upon whether the film was
minimize image unsharpness. Technical information about exposed with lead screens (or without) or with fluorescent
specific fluorescent screen products can be obtained from the screens. Film contrast is independent, for most practical
manufacturers. Good film-screen contact and screen cleanli- purposes, of the wavelength and distribution of the radiation

Radiographic Image Quality

--` `,` ,` `,` ,, ``` ,` ``` ,, ``, `, -`- `, ,`, ,` ,`, ,` ---

Radiographic Contrast Film Sy stem Radiographic Def inition

Subject Film Inherent Geometric
Granularity
Contrast Contrast Unsharpness Unsharpness
Aff ected by: Aff ected by: • Grain size and distribution within Aff ected by: Aff ected by:
• Absorption diff erences in • Ty pe of film the f ilm emulsion • Degree of screen-f ilm contact • Focal spot or source
specimen (thickness, • Degree of dev elopment (ty pe of • Processing conditions (ty pe and • Total film thickness phy sical size
composition, density ) dev eloper, time, temperature and activ ity of dev eloper, temperature of • Single or • Source-to-f ilm distance
• Radiation wav elength activ ity of dev eloper, degree of dev eloper, etc.) double emulsion coatings • Specimen-to-
• Scattered radiation agitation) • Ty pe of screens (that is, • Radiation quality f ilm distance
• Optical density (that is, the f luorescent, lead or none) • Ty pe and thickness of screens • Abruptness of thick-
greater the optical density , the • Radiation quality (that is, energy (f luorescent, lead or none) ness changes in
greater the resultant contrast) lev el, f iltration, etc. specimen
• Ty pe of screens (that is, • Exposure quanta (that is, • Motion of specimen or
f luorescent, lead or none) intensity , dose, etc.) radiation source
•The contract increases approxi- •The gra nularity increases approxi-
mately linearly with the new optical mately with the square root of the
density net optical density

Reduced or enhanced by :
• Masks and diaphragms
• Filters
• Lead screens
• Potter-Bucky diaphragms

FIG. 1 Variables of Radiographic Im age Quality

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 E94/E94 M − 17
reaching the film and, hence is independent of subject contrast. thickness of the film emu lsions, whether single or double-
For further information, consult Test Method E1815. coated emulsions, quality of radiat ion used (wavelengths, etc.)
14. 3 Film system granularity is the objective measurement and the type of screen. Inherent unsharpness is independent of
of the local density variat ions that produce the sensation of exposure geometry arrangements.
graininess on the radiographic film (for examp le, measured 14.4.2 Geo metric unsharpness (Ug) determines the degree
with a densitometer with a small aperture of ≤ 0.0039 in. of visible detail resultant fro m an “in-focus” exposure arrange-
[0.1 mm]). Graininess is the subjective perception of a mottled ment consisting of the source-to-film-distance, object-to-film-
pattern apparent to a viewer who sees small local density distance, and focal spot size. Fig. 2(a) illustrates these condi-
variations in an area of overall uniform density (that is, the tions. Geo metric unsharpness is given by the equation:
visual imp ression of irregularity of silver deposit in a processed Ug 5 Ft/d o (1)
radiograph). The degree o f granularity will not affect the
overall spatial radiographic resolution (expressed in line pairs wh er e:
per mm, etc.) of the resultant image and is usually independent Ug = geo metric unsharpness,
of exposure geometry arrangements. Granularity is affected by F = maximu m pro jected dimension of rad iation source,
the applied screens, screen-film contact, and film processing t = distance from source side of specimen to film, and
d o = source-object distance.
conditions. For further in formation on detailed perceptibility,
consult Test Method E1815. NOTE 2—d o and t must be in the same units of measure; the units of Ug
will be in the same units as F.
14.4 Radiographic definition refers to the sharpness of the
NOTE 3—A nomogram for the determination of Ug is given in Fig. 3
image (both the image outline as well as image detail). (inch-pound units). Fig. 4 represents a nomogram in SI units.
Radiographic definit ion is dependent upon the inherent un- Example:
sharpness of the film system and the geometry of the radio- Given:
graphic exposure arrangement (geo metric unsharpness) as So urce-object distance (d o ) = 40 in.,
illustrated in Fig. 1. So urce size (F) = 500 mils, and
So urce side of specimen to film distance (t) = 1.5 in.
14.4.1 Inherent unsharpness (Ui ) is the degree of visible Draw a straight line (dashed in Fig. 3) between 500 mils on the F scale and
detail resulting fro m geo metrical aspects within the film-screen 1.5 in. on the t scale. Note the point on intersection (P) of this line with
system, that is, screen-film contact, screen thickness, total the pivot line. Draw a straight line (solid in Fig. 3) from 40 in. on the d o

