History Conclusions + Important Stats

Conclusions Stats

“The Treaty of Versailles was a harsh and TOV → Wilson’s 14 points signed by generals at armistice b/c thought could work with it
unfair peace.” To what extent do you agree (based on a set of conditions that were not the same as the 1919 treaty), but forced to sign in
with this statement? 1919 b/c risk of invasion (troops still in Europe), met with riots in Germany
This statement is true to a considerable extent, → Continuity = making losers pay is a European tradition, thus reparations were an accepted
as the Treaty of Versailles was a harsh peace, clause of losing war
but it was only somewhat unfair, as it was part → France = made somewhat unfair peace but makes sense that they wanted these harsh
of the continuity of European tradition to clauses b/c invaded in 1870 and 1914 so wanted to keep Germany weak
make the losers of war pay reparations.
International attitudes at the time made sense Territorial
considering the economic crisis and political -TOV: 10% G land removed, no colonies
instability following the devastation of the -AL back to France, Saar + Danzig LN mandate
First World War, but certain clauses such as -G forbidden to merge with Austria
the War Guilt Clause violated what can be -Creation of Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia
considered to be unfair to Germany in terms -Ottman empire: Turkey, Syria-Lebanon (Fr mandate), IRaq (B mandate)
of public discontent and long-term economic -Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia
ruin. -12.5% pre-war G pop’n in other states
-Austria wanted to be called German-Austria, but not allowed
Examine the effectiveness of the peace -3M Hungarians in other states
settlements following the First World War in -Hungary lost ⅔ of land, 64% of pop’n
achieving their aims.
Overall, the peace settlements following WWI Economic
aimed to democratize Europe and punish -132B gold marks TOV
losing nations through withdrawing -Ruhr crisis 1923
reparations, redistributing land, and limiting -Austria bankrupt before reparations set (St. Germain)
military forces. Their achievements were -Hungary 200M gold pounds, none in Turkey (but entente got to control the country’s
limited in their significance, as they generated finances)
political instability, social unrest, and most -Reparations suspended at Lausanne Conference 1932
importantly, economic chaos in both -Hungary initially agri country, but imbalance in $ resulted in 70%+ decrease in agri
successor states and other losing nations. -Austria: less than 5% traffic of goods b/n fromer A-H nations 5 years after treaty; Industrial
output decreased 65%
To what extent did developments in the John Maynard Keynes​ - Reparations made future conflict more likely - prevented short term
successor states of central and eastern Europe econ recovery/would inhibit future trade agreements
hinder the search for collective security?
Overall, developments in the successor states Political
hingered the search for collective security to a -Public perspective of Hungarians about Trianon (Trianon Trauma): “Return Everything”
considerable extent as they generated -Turkish War for independence (1919-23) - Sevres stirred nationalist feelings (fought Greece
discontent through economic chaos and in West - Greece given Smyrna in 1919, but Turkish Nationalists opposed this; Armenia in E;
political instability. There was an increase in Fr in south; UK/Italy in Constantinople)
dominant nations such as Germany in Eastern -Treaty of Lausanne (1923) replaced Sevres
Europe and the Great Powers reverted to Margaret Macmillan​ - “dictated peace” of the Weimar Republic = discontent
policies of national insularity, thus did not
want to help smaller states with the League.
Discuss the reasons for the failure of the Lack of Appropriate Structure
League of Nations by 1938. - made to “​promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and
Overall, the role of major powers was the security​” = aims (not achieved)
most significant factor in generating a loss in - No methods in Hurst-Miller Draft (final draft of LoN covenant) to deal with matter that
the reputation and legitimacy of the League of breached national equality (invasions) and racial equality
Nations by 1938, although the lack of Henry Stimson (1947)​ - “​moral condemnation only​”, didn’t discuss the second half of the
appropriate structure also contributed to this question → what to do with an aggressor state
failure. - no military force
- Europeans balked at idea of “Equality of Nations” due to Social Darwinism of later 1800s
Evaluate the successes and failures of the (from this perspective, some races of humans adapted to be superior to others) = wouldn’t aid
League of Nations in Europe. smaller nations (ex. Chine in 2nd S-J War 1937-45)
Overall, the League was initially successful in - Initial success such as ​Greco-Bulgarian Crisis Oct25​, when Greece agreed to pull out of
the 1920s when stopping minor border Bulgaria after shooting incident at border
disputes and upholding human rights, but by Alan James (1990)​ - Greece was “​in dire economic straights​” + much political unrest, thus
the mid-1930s the League failed due to its couldn’t “​resist concerted diplomatic pressure from the major powers​”
lack of appropriate structure and most Role of Major Powers
significantly, due to the role of major powers - when faced with powerful nation prepared to ignore LoN, couldn’t do anything
in destroying its legitimacy and reputation. - Manchuria 1931 = Kwantung army acted without the govn’t, made Manchukuo puppet state
1932 (reprimand from LoN = Lytton Commission, voted 42:1 to condemn J as an aggressor
“The policy of appeasement was necessary nation, J left in 1933, G followed)
because, by the mid-1930s, collective security - Wal-Wal Incident Dec34 = LoN said no one’s fault in Sept35
had failed.” To what extent do you agree with - Formation of alliances undermined ideals of collective security (Stresa Front Apr35)
this statement? - Abyssinian Crisis Oct35 → Italy left LoN Dec37, R-B Axis Oct36
Overall, this statement is true to somewhat of - No actions when Italy invaded Albania April 7-10 1939 = destroyed legitimacy/reputation
an extent, as it is true that collective security of LoN, showing that it was an extension of Br/Fr FP
under the League of Nations failed by the
mid-1930s, but Britain’s role as a Great Power Successes
meant that there were other options when - Helped bring home half a million POWs after WWI (1920)
dealing with German expansion. - Sweden/Finland accepted League’s arbitration to give Aaland islands to Finland (1921) =
international guarantees given to allow pop’n to pursue own culture (reduced threat of forced
assimilation by Finnish culture as perceived by islanders)
- Set up camps + fed Turkish refugees after Turkish-Greek conflict 1919-23
- Sent $ experts to help Austria when govn’t went bankrupt 1923
- Greco-Bulgarian Crisis Oct25
- Freed 200,000 slaves (1926 slavery convention)
- By 1930s, only somewhat successes in rights (law to combat drugs trade 1936, long-lasting
b/c still in place)

Compare and contrast the foreign policies of Points:

Hitler and Mussolini up to 1939. - 1920s = cautious, spirit of collective security and disarmament
Overall, there were more differences than - 1930s = aggressive, national insularity and rearmament
similarities in the effectiveness of the foreign
policy methods employed by Mussolini and
Hitler, as Hitler’s movements were much
more effective, but their aims were similar. In
the 1920s, both nations had more cautious
foreign policies to convince other nations of
their peaceful aims, especially within the
international attitudes of collective security
and disarmament. However, both nations
wanted recognition as Great Powers, and as
national insularity and rearmament increased
in the 1930s, they employed expansionism to
increase the size of their empires under
Nazism for Germany and Fascism for Italy.

“Italian foreign policy was inconsistent in the

period between 1922 and 1940.” To what
extent do you agree with this statement?
Overall, this statement is true to a great extent,
as Mussolini employed a more cautious
foreign policy to appease the Great Powers
under the attitude of collective security in the
1920s, transitioning to aggressive and
expansionist policies in the 1930s. Although
Italy was mainly more conservative in the
1920s, there were still some inconsistencies in
the nature of its foreign policy moves.

