DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

- Represented by a musculo-membranous tube called the alimentary canal extending from the mouth (anterior
opening) to the anus (posterior opening) with a distance of 30ft. long.
- It is provided with accessory organs necessary for the proper functioning of the system.

Functions:

1. Digestion – breaking down of large food particles into smaller molecules for use of body cells.

Types of digestion:
A. Chemical digestion – series of catabolic reactions (hydrolysis) that breakdown the large carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids molecule into smaller molecules that are absorbable and usable by body cells.
B. Mechanical digestion – various movements of GIT that helps chemical digestion.

2. Absorption – passage of food from GIT into cardiovascular and lymphatic system

Digestive processes:
1. Ingestion – taking food into the mouth
2. Peristalsis – movement of food
3. Digestion – breaking down of food
4. Absorption
5. Defecation – elimination of indigested substances from GIT

Organization of digestive system:

1. GIT (gastrointestinal tract), Alimentary canal – a continuous tube extending from mouth to anus.
2. Accessory digestive structures/organ
a. teeth related to d. liver related to small
b. tongue mouth e. gall bladder intestine
c. salivary glands f. pancreas

Organs of digestive system:

1. mouth
2. pharynx
3. esophagus
4. stomach
5. small intestine – duodenum, jejunum, ileum
6. large intestine – cecum, colon, rectum
7. anus

Layers of the GIT:

- from esophagus to anal canal
- from inside outward

1. mucosa – lines the lumen of the GIT, both absorptive and secretory layer.
2. submucosa – highly vascular
3. muscularis – responsible for intestinal contractions and peristaltic movements thru GIT.
4. serosa – outermost layer, also known as ‘visceral peritoneum’

I. Mouth (Oral cavity)

- also referred to as buccal cavity
- An oval shaped cavity limited in front by the lips, hard and soft palates, tongue, cheeks and isthmus of fauces
behind. For ingestion of food.

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Divisions of mouth:
1. Vestibule – a space found in front, limited by the lips anteriorly, teeth and gums posteriorly.
2. Oral cavity proper – extends from vestibule to the fauces (an opening between oral cavity and the pharynx).

Structures of the oral cavity:

1. hard palate – forms the bony partition between the oral and nasal cavities
2. soft palate – forms the muscular partition between the oropharynx and nasopharynx.
- Contains the uvula, a conical muscular process that hangs from its free border.
- Also contains the palatine tonsils.
3. Lips or labia - a fleshy folds surrounding the orifice of the mouth, and attached to the gums by means of
“labial frenulum”.

Accessory digestive structures (related to mouth)

1. Tongue – a musculo-membranous organ

that forms the floor of the mouth. At the
surface are found different papillae
containing the taste buds (receptors for
taste).
- It is attached to the floor of the mouth by
means of “lingual frenulum”.
- Functions for speech (phonation),
swallowing, and capturing prey in some
animals

Types of papillae:
a. Filiform papillae – situated on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, cone-shaped, whitish and contain no taste
buds.
b. Fungiform papillae – mushroom-like elevations, distributed among filiform papillae, numerous near the tip
of the tongue, appeared as ‘red dots’.
c. Circumvallate papillae – 10-12 in numbers, arranged in the form of inverted V on the posterior surface of
the tongue.

2. Teeth (dentes) – are accessory structures located in the sockets of the alveolar processes of mandible and
maxillae.
- function for mastication (chewing)

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Types of teeth:
a. Incisor – chisel-shaped for biting/cutting of food
b. Canine – cone-shaped for tearing/shredding of food
c. Molar – for crushing and grinding of food
d. Premolar – for crushing and tearing of food

Classifications of teeth (according to dentitions)

a. Deciduous/ milk teeth/ temporary teeth – made up of 20 teeth, 2 rows of 10 each.
- (I4-C2-M4), lost between 6-13 years of age
b. Permanent teeth – made up of 32 teeth, 2 rows of 16 each.
- (I4-C2-P4-M6), appear between 6-17 years of age except the wisdom tooth.
- Wisdom tooth (3rd molar) erupt between 17 and 25 years of age, or never at all

Parts of teeth:
a. Crown – exposed portion above the gum
b. Neck – constricted portion between the
crown and root.
c. Root – embedded part in the sockets

Structures of the teeth:

a. Dentine (inner) – a calcified tissue that
gives the tooth its basic shape and rigidity
b. Pulp cavity – a cavity that encloses by
dentine and containing pulp which is soft
and provided with blood vessels and
nerves.
c. Enamel (outer) – the hardest substance in
the body and protects the teeth from wear of
chewing. It covers the dentine in the crown
region.
d. Cementum – a thin layer of true bony
tissue that covers the dentine in root region.

3. Salivary glands – responsible for secretions of saliva (1000-1500ml/day)

Types of salivary glands

a. Parotid gland – the largest, provided with a duct
called “stensen’s duct” about 2.5inches in length.
Situated in front and below external ear. Inflammation
is parotitis (mumps).
b. Submaxillary gland – beneath the base of tongue,
duct is called “wharton’s duct” on either side of lingual
frenulum.
c. Sublingual gland – the smallest, situated infront of
submaxillary gland,duct is “rivinus duct” that opens on
the side of lingual frenulum.

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II. Pharynx (throat) – a musculo-membranous short tube common to both respiratory and digestive systems, with 3
parts found behind the nasal and oral cavities.

Parts of the pharynx:

1. Nasopharynx – situated behind the nasal

cavity, contains the pharyngeal tonsil

2. Oropharynx – situated behind the oral

cavity, contains the palatine and lingual
tonsils.

