Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in

Imperial Roman architectural mortar

Marie D. Jacksona,1, Eric N. Landisb, Philip F. Brunec, Massimo Vittid, Heng Chena,e, Qinfei Lia,f, Martin Kunzg,
Hans-Rudolf Wenkh, Paulo J. M. Monteiroa, and Anthony R. Ingraffeai
Departments of aCivil and Environmental Engineering and hEarth and Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720; bDepartment of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; cDuPont Engineering Research & Technology, Wilmington, DE 19805; dSovrintendenza
Capitolina Beni Culturali di Roma Capitale, Ufficio Fori Imperiali, Rome 00187, Italy; gLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720; iDepartment
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853; eSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing
211189, China; and fSchool of Transportation Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150090, China

Edited by David J. Killick, University of Arizona, and accepted by the Editorial Board October 27, 2014 (received for review September 12, 2014)

The pyroclastic aggregate concrete of Trajan’s Markets (110 CE), the Theater of Marcellus (44–13 BCE), Mausoleum of Hadrian
now Museo Fori Imperiali in Rome, has absorbed energy from seis- (123–39 CE), Pantheon (ca. 126 CE), and Baths of Diocletian
mic ground shaking and long-term foundation settlement for nearly (298–306 CE). The monuments that did undergo sectional fail-
two millenia while remaining largely intact at the structural scale. ure, for example at the Colosseum (70–90 CE), Baths of Car-
The scientific basis of this exceptional service record is explored acalla (ca. 215 CE), and Basilica of Maxentius (ca. 313 CE),
through computed tomography of fracture surfaces and synchroton mainly did so in Late Antiguity or the Middle Ages, when they
X-ray microdiffraction analyses of a reproduction of the standard- were several centuries old and had become vulnerable through
ized hydrated lime–volcanic ash mortar that binds decimeter-sized subsurface instabilities; problematic structural design; removal of
tuff and brick aggregate in the conglomeratic concrete. The mortar marble and travertine dimension stone, columns, and cladding;
reproduction gains fracture toughness over 180 d through progres- and lack of regular maintenance (4, 6, 7).
sive coalescence of calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate (C-A-S-H) The pozzolanic mortar perfected by Roman builders during
cementing binder with Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.8–0.9 and crystallization of first century BCE (8) is key to the durability of concrete com-
strätlingite and siliceous hydrogarnet (katoite) at ≥90 d, after poz- ponents in structurally sound monuments well maintained over
zolanic consumption of hydrated lime was complete. Platey strät- two millennia of use. [Pozzolans, named after pumiceous ash
lingite crystals toughen interfacial zones along scoria perimeters from Puteoli (now, Pozzuoli) in the Campi Flegrei volcanic dis-
and impede macroscale propagation of crack segments. In the trict, react with lime in the presence of moisture to form binding
1,900-y-old mortar, C-A-S-H has low Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.45–0.75. Dense cementitious hydrates (9)]. By the Augustan era (27 BCE–14
clusters of 2- to 30-μm strätlingite plates further reinforce interfacial CE), after experimenting with ash mixtures for >100 y, Romans
zones, the weakest link of modern cement-based concrete, and the had a standardized mortar formulation using scoriaceous ash of
cementitious matrix. These crystals formed during long-term auto- the mid-Pleistocene Pozzolane Rosse pyroclastic flow (Fig. S1)
geneous reaction of dissolved calcite from lime and the alkali-rich that substantially improved the margin of safety associated with
scoriae groundmass, clay mineral (halloysite), and zeolite (phillipsite increasingly daring structural designs (10, 11). They used this
and chabazite) surface textures from the Pozzolane Rosse pyroclas- mortar formulation in the principal Imperial monuments con-
tic flow, erupted from the nearby Alban Hills volcano. The clast-
structed in Rome through early fourth century CE (8). Pozzolane
supported conglomeratic fabric of the concrete presents further re-
Rosse erupted at 456 ± 3 ka from nearby Alban Hills volcano
sistance to fracture propagation at the structural scale.
Significance
|
Roman concrete volcanic ash mortar | fracture toughness |
|
interfacial zone strätlingite A volcanic ash–lime mortar has been regarded for centuries as the
principal material constituent that provides long-term durability to
ancient Roman architectural concrete. A reproduction of Imperial-
T he builders of the monuments of Imperial Rome (from 27
BCE, when Octavian became Emperor Augustus, through
the fourth century CE) used pyroclastic volcanic rock to create
age mortar based on Trajan’s Markets (110 CE) wall concrete
resists microcracking through cohesion of calcium–aluminum–sili-
unreinforced concrete structures with dramatic vaulted spans, as cate–hydrate cementing binder and in situ crystallization of platey
at the Markets of Trajan (110 CE) (1, 2) (Fig. 1A). The concrete strätlingite, a durable calcium-aluminosilicate mineral that rein-
foundations, walls, and vaulted ceilings are composed of deci- forces interfacial zones and the cementitious matrix. In the 1,900-
meter-sized volcanic tuff and brick coarse aggregate (caementa) y-old mortar dense intergrowths of the platey crystals obstruct
bound by volcanic ash–lime mortar (Fig. 1B). The conglomeratic crack propagation and preserve cohesion at the micron scale.
fabric of the concretes is analogous to sedimentary rocks made of Trajanic concrete provides a proven prototype for environmentally
coarse rock fragments and a matrix of finer grained material. The friendly conglomeratic concretes that contain ∼88 vol % volcanic
concretes have resisted structural scale failure during moderate- rock yet maintain their chemical resilience and structural integrity
magnitude earthquakes (<8 on the Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg in seismically active environments at the millenial scale.
intensity scale) associated with slip on Appennine fault systems
Author contributions: M.D.J., E.N.L., P.F.B., M.V., H.-R.W., P.J.M.M., and A.R.I. designed
80–130 km to the northeast, as well as chemical decay associated research; M.D.J., E.N.L., P.F.B., M.V., M.K., H.-R.W., and A.R.I. performed research; M.D.J.,
with repeated inundations of foundations and walls by Tiber E.N.L., P.F.B., H.C., Q.L., M.K., and A.R.I. analyzed data; and M.D.J., E.N.L., and P.F.B. wrote
River floods (3–5). To date, at least six episodes of moment the paper.
magnitude 6.7–7 ground shaking and damage to monuments The authors declare no conflict of interest.
have been recorded since 508 CE (4). The concrete structures This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. D.J.K. is a guest editor invited by the Editorial
contain common macroscale fractures, with rough surfaces that Board.
link by complex segment overlap and bridging, and either follow Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
or traverse caementa interfacial zones (Fig. 1C). Many monu- 1
To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: mdjjackson@gmail.com.
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ments remain in active use as residences, offices, museums, This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
and churches. In addition to the Markets of Trajan, these include 1073/pnas.1417456111/-/DCSupplemental.

