ASSESSMENT

OF STUDENT LEARNING 2

MODULE
by
DR. ANNELYN A.
TUNG
DR. ALMA R.
DEFACTO
Chapter I 21ST CENTURY ASSESSMENT

Characteristics of the 21st Century Assessment

Learning Outcomes:

1. Analyze the fundamental concepts and characteristics of 21 st century assessment;

2. Use appropriate assessment tools and techniques as applied in instructional
decision;
3. Relate learning outcomes and assessment

Pre-Test: (write your answers on yellow pad papers and submit them on April 11, 2022
at the Main Campus. Drop them on the box with my name. Don’t forget to write
your name in each of the pages of your yellow pad papers, course, year and section
and subject. Thank you very much.)

1. What are the 21st century skills?

2. What are the characteristics of the 21st century assessment?
3. Give the different assessment procedures and describe each.
 Lesson 1

CHARACTERISTICS OF the 21st CENTURY ASSESSMENT

In order to thrive in this constantly changing and extremely challenging period, the
acquisition of 21st century skills is necessary. It is imperative that the educational
system sees that these skills are developed and honed before the learners graduate.
It should be integrated in the program of each discipline. More than just acquiring
knowledge, its application is important. To ensure that education has really done its
role, ways to measure or to assess the learning process are necessary. Thus, the
assessment processes and tools must be suited to the needs and requirements of the
21st century. In this lesson, the characteristics of 21st century assessment, how it is
used as one of the inputs in making instructional decision, and outcome-based
assessment will be discussed.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze the fundamental concepts and characteristics of 21 st century assessment;

2. Use appropriate assessment tools and techniques as applied in instructional
decision;
3. Relate learning outcomes and assessment.

Inevitably the 21st century is here, demanding a lot of changes, development, and re-
Engineering of systems in different fields for this generation to thrive. In the field of
education, most of the changes are focused on teaching and learning. Preparing
and equipping the teachers to cater to the needs of the 21st century learners are part
of the adjustments being done in the education system. Curricula are updated to
address the needs of the community in relation to the demands of the 21 st century.
This aspect of teaching and learning has been given its share of focus, the
various components/factors analysed and updated to ensure that students' learning
will be at par with the demands of the 21st century. Although a lot of changes has
been made on the different facets of education, there are some members of the
educational community calling for corresponding development or change in
educational assessment. Viewing educational assessment as agent of educational
change is of great importance. This belief, coupled with the traditional focus on
teaching and learning will produce a strong and emerging imperative to alter
our long-held conceptions of these three parts: teaching, learning, and
assessment (Greenstein, 2012). Twenty-first century skills must build on the core
literacy and numeracy that all students must master. Students need to think
critically and creatively, communicate and collaborate effectively, and work globally
to be productive, accountable citizens and leaders. These skills to be honed
must be assessed, not just simply to get numerical results but more so, to take the
results of assessment as guide to take further action. Educators need to focus on:
what to teach; how to teach it; and how to assess it (Greenstein, 2012;
Schmoker, 2011).

Characteristics of the 21" Century Assessment

1.1 Responsive - visible performance-based work (as a result of assessment)

generates data that inform curriculum and instruction. Teachers can adjust
instructions, school leaders can consider additional educational opportunities
for students and policy makers can modify programs and resources to cater to
the present needs of the school community. Processes for responding to
assessments are thoughtfully developed, incorporating best practices in
feedback and formative assessment. Feedback is to be targeted to the goal and
 outcome. Rather than just a single test grade, students are informed of progress
toward the attainment of goal.

1.2 Self-reflection - peer feedback, and opportunities for revision will be a natural
outcome.

1.3 Flexible - lesson design, curriculum, and assessment require flexibility,

suppleness, and adaptability. Assessments and responses may not be fitted to
expected answers . Assessment need to be adaptable to students' settings.
Rather than the identical approach that works in traditional assessment.
21st century approaches are more versatile. These approaches best fit for the
demands of the learning environment at present since as students' decisions,
actions and applications vary, the assessments and the system need to be
flexible, too.