FIG. 2 Effects of Object-Film Geometry

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FIG. 3 Nom ogram for Determ ining Geometrical Unsharpness (Inch-Pound Units)

scale through point P and extend to the Ug scale. Intersection of this line a radiograph. Therefore, the image will be larger if the object
with the Ug scale gives geometrical unsharpness in mils, which in the or feature is larger than the source of radiation, and smaller if
example is 19 mils.
object or feature is smaller than the source. The degree of
Inasmuch as the source size, F, is usually fixed for a g iven reduction or enlargement will depend on the source-to-object
radiation source, the value of Ug is essentially controlled by the
and object-to-film distances, and on the relative sizes of the
simp le d o /t ratio.
source and the object or feature (Fig. 2(b) and (c)).
Geo metric unsharpness (Ug ) can have a significant effect on
the quality of the radiograph; therefore source-to-film-distance 15. 2 The direct ion of the central beam of rad iation should
(SFD) selection is important. The geometric unsharpness (Ug ) be perpendicular to the surface of the film whenever possible.
equation, Eq 1, is for informat ion and guidance and provides a The object image will be distorted if the film is not aligned
means for determin ing geometric unsharpness values. The perpendicular to the central beam. Different parts of the object
amount or degree of unsharpness should be min imized when image will be distorted different amounts depending on the
establishing the radiographic technique. extent of the film to central beam offset (Fig. 2(d)).
15. Radi ographic Distorti on
16. Exposure Calculations or Charts
15. 1 The radiographic image of an object or feature within
an object may be larger or s maller than the object or feature 16. 1 Develop ment or procurement of an exposure chart or
itself, because the penumbra of the shadow is rarely visib le in calculator is the responsibility of the individual laboratory.

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 E94/E94 M − 17

FIG. 4 Nom ogram for Determ ining Geometrical Unsharpness (SI Units)

16. 2 The essential elements of an exposure chart or calcu- 16. 2. 1 2 Time-temperature development for hand process-
lator shall relate the fo llo wing: ing; access time for automat ic processing; time-temperature
16. 2. 1 Source or machine, development for dry processing, and
16. 2. 2 Material type, 16. 2. 1 3 Processing chemistry brand name, if applicab le.
16. 2. 3 Material thickness,
16. 2. 4 Film type (relat ive speed), 16. 3 The essential elements listed in 16.2 will be accurate
16. 2. 5 Optical density, (see Note 4), for isotopes of the same type, but will vary with X-ray
16. 2. 6 Source or source to film distance, equipment of the same kilovoltage and milliampere rating.
16. 2. 7 Kilovoltage or isotope type, 16. 4 Exposure charts should be developed for each X-ray
NOTE 4—For detailed information on optical density and density mach ine and corrected each time a major co mponent is
measurement calibration, see Practice E1079. replaced, such as the X-ray tube or high-voltage transformer.
16. 2. 8 Screen type and thickness, 16. 5 The exposure chart should be corrected when the
16. 2. 9 Curies or milliampere/ minutes, processing chemicals are changed to a different manufacturer’s
16. 2. 1 0 Time o f exposure, brand or the time-temperature relationship of the processor
16. 2. 1 1 Filter (in the primary beam), may be ad justed to suit the exposure chart. The exposure chart,