18484–18489 | PNAS | December 30, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 52 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1417456111

 of the crack arrays in the reproduction at 28, 90, and 180 d hy-
dration provide visualization of millimeter-scale fracture pro-
cesses to which macroscale toughness associated with previously
published GF values are attributed (18). X-ray microdiffraction
experiments with synchroton radiation are a critical analytic
component, because they provide very fine-scale identifications of
the cementitious mineral assemblage that evolved over 1,900 y.
The Markets of Trajan concrete provides a proven prototype for
innovations in monolithic concretes (19) that are reinforced by
Fig. 1. Markets of Trajan concretes. (A) Great Hall, vaulted ceiling and a clast-supported conglomeratic fabric at the macroscale and an
brick-faced concrete walls; reprinted with permission from Archives, Museo enduring crystalline fabric at the microscale. New concrete
Fori Imperiali. (B) Drill core with Pozzolane Rosse volcanic ash (harena fos- materials formulated with pyroclastic aggregate based on the
sicia) mortar and conglomeratic aggregate (caementa). (C) Fractures in Imperial Roman prototype could reduce carbon emissions, pro-
vaulted ceiling, Grande Emiciclo: 1, crack follows caementa perimeter; 2, duce crystalline cementitious reinforcements over long periods of
crack traverses caementa. Wall concrete contains ∼88 vol % pyroclastic rock:
time, enhance durability in seismically active regions, and extend
45–55% tuff (and brick) as caementa, ∼38% volcanic ash pozzolan, and
the service life of environmentally sustainable buildings.
∼12% lime paste, with 3:1 ash:lime volumetric ratio (de Architectura 2.5.1) in
the mortar (18).
Trajanic Mortar Reproduction
The Imperial-age architectural mortar formulation is a de-
(12), filling valleys and covering topographic plateaus across the ceptively simple mix of volcanic ash and lime. Pozzolane Rosse
Roman region; the ash has a highly potassic tephritic composition ash contains illuvial surface coatings of poorly crystalline clay
(13). Romans made the architectural mortars by calcining lime- (halloysite) and opal in an upper pedogenic horizon and zeolitic
stone at ∼900 °C to produce quicklime [CaO], hydrating the surface coatings (phillipsite and chabazite) in a lower horizon
quicklime to form portlandite [Ca(OH)2], a trigonal calcium hy- altered in ground water (8). These natural mineral cements have
droxide] putty, and laboriously incorporating granular Pozzolane excellent pozzolanic properties (9). Relicts of these textures
Rosse ash. This is the red and black excavated sand (harena fossicia) survive in scoriae in Trajanic mortar, and the relative pro-
described by the Roman architect Vitruvius in first century BCE (de portions of the pedogenic and zeolitic alteration facies de-
Architectura 2.4.1–2.4.3; 2.5.1–2.5.3) (14). The strongly alkaline termined through petrographic studies (8, 17) were replicated in
portlandite solution attacks the surfaces of the scoriaceous pozzo- the mortar reproduction. The volcanic ash mix thus contains
lan; volcanic glass and silicate mineral textures dissociate; their al- Pozzolane Rosse ash from the reddened intermediate alteration
kali ions dissolve in the liquid phase; and calcium is adsorbed on the facies at Fossignano and Castel di Leva quarries and the dark-
scoria surfaces, forming cementitious hydrates (9). These phases gray lower alteration facies of Corcolle quarry, sieved in the
are regarded as central to the chemical durability that is an essential grain size distribution at Castel di Leva quarry (Fig. S1 and Table
component of the impressive record of survival of many monu- S1). The mix includes 5 wt % finely ground, zeolitized Tufo
ments, but their role in resisting mechanical degradation through Lionato tuff, because this is observed in certain Trajanic mortars.
obstructing microcrack propagation has never been examined. The poorly crystalline cementing binder of the mortar is calcium–
Fracture-mechanical properties offer important insight into aluminum–silicate–hydrate (C-A-S-H) (Fig. 2). This is the principal
a cementitious material’s long-term survivability (i.e., its ability cementitious component of environmentally friendly concretes that
to absorb energy from applied loads without failing cata- partially replace Portland cement with alumino-silicate supple-
strophically). Two common properties are uniaxial tensile mental materials to reduce CO2 emissions associated with cement
strength [ft (megapascals)], which refers to the stress at which manufacture and improve chemical durability, at least at the de-
a macrocrack initiates, and fracture energy [GF (joules per cadal time scale (20, 21). X-ray powder and microdiffraction (Fig. 3
square meter)], the amount of mechanical work required to and Fig. S3) detect the fine-grained cementitious mineral phases
propagate a macrocrack to create one square unit of new sur- that crystallized in situ: hydrotalcite Mg6Al2(OH)16[CO3]·4H2O,
face area (15). Experimental characterization of the fracture a trigonal, double-layered carbonate (22), reflects Mg2+ dissolved
behavior of the Imperial-age mortar through tests of ancient
material is difficult, because it occurs in narrow, irregular zones
that are bonded to caementa (Fig. 1B), and the heterogeneous Table 1. Mechanical properties of mortar reproductions
fabric of the concrete requires large test dimensions (16). We Age of mortar, d