Compare and contrast the role of French and Points:

Soviet foreign policies in the period 1919 to - Diplomatic relations
1941. - Economic relations
Overall, there are more differences than
similarities in French and Soviet foreign
policies between 1919 and 1941, both for their
diplomatic and economic relations with other
nations. The USSR was initially more
isolationist in order to build up its domestic
production capacity through industrialization
turning more to collective security in 1934
when it joined the League of Nations. On the
other hand, France relied on Britain was
making its foreign policy moves, following
attitudes of collective security in the 1920s,
and moving towards national insularity during
the economic chaos of the Great Depression
in the 1930s.

“The Munich Crisis is representative of Points:

British foreign policy in the 1930s.” To what - Maintain Great Power status
extent do you agree with this statement? - Avoid War
Overall, the Munich Crisis represented British
foreign policy in the 1930s to a great extent,
as it represented their desire to maintain their
Great Power status and avoid war.
Throughout the 1930s, British foreign policy
moves emphasized that they wanted to control
other nations’ movements in Europe. They
increased attitudes of national insularity over
collective security to protect their own
domestic desires rather than those of smaller
nations.

Evaluate the role of alliances in the outcome Mobilization of human/economic resources

of the Second World War. -US supplied B with 30% of war equipment
Overall, effective management of resources -US mobilised 66M workforce
was the most significant factor to the success -Germany had little oil (Romania joined allies 1944)
of the Allies in WWII, but alliances were also -Germany troops from other nations, but only 1M poorly trained/equipped from Axis allies
important for the availability of these human -US gave 2M troops to European war
and economic resources for each side and -Brit (90% unmarried, 80 percent married)
strategy was needed to use these resources in -Rationing - USSR 700 kcals for children/elderly
an effective manner.
Strategy
Evaluate the reasons for the defeat of the Axis -Jeffrey Jukes (1985): Hitler began “substituting his judgement for their’s” (milit generals)
powers in Europe in the Second World War. -Fired military generals
Overall, the Axis powers were defeated in -Poor winter strategy at Stalingrad (horses, winter stuff)
WWII in Europe most significantly due to -Richard Overy (2010): Germany failed b/c didn’t expect the USSR to “recover its economy”
their poor resource management, but also due
to their weak allies and failed strategy, (Points = weak allies, failed strategy, poor resource management, or vice versa depending on
especially in contrast to the strength of the if about winners winning or losers losing)
Allies.

“The Second World War had a devastating I’m not going to answer this question…
impact on the civilian population.” Discuss
with reference to any two European countries.
Overall, WWII had a predominantly negative
impact on civilians in both Poland and the
Soviet Union, causing physical destruction,
death, homelessness, and food shortages;
however, there were some arguably positive
impacts for civilians such as greater equality
for women in the USSR and the move towards
communism in Poland.
Examine the reasons why Stalin was able to - 1921 ban on factions and other political parties
remain in his post after 1924, despite Lenin’s - Stalin become GS in 1922, allowed to appoint/move people around in party
testament and post-script. - Able to ensure centre-right majority at 14th PC in May25
Overall, Stalin was able to maintain power - Triumvirate K, Z, S formed in Jan23, “whispering campaign” about T’s non-Bolshevik past
after 1924 primarily due to the 1921 ban on - Defeated Trotsky (deported to Turkestan in 1928, to Constantinople in 1929, killed by
factions and other political parties, but also Stalin’s secret police 1940 Mexico)
due to his centrist political position and - Majority of Stalin supporters in Politburo by fall 1928
propaganda which appealed to the public, as - Didn’t use radical violence until after opp defeated
well as his strategic moves in his role as - Kamenev/Zinoviev argued to not publish testament (Nadezhda Krupskaya brought forward
General Secretary to ensure that his supporters May24) to keep party together
were in favourable positions. - Replaced all Trotsky supporters with his own by end 1923
- “Socialism in one country” + portrayed as Lenin’s successor “Under the banner of Lenin,
under the leadership of Stalin”
- Centrist position appealed to public, meant he could take advantage of both sides
- Initially, for NEP (T thought was too capitalist), 1926-28 grain crisis allowed Stalin to
oppose the right, NEP destroyed by 1929
- Left/right couldn’t work together (fall28)
- By Nov29, Bukharin removed from Politburo = full Stalin power
- United Opp (July26) b/n Z, K, and T (wanted greater freedom of expression, less
bureaucracy, T’s Left Opp joined with Z/K’s New Opp) = Dec27 ended “2 year factional
war” at the 15th PC b/c Congress shut them down, ideals didn’t match CP (​M. Lewin 1968​)
Stalin ​- “The people need a tsar”

Evaluate the significance of propaganda to - Stalin’s Personality Cult

the maintenance of Stalin’s power between - Portrayed as “man of steel” with imagery of infrastructure and large happy crowd to
1929 and 1945. emphasize the rapid industrialization (him as “architect” of USSR)
Overall, propaganda allowed Stalin to create - Appealed to Leninism using the slogan “Under the banner of Lenin, under the leadership of
complacency and nationalistic sentiments in Stalin--forward to great victories!”
the Societ population, masking the reality of - Symbols of happy children, the sun, red banner of communism to create a positive
the harsh economic control and purges he atmosphere
used to generate terror, thus being the most - Archetype of father/teacher
significant factor in maintaining the positive - Stalin claimed “the people need a tsar”
facade of his authoritarian state. - Encouraged national resistance in WWII = 800,000 women in combat roles, scorched earth
- Stakhanovite movement = Aug35, Aleksei Stakhanovite mined 14 times quota (102 tonnes
of coal less than 6 hours) = socialist competition
- Great Terror 1936-38
- Party purge 1932 → 1M expelled, wasn’t violent
- Kirov was assassinated in​ Dec34​ = Stalin called plot to overthrow him, gave NKVD power
of arrest, trial, execution
- Show trials → NKVD ‘conveyor system’ to torture political opponenets, Bukharin in the
trial of the 21 (Third Show Trial) refused to confess and they still killed him (Mar38),
accused of Trotskyist-Rightist Bloc
- Purge of the army ​May37 ​= all 8 admirals were killed, 50% of the Red Army officer corps
either killed/imprisoned
“Stalin’s Five-Year Plans and the policy of - Collectivization (forced), 1929-39 = <5% to >99% farms collectivized (Riots, peasants
collectivization failed to improve the Soviet would burn crops/slaughter animals, religious peasants believed joining kolkhozes would
economy by 1941.” Discuss. mean would go to hell, Stalin = antichrist)
Overall, Stalin’s Five-Year Plans and the - Horrific famines 1932-33 3.7-7M deaths (worst in Russian history)
policy of collectivization initially failed with - Ural-Siberian method 1929 + rationing introduced
high levels of peasant resistance and famine - Dekulakization = Stalin wanted to get rid of wealthy peasants 1929-32,
generated by extreme quotas, but the policies deported/arrested/executed millions of prosperous peasants and their families
became more successful over time because - Machine Tractor Stations = built >2500 1929-32
they allowed Stalin to industrialize the USSR, - Gulags → 14M ppl through them from 1929-53, 1.6M of them died, most of them during
which was helpful in preparation for the the Great Terror 1936-38
competition for human and economic resource - Deportation of 2.5M 1930-31 to Gulags
mobilization in WWII. - Reality = repressive one-party state, mere suspicion of inappropriate thoughts was enough
to warrant the death penalty
- Forced resettlement of ethnic minorities to the far east after 1939 (6M ppl, 1.5M died) =
internal divisions due to opposing nationalities
- Nikita Khrushchev = didn’t forcefully deport Ukrainians b/c “​there were too many of them
and there was no place to which to deport them​”
- First Five Year Plan = significant production, but didn’t meet targets (1928-33)
- Second Five Year Plan = built 5000 new enterprises, more effective (Stakhanovite,
1933-37), abandoned rationing in 1935
- Third Five Year Plan interrupted by WWII