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 E94/E94 M − 17
when using a dry processing method, should be corrected 19. Identi ficati on of and Locati on Markers on
based upon the time -temperature changes of the processor. Radi ographs
19. 1 Identification of Radiographs:
17. Technique File
19. 1. 1 Each radiograph shall be identified un iquely so that
17. 1 It is reco mmended that a radiographic technique log or there is a permanent correlation between the part rad iographed
record containing the essential elements be maintained. and the film. The type of identification and method by which
17. 2 The radiographic technique log or record should con- identification is achieved should be as agreed upon between the
tain the following: customer and inspector.
17. 2. 1 Description, photo, or sketch of the test object 19. 1. 2 The minimu m identification should at least include
illustrating marker layout, source placement, and film location. the following: the radiographic facility’s identificat ion and
17. 2. 2 Material type and thickness, name, the date, part number and serial nu mber, if used, for
17. 2. 3 Source-to-film distance and object-to-film distance, unmistakable identification of rad iographs with the specimen.
17. 2. 4 Film type, The letter R should be used to designate a radiograph of a
17. 2. 5 Optical density, (see Note 4), repair area, and may include − 1, − 2, etc., for the number of
17. 2. 6 Screen type and thickness, repair.
17. 2. 7 Isotope or X-ray machine identification, 19. 2 Location Markers:
17. 2. 8 Curie or milliampere minutes, 19. 2. 1 Location markers (numbers or letters made of dense
17. 2. 9 IQI and shim thickness, metals that are to appear as images on the radiographic film)
17. 2. 1 0 Special masking or filters, should be placed on the part being examined, whenever
17. 2. 1 1 Collimator or field limitation device, practical, and not on the cassette. Their exact locations should
17. 2. 1 2 Processing method, and also be marked on the surface of the part being radiographed,
17. 2. 1 3 View or location. thus permitting the area of interest to be located accurately on
the part, and they should remain on the part during rad io-
17.3 The reco mmendations of 17.2 are not mandatory, but
graphic inspection. Their exact location may be permanently
are essential in reducing the overall cost of radiography, and
marked in accordance with the customer’s requirements.
serve as a communicat ion link between the radiographic
interpreter and the radiographic operator. 19. 2. 2 Location markers are also used in assisting the
radiographic interpreter in marking off defective areas of
18. Penetrameters (Image Quality Indicators) components, castings, or defects in weld ments; also, sorting
good and rejectable items when more than one item is
18. 1 Practices E747, E801, E1025, and E1742 should be radiographed on the same film.
consulted for detailed informat ion on the design, manufacture 19. 2. 3 Sufficient markers shall be used to provide evidence
and material grouping of IQIs. Pract ice E801 addresses IQIs on the radiograph that the required coverage of the object being
for examination of electronic devices and provides additional examined has been obtained, and that overlap is ev ident,
details for positioning IQIs, nu mber o f IQIs required, and so especially during rad iography of weld ments and castings.
forth.
19. 2. 4 Parts that must be identified permanently may have
18. 2 Practice E746 and Test Method E1735 should be the serial nu mbers or section numbers, or both, stamped or
consulted for detailed informat ion regarding IQIs which are written upon them with a marking pen with a special indelible
used for determining relat ive image quality response of indus- ink, engraved, die stamped, or etched. In any case, the part
trial film. The IQIs may also be used, as required, for should be marked in an area not to be removed in subsequent
measuring the image quality of the radiographic system or any fabrication. If d ie stamps are used, caution is required to
component of the systems equivalent penetrameter sensitivity prevent breakage or future fatigue failure. The lo west stressed
(EPS) performance. surface of the part should be used for this stamping. Where
18. 2. 1 An examp le for determin ing and EPS performance marking or stamp ing of the part is not permitted for some
evaluation of several X-ray machines is as follo ws: reason, a marked reference drawing or shooting sketch is
18.2.1.1 Keep the film and film processing parameters recommended.
constant, and take mu ltiple image quality exposures with all
mach ines being evaluated. The machines should be set for a 20. Storage of Film
prescribed exposure as stated in the standard and the optical
20. 1 Unexposed films should be stored in such a manner
density equalized. By co mparison of the resultant films, the
that they are protected from the effects of light, pressure,
relative EPS variat ions between the machines can be deter-
excessive heat, excessive humid ity, damaging fu mes or vapors,
mined.
or penetrating rad iation. Film manufacturers should be con-
18. 2. 2 Exposure condition variables may also be studied
sulted for detailed reco mmendations on film storage. Storage
using this plaque. of film should be on a “first in,” “first out” basis.
18. 2. 3 While Pract ice E746 p laque can be useful in quanti-
fying relat ive radiographic image quality, these other applica- 20. 2 More detailed informat ion on film storage is provided
tions of the plaque may be useful. in Gu ide E1254.