Integrated Assessments are to be incorporated into day-to-day practice rather

than as add-ons at the end of instructions or during a single specified week
of the school calendar. Assessments are enriched by metacognition. Assessment
is about stimulating thinking , building on prior learning, constructing meaning,
and thinking about one’s thinking. It offers opportunities for students to consider
their choices, identify alternative strategies, transfer earlier learning, and
represent knowledge through different means.

1.4 Informative - the desired 21st century goals and objectives are clearly stated and
explicitly taught. Students display their range of emerging knowledge and
skills. Exemplars routinely guide students toward achievement of targets.
Learning objectives, instructional strategies, assessment methods, and
reporting processes are clearly aligned. Complex learning takes time. Students
have opportunities to build on prior learning in a logical sequence. As students
develop and build skills. i.e. learning and innovation skills, information,
communication and technology skills, and life and career skills; the work
gets progressively more rigorous.

Demonstration or 21st century skills are evident and support learning. Students show
the steps they go through and display their thought processes for peer and teacher
review.

1.5 Multiple Methods - An assessment continuum that includes a spectrum of

strategies is the norm. Students demonstrate knowledge and skills through
relevant tasks, projects, and performances. Authentic and performance-based
assessment is emphasized. There is recognition of and appreciation for the
processes and products of learning.

1.6 Communicated - Communication of assessment data is clear and transparent for

all stakeholders. Results are routinely posted to a database along with
standards-based commentary, both of which must be available and
comprehensible at all levels. Students receive routine feedback on their progress,
and parents are kept informed through access to visible progress reports and
assessment data. The educational community recognizes achievement of
students beyond standardized test scores. Large-scale measures, including all
the results of traditional and authentic assessments, include and report on 21 st
century skills.

1.7 Technically Sound - Adjustments and accommodations are made in the

assessment process to meet the student needs and fairness. Students
demonstrates what they know and how they can apply that knowledge in ways
 that are relevant and appropriate for them. To be valid, the assessments must
measure the stated objectives and 21st century skills with legitimacy and integrity.
To be reliable, the assessment must be precise and technically sound so
that users are consistent in their administration and interpretation of data. They
produce accurate information for decision-making in all relevant circumstances.

1.8 Systemic Twenty-first century assessment is part of a comprehensive and

well-aligned assessment system that is balanced and inclusive of all students,
constituents, and stakeholders and designed to support improvement at all
levels. These eight characteristics of 21st century assessment, are essential guide
for the preparation of assessment activities by educators. It is necessary to refer
to these characteristics to ensure that the learners are being assessed towards
the skills and demand of the 21st century.

2. Instructional Decision in Assessment

The major objective of educational assessment is to have a holistic appraisal of a

learner, his/her environment and accomplishments. The educational assessment
process starts in analyzing the criterion together with the teaching-learning
environment. It is done to determine the effect of the environment to the teaching-
Learning situation after which, the kind of evidence that are appropriate to use for
assessment of the individuals are set. This helps to determine the strengths,
weaknesses, needs and personality characteristics, skills and abilities of the learner
(Bloom, 1970). It is clear that educational assessment encompasses the total
educational setting and not limited to the teacher-student engagement. It is not
merely based on a single aspect such as taking a test, and checking it. In totality, the
processes of measurement and evaluation are subsumed in the educational
assessment process.