To what extent was Stalin’s foreign policy - Loser in WWI = Treaty of Brest-Litovsk lost 55M ppl, 90% coal, ½ industry = discontent
leading up to the non-aggression pact an - Focus on Soviet Security (wanted buffer states)
attempt to solicit support from the west, in - Joined LoN in 1934 (previously more diplomatic isolation as trying to implement “socialism
particular France and England? in one country”)
Overall, Stalin’s main goal for the USSR was - Appalled by Abyssinia Oct35 and Rhineland Remilitarization Mar36 lack of international
to maintain Soviet security, rather than only to response
solicit support from the West. Thus, soliciting - Munich Agreement (Sept38) = turning point b/c USSR not invited, Br/Fr only looking out
support from the West only contributed to for own interests
Stalin’s foreign policy moves to somewhat of AJP Taylor (1971)​ - USSR saw Br/Fr as “​trying to promote a German hegemony​”
an extent, especially leading up to the Munich - Nazi-Soviet Pact Aug 23 1939 (pact with biggest enemy)
Agreement in 1938. - G broke pact in June41 with Barbarossa, Stalin in a “​state of shock​” (M. Lewin, 1997), Dec
6 counterattack saved Moscow
- May35 Franco-Russian Treaty of Mutual Assistance (pretty useless b/c no military talks,
help other if attacked, work with LoN)
- May35 Czech-Soviet Treaty of Alliance = help if Fr helps (Fr wouldn’t)
- 1938 = USSR offered to act on 1935 pact, Fr not prepared to act w/o Br
Germanist Historian (R. Tucker)​ - USSR had been secretly cooperating with G since Rapallo
1922 (milit assistance)
- Actually, infrequent contact with G 1935-39, only in response to G approaches
Litinov (Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs)​ - Dec33 = argued that Br/Fr/US alliance was
best option in order to uphold 1919-20 peace settlements (b/c of threats from G/J), replaced
May39 by Moltov
Discuss political and economic developments Political
in the Soviet Union between 1945 and 1953. - Established Eastern European satellite states (Poland, Hungary, Romania, East Germany)
Overall, political developments were more - Germany divided in in 4 zones with Potsdam Conference July45
important in the Soviet Union between 1945 - Cominform 1947
and 1953, as their effect was to bring about - UN formed in 1945
more long-lasting and widespread change. - Start of nuclear arms race 1946 b/n US/USSR (global superpowers)
Economic developments were significant as - Truman Doctrine 1947 = help countries threatened by authoritarian rule
they aimed to rebuild the USSR following the - Strained relations with US (Truman replaced Roosevelt in Apr45, didn’t want to support a
Second World War, and political communist government)
developments generated a tense international - Start of the Iron Curtain 1947
atmosphere with the establishment of the - Rigged Hungarian elections in Aug47, Hungarian govn’t banned non-communist parties in
United States and the Soviet Union as global Nov47
superpowers in the Cold War. - Party purge 1949 = >1000 members killed/arrested (internal politics not as important as
foreign affairs)
- Bizonia Jan47, Trizonia June48
- Formed FDR (= Federal Republic of Germany) in May49, formed GDR in Oct49

Economic
- Comecon 1949 ($)
- Percentages Agreement (Oct44), agreed on spheres of influence (not including Poland)
- Yalta Feb45 promised starting point of $10 billion for reparations, but Potsdam July45
decided only reparations from zones of influence (East Germany = weak $/agricultural)
- 64000km rails destroyed in WWII
- 25% of pre-war capital stock lost (destroyed gains of Five Year Plans)
- Lend Lease Programme ended in 1945 with no notice by Truman = tension, Br/US wouldn’t
honour reparations
- Refused Marshall Plan 1948 (rebuild Europe)
- 1950 = harvest still 15% below 1940
- Fourth Five Year Plan = rebuild agriculture + industry, shift to consumer based $
- Fifth Five Year Plan (1951-56) = less effective b/c of military spending in Cold War
- Sept46 = Stalin announced all past collectivized land to be reclaimed by the government

Compare and contrast the domestic policies of Khrushchev

Khrushchev and Brezhnev. - Against entrenched interest groups = bureaucratic elites, heavy industrialists (>30 years
Overall, there are more similarities than Stalinist practice)
differences in the domestic policies of - “thaw” → Beria (minister of internal affairs) = last political figure violently assassinated
Khrushchev and Brezhnev because both (June53)
Soviet leaders employed unsustainable - ‘Secret speech’ in 1956→ political attack against Stalin, believed in “​peaceful coexistence​”
economic policies and were limited by of different social systems (Spirit of Camp David, met with Eisenhower in Sept59)
pre-existing corruption in the government. R. Service (1997)​ - secret report was a “turning point” in the USSR’s politics, but policy
However, Brezhnev’s policies were less changes “​upset the institutionalized support ​that had facilitated his rise”
sustainable due to high levels of corruption - 1958 = merging collectives to state farms + disbanded Machine Tractor Stations and made
and nepotism in the government, and by the into repair shops
end of his tenure, the economic crisis in the - Virgin Lands policy = ploughed >6M acres in 1st year, not enough fertilizer to sustain
USSR was evident. (Jan54)
- Destalinization → at 20th PC, he spoke against Stalin (Feb56), new criminal code in Dec58
(death penalty only for treason, confession couldn’t secure conviction), decreased censorship,
Evaluate the success of Brezhenev’s domestic new Party Programme in Oct61 (base for communism, higher living standards + more
policies. technology, aimed to surpass the US by 1970)
Overall, the success of Brezhnev’s domestic - Rural living standards ​doubled​ 1952-58 + decrease in infant mortality by 1960
policies, both economic and social, initially - 1956 = minimum wage introduced, secondary education for all, shorter working days
created an atmosphere with high living - Atomic bomb made in Aug49 + first satellite launched in 1957
standards and levels of employment, but these - Increased consumer goods, but of poor quality
policies were not sustainable due to the - 1963 = 30% decrease in grain production, thus had to buy from North America
overstretched government spending on price
subsidies and in the Second Cold War. Brezhnev
Therefore, the economic crisis was clear by - Unsustainable price subsidies, job security, increased economic expenditure on military in
1980, but change was difficult due to the Second Cold War after 1979 (ended détente) → but had relatively high living standards
power of the bureaucratic elites within the R. Service (2007)​ - involvement in war in Afghanistan “​tied a cord​” around the neck of
nomenklatura system. USSR
- No unemployment (possible for workers to have multiple jobs)
- By 1976, many Soviet leaders accepted that behind the US economically
- Economic policies slowed → record harvest in 1978 (235M tonnes grain), but in 1979
bought 20M tonnes grain from West b/c 47M tonnes short (only 179M overall)
- Slowdown by the 10th Five Year Plan 1976-80
- Corruption + nepotism = nomenklatura system
- Fear of secret police had faded by the 1980s (​M. Lewin​)
Abel Aganbegyan (economic advisor)​ - believed economic growth was at zero by 1980-85 in
11th Five Year Plan
- 1964 = 1/1000 Soviet civilians owned a car
- Mandatory education under Khrushchev = more people entering the workforce + meant that
intellectuals were growing frustrated → 1965 dissidents demonstrated in Red Square
- Brezhnev became General Secretary in 1966 at 23rd Party Congress (increased police
powers)
- 1960-70 = 138% increase in factory/mine output (didn’t last)
- Didn’t take advantage of the world oil crisis Oct73-74 = oil rich nations embargo, didn’t
increase sustainability of methods, still inefficient industry, increased fuel prices
- 1970-80 = 32% to 86% people with fridges
- Economic crisis was clear by 1980