3. Laryngopharynx – situated beneath the

Oropharynx

III. Esophagus (gullet) – a musculo-membranous tube about 9inches in length, it has no digestive function but only for
the passage of food from the pharynx to the stomach, by means of peristalsis.

IV. Stomach – a J shaped dilated portion of the alimentary canal directly under the diaphragm in the epigastric,
umbilical and left hypochondriac regions of the abdomen.

Functions:
1. temporary storage of food
2. for mechanical and chemical digestion
3. transmission of “chyme” into the small intestine

Divisions of stomach
1. Fundus – upper dome shaped portion, contains a small amount of gas, and found only in mammals
2. Body – forms the main bulk of the stomach
3. Cardia – portion leading to esophygeal opening, anterior end of the stomach
4. Pylorus – it has a dilated proximal portion called the “pyloric antrum” and tubular portion called the “pyloric
canal”. Posterior end of the stomach.

Gastric glands – produces “gastric juice” (a thin, colorless liquid with an acid reaction)
1. cardiac glands
2. fundic glands

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 3. pyloric glands
Important cells of gastric glands:
1. Chief/ central cell (peptic/ zymogenic cell) – secretes pepsinogen, precursor of protein enzyme pepsin.
2. Parietal/ oxyntic cell – secretes HCL
3. mucous cell – secretes mucin
Gastric enzymes:
1. Pepsin – for protein digestion
2. Gastric lipase – for carbohydrates digestion
3. Rennin – present in infants for milk digestion

V. Small Intestine/ Intestinum tenue – the longest portion of the digestive tract about 21 ft long with 3parts extending
from pylorus to the ileo-cecal junction.
- Longer in herbivores than in carnivores, and in men than in women.
- Muscular and provided with internal folds called villi which aid in digestion and absorption.

Functions :( small intestine)

1. Completion of digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Parts of the small intestine:

1. Duodenum – the shortest, 10inches in length, c-shaped encloses the head of the pancreas. It opens the
common bile duct and pancreatic duct.
2. jejunum – 2nd portion 8ft long forming 2/5 of the small intestine
3. Ileum – longest portion about 12ft long and joins the large intestine at the ileo-cecal junction.

Intestinal glands – secretes “intestinal juice” or succus entericus (a slimy liquid, alkaline in reaction)
1. Crypts of lieberkuhn – secretes intestinal juice
2. Brunner’s glands – found in duodenum, secretes mucus

Movements in the small intestine:

1. Peristalsis – series of contraction and relaxation, sweeping the intestinal contents.
2. Segmental/ rhythmical contractions – an alternating contraction and relaxation of segments without the
forward movements.
3. Pendular movements – series of small contractions that is in a to and fro fashion.

Accessory organs related to small intestine:

1. Liver/ hepar – largest gland in the body about 1.36kg body wt, It has 4 lobes and suspended from the
diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament.
- Functions of liver includes: secretions of bile, water metabolism, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
metabolism, detoxify harmful substances, storage for vitamins.
- The digestive function of the liver is to produce 800-1000ml of “bile” (a yellowish green, watery solution
containing salts, bile pigments-bilirubin, cholesterol, phospholipids-lecithin and variety of electrolytes) each
day, to emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat globules into smaller ones, thus providing more surface
area for the fat-digesting enzymes to work on.

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“Pathways of bile flow from the liver into the duodenum” :

Hepatocytes – bile capillaries – small bile ducts – right and left hepatic ducts – common hepatic duct + cystic duct
(gall bladder) – common bile duct (or cystic duct for storage in gall bladder) – hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla
of vater).

2. Gall bladder – a pear shaped sac about 3-

4inches long, situated on the posterior
surface of the liver. The function is for the
storage of bile produced by the liver.

Bile – a yellow, brownish, or olive green

liquid produced by the liver and stored in the
bile. Hepatocytes secrete 800 –1000ml each
day.

3. Pancreas – a retroperitoneal gland about 5-6 inches in length found at the back of the stomach, each day it
produces 1200 – 1500ml of pancreatic juice emptied into the duodenum by pancreatic duct. It also contains a
special cell called islets of Langerhans which secrete hormones insulin and glucagons.
- Consists of 2 ducts: accessory duct (duct of Santorini) and pancreatic duct (duct of Wirsung) that conveys
pancreatic juice to the duodenum, eventually the ducts joins the common bile duct forming the
hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater) and opens to the duodenal papillae.
- The pancreas produces 1200-1500ml of pancreatic juice (a mixture of clear, colorless fluid and digestive
enzymes) for digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
- The cells of the pancreas are the acini and the pancreatic islets of Langerhans.

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VI. Large Intestine (Intestinum Crossum) - forms the large part of the GIT, 5ft in length extending from the ileum to the
anus, much wider and thicker than the small intestine.
- With no villi and digestive enzymes (except in herbivores, with cellulose) thus no digestion takes place.
- Glands which are present secrete substances mainly for lubrication.

Functions:
1. Absorption of a large amount of water
2. production of vitamin K by the normal bacterial flora
3. temporary storage of undigested materials
Divisions of large intestine:

1. Caecum – a large blind pouch 2.5in long found at the junction of the small and large intestines. The blind end
consists of a narrow, worm like projection “the vermiform appendix, (has no medical function, as of this
date)”.
2. colon
a. Ascending colon – continuation of cecum, short vertical portion.
b. Transverse colon – portion that passes horizontally across the abdomen
c. Descending colon – vertical in position, forms the sigmoid/pelvic colon
d. Sigmoid colon – omega shaped and terminates into the rectum
3. Rectum – the last 7inches terminal portion of the large intestine
4. Anus – terminal opening of the large intestine which serves as exit of undigested and digestive residue.

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altor