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Wisdom BOTANY
Classes
Level up Tutorials (A-Grade)
Compiled by : Uttamjeet Singh 98151-40858

Chapter PLANT KINGDOM (Kingdom Metaphyta)

Definition: kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic producers.

Though all the plant species (about 320,000) are broadly classified into 5 groups of plants,
they have many things in common such as:
 Multicellular body (with few exceptions)
 Cell wall made up of cellulose
 Autotrophic & have coloured photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll-a in all).
 Sexual reproduction in all species
 Indefinite growth & localized growth.
 Absence of locomotion, poor irritability etc.
 Store food as starch (mainly) and fats.
 Cells contain central vacuoles. etc

 Life cycles are of three types: Haploid gametophytic and diploid sporophytic stages in
their life cycle ie. Showing Alternation of generation.
a) Haplontic: shown by many algal sp.
b) Diplontic: Shown by Gymnosperms, Angiosperms & some brown algal sp.
c) Haplodiplontic: shown by Bryophytes & Pteridophytes.

Classification: Already studied in chapter “”Biological Classification””

Read from NCERT page no: 29,30

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ALGAE (term coined by Linnaeus)

Children of Sea
Romans called algae as “Fucus” and Chinese called it “Tsao”.
Definition:
Algae are defined as autotrophic, chlorophyll bearing and most primitive plants that fail to show any
cellular differentiation (simple, thalloid) and largely aquatic (both fresh water and marine).

Taxonomy and Terminology:

 Phycology / Algology: study of algae.
 Father of Phycology: Fritsch (Book: Structure & Reproduction Of Algae)
 Father of modern Indian Phycology: M. O. P. Iyengar.

General Characteristics:
 Algal habitat is predominantly aquatic (both fresh water & marine).
On its basis, algae can be:
a) Planktonic (planktophytes)
b) Many species are benthic & lithophytes (grow on moist stones / rocks) also.
c) Endophytic:
- Anabaena inside Azolla (aquatic fern)
- Nostoc inside thallus of Anthoceros (liverwort)
- Anabaena & Nostoc in coralloid roots of Cycas
d) Epizoic:
- Trichophilus on sloth bear fur,
- Cladophora on molluscan shell,
- Protoderma on tortoise back
e) Parasitic: Cephaleuros virescens on tea, coffee, pepper or citrus fruit trees.
f) Symbiotic forms: Chlorella, Nostoc in Lichens, all above mentioned examples of
endophytic algae.

 Size and Forms of algal bodies: It may be highly variable in size and forms, as
a) Single celled: It may be i) Chlorella (non-motile),
ii) Chlamydomonas (motile)
b) Colonial: It is motile in Volvox
c) Filamentous: It may be i) branched in Cladophora
ii) Unbrached in Spirogyra, Ulothrix.
d) Thallose: It may be - Foliose, Tubular, Blade like, Lace like

Certain algal sp such as Macrocystis are much complex measure about 60 m in length. Their body is
differentiated into holdfast, stem like stipe and flattened leaf like blades.
 Algae can afford this simplicity of their body because
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Mucilage: Present as a phyco-colloid layer external to cell wall and protects the algae by different
ways such as:
- prevents desiccation at low tides
- provide slippery touch (thus prevents epiphytic growth)
- protects from water beating action.

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Major Modes Of Reproduction In Algae Are:
Vegetative Asexual Sexual
(Sporulation)

a) Fragmentation a) Zoospores a) Planogamy: either one or both gametes are

(by multicellular (most common motile. It may be
species only) type of spores i) Isogamy eg.
formed in - Flagellated gametes with similar size in
b) Binary fission algae). Chlamydomonas
(by unicellular They are motile - Non motile (Non Flagellated) gametes with
species only) flagellated and similar size in Spirogyra (as exception)
on germination ii) Anisogamy eg. In Udorina sp.
gives rise to iii) Oogamy eg. In Volvox, Fucus etc.
new plants.
b) Spermatisation / Aplanogamy:
b) Aplanospores Occur in many red algal species
Involve the formation non-flagellated male
gametes named spermatia.

 Sex Organs / Gametangia in algae are always naked.

Gametangia may be either unicellular or multicellular and are of two types:
a) Male sex organs named Antheridia
(Spermatangia in red algae, produce Spermatia) and
b) Female sex organs named Oogonia
(Oogonia of red algae are called Carpogonia).