Compare and contrast the foreign policies of Khrushchev

Khrushchev and Brezhnev. - Warsaw Pact May55
Overall, there are more similarities than - Hungary desired to leave pact in Nov55, so USSR overthrew the govn’t and Imre Nagy
differences in the foreign policies of (leader of Hungarian Revolution) was executed in June58
Khrushchev and Brezhnev, as both aimed to - ‘Secret speech’ in 1956→ political attack against Stalin, believed in “​peaceful coexistence​”
create and maintain communist buffer states of different social systems (Spirit of Camp David, met with Eisenhower in Sept59)
for Soviet security, with the tension of the - May60 Paris Summit = US spy plane, tensions b/n US and USSR (relations slightly
Cold Wars due to the USSR’s role as a global improved in 1961 when Kennedy replaced Eisenhower) → ended possibility of “peaceful
superpower leading to a high military coexistence”
expenditure and the overstretching of the - Cuban Missile Crisis Oct62 = tension, USSR had placed missiles in Cuba after US failed
Soviet economy. invasion of Cuba in Apr61 (Fidel Castro overthrew right-wing dictator 1959) → 13 days after
crisis, USSR withdrew missiles and US didn’t invade Cuba
- Nuclear arms race since 1946 in Cold War, Iron Curtain after 1947
- ​1949-57​ = 2M people fled to West Germany via West Berlin
“Khrushchev’s foreign policy caused - 1961 = 1000 refugees/day to West Berlin
confusion and uncertainty.” To what extent do - June61 = Berlin Wall
you agree with this statement? - Satellite states after WWII became economically dependent on USSR
This statement is true to a considerable extent, - Decreased relations with China → 1950 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual
as Khrushchev’s policies increased the Assistance, 1961 = Mao Zedong denounced USSR (split b/n communism), had been openly
opposition of entrenched interest groups critical of USSR since 1953
toward him since he could not solve the issue - Lost support of bureaucratic elite + military, Politburo voted 7:4 for Khrushchev to leave
of Soviet security. However, although his June57, forced to retire in Oct64
policies were not consistent, they made sense Brezhnev
considering the instability of the post-Stalin - June68 = Warsaw Letter to Alexander Dubcek (wanted Czechoslovakia to stop Prague
era in regards to the context of hostile Spring liberalization reforms), Aug 20-21 1961 invasion, replaced with Gustav Husak
international relations with the West and with (communist)
the Eastern European satellite states. - Nov68 = Brezhnev Doctrine for right to interfere in internal affairs in E EU
- Period of détente 1969-79
- 1973 = Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), ended with Helsinki
Final Act in Aug75 for détente, EU borders, committed USSR to upholding human rights
(overall, reduced tensions b/n USSR and Western blocs)
- 1969-70 = SALT talks (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) for some trade with US, slowed
the arms race
- Second Cold War, Afghanistan 1979 (Kabul requested aid under 1968 Brezhnev Doctrine),
overstretched economy, shortages b/c US boycotted grain/tech exports to USSR
- By Apr80 = 100,000 troops in Afghanistan
- Comecon = $ relations with E EU, became rocky when $ crisis 1980
- Clear that USSR couldn’t win in Afghanistan when Brezhnev died in 1982

‘By 1985, the collapse of communism in Economic Chaos

Eastern Europe was inevitable.’ To what - Perestroika + glasnost July86
extent do you agree with this statement? - No clear economic plan (especially b/c new president Yuri Andropov 1982-84, then
This statement is true to a considerable extent, Konstantin Chernenko to 1985 = not able to implement reforms)
as Brezhnev’s policies were unsustainable - Unsustainable social safety net from Brezhev’s tenure
economically and the complacency of the - High military expenditure Afghanistan 1979-89 (Second Cold War)
population was precariously balanced, R. Service (2007)​ - involvement in war in Afghanistan “​tied a cord​” around the neck of
meaning that the government system was USSR
unstable. Developments during Gorbachev’s - Cost of maintaining satellite states = implemented barriers to protect own $, disrupted trade
tenure highlighted the discontent in the Abel Aganbegyan (economic advisor)​ - believed economic growth was at zero by 1980-85 in
populus and revealed the flaws of 11th Five Year Plan
communism, leading to the collapse of - Did increase administrative efficiency 1986-91 (25% increase in agriculture)
communism in Eastern Europe in 1991 - ​Budget deficit was 3% national income in 1985 to 14% in 1989
specifically. - Compromised $ package Oct90 for commercialization, relaxed price controls, housing
market
Examine the factors that led to the collapse of
the Soviet Union. Political Instability
Overall, the economic chaos generated by - Decreased power of CPSU
years of unsustainable price subsidies and - June88 = Politburo lost economic control of internal/military
high military expenditure, as well as the - ​June88​ legal system made separate from CPSU, Politburo $ control only for internal affairs
political instability and social unrest following (not KGB/military)
a drawback from centralization led to the - ​June89 ​new constitution separates party and state, amended Article 6 of the constitution in
collapse of the Soviet Union, with social Feb90​, removing CPSU from “​leading and guiding force​” of society (= turning point b/c
unrest being the most significant factor substantiated fears of nomenklatura, who didn’t want to lose power/priviledges)
pressing for change. - Demokratizatsiya Jan87 (slogan)
- Lack of accountability in the Soviet system = lied about production numbers, April 26 1989
Chernobyl Politburo blocked full reporting
Dmitri Volkogonov​ - needed “​novostroika​” instead of perestroika (new structure instead of
restructuring) b/c system too far gone = Soviet historian
- 1980 average age of Politburo >70 (Gorbachev = 49, more educated/reform-minded)

Social Unrest
- Removed Brezhnev Doctrine 1985
- Unrest in Georgia Apr89 = interior ministry killed 23 people
- Kuzbass strike July89 = >500,000 people
- Velvet Revolutions 1989 → satellite states desired increased autonomy, Solidarity wins in
Polish free elections (non-violent, anti-comm movement from 1987), unrest in East Germany
= demonstrations during Gorbachev’s visit Oct89 but would not use military, fall of the
Berlin Wall Nov89, short revolution ends in Romania in Nov89, Czech opens border with
West in Nov89 (glasnost encouraged people to speak out)
- Discontent due to decentralization (upset entrenched interest groups, bureaucratic alite,
heavy industrialists)