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 E94/E94 M − 17
21. Safelight Test 25. 3 Start of Development—Start the timer and place the
films into the developer tank. Separate to a min imu m d istance
21. 1 Films should be handled under safelight conditions in
of 1⁄2 in. [12.7 mm] and agitate in two directions for about 15 s.
accordance with the film manufacturer’s reco mmendations.
ANSI PH2.22 can be used to determine the adequacy of 25. 4 Development—Normal develop ment is 5 to 8 min at
safelight conditions in a darkroo m. 68°F [20°C]. Longer development time generally yields faster
film speed and slightly more contrast. The manufacturer’s
22. Cleanliness and Film Handli ng recommendation shall be followed in choosing a development
time. When the temperature is higher or lower, develop ment
22. 1 Cleanliness is one of the most important requirements time shall be chang ed. Again, consu lt manufacturer-
for good rad iography. Cassettes and screens shall be kept clean, recommended development time versus temperature charts.
not only because dirt retained may cause exposure or process- Other reco mmendations of the manufacturer to be fo llowed are
ing artifacts in the radiographs, but because such dirt may also replenishment rates, renewal of solutions, and other specific
be transferred to the loading bench, and subsequently to other instructions.
film or screens.
25. 5 Agitation—Shake the film horizontally and vertically ,
22. 2 The surface of the loading bench shall be kept clean. ideally for a few seconds each minute during development.
Where manual processing is used cleanliness will be pro moted This will help film develop evenly.
by arranging the darkroo m with processing facilities on one
25. 6 Stop Bath or Rinse—After development is comp lete,
side and film-handling facilities on the other. The darkroo m
will then have a wet side and a dry side and the chance of the activity of developer remain ing in the emulsion should be
chemical contamination of the loading bench will be relatively neutralized by an acid stop bath or, if this is not possible, by
slight. rinsing with vigorous agitation in clear water. Fo llo w the film
manufacturer’s reco mmendation of stop bath composition (or
22. 3 Films should be handled only at their edges, and with length of alternative rinse), time immersed, and life of bath.
dry, clean hands to avoid finger marks on film surfaces.
25. 7 Fixing—The films must not touch one another in the
22. 4 Sharp bending, excessive pressure, and rough handling fixer. Agitate the hangers vertically for about 10 s and again at
of any kind shall be avoided. the end of the first minute, to ensure unifo rm and rap id fixation.
Keep them in the fixer until fixat ion is co mplete (that is, at least
23. Fil m Processing, General twice the clearing time), but not more than 15 min in relatively
fresh fixer. Frequent agitation will shorten the time of fixat ion.
23. 1 To produce a satisfactory radiograph, the care used in
making the exposure must be followed by equal care in 25. 8 Fixer Neutralizing—The use of a hypo eliminator or
processing. The most careful radiographic techniques can be fixer neutralizer between fixat ion and washing may be advan-
nullified by incorrect or imp roper darkroom procedures. tageous. These materials permit a reduction of both time and
amount of water necessary for adequate washing. The recom-
23. 2 Sections 24 – 26 provide general information for film
mendations of the manufacturers as to preparation, use, and
processing. Detailed informat ion on film processing is pro- useful life of the baths should be observed rigorously.
vided in Gu ide E999.
25. 9 Washing—The washing efficiency is a function of wash
24. Automatic Processing water, its temperature, and flow, and the film being washed.
Generally, washing is very slow below 60°F [16°C]. When
24. 1 Automatic Processing—The essence of the automatic washing at temperatures above 85°F [30°C], care should be
processing system is control. The processor maintains the exercised not to leave films in the water too long. The films
chemical solutions at the proper temperature, agitates and should be washed in batches without contamination fro m new
replenishes the solutions automatically, and transports the films film brought over fro m the fixer. If pressed for capacity, as
mechanically at a carefu lly controlled speed throughout the more films are put in the wash, partially washed film should be
processing cycle. Film characteristics must be compatible with moved in the direction of the inlet.
processing conditions. It is, therefore, essential that the recom- 25. 9. 1 The cascade method of washing uses less water and
mendations of the film, processor, and chemical manufacturers gives better washing for the same length of time. Divide the
be follo wed. wash tank into two sections (may be two tanks). Put the films
fro m the fixer in the outlet section. After partial washing, move
25. Manual Processing the batch of film to the inlet section. This completes the wash
25. 1 Film and chemical manufacturers should be consulted in fresh water.
for detailed reco mmendations on manual film processing. This 25. 9. 2 For specific washing recommendations, consult the
section outlines the steps for one acceptable method of manual film manufacturer.
processing. 25. 1 0 Wetting Agent—Dip the film for appro ximately 30 s in
25. 2 Preparation—No more film should be processed than a wetting agent. This makes water drain evenly off film which
can be acco mmodated with a minimu m separation of 1⁄2 in. facilitates quick, even dry ing.
[12.7 mm]. Hangers are loaded and solutions stirred before 25. 1 1 Residual Fixer Concentrations— If the fixing chemi-
starting development. cals are not removed adequately fro m the film, they will in t ime