ENGINEERING
therefore duplicated the Imperial-age mortar using the volcanic
ash–quicklime proportions described by Vitruvius (de Archi- Measurement 28 90 180
tectura 2.4–2.5) (14) and petrographic and mineralogical char-
acterization of mortar samples from the Great Hall of Trajan’s Trajanic mortar reproduction,
Markets (17) to formulate a mix design that closely mimics the inverse FEA analysis*
Trajanic formulation. Fracture-mechanical properties, as well as Work of fracture, N/mm 66 675 886
Young’s modulus, were previously determined at 28, 90, and 180 Fracture energy (GF), J/m2 5 45 55
d hydration via an innovative arc-shaped three-point bending test Young’s modulus (E), GPa 1.00 2.90 3.37
(18) that reproduced half-slices of hollow 20-cm-diameter drill Tensile strength (Fc), MPa 0.08 0.47 0.55
cores from the Great Hall (Fig. 1B), so that the behavior of the Modulus of rupture (R), MPa 0.19 1.02 1.32
mortar reproduction can be compared with that of Trajanic Trajanic mortar reproduction,
concrete in a future experimental testing program. All measured tomographic analysis†
properties increase with age, with the 180-d mortar producing Traced crack area, mm2 22,332 13,596 17,746
values for Young’s modulus and uniaxial tensile strength around Fracture energy (Gf), J/m2 3 52 50
1/10 of modern structural concrete, whereas fracture energy is Roman architectural mortar replica‡
close to one-half (Table 1). We now seek to explain this relatively Young’s modulus (E), GPa 3.43 2.96 3.24
tough behavior and its evolution with age using SEM imaging, X- Modulus of rupture (R), MPa 1.31 1.35 1.09
ray microdiffraction analyses, and fracture tomography to provide
Compressive strength (Fc), MPa 9.68 13.32 13.04
insight into the measured experimental responses and the multi-
scale processes that contribute to the extraordinary chemical and *From ref. 18.
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†
mechanical durability of the large concrete elements of the Ro- Table S2.
‡
man monuments. Computed X-ray tomographic studies (Fig. S2) From ref. 16.

Jackson et al. PNAS | December 30, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 52 | 18485
 Fig. 2. Cementitious components, SEM-
BSE images, and compositional analyses.
(A) Cementitious matrix at 28 d. (B) Ce-
mentitious matrix at 180 d. (C) Great
Hall mortar, interfacial zone along scoria
perimeter. (D) SEM-EDS analyses of A
and B, Ca/(Si+Al) vs. Al/(Si+Al) as atomic
percent ratios of total Ca+Si+Al+Na+K+
Mg+Fe+Ti (Table S4). (E) bulk composition
of cementitious matrix (<74-μm powder)
as weight percent oxides (Table S5).

from scoriae, which contain about 3–4 wt % MgO (8); strätlingite propagated through the highly disordered matrix, which is
[gehlenite hydrate, Ca2Al(AlSi)O2(OH)10·2.25H2O], a trigonal poorly bonded to the scoriaeous pozzolan (Fig. 2A). They follow
phyllosilicate with perfect cleavage parallel (0001) and a 12.5-Å d- the weakest path around sand- and gravel-sized scoriae (Fig. 4 A
spacing basal layer (23); katoite [Ca3Al2(SiO4)1.5(OH)], a cubic, and C). The result is a low GF of 5 J/m2 (Fig. 4F) (18). The cracks
siliceous hydrogarnet in the nesosilicate hydrogrossular solid solu- propagating through the 90- and 180-d specimens are locally less
tion series (24); and åkermanite [Ca2Mg(Si2O7)], a magnesium rough and composed of en echelon crack segments (Fig. 4 B and
sorosilicate of the melilite group, in solid solution with gehlenite D). Sand- and gravel-sized scoriae obstruct crack growth at the
[Ca2Al2(SiO7)] (25). These minerals occur in concretes that par- millimeter scale, causing crack deflection and segment offsets
tially replace Portland cement with blast-furnace slag (26), meta- that increase overall toughness. These indicate a more cohesive
kaolinite (27), and zeolite (28). Strätlingite, katoite, gehlenite, and cementitious matrix that is firmly bonded to scoria. Fracture
åkermanite crystallize as stable rock-forming minerals in altered, propagation consumed more energy, yielding GF values of 45
alkaline-rich, Pliocene–Pleistocene lavas north of Rome (29). and 55 J/m2, respectively (Fig. 4F) (18), yet the loss of load-
The large increase in peak load and fracture energy between carrying capacity (Fig. 4E) occurred through a crack array that
28 and 90 d (Fig. 4 E and F) is the result of changes in crack has lower surface area than that of the 28-d specimens. When the
interactions with the evolving cementitious matrix (Fig. 2). mapped tomographic crack surface area (square meters) is
Mapping of fracture surfaces on computed tomographic scans to normalized by the measured work of fracture (joules), the ex-
record crack tortuosity, segmentation, and microstructural fea- perimental measure of fracture energy (Gf) agrees well with
tures at the millimeter scale (Fig. 4 A–D and Fig. S2) show previously published values (Fig. 4F and Table 1). The micro-
that 28-d specimens have larger crack areas than the 90- and structural origins of fracture toughening mechanisms at >90 d
180-d specimens (Table 1 and Table S2). The cracks mainly are associated with coalescence of C-A-S-H into >100-μm2 areas,