Evaluate the impacts of the political - Ethnic groups wanted to secede + an increase in dissident movements
developments and change that occurred - Feb86 = introduction of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), Gorbachev gave
during Gobachev’s tenure. a speech about Lenin’s struggles and approved New Party Programme
Overall, Gorbachev’s tenure resulted in the R. Walker (1993)​ - “​tensions of the Soviet system were most precariously balanced​” =
loss of power of the CPSU and changes in the nationalities question not solved in the 1980s
governmental structure, allowing for the most - All troops removed from Afghanistan by Feb89 (announced withdrawal of Soviet troops in
significant development: the increased Feb88), agreed with Reagan at Geneva Conference Apr88 to end foreign involvement in
nationalism that created dissent and led ethnic Afghanistan Civil War = ​Moscow Summit May88​ for new START (Strategic Arms
groups to secede, culminating in the USSR’s Limitations Treaty), but US wouldn’t give up SDI (Strategic Defensive Initiative) missile
collapse in 1991. defence system = ​decrease in nuclear stockpiles by 25% USSR and by 15% US
- Began to withdraw troops from E EU in 1989
“By 1991, Gorbachev’s policies had achieved - Warsaw Pact dissolved in Mar90
his aims.” To what extent do you agree with - German reunification in Oct90
this statement? - New Union Treaty Mar91 (6 of 15 boycotted)
Overall, this statement is true to somewhat of - Loss of power of the CPSU → ​lost >3M members in 1990
an extent, as Gorbachev aimed to restructure - Formation of opposition groups → ​Jan90​ = Yeltsin’s Democratic Russia Group (in ​June90​,
the government to allow for more openness Yeltsin resigned publicly from CPSU at 28th PC)
and democratic ideals, but while he succeeded - Didn’t manage to put in system based on Leninism/democracy
in radically altering the Soviet government - Two-tier system → CPD made of 2250 seats directly elected by the people, who elected 400
system, these changes were taken beyond his members to an all-union Supreme Soviet (SS) to made laws and question ministers
control leading to further corruption in the - Removed Stalinist system + abandoned Brezhnev Doctrine in Mar85
government and his ultimate loss of power. - Phased in self-financing 1987-89 (attempts to decentralize $) + increase privatization of
agriculture 1988 (peasants allowed long leases on land collectives, but many managers still
wouldn’t allow)
- ​1990 = 4% decrease in production, 1991 = 15% decrease in production​ (partially due to
drop in world oil/gas prices) + ​25% citizens below poverty line in 1990
 - ​ROUBLE COLLAPSED​ in Jan91 (hyper-stagflation) → also in Jan91, Russian SS
legalized ownership of private property, and began to take over oil/gas/mining enterprises
- Took on executive presidency in Mar90, but still not able to implement successful reforms
(pres could veto legislation, appoint PM, dismiss SS, declare state of emergency)
- Allowed increased elections → ​Mar89​ = elections for new CPD = first semi-free elections
since 1921 ban (not multi-party though)
- Changes to legislative system + administrative bodies = culminated in collapse of the USSR
R. Service (2007)​ - Gorbachev “​genuinely wanted a more democratic USSR​”
- Coup d’état on Aug 18 1991 (8 kremlin plotters), Yeltsin ‘protected’ parliament, plotters
gave up/fled on Aug 21 1991 (Yeltsin cancelled plotters decrees of state of emergency/no
Union Treaty), Gorbachev resigned as GS on Aug 24 + resigned as pres on Dec 25

To what extent did Yeltsin establish Political Issues

democracy in Russia between 1991 and 1999? - Loss of popular support = Dec93 elections more anti-Yeltsin than pro-Yeltsin
Yeltsin established democracy to a limited - Mar 20 1993 = announces state of emergency and assumes special powers to push $
extent between 1991 and 1999; technically, it reforms, led to constitutional crisis (CPD tried to dismiss him)
was a democracy, but he used elections more - Sept 21 1993 = disbands the SS/CPD (= Congress of People’s Deputies), rule by decree
as a way to legitimize his own power, and his until Dec elections
rapid and chaotic economic policies generated - Sept 22 1993 = SS dismisses him 632:2
unrest in the population. - Oct 4 1993 = shells parliament, >500 ppl killed, scraps constitution, temp bans opp parties
- Nov98 survey = <1% support of pop’n
R. Service (2007)​ - Yeltsin not solidly committed to democracy
- Feb96 = Yeltsin announces he will seek re-election → advisors thought he should rule as a
dictator = he began a propaganda campaign by Anatoly Chubais
R. Sakwa (2011)​ - Yeltsin’s regime used elections after 1993 “​to legitimize its own power​”

Economic Issues
- Right before July96, $10B from US/IMF to push transition to capitalism before opp
organized, allowed him to defeat CP (Zyuganov) in election July96
- increase in homelessness + unemployment
- “Shock Therapy” implemented in Jan92 (unrestricted capitalism) to transition to neo-liberal
free-market capitalist $ quickly, loss of social safety net
J. K. Galbraith (2002)​ - “​Shock without therapy​”
- 90% people below the poverty line in 1997
- Some economists believe was worse $ downturn than US/G in GD
- 1996 survey = 66% said weren’t happy with policies since 1992
- Corruption = $40B in IMF loans, much stolen by Yeltsin
- In one year by Jan93 = consumer prices increased 2500%
- 1999 = >70,000 factories had shut down, 80% farms bankrupt
- Aug98 = forced to devalue the rouble
- Rutskoi accused Yeltsin of $ genocide in Feb92
- Jan92 = prices rose 245%
- Increase 12.8% in male death rate in next two years (1992-94)
- 1991-98 = agri/industry decreased by half, oil decreased by 44%
To what extent did social and economic India
factors encourage the demand for democratic -75% agricultural workforce
reform in two states? 20% Muslim (~80% Hindu) = Communalism, communal violence
Overall, social and economic factors -Caste system for 2500 yrs
encouraged the demand for reform in South -WWII/Decolonization
Africa and India to a great extent, with social -1941 Atlantic Charter
unrest highlighting the prevailing inequalities -Gandhi civil disobedience
and economic disparities in both nations. Both -Quit India Campaign (1945) - result of Britain forcing India to declare war on Japan
required the short-term economic trigger of -3% had the right to vote (1919)
foreign powers, with Britain’s weak economy -Government of India Act 1935 = 10% right to vote + ability to elect local gov’t (weak)
after WWII needed in India and the collapse Perspective:
of communism needed in South Africa. -Chandra (2000) - Blamed Britain for partition as they feared the “unity of the Indian people”
Sustained violence pressured the government -Guha - Blamed the ML: “Fuelled the movement for a separate Pakistan” due to violence in
more significantly in South Africa, thus a state the summer of 1946
of emergency was declared in 1984. w3 -B public in favour of Indian independence (77% in 1939 were in favour)
-Churchill: Loss of India would “consummate the downfall of the British Empire”
Evaluate the importance of leaders in the
emergence of two democratic states. South Africa
Overall, the role of leaders played a -1948: Apartheid (NP - Pass laws, Bantu edu)
significant role in generating change in both -During Apartheid, gov’t spent 10x amount on edu for white children than black children
SA and India; however, both required the -1960: Sharpeville (69) - Pass laws
pre-existing social inequalities which -1979: Soweto (1000) - Bantu edu (turning point), martial law/state of emergency
generated discontent with civilians, as well as -1960 Black consciousness movement - Biko killed in 1977 by police = anger
external factors which were the most -Homelands/townships under Apartheid
significant as they acted as a short-term -Section 10 rights - if you didn’t move to a city before WWII, then you were stuck there
trigger for the emergence of democracy. -Black Sash: HRO in Johannesburg (non-violent, liberal, white woman’s organization)
formed in 1956
-They produced reports - 1973 “no justice” so long as the pass laws exist. 1978: Extent of
unemployment “no concern to white South Africans”

-1986 Anti-Apartheid Laws by US

-1963 Econ sanctions by UN
-Fall of the Berlin wall = lack of funding for both sides = more likely to negotiate
-Cost of maintaining Apartheid - rearming police and such (state of emergency 84)
-De Klerk’s reforms (1990)
-ANC banned after Sharpeville (60)
-1955 Freedom Charter (outlined goals of ANC)
-Boer War (discovery of Gold/Diamonds in the Transvaal) = appease Dutch anger = set
foundations for formal segregation (they didn’t support giving the right to vote to the blacks)
-1936 lost Cape Qualified Franchise
1994: 22.9% unemployment
-Poor social security