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 E94/E94 M − 17
cause staining or fading of the developed image. Residual fixer 29. Storage of Processed Radiographs
concentrations permissible depend upon whether the films are 29. 1 Gu ide E1254 provides detailed informat ion on controls
to be kept for co mmercial purposes (3 to 10 years) o r shall be and maintenance for storage of radiographs and unexposed
of archival quality. Archival quality processing is desirable for film. The following sections provide general informat ion for
all radiographs whenever average relative humid ity and tem- storage of radiographs.
perature are likely to be excessive, as is the case in tropical and
subtropical climates. The method of determining residual fixer 29. 2 Envelopes having an edge seam, rather than a center
concentrations may be ascertained by reference to ANSI seam, and joined with a nonhygroscopic adhesive, are
PH1.28, PH1.41, and ISO 18917. preferred, since occasional staining and fading of the image is
caused by certain adhesives used in the manufacture of
25. 1 2 Drying—Drying is a function of (1) film (base and envelopes (see ANSI PH1.53).
emu lsion); (2) processing (hardness of emulsion after washing,
use of wetting agent); and (3) drying air (temperature, 30. Records
humid ity, flow). Manual drying can vary from still air dry ing at
30. 1 It is reco mmended that an inspection log (a log may
amb ient temperature to as high as 140°F [60°C] with air
circulated by a fan. Film manufacturers should again be consist of a card file, punched card system, a book, or other
record) constituting a record of each job performed, be
contacted for recommended drying conditions. Take precaution
to tighten film on hangers, so that it cannot touch in the dryer. maintained. Th is record should comprise, init ially, a job
Too hot a drying temperature at low humidity can result in number (wh ich should appear also on the films), the identifi-
cation of the parts, material or area radiographed, the date the
uneven drying and should be avoided.
films are exposed, and a co mplete record of the radiographic
26. Testing Devel oper procedure, in sufficient detail so that any radiographic tech-
26. 1 It is desirable to monitor the activ ity of the rad io- niques may be duplicated readily. If calibrat ion data, or other
graphic developing solution. This can be done by periodic records such as card files or procedures, are used to determine
development of film strips exposed under carefully controlled the procedure, the log need refer only to the appropriate data or
other record. Subsequently, the interpreter’s findings and
conditions, to a graded series of radiation intensities or time, or
by using a commercially available strip carefully controlled for disposition (acceptance or reject ion), if any, and his initials,
film speed and latent image fading. should also be entered for each job.