Fig. 3. X-ray microdiffraction analysis (Debye diffraction rings, Table S3) and SEM-secondary electron images. (A and B) cementitious matrix and scoria
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perimeter at 180 d. (C and D) Trajan’s Market foundation, relict scoria. (E and F) Trajan’s Market foundation, cementitious matrix. Debye ring traces of higher-
intensity d-spacings of coarse-grained crystals (C and E). Short dashes, katoite; dots and dashes, strätlingite; long dashes, åkermanite.

18486 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1417456111 Jackson et al.

 Fig. 4. Fracture testing of the wall mortar re-
production. (A and B) Tomographic studies of 28-
and 180-d specimens. (C and D) Axial zone tomo-
graphic slices at 28 and 180 d. a, b, and c are crack
segments. (E) experimental (solid) and computa-
tional (dashed) results of load-CMOD curves (18):
region (1) before the curve reaches its peak (2) sig-
nals growth of microcracks, a smooth postpeak de-
scent (3) indicates stable growth of a critical
macrocrack and weakening of the specimen (4),
similar to fracture of quasi-brittle materials (30) in
present-day concrete (31, 32). Reprinted from ref.
18. (F) Fracture energy (Gf) measured from mapped
fractures compared with GF previously determined
through FEA (18) (Table S2).

disappearance of portlandite, and crystallization of strätlingite ranging from 3:1 laths to curving 1:1 plates, occupy scoria in-
and katoite (Fig. S3), similar to environmentally friendly slag terfacial transition zones; the groundmass of silt-sized scoriae is
concretes (20). At 180 d, very fine-grained (<1 μm) strätlingite nearly wholly replaced by strätlingite (Fig. 3 C and D). In the
and katoite in the cementitious matrix produce continuous cementitious matrix, coarse 2- to 5-μm crystals of strätlingite,
Debye ring patterns determined through X-ray microdiffraction katoite, and åkermanite produce discontinuous Debye ring pat-
(Fig. 3A and Table S3); strätlingite (2–5 μm) also occurs along terns (Fig. 3 E and F); åkermanite could reflect long-term trans-
the perimeter of mainly intact scoriae (Fig. 3B). Although GF is formation of hydrotalcite to a more stable silicate phase (38). The
about one-half that of cement mortar and geopolymer concrete close similarity between the cementitious microstructures and
with comparable aggregate sizes (15, 33), long-term C-A-S-H mineral assemblage of the 180-d reproduction and the Trajanic
coalescence and strätlingite crystallization likely produce higher mortar indicates that the reformulation is a good match for that
toughness in the Trajanic mortar (Figs. 2C and 3 C–F). developed by Roman builders.
Development of the Cementitious Fabric Role of Pyroclastic Rock in Concrete Durability
At 28 d of hydration, the cementitious matrix is a disordered The strätlingite crystals in Imperial Roman mortar resemble
composite of partially reacted microscoria, clinopyroxene, leu- microfibers that are added to the cement paste of present-day
cite, and analcime crystal fragments, and opal from the volcanic mortars and concretes to produce toughening—except that they
ash; relict portlandite; and irregular patches (<50 μm) of C-A-S-H crystallized in situ and reinforce interfacial zones, the most vul-
binder with variable composition, calcium-aluminosilicate nerable component of the mortar fabric (39–41). The crystals
fibers (<10 μm), and hydrotalcite crystals (Fig. 2 A and D and show no corrosion: Their smooth (0001) surfaces indicate long-