2.1 Decision-making at Different Phases of Teaching -Learning Process

Assessment is constantly taking place in educational settings. Decisions are

made about content/subject matter and specific targets, nature of students and
faculty, morale and satisfaction of both the teachers and the students,
as well as the extent of which student performances meet the standard and/or
deliver the outcomes expected from them by the teacher. Assessments can be
used as basis for decision-making at different phases of the teaching-learning
process. The table below depicts the different phases of the teaching-learning
process, how and what decisions are made by the teachers:

Phase Decision(s) to be made Source(s) of information

Before start Content to cover during following Abilities of students considering
teaching day, the
week, month, grading cultural background, interests
period, and so and
on. skills of students in planning
the
teaching activities.
Materials appropriate to use with Learning activities that will
the engage
students both the teacher and stu dents as
the
lesson being taught
Learning targets that the Organization and arrangement
teacher of students in class in
wants to achieve as a result consideration of the lessons and
of teaching activities.
 Phase Decision(s) to be made Source(s) of information
Informal observation of students Conversation with students’
during class previous teachers
Scholastic aptitude test results Students’ past grades and
standardized test results

Knowledge of student’s personal

family circumstances
During Teaching Students learning on what and Improvement needed to make
how the lesson is presented the lesson work better
What feedback to give each Readiness of the students to move
student about how well the to the next activity as planned in
student is learning the learning sequence
Observation of students during Students’ response to questions
learning activities the teacher asked them

Observation of student’s
interaction
Diagnosis of the types of errors Look for alternative ways to
the students made or teach the materials
erroneous thinking the students
are using
Identify if there are students who
are not participating and acting
appropriately
After a Teaching How well students achieve the Strengths and weaknesses to be
Segment short and long term instructional given as feedback to parents or
targets guardian of students
Grade to be given to each student Effectiveness of teaching the
for the lesson or unit, grading lesson to the students
period or end of the course

Effectiveness of the curriculum

and materials used for the lesson
Classroom tests, projects, Interviews with students
observations
Standardized test results Observations of each student’s
classroom participation

Review each student’s

homework results

Review each student’s

standardized achievement and
scholastic aptitude test results

Review information about a

student’s personal family
circumstances

Informal observation of how well

the student has attained the
intended learning targets

Summaries of the class’

performance on the important
instructional targets
Phase Decision(s) to be made Source(s) of information
 Summaries of the class’
performance on the important
instructional targets

Summaries of the class’

performance on selected
questions on standardized tests

Summaries of how well the

students liked the activities and
lesson materials

Summaries of the class’

achievement on classroom tests
that match the curriculum
The list of decisions and
possible sources of information
that could be used as input in
decision-making process is
not exhaustive

More can be included, based on teaching-learning observations and experience

during Field Study and Observation courses. Suggested sources of information
for decision-making is not limited to a single choice. A combination of two or
more if necessary may be used to make decision making process as sound as
possible.

Based on what was presented, it can be inferred that there is a very close
relationship between assessment and instruction. The data on observation and
evidences and other sources of information serve as basis for the teacher to decide
what action he/she needs to do to help the learner achieve the desired learning
outcome. Note that data used may be from informal assessments such as
observation from interaction of teacher and learner and through formal one, such as
giving of actual case/problem for calculation as what was mentioned in the above
example.

Assessment in Classroom Instruction

Linn and Gronlund (2000) described the relevance of assessment in instructional

decision by classifying the varied assessment procedures according to use in
classroom instruction.

The following are the categories and purposes of each category:

CATEGORY PURPOSE
1. Placement Assessment Measures entry behavior
2. Formative Assessment Monitors learning progress
3. Diagnostic Assessment Identifies causes of learning problems
4. Summative Assessment Measures end- of course achievement

Linn (1999) said that informed decision-making in education is very important

because of the benefits it can bring about. Topmost of these benefits is the
enhancement of students learning and development. In addition, there is the boost
on morale and feeling of greatness in knowing one’s competence in the area of
academic skill and self-worth in knowing one’s capability to function effectively in
society. Lastly, the affective side of development is equally important, such as
personal dimensions, including being able to adjust to people and coping with
various situations that will lead to a better life adjustment.

2.3 Types of Educational Decision

On a greater scale, the use of assessment in decision-making is not just within the
bounds of the classroom. It extends to the whole education community. Results
of assessment may trigger updates in the existing curriculum and other policies
governing the school system. Or it may be the other way around, so as to plan for
changes or development in school assessments and in what particular aspect of
the school system these changes are necessary.