27. Viewing Radi ographs 31. Reports

27. 1 Specification E1390 provides detailed in formation on 31. 1 When written reports of radiographic examinations are
requirements for illu minators. The following sections provide required, they should include the fo llo wing, plus such other
general info rmation to be considered for use of illu minators. items as may be agreed upon:
31. 1. 1 Identificat ion of parts, material, or area.
27. 2 Transmission—The illu minator shall prov ide light of
31. 1. 2 Radiographic job number.
an intensity that will illu minate the average density areas of the
31. 1. 3 Findings and disposition, if any. This informat ion can
radiographs without glare and it shall diffuse the light evenly
be obtained directly fro m the log.
over the viewing area. Co mmercial fluorescent illu minators are
satisfactory for radiographs of moderate density; however, high 32. Identi ficati on of Completed Work
light intensity illu minators are availab le for densities up to 3.5
or 4.0. Masks should be available to exclude any ext raneous 32. 1 Whenever radiography is an inspective (rather than
light fro m the eyes of the viewer when viewing radiographs investigative) operation whereby material is accepted or
smaller than the viewing port or to cover lo w-density areas. rejected, all parts and material that have been accepted should
be marked permanently, if possible, with a characteristic
27. 3 Reflection—Radiographs on a translucent or opaque
identifying symbol wh ich will indicate to subsequent or final
backing may be viewed by reflected light. It is recommended examiners the fact of radiographic acceptance.
that the radiograph be viewed under diffuse lighting conditions
to prevent excess glare. Optical magnification can be used in 32. 2 Whenever possible, the completed radiographs should
certain instances to enhance the interpretation of the image. be kept on file for reference. The custody of radiographs and
the length of time they are preserved should be agreed upon
28. Viewing Room between the contracting parties.
28. 1 Subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is prefer-
able in the viewing roo m. The brightness of the surroundings 33. Keywords
shall be about the same as the area of interest in the radiograph. 33. 1 exposure calculations; film system; gamma-ray; image
Roo m illu mination shall be so arranged that there are no quality indicator (IQI); radiograph; radiographic examination;
reflections fro m the surface of the film under examination. radiographic quality level; technique file; X-ray

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 E94/E94 M − 17
APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. US E OF FLUORES CENT S CREENS

X1.1 Description—Fluorescent intensifying screens have a uniformity, and layer thickness, is minimized by using screens
cardboard or plastic support coated with a un iform layer o f having small, evenly spaced crystals in a thin crystalline layer.
inorganic phosphor (crystalline substance). The support and Fluorescent screens are highly sensitive to longer wavelength
phosphor are held together by a radiotransparent binding scattered radiation. Consequently, to maximize contrast when
material. Fluorescent screens derive their name fro m the fact this non-image forming radiation is excessive, fluorometallic
that their phosphor crystals “fluoresce” (emit v isible light) intensifying screens or fluorescent screens backed by lead
when struck by X or gamma radiat ion. So me phosphors like screens of appropriate thickness are recommended. Screen
calciu m tungstate (CaWO4 ) give off blue light while others technology has seen significant advances in recent years, and
such as gadoliniu m o xysulfide terbiu m activated phosphors today’s fluorescent screens have smaller crystal size, more
emit green light. uniform crystal packing, and reduced phosphor thickness. This
translates into greater screen/film speed with reduced unsharp-
X1.2 Purpose and Film Types—Fluorescent screen expo- ness and mottle. These improvements can represent some
sures are usually much shorter than those made without screens mean ingful benefits for industrial radiography, as indicated by
or with lead intensifying screens, because radiographic films the three examp les as follo ws:
generally are mo re responsive to visible light than to direct
X-radiation, gamma radiat ion, and electrons. X1.3.1 Reduced Exposure (Increased Productivity)—There
are instances when prohibitively long exposure times make
X1.2.1 Films fall into one of t wo categories: non-screen
conventional radiography impract ical. An examp le is the in-
type film having moderate light response, and screen type film
spection of thick, high ato mic number materials with low curie
specifically sensitized to have a very high blue or green light
isotopes. Depending on many variab les, exposure time may be
response. Fluorescent screens can reduce conventional expo-
reduced by factors ranging from 2× to 105× when the appro-
sures by as much as 150 times, depending on film type.
priate fluorescent screen/film co mbination is used.
X1.3 Image Quality and Use—The image quality associ- X1.3.2 Improved Safety Conditions (Field Sites)—Because
ated with fluorescent screen exposures is a function of fluorescent screens provide reduced exposure, the length of
sharpness, mottle, and contrast. Screen sharpness depends on time that non-radiation workers must evacuate a radiographic
phosphor crystal size, thickness of the crystal layer, and the inspection site can be reduced significantly.
reflective base coating. Each crystal emits light relative to its
size and in all directions thus producing a relative degree of X1.3.3 Extended Equipment Capability —Utilizing the
image unsharpness. To minimize th is unsharpness, screen to speed advantage of fluorescent screens by translating it into
film contact should be as intimate as possible. Mottle adversely reduced energy level. An example is that a 150 kV X-ray tube
affects image quality in two ways. First, a “quantum” mottle is may do the job of a 300 kV tube, or that iridiu m 192 may be
dependent upon the amount of X or gamma radiation actually used in applications normally requiring cobalt 60. It is possible
absorbed by the fluorescent screen, that is, faster screen/film for overall image quality to be better at the lower kV with
systems lead to greater mottle and poorer image quality. A fluorescent screens than at a higher energy level using lead
“structural” mottle, which is a function of crystal size, crystal screens.