ENGINEERING
Fig. S3). The heterogeneous C-A-S-H compositions likely reflect term stability, similar to strätlingite that persists in the geological
availability of Al3+ and Si4+ at gel nucleation sites (34, 35), as record for hundreds of thousands of years (23). Laboratory syn-
suggested by formation of calcium–silicate–hydrate (C-S-H) ad- theses of strätlingite in cement pastes at ambient temperatures are
jacent to relict opal particles and alumina-enriched C-A-S-H accelerated by alkali activators, principally sodium silicate solution
adjacent to scoriae perimeters (Table S4). By 90 d, when or zeolite particles (26–28). Dissolution of alkali-rich Pozzolane
portlandite is entirely consumed (Fig. S3), areas of C-A-S-H binder Rosse volcanic glass and natural halloysite and zeolite textures in
further coalesce, similar to fresh geopolymer pastes (36), and microscoriae accretions along scoria perimeters (8) produced high
katoite and strätlingite crystals appear. At 180 d of hydration, concentrations of alkali cations and a favorable environment for
C-A-S-H binder with Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.8–0.9 occurs in larger zones strätlingite crystallization (Fig. 2C). The complex accretionary ash
(≤200 μm), and C-A-S-H is further enriched in aluminum along microstructures obstruct debonding of scoriae, not necessarily
scoria perimeters (Fig. 2 B and D). The high calcium content of through the interfacial densification process noted for cement
the fine fraction of the 28-d cementitious matrix, 32 wt % CaO, pastes with blast-furnace slag, silica fume, and limestone admix-
decreases to 22 wt % at 90 and 180 d of hydration. The com- tures (26, 42–44), but rather through interconnectivity of dense
position becomes more siliceous, as well, similar to the ancient bundles of strätlingite plates among microscoriae that attach to
matrix in the foundation of Trajan’s Markets (Fig. 2E and Table irregular scoria surfaces and the cementitious matrix.
S5). There, C-A-S-H binder with low Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.45–0.75 In Portland cement mortars and concretes, crack paths pref-
(Fig. 2 C and D) may enhance chemical stability, through irre- erentially develop in the porous interfacial zone between the
versible binding of alkali cations [Na2O+K2O is ∼1.5 wt % fine-grained cement paste and largely inert sand and gravel ag-
(Table S5)] and mitigation of damaging alkali silica reactions gregate (39, 45). Macrofibers and microfibers mixed in cement
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(37), even after repeated saturation with floodwaters. Dense paste provide obstacles to crack propagation; toughening is
intergrowths of coarse strätlingite ≤30 μm, with aspect ratios produced by the initiation of multiple microcracks developed