Compare and contrast the significance of the India

development of political parties, constitutions -Migration: 40M muslism remained in India
and electoral systems in two democratic -1M people killed during the migration
states. -Communal violence that set the foundations for later communal conflicts
Overall, democracy in both South Africa and -6.6M acres of land abandoned in West Punjab when it became West Pakistan
India resulted in the development of political -75 000 abducted women - 12500 found,but this initiative later abandoned by 1954
parties and a new constitution, which were (repatriation)
somewhat significant; while both were
symbols of change and democracy, they were -0.5M refugees went to Delhi - temp settlements on city outskirts
both limited in impact due to internal -Resettlement programs costly
divisions and traditional attitudes. While there -Econ burden on new states to rebuild trade, irrigation, infrastructure
are some differences in the particulars of both -Most ppl settled by mid-1950s
democracies, in terms of the development of -75% agricultural
political parties and the constitutions, there
are more foundational and fundamental -1948 RSS supporter Godse killed Gandhi
similarities. These similarities are found in the -RSS banned, gave up violence = unbanned 1949
values and aims of their constitutions, their -1953 Creation of Andra Pradesh as a result of Potti Srirmalu fasting to death in 1952 (Teluga
governmental structures, and the limited speaking state)
reform due to internal political divisions. -1992 BJP burned a mosque in Ayodhya and killed 3000 ppl (extreme Hindu nationalism)
-Sikhs angry that they had not been consulted in partition even though they had their own
Examine the factors influencing the evolution separate culture/language. 1955 the Akali Dal Sikh Party held demonstrations demanding
of two democratic states greater autonomy. After Nehru’s death in 1965, the govt agreed to create a smaller Punjab
Overall, domestic crises, government reforms, state where the Sikhs would be the majority.
prevailing inequalities, and the arts and media -Position still unresolved = future conflict (ex. 1980 violent campaign for a separate sikh state
influenced the evolution of democracy in = assasination of PM Indira Gandhi)
South Africa and India, with domestic crises -Perspective: Nehru didn’t want to separate India along linguistic lines (Gandhi supported it)
most severely limiting development in both bc of fear of consequences like communal violence
nations and the arts and media most -1959: Granted asylum to Dalai Lama = war with China (1962)
significantly benefiting national unity in both -Conflicts with Pakistan over Kashmir 1947 (UN arranged a ceasefire = increased tensions),
nations. 1964, 1999

Evaluate the impact of domestic crises on the South Africa

development of two democratic states. -Gangsterism - PAGAD (conducted an urban terror campaign 1998-2002)
Overall, the domestic crises of migration, -Highest rates of murder, assault, rape, and car hijacking
political violence and crime, and healthcare -One rape every 83 minutes
issues significantly reduced the potential for -Perspective of Nigel Worden: Township heroes no longer had a use after township
development in both South Africa and India, resistance, and thus turned to gangsterism to “maintain gendered prestige as men of action”
stemming from prevailing inequalities. The -⅓ of public prosecutors resigned from 1994-96
HIV/AIDS crisis was the most significant -Xenophobia: 3M refugees
limitation to the success of reforms in South -1997: Roll back the Xenophobia campaign (effective? Not really)
Africa and the immense migration was the -HIV/AIDS
most significant domestic crisis in India. -2000: Pandemic (4.2M SA affected)
-1994: 7.6% of pregnant
Compare and contrast the challenges that
-2005: 30.2% pregnant women affected
limited the success of responses to domestic
-Constitutional court overrode Mbeki after appeal from TAQ
crises during the development of two
-1994: 21M improper sanitation
democratic states.
-2008: 16M still didn’t have it
Overall, there were more differences than
-Perspective: Mbeki: Aids denialism
similarities in the challenges that limited the
-Nelson Mandela: Comparable to deaths of war (needed to change)
response to domestic crises in South Africa
-Cut ties with Taiwan to appease China (lost investment/trade links), tension b/n US/SA due
and India, with the HIV/AIDS crisis being the
to support of Cuba and Palestine
most significant challenge in South Africa and -Rejoined commonwealth/UN after 1994
rapid population growth in India. Prevailing
inequalities regarding minority groups also
limited the response to the domestic crises of
migration and crime in both nations.

“Greater equality in democratic states was

the result of pressure from suffrage
movements.” Discuss with reference to two
democratic states, each from a different
region.
Overall, suffrage movements resulted in the
spread of democratic ideals used to implement
equality during democracy in both South
Africa and India, but the short-term triggers of
the fall of communism for South Africa and
Britain’s weak economy after WWII for India
were needed to truly generate political
change.

To what extent did civil protests benefit the

struggle for equality in two democratic states?
Overall, the internal pressure of civil protests
resulted in greater equality in South Africa to
a great extent, specifically due to its violent
nature; however, while democracy likely
would not have emerged in India without
these protests, external factors regarding
Britain’s weak economy after the Second
World War were needed to spark change in
combination with these civil ideals, thus they
benefited the struggle for equality to only
somewhat of an extent.

Evaluate the impact of democracy on social India

policies in two democratic states. -1955, 1956, 1961
Overall, social policies did aid women and -1950: Hospital beds = 113 000
minorities in both South Africa and India; -Hospital beds (increased funding) by 1964
however, their impacts were impeded by -1951-61: Number of boys doubled, number of girls doubled (elementary schools)
prevailing inequalities, as well as rapid -1950: 32, 1990s: 63
population growth in India and the HIV/AIDS -1950: 16%, 1990s: 62%
domestic crisis in South Africa. Social -Rajasthan 80% girls didn’t attend school (1990)
policies most significantly improved the lives -1964: 40% rural schools had one teacher
of middle to upper class Indians and South -1964: 41 new universities, 22% female enrolment
Africans, while the lives of landless and poor -350M in 1950, 1.2B in 2014
women and racial minorities did not improve -1957: 94% of women registered as voted but only ½ voted
to a very large extent.
Evaluate the impact the impact of democracy -1951-56: Industrial output doubled, 25% increase in agri
on the distribution of wealth in two -1956-61: 20 agri increase
democratic states.
Overall, democracy succeeded in increasing -Perspective: K Srinivasan (2004): Believed that female literacy could be directly related to
wealth equality by distributing greater gov’t policy; Correlated with higher HDI + lower infant mortality
amounts of money to women, the lower class, -Kerala 95% births attended by healthcare professionals, less than 30% in Madhya Pradesh
and racial minorities. However, these gains (interstate differentials = regional disparity due to commitment to reform/efficiency)
were limited by traditional attitudes in both
India and South Africa, population growth in -Bollywood grew to ¼ of films globally
India, and the HIV/AIDS crisis in South -R Stern 1993: Created a national identity that was not “colonized from abroad”
Africa. Economic reforms mainly helped -Radio reached entire op’n by 1960s
wealthier peasants, and the situation for -India needed a “slap in the face” - Le Corbusier designed the architecture of Chandigarh
landless and lower class civilians was not (modern architecture)
affected as significantly, both for women and -109M newspaper circulating daily by 2009 = info
various social classes. -Freedom of speech