 Life cycle (Alternation of Generation):

- It is zygotic meiosis (Haplontic) in haploid species such as red and green algae while
- It is gametic meiosis (Diplontic) in diploid species such as brown algae.

Economic Importance of Algae:

1. Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways. At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation
on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis. Being photosynthetic they increases
the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment.
2. They are of paramount importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form
the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals. Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and
Sargassum are among the 70 species of marine algae used as food.
3. Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids / phycocolloids
(water holding substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and agar & carrageen (red algae) which
are used commercially.
4. Agar, one of the commercial products obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow
microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies.
5. Chlorella and Spirullina are unicellular algae, rich in proteins and are used as food supplements
even by space travelers.

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Classification of Algae:
Whittaker classified algae into three kingdoms
Major Criteria / bases for classification of algae:
1. Photosynthetic apparatus & pigments (major criteria)
2. Nature of reserve food
In kingdom plantae, algae are divided into three main classes ie.
Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae & Rhodophyceae.
Otherwise algae are included in 7 classes and 3 kingdoms.

Divisions Of Algae And Their Main Characteristics

Classes & Major Pigments Stored Food Cell Wall Flagellar number Habitat
Common Name and Position of
Insertions
Chlorophyceae Chlorophyll a, b True Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, apical Fresh water (Most),
(Green algae) just like higher brackish water,
plants salt water
Phaeophyceae Chlorophyll a, c, Mannitol, Cellulose 2, unequal lateral Fresh water (rare)
(Brown algae) fucoxanthin laminarin and algin brackish water,
salt water
Rhodophyceae Chlorophyll a, d, Floridean Cellulose, Absent Fresh water (some),
(Red algae) phycoerythrin starch pectin and brackish water,
poly sulphate salt water (most)
esters

1 Chlorophyceae
The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae.
 The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
 They are usually grass green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b.
The pigments are localized in definite chloroplasts.
 The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in
different species.
 Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the
chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form
of oil droplets.
 Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer
of pectose.
 Modes of Reproduction:
1. Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation.
2. Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of different types of spores ie. by
flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
3. The sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex
cells and it may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.

Some commonly found green algae are : Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara.

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Some Important Green Algal Species:
Chlamydomonas Volvox Ulothrix Spirogyra Chara
 Unicellular, pyriform,  Called Rolling alga –  unbranched,  Famous by the  Named Aquatic Horsetail
biflagellate. rotates during filamentous names  Lime incrustations found
 Found in fresh water swimming. alga. Pond’s Silk, in some species thus
& marine habitats  Green hollow ball like  Benthic – due Pond’s Scum, called Stonewort.
rich in ammonia colonial alga upto 2 to lowermost Mermaid Tresses  Benthic at shallow water
salts. mm in diameter. colourless cell  Unbranched, bodies like ponds, pools
 Cell wall made up of  Coenobium colony called fresh water, & lakes by multicellular
glycoprotein, (with 500 - 60,000 Holdfast. filamentous alga rhizoids.
cellulose is absent. cells)  Remaining  Free floating  Axis: jointed
 Two vacuoles for  Individual cells are cells are over surface. Joints represent nodes.
osmoregulation. biflagellate. quadrate,  Cells are green,  Repel mosquito larvae.
 Cup / basin shaped  Asexual reproduction: green cylindrical &  Sex organs are unique &
chloroplast formation of daughter  Chloroplast is totipotent. advanced: These are
 Red eye spot / colonies. Girdle / collar  Each green cell Jacketed having
stigma shaped contains 1-16 multicellular coverings.
studded with spirally coiled a) Antheridium (Globule)
 Red Snow: few ribbon shaped b) Oogonium (Nucule)
Due to special kind pyrenoids. chloroplasts
of asexual spores studded with
named hypnospores pyrenoids.
of
Chlamydomonas  sexual
nivalis. reproduction
method named
Conjugation is
unique. It does
not involve the
formation of sex
organs, rather the
protoplasts of
green
photosynthetic
cells act as
gametes.

2 Phaeophyceae
The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in marine habitals.
 They show great variation in size and form. They range from simple branched, filamentous forms
(Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of
100 metres.
 They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthopylls. They vary in colour form olive green
to various shades of brown depending upon the amount of the xanthophylls pigment, fucoxanthin
present in them.