Jackson et al. PNAS | December 30, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 52 | 18487
 through strain-hardening processes, segment offsets, and crack Implications
bridging (40). The wider dispersion of cracks causes a load re- The capacity of the Roman pyroclastic aggregate concretes to
distribution, so that additional energy is absorbed by a diffuse crack at the macro scale but remain intact at the structural scale
network of microcracks rather than a single localized macrocrack results from the long-term interaction between architectural form
(46). Although strätlingite crystals have relatively low bulk and the material response of the mortar to static loads and seismic
modulus [about 23 GPa, compared with 34 GPa for C-A-S-H ground shaking. The builders of Trajan’s Markets were surely
with Ca/(Si+Al) = 0.72 in slag concrete (47, 48)] they evidently aware of previous ground motions that caused collapse of build-
play a role in impeding the propagation of microcracks in ings in the city. In 15 CE, “violent earthquakes . . . shook down
Roman architectural mortar, similar to polypropylene microfibers a portion of the city wall” (Cassio Dio, Historia Romana, 57.14.7),
with low elastic modulus interground with cement in present-day and in 50 CE, “houses were overturned by repeated shocks of
mortars (40). Three principal differences exist between authigenic earthquake (crebris terrae motibus) and, as panic spread, the weak
strätlingite crystals in Roman mortar and microfiber additives in were trampled underfoot in the trepidation of the crowd” [Tacitus,
present-day cement pastes. First, radial spherulites of strätlingite Annals, 12 (43)] (4, 55, 56). Roman builders constructed a series of
grow preferentially in scoria interfacial zones (Figs. 2C and 3D), lateral arches that connect the 8.6-m span of the central vault of
whereas microfiber additives remain in the cement paste and do the Great Hall to the surrounding superstructure (Fig. 1A); the
not reinforce aggregate interfacial zones. Second, strätlingite is elevated location of the arches was perhaps intended to mitigate
resistant to corrosion (24), relative to glass and steel fibers in both static and seismic loadings (11). Their selections of pyro-
cement matrices (49). Third, authigenic crystallization of dense clastic volcanic rock, as granular silt- to gravel-sized Pozzolane
strätlingite intergrowths occurs in the complex accretionary peri- Rosse ash and as cobble-sized tuff (and brick) rubble caementa,
metral zones of scoriae (Fig. 2C), groundmass of scoriae (Fig. 3D), played key roles in the toughening mechanisms that reinforce the
and cementitious matrix (Fig. 3F) long after portlandite was durability of that concrete. The intial pozzolanic reactivity of the
consumed at about 90 d of hydration (Table S3). This latent ash constituents—glassy alkali-rich groundmass scoriae and clay
crystallization reflects dissolution of volcanic glass with ∼10 wt % and zeolite surface textures—with portlandite was replaced by
CaO (Fig. 2E and Table S5) and relict lime clasts composed of authigenic hydration processes in the presence of moisture per-
calcite and long-term reaction with pore fluids in the Trajanic meating the concrete fabric that produced further crystalline ce-
concrete. A similar process of strätlingite crystallization occurs in mentitious reinforcements over the long-term history of the
calcic inclusions in alkali-rich lavas near Rome (23, 29). monument. Authigenic cementitious processes also occur in
Modern concrete mixtures contain a large proportion of very seawater concretes of Roman maritime harbor structures that
reactive and finely ground cement that hydrates quickly and use pulvis, pumiceous ash from the Gulf of Naples (de Archi-
develops high early strength and modulus of elasticity, but also high tectura 2.7.2–3; 2.6.1–4) (14), but these are dominated by an Al-
autogeneous temperature rise. Shrinkage strains develop through tobermorite and zeolite mineral assemblage (57).
thermal drying, exudation, and volume change in the 10- to 50-μm An Imperial Roman concrete prototype, with pyroclastic rock
interfacial transition layer between cement paste and aggregates; as both mortar pozzolan and conglomeratic coarse aggregate,
these induce tensile stress and an immeasurable number of minor would potentially add fracture toughness and self-healing prop-
cracks. As microcracks interconnect and form macrocracks, ingress erties to specialty sealing materials (58) and constructions in areas
of water and aggressive ions is enhanced, expansive deterioration of moderate seismic activity. Variations in the mineralogical,