To what extent did citizens benefit from social SA

and economic policies in two democratic -2000 UNESCO Study
states? -2002: Schools with no running water (28%), no electricity (43%), no libraries (78%)
Overall, citizens benefited from social and -1994: Pass rate for examination leave (58%) (49% by 1998)
economic policies in South Africa and India -Unemployment 22.9% in 1994, 41.6% 2001
to somewhat of an extent, as the effectiveness -BEE 1997 (M Meredith 5%) = not as widespread
of policies in practice was limited by -Nationalised edu
traditional attitudes, as well as the HIV/AIDS -Working for Water (50% 60%)
crisis in South Africa and rapid population -2014: 16M dependent on social grants (6x more than during Apartheid = 30%)
growth in India. -Gear increased some trade but not trade (1996) = 3.2 percent increase in econ/year until 2008
-Rdp backyard shacks (immediately rented them out) = bantu edu (unskilled)
“The maintenance of democracy was -1995: 37% blacks, 6% white unemployment
dependent on freedom of expression in the -1990-2008: Gear reduced inflation from 15% to 6%
arts and media.” Discuss with reference to -J Crush: Legacy of apartheid + racism will take “Decades to rectify”
two democratic states, each from a different
region. -Flag and national anthem (old and new colour from flag, combined old anthem with new
Overall, freedom of expression in the arts and liberation anthem)
media allowed citizens to be more receptive to -Mandela: sports can “change the world” - national identity, reconciliation b/n races
reforms through creating a sense of national -Freedom of speech
unity. However, social and economic policies -South African Broadcasting Corp relaunched = african language programs
were needed to generate legal changes for the -Desegregation in sports = unify people (Rugby had been seen as a white sport)
long-term maintenance of democracy,
especially through education, which could be
most directly influenced by policies and
allowed for greater political participation. In
India, the arts and media helped to generate a
widespread national identity and thus to
prevent social unrest, as geographic
immensity and population growth limited the
effectiveness of government reforms when put
into practice. The prevailing racist attitudes in
South Africa were difficult to change through
government reforms alone, thus the arts
allowed people to see past the inequalities that
threatened democracy.

With reference to two wars, compare and -Fritz Fischer 1961: “War the sooner the better”
contrast the importance of ideological factors -Imperialism: Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911): Pressure on B+F and and gain an Atlantic Port
in causing war in the twentieth century. -Economic: German rail network 224% (1870-1910)
Overall, ideological factors were more -Militarism: 1906/1908 HMS Dreadnought race = competition
significant in causing WWII than WWI, but -Br army from 300k-700k (1900-14), Fr standing army to 1M (1900-14)
there are more similarities than differences in 1897: Schlieffen Plan (War Prep)
the overall factors causing the wars: -Ideology…. Pan-Slavism: Balkan War (1912-13) = creates Serbia/Greece - Success of Serbia
ideological, territorial and economic, with resulted in Nationalism/threat to A-H = tensions; Support of Russia (buffer from A-H)
territorial being the most important factor in -1908: Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina = nationalism (Aus believed they were powerful
causing WWI. and could vanquish Serbia, increased desire for independence in Serbia)

To what extent were twentieth-century wars -12.5% pre-war G pop’n lost in TOV
caused by the same issues? -GD: 6M Germans unemployed
Overall, WWI and WWII in Europe were -March 1933: Enabling Act + Hitler Chancellor
caused by the same issues to a considerable -Anschluss: Jan 1935 Saar, March 1935 Rearmament, March 1936 Remilitarisation of the
extent, as ideological, territorial, and Rhine, Mar 1938 Austria, Sept 1938 Sudetenland, Mar 1939 Czechoslovakia
economic factors all played a role in -Lebensraum
generating conflict. However, territorial 1939: German army was 700K w/ reserves of 1M
factors were the most significant in causing -Humiliation from the war guilt clause/land constraints
WWI and ideological factors were the most -Exported more than imported by 1935 (Germany)
significant in causing WWII in Europe. -Richard Overy: Four Year Plan(1936) aimed for self-sufficiency + increased military
production, thus could be indicative of war prep(less dependency on imports)
Examine the long- and short-term causes of -Hitler: Defensive nature of French FP; If French got involved w/ Rhine, Hitler and his army
one 20th-century war. would have to withdraw with their “tails between their legs”
Overall, the long-term causes of nationalism,
imperialism, militarism, and the formation of
alliances generated a tense and competitive
atmosphere in the years preceding WWI in
which numerous issues could have escalated
to war. Thus, the short-term trigger of the
shooting of the Austro-Hungarian archduke
and the subsequent failure of diplomacy was
needed to spark conflict specifically in 1914.

Evaluate the importance of guerrilla warfare China

to the outcome of two 20th-century wars. -CCP grew from 22000 (1936) - 1.2M (1945) in countryside (membership only)
Overall, guerrilla warfare was more -US ceasesfire 4 month ceasefire 1936 (allow CCP to grow in strength) - USSR transported
significant in the Chinese Civil War, allowing 2000 wagons of equipment over Korean border
for later conventional warfare tactics to be -Mobile defense
successful. Although it contributed to -Mao: Need to coop with “Masses of the people”; Territorial losses were inevitable
demoralizing and wearing down the Axis -China: 85% peasants
during WWII in Europe, it was not the -Nationalist initially had 3x military man power
deciding factor as conventional warfare was -1945-49: 2B aid to Nationalists (360M effective)
more prevalent. -Nov 1946: 858M of industrial industry dismantled in Manchuria
Conventional Warfare
-1948: Pingjin Campaign, Huai-hai campaign = won through conventional battle (bombing,
heavy military to take over central China - before in NE; Ran simultaneously)

WWII EU
-Poland AK: 1944 Warsaw Uprising = G 900k troops to maintain situation. Killed 150 000
throughout the war
-Guerrilla warfare stuff: interrupted convoys, destroyed rails, spies on the Germans
-USSR: Partisans slowed G via sniper attacks/sabotage machinery
-1943: They bombed rails, disrupted flow of goods, destroyed 65 000 trucks
-Resistance in France = Over 500 rail attacks/month by end of 1943
Conventional Warfare
-Stalingrad 1942-43: USSR able to push Germans back
-Carpet bombing = Able to cripple G industry by 1944 (only landed w/ 8km of target)
-Lubeck Bombing 1942: Destroyed 62% of city (NW of Berlin)
-Bombing of Dresden 1945 = 25 000 ppl died from incendiary bombs

Discuss the importance of technological WWI

developments to the outcome of two -Limited tech advancement
20th-century wars, each from a different -1914: Heligoland bight
region. -1916: Battle of Jutland (G couldn’t break it)
Overall, technological developments were -1913-16: G imports halved
more critical to WWII in the Pacific than to -Convoy system (1915) , u boats
WWI in Europe because the Allies primarily
won WWI due to their superior resource -Aerial reconnaissance (Tannenberg 1914)
management, whereas atomic bombs were -Ludendorff Offensive (planes for support) = G lost b/c not enough reserve troops
required for the final surrender of the Axis -Zeppelins/blimps = slow, easy to shoot down
during WWII in the Pacific. -Aircraft couldn’t carry enough bombs so ineffective

-Mostly attrition (Marne trench warfare), management of resources, Entente had support from
B empire + USA by 1917, rationing, chem warfare (2nd Battle of Ypres)

WWII (Pacific)
-Depth charges/torpedos, u-boats, convoy system
-Boats used to carry aircraft
-1944 150 US subs hunting J shipping
-Naval codes - cracked the IJN code by 1942 which gave them an advantage at
Midway(where they destroyed 4 of J aircraft carriers)
-1944 rice supply halved from 1941
-Island hopping

-Aircraft carriers
-40% of urban areas
-80% ships destroyed
-Destruction of 8000 needed aircraft at Okinawa caused end of IJN (battleships)
 -1944 Tokyo Incendiary bombing killed 80 000 ppl
-Aug 6th/9th: Hiroshima (80 000) + Nagasaki (min 40 000)
-Bernard Nalty: Japan devout believed that the “warrior spirit would prevail”