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 Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of laminarin or mannitol.
 The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating
of algin.
 The protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole and nucleus.
 The plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe
and leaf like photosynthetic organ – the frond.
 Modes of Reproduction:
1. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation.
2. Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-
shaped and have two unequal laterally attached flagella.
3. Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. Union of gametes
may take place in water or within the oogonium (oogamous species). The gametes are
pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear two laterally attached flagella.

The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus .

Comparison Of Brown Algal Species:

Laminaria Dictyota Fucus Sargassum Ectocarpus
 Devil’s Apron  Body possess Ribbon  Small sized leathery  Gulf weed  Filamentous
 Size 1-3 metre shaped branches alga.  Fodder & manure body.
 Body is  Dichotomously  Source of fodder,  Extract named
differentiated branched manure, algin & iodine. Sargarine (antibacterial  Heterotrichos
into  Branched & antifungal properties.) growth.
a) Holdfast dichotomously  Both planktonic &
b) Cylindrical generally. benthic forms.
stipe  Air bladders occur as  Planktonis forms are
c) Flattened Pairs and provide common in parts of
blade/ Frond upthrust in water. North Atlantic Ocean
called Sargasso Sea.
(menace to shipping).

3 Rhodophyceae
The members of rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae.
 Red body colour is because of the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their
body.
 Majority of the red algae are marine with greater concentration found in the warmer areas. They
occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water and also at great depths in oceans
where relatively little light penetrates.
 The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular. Some of them have complex body
organization.

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 The food is stored is stored as floridean starch which is very similar to amylopectin and
glycogen in structure.
 Modes of Reproduction:
1. The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation.
2. They reproduce asexually by non-motile spores and
3. Sexually by non-motile male gametes called spermatia.
Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex post fertilization
developments.
The common members are: Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium.

Comparison Of Red Algal Species :

Gelidium Gracilaria Batrachospermum Porphyra Polysiphonia

 Major  Agarophyte  Common name  Common names  Small upright bushy
agarophyte  Grows in Frog Spawn Alga are Laver, Nori, marine
 Lace like Lagoons  Fresh water algae. Amanari. alga.
 Cartilaginous  Unisexual  Edible sp.  Dioecious species
 Attached by (Dioecious sp.)  Flat
rhizoids like  Branched, parenchyma -
structure. cylindrical tous thallose
thallus. body (1n).

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Some Interesting Facts Regarding Algae:
 A term alga for the first time was used by Linnaeus (1753)
 Sea Weeds: Brown & red algae collectively called sea weeds.
 Growth of algae: It may be either……
a) Diffuse / Generalized eg. Ulva (Sea Lettuce).
b) Localized: Cell multiplication is restricted to certain parts of the body.
 Certain algal species such as Chlamydomonas & Chlorococcum produce flagellate reproductive bodies
which can not be differentiated that whether these structures are asexual zoospores or gametes or
vegetative cells.
 Highest degree of perfection in sex organs is seen in Chara where antheridia and oogonia are surrounded
by jacket of sterile cells and now called globule and nocule respectively.
 Space algae include Chlorella pyrenoidosa (GA) and Synecococcus (BGA).
 Red rust of tea & coffee : Caused by Cephaleuros virescens.
 Algae in which both gametophyte & sporophyte are unicelled is Chlamydomonas.
 Red algae devoid of red colour is Batrachospermum.
 Corralina (red algae) built coral reefs in warm water.
 Cryophytic species (which grow on snow) are:
 Red snow: It is in alpine region. It is due to haematochrome pigment formed in the cell walls of
hypnospores produced by Chlamydomonas nivalis.
 Green snow: Chlamydomonas yellowstonensis
 Yellow snow: Chlamydomonas flavovirens.
 Black snow: Scotiella nivalis, Raphidonema.
 Acetabularia is the largest single celled green alga. A lot of research in cytology & genetics has been done
on it.
 Chlorella: is used as a study material to study the path of carbon during dark reaction of photosynthesis.
It is also used for space flights & nuclear submarines as food and also in recycling oxygen regenerating
system.
 Halicystis: suitable for experiments on membrane permeability.
 Forest of sea: Brown algal kelps.
 Some important common names:
- Spirogyra: Pond silk, Pond scum.
- Chara: Stone wort
- Hydrodictyon: Water net algae
- Aceatabularia: Umbrella plant
- Ulva: Edible sea lettuce
- Chondrus: Irish moss

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