processes are accelerated, and premature structural deterioration granulometric, and chemical compositions of a given pyroclastic
occurs from corrosion of steel reinforcement, freezing and thawing deposit would have to be thoroughly understood, however, before
cycles, and alkali-aggregate reaction (19, 43, 50). When strength it could satisfy quality control specifications for stability and safety
gain is slow and elastic modulus is low, the potential for early age considerations in modern applications. Chemical additives could
cracking is greatly reduced (19). In the architectural mortar re- enhance reactivity to promote intergrowths of platey strätlingite
production, the high proportion of volcanic ash produced low crystals in interfacial zones and present obstructions to crack
temperature rise during exothermic hydration processes (51) and linkages at the micrometer scale. A moderate strength would be
a slow rate of strength development. At 180 d of hydration, the balanced by elevated fracture toughness, service life, and re-
inversely computed values of Young’s modulus, E = 3.37 GPa, and sistance to chemical attack.
modulus of rupture, R = 1.32 MPa, correlate well with hydrated
lime mortars with ≤2-mm Pozzolane Rosse ash pozzolan in a dif- Materials and Methods
ferent testing system at 180 d of hydration with 13 MPa uniaxial The Sovrintendenza Capitolina Beni Culturali di Roma Capitale provided
compressive strength (Table 1) (16, 18). This is the early stage of drill cores of Markets of Trajan concretes. Mortar reproductions use
mortar development that Roman builders understood, at least a volumetric 3:1 volcanic ash–lime mix (de Architectura 2.5.1), with 10 wt %
empirically, as they carried out the construction of the large quicklime and water content 0.35 (51). Quicklime with ∼96 wt % CaO,
monuments. They may have relied on the more immediate gain in similar to Roman lime calcined from Monte Soratte limestone (59), was
load-bearing strength of the brick wall facing, composed of sec- provided by Carmeuse Lime and Stone and hydrated in a 1:1.5 ratio with
tioned rectangular bipedales and the same Pozzolane Rosse mor- Ithaca, New York tap water. The mortar was cured in 20-cm-diameter
tar. This facing, firmly connected to the conglomeratic wall core, sealed plastic molds and sawed into 7.5-cm-thick arc-shaped specimens.
allowed certain architectural elements to develop an intermediate Fracture experiments used a stiff, servo-hydraulically controlled testing
cohesion that would sustain overlying structural loads (2). apparatus, with eight tests in each chronological group. The load was
The conglomeratic architectural concrete contains about 45– applied at the top of the arc and controlled by crack mouth opening dis-
55 vol % coarse caementa, as Tufo Lionato and Tufo Giallo della placement (CMOD). Fracture energy (GF) was computed via a finite ele-
Via Tiberina tuff and broken brick (16, 52). In conglomeratic ment analysis (FEA) model (18) (Fig. 4 E and F). Computed tomography
scans were performed at Cornell University Hospital for Animals, at “bone
rocks, about 50 vol % coarse particles creates a clast-supported
density” setting with 0.5-mm slice spacing. We used the ImageJ paintbrush
framework, with large clasts touching one another in 3D space
tool to visually trace all apparent crack surfaces in the ∼75 slices of each
and matrix materials filling interstitices (53). Triaxial tests of specimen, and a crack area algorithm summed the voxels (3D pixels) of these
experimental conglomerates show that peak stress increases with surfaces (Fig. 4 and Fig. S2), giving a more detailed representation of crack
strength and stiffness of the larger clasts (54). The conglomeratic surface area than standard methods (60). The uncertainty in crack area is ±
fabric of caementa, with its own pozzolanic properties, may 4% based on three independent tracings of the same specimen. The experi-
provide reinforcement through a similar clast-supported frame- mentally determined fracture energy (Gf) is computed by dividing the mea-
work (Fig. 1B) that supports tensile stresses on the order of sured work of fracture, obtained by integrating experimental load vs. load-
1 MPa in cross and barrel vaults, as in the Great Hall (11), and line displacement measurements, by the mapped crack surface areas (Fig. 4E
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blunts the propagation of potentially catastrophic structural scale and Fig. S2). Propagating the error in these measurements gives total error
cracks through producing larger bridging offsets (Fig. 1C). <5%. The tracings do not capture all microcracking phenomena and some