Evaluate the impact of the mobilization of Human/econ resources

human and economic resources upon the -US supplied B with 30% of war equipment
outcome of one 20th-century war. -US mobilised 66M workforce
Overall, the mobilization of human economic -Germany had little oil (Romania joined allies 1944)
resources was the most significant factor -Germany get troops from other nations, but only 1M trained/equipped from Romania,
contributing to the Allied victory in WWII, as Bulgaria, etc.
it allowed for their effective resource -US gave 2M troops to European war
management. The vast resources and -Brit (90% unmarried, 80 percent married)
population of the United States and the USSR -Rationing - USSR 700 kcals for children/elderly
enabled them to decimate agriculture and
morale in Eastern Europe. However, Strategy
technology and strategy also played important -Jeffrey Jukes (1985): Hitler began “substituting his judgement for their’s” referring to milit
roles in generating an Allied victory, generals
especially as Germany’s weak allies reduced -Fired military generals
their strategies' effectiveness. -Poor winter strategy at Stalingrad (horses, winter stuff)
-Richard Overy (2010): Germany failed because they didn’t expect the USSR to “recover its
economy”

“The influence of foreign powers determined Spain

the outcome of 20th century civil wars.” -Double aircraft to Nationalists from G/I than USSR to Republicans
Discuss with reference to two wars. -April 1937: Guernica - 27 000 kg G/I incendiary bombs killed 1500 ppl
Overall, foreign powers and the strategy and -G condor league (airforce)
internal strength of the winning side both -Bilbao (1937): Blockade - food prices rose 200% in Barcelona during the war
played key roles to the outcome of the -Summer 1937 Turning pt (Nationalists gained Bascque/Asturias = more production/food
Spanish Civil War and the Chinese Civil War; from industrial/agricultural regions)
however, foreign involvement played a -Mussolini perspective: Wanted SE France and Corsica so he could contribute more
greater role in Spain as it enabled Nationalist assistance than any other nation; No clear plan
technological superiority, whereas the key -War costed Italy 14B lire; ⅓ of Italy’s arm stocks consumed by war
mobile defense strategy allowed the CCP to -Communist/Spanish anarchists argue that Guerrilla warfare was not used as much as it could
achieve victory in China after they built up by Republicans (cause for loss)
support. -During Bilbao, in Barcelona May 1937 = split in Republican party - extreme left wanted to
turn to guerrilla, but moderate left wanted to continue what they were doing (moderate left
Discuss the factors that led to the defeat of won)
nations in two 20th century civil wars. -Republicans lacked military training = mostly militia
Overall, the influence of foreign powers was -Nationalists = ⅓ smaller in 1936, ½ bigger by 1939
the most significant factor leading to the July 1936: Military uprising
defeat of the Republicans in the Spanish Civil -Non-intervention agreement aug 1936: B/F didn’t help, but G/I/USSR broke the agreement
War, whereas strategy and resource -Jul-Nov 1938 Ebro Offensive: Republicans lost due to lack of organisation and couldn’t
management was the primary cause of the sustain success
Nationalist loss in the Chinese Civil War.
“Territorial changes were the most significant WWI
consequence of war.” Discuss with reference -TOV: 10% G land removed, no colonies
to two wars. -AL back to France, Saar + Danzig LN mandate
Overall, territorial changes were the most -G forbidden to merge with Austria
significant effect of both WWI and WWII in -Creation of Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia
Europe, as they contributed to the negative -Ottman empire: Turkey, Syria-Lebanon (Fr mandate), IRaq (B mandate)
impacts of economic and political chaos, even -Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia
though physical destruction did contribute to -12.5% pre-war G pop’n in other states
these issues as well. -Austria wanted to be called German-Austria, but not allowed
-3M Hungarians in other states
With reference to one 20th-century war, Hungary lost ⅔ of land, 64% of pop’n
compare and contrast the political
repercussions for two countries. (WWI) Econ
Overall, there are more differences than -132B gold marks
similarities in the political repercussions of -Ruhr crisis 1923
WWI on Germany and the United States, as -Austria bankrupt before reparations set (St. Germain)
Germany was diplomatically isolated and WWII
placed under a forced democratic system, -Hungary 200M gold pounds, none in Turkey (but entente got to control the country’s
whereas the US followed a policy of finances)
semi-isolationism by choice and retained its -Reparations suspended at Lausanne Conference 1932
democratic system which enabled it to grow -Hungary initially agri country, but imbalance in $ resulted in 70%+ decrease in agri
in power during the interwar years. -Austria: less than 5% traffic of goods b/n fromer A-H nations 5 years after treaty; Industrial
output decreased 65%
With reference to one 20th-century war, John Maynard Keynes: Reparations made future conflict more likely - prevented short term
compare and contrast the political econ recovery/would inhibit future trade agreements
repercussions for two countries. (WWII in
Europe) Political
Overall, there are more similarities than -Public perspective of Hungarians about Trianon (Trianon Trauma): “Return Everything”
differences in the political repercussions of -Turkish War for independence (1919-23) - Sevres stirred nationalist feelings (fought Greece
WWII on the United States and the Soviet in West - Greece given Smyrna in 1919, but Turkish Nationalists opposed this; Armenia in E;
Union, as both became global superpowers Fr in south; UK/Italy in Constantinople)
involved in the tensions of the Cold War; -Treaty of Lausanne (1923) replaced Sevres
however, the US was more effective in
establishing stable economic and diplomatic Social Effects
relations with other nations than the USSR. -2M Germans died, 900 000 Br, 1.8M A-H, 1.4M French
-120M died from influenza (6% World pop’n)
Compare and contrast the economic, social,
-War guilt clause, German army reduced to 100 000
and demographic impacts of two 20th-century
-⅔ women left war jobs by mid 1920s (br)
wars.
-1920’s Freedom spirit - flappers, work, living alone
Overall, there are more differences than
-Women enfranchised 1918 in B/Canada
similarities in the scale and nature of the
-1929: Women in Canada considered people under the law
economic, social, and demographic impacts of
-Starvation: G slaughtered 1M pigs to save grain led to decrease in food production long-term
WWI and WWII in Europe. The high
reparations and instability of the new
WWII
successor states generated social unrest due to
Territorial
the economic issues after WWI. In contrast,
-4 zone G (Potsdam jul 45)
the main long-lasting effects of WWII were
-Atlantic Charter 41 (India independent state 47): decolonization
the tensions between the global superpowers -FDR May 49
of the United States and the Soviet Union, as -GDR Oct 49
the economic chaos was better managed after
the Second War War. Econ
-64000km rails destroyed ussr
Evaluate the impact of two 20th-century wars -25% pre-war capital stock lost (FYP)
on the role and status of women -USSR didn’t get rep it wanted (10B starting point Yalta feb 45)
Overall, the effects of war on the role and -Marshall Plan 48: Rebuild West/WG
status of women in both WWI and WWII in -Comecon (jan 49): coordinate trade b/n warsaw nations
Europe were mostly beneficial, although more
significant widespread and long-lasting Political
change in regards to the status of women was -Cominform (sept 47): coordinate activities b/n east eu under moscow
generated by the Second World War. The role -Truman Doctrine (may 47): To stop spread of communism
of women, meaning the immediate shift in -Warsaw pact 55
societal expectations, was changed by both -Formation of UN 1945
wars due to the nature of high war production -NATO 1949
requirements. However, the existence of
prevailing traditional attitudes in economic Social
and social domains limited the effectiveness -800 000 soviet women in combat roles
of these gains, even though there were few -Prohibited in other countries, and discouraged from participating in prod/war effort in G
truly negative effects. 16.9M Soviet civilians died, 8.7M soviet milit, 3.25M g military, 1M G civilians, 11M in
concentration camps, 6M Jewish ppl (60% of Jewish popn’)
-Women in workplace during the war (B stat)