BIB LIOGRAPHY ON INDUS TRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

For conciseness, this bi bliography has been li mited to books and s pecifically to books in English published after 1950.

(1 ) Clark, G. L., Applied X-Rays, 4th ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., (3 ) Hogarth, C. A., and Blitz, J. (Editors), Techniques of Nondestructive
New York, 1955. Testing, Butte Worth and Co., Ltd., London, 1960.
(2 ) Clauser, H. R., Practical Radiography for Industry, Reinhold Pub- (4 ) McMaster, R. C. (Editor), Nondestructive Testing Handbook, T he
lishing Corp., New York, 1952. Ronald Press, New York, 1960.

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 E94/E94 M − 17
(5 ) Morgan, R. H., and Corrigan, K. E. (Editors), Handbook of (1 4 ) Radioisotope Technique, Vol II, H. M. Stationery Office, London,
Radiology, T he Year Book Publishers, Inc., Chicago, 1955. 1952.
(6 ) Reed, M. E., Cobalt-60 Radiography in Industry, T racer-lab, Inc., (1 5 ) Symposium on Nondestructive Testing, ASTM STP 145, AST M,
Boston, 1954. 1953.
(7 ) Robertson, J. K., Radiology Physics, 3rd ed., D. Van Nostrand (1 6 ) Memorandum on Gamma-Ray Sources for Radiography, Revised
Company, New York, 1956. edition, Institute of Physics, London, 1954.
(8 ) Weyl, C., and Warren, S. R., Radiologic Physics, 2nd ed., Charles C. (1 7 ) Papers on Nondestructive Testing, see Proceedings, AST M, Vol 54,
T homas, Springfield, IL, 1951. 1954.
(9 ) Wilshire, W. J. (Editor), A Further Handbook of Industrial (1 8 ) Radiography in Modern Industry (3rd edition), Eastman Kodak Co.,
Radiology, Edwar d Arnold and Company, London, 1957. Rochester, NY, 1969.
(1 0 ) McGonnagle, W. J., Nondestructive Testing, McGraw Hill Book Co., (1 9 ) Symposium on Nondestructive Tests in the Field of Nuclear Energy,
Inc., New York, 1961 .
ASTM STP 223, AST M, 1958.
(1 1 ) Handbook on Radiography, Revised edition, Atomic Energy of
(2 0 ) Radiographer’s Reference (3rd edition), E. I. du Pont de Nemours &
Canada Ltd. Ottawa, Ont., 1950 .
Co., Inc., Wilmington, DE, 1974 (or latest revision).
(1 2 ) Papers on Radiography, ASTM STP 96, AST M, 1950.
(1 3 ) Symposium on the Role of Nondestructive Testing in the Economics
of Production, ASTM STP 112, AST M, 1951.

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This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years and
if not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your co mments are invited either for r evision of this standard or for add itional standards
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This standard is copyrighted by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Consho hocken, PA 19428-2959,
United States. Individual reprints (single or multiple copi es) of this standard may be obtain ed by contacting ASTM at the above
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