18488 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1417456111 Jackson et al.

 size dependence of fracture energy is expected given the quasi-brittle nature 39° for sample 11MTC1 and at 360° for sample 180-02. A Pilatus 1M area
of fracture (61). Mineral compositions of the <74-μm fraction of the ce- detector placed at 360-mm recorded Debye rings diffracted by crystalline
mentitious matrix and volcanic ash mix were evaluated with powder X-ray phases radially integrated into intensity vs. 2θ plots over an arch segment
diffraction immediately after testing (Fig. S3). Major oxide compositions of of 76° for 2θ 3°–30°.
the same fractions were obtained with high-resolution inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (Fig. 2D and Table S5). SEM energy dispersive ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We thank Tim Bond at the Winter laboratory at
spectral analyses (SEM-EDS) on back-scattered images (BSE) used 15-keV Cornell University; Nathan Dykes at Cornell University Hospital for Animals;
beam energy, 850-pA beam current, and 10-s counting time with 3,500 Kevin Smith, Mike Schrock, Carl Laird, and Dale Andrews at Carmeuse Lime
counts per second. Counts were converted to semiquantitative concen- and Stone; and Renato Perucchio, Nobumichi Tamura, Timothy Teague, Cagla
trations and atomic ratios for Ca, Si, and Al (Table S4). X-ray micro- Meral, John P. Oleson, Claudia Ostertag, Nichole Wonderling, Isaac Arabadjis,
diffraction of crystalline phases (Fig. 3 and Table S3) in the 11MTC1 sample Laurie Hamilton, Audrey Landis, Katrina Martin, Bronze Black, and Carol
Hagen for research support. This research was supported by the Loeb Classical
and the 180-02 sample, refrigerated at 36 °C in ethanol from 2010 to 2013,
Library Foundation at Harvard University and National Science Foundation
were determined at beamline 12.3.2 of the Advanced Light Source at SusCHEM Grant 1410557. Data acquired at beamline 12.3.2 at the Advanced
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. A monochromatic X-ray beam of Light Source at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories were supported by the
10 keV was focused to 2- (v) × 8- (h) μm diameter on a thin (0.3-mm) mortar Director of the Office of Science, Department of Energy, under Contract DE-
slice placed in transmission mode into the beam, with the detector 2θ at AC02-05CH11231.

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