Kubiszyn and Borich (2002) classified the different educational decisions into
eight (8) categories. These types of decisions are described briefly below.

Types of DECISION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Educational Decision
Instructional Decisions are This decision is After a test was
reached according to normally made by given by the teacher,
the results of test individual the result is not so
administered classroom teacher, satisfactory thus the
to a class. as necessary to meet teacher may decide
the to re-teach the
targets or lesson using a
objectives set different strategy so
during classroom as to improve
engagement the learning and
meet the
objective/target set
for that particular
lesson.
Grading A quarterly grade is It is usually based Grades are assigned
based on the on teacher-made to the students
following: result tests. using
of the teacher- assessment as one of
made test, class the factors.
participation,
projects, and
attendance.
Diagnostic It is made to A teacher gave an
determine a essay test. The
student’s strengths teacher noticed
and weaknesses and that the students
the reason or were able to write
reasons. more than five
grammatically
correct sentences
but the coherence of
the ideas contained
in the paragraph is
poor. So the result
shows that the
students still need
more help in
understanding the
principles of writing
a good paragraph.

Types of DECISION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Educational Decision
Selection The decisions are It involves College or
made not by accepting or University Entrance
classroom rejecting the Examination,
teachers but by examinee based on Choosing School
specialists such as the results of Representative for a
guidance assessment, National
counselors, for admission or Quiz Bee
administrators or qualification to a
the selection program or
committee. school activity.
Placement It is made after a It involves the A diagnostic test for
student has been process of English and Math were
admitted to identifying given
school. students who to freshmen to
needs remediation determine who
or may be among them may
recommended for encounter dif
enrichment ficulty in these areas.
program of the Those who will get a
school. below-
average scores will be
included in the
remediation program
to help the students
cope
with the lessons in
English and Math.
Guidance and On the other It utilizes test The NCAE helps to
Counseling hand, teachers data to assist identify
may use the students in which career path
results of socio- making their the
metric tests to personal choices students may
identify who for future career pursue that
among the and help to know matches his/her
students are their strengths and interests and skills,
popular or weaknesses by whether academic,
unpopular. Those means of vocational
who are unpopular standardized tests. or technical programs.
may be given help
for them to
gain friends and
become more
sociable.
Program or Decisions may It is made not at The decisions to
Curriculum be reached: to the level of the implement the K-
continue, teachers but 12 Curriculum in
discontinue, revise on higher level order to avoid
or such as division, mismatch among
replace a regional or graduates and the
curriculum or national level. industry and to be at
program being Based on the par with the
implemented. result of Curriculum
assessment and implemented in the
evaluation. Philippines’
neighboring countries.
Types of DECISION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Educational Decision
Administrative To conduct a It involves It may entail
Policy remediation class, determining the acquisitions of
additional budget implications to instructional materials,
is necessary resources including books,
for the financial etc. to raise the
logistics consideration in level of students’
(classroom, order to improve performance in
instructional the student academic, or non-
materials, learning as a academic
assessment result of or both.
materials, etc.) assessment.
and also the
additional pay for
the teachers that
will handle the
remedial classes.
These
aforementioned
educational
decisions are the
primary reasons
why assessment in
the
educational
setting is
implemented
continuously. Prior
to implementing
the assessment,
its objective and
target must be
clearly defined so
as not to cause
wastage in terms
of resources and
ensures that the
results will be
utilized and
evaluated that will
consequently yield
to
recommendations
that are beneficial
to the school
community in
general.

3. Outcome-Based Assessment
Knowing what is expected from the learners by their teachers at the end of a
particular lesson helps them to meet those targets successfully. In relation to this,
teachers who have set clear targets for their lessons, will be guided accordingly as
they deliver their lesson through instructional learning activities to meet the desired
outcomes. Thus, all assessment and evaluation activities must be founded on the
identified student intended learning outcomes (ILO). These ILOs should be identified
and clarified with students so that it will be an effective teaching-learning
process as the teachers commence the learning activities through delivery of the
lessons.

3.1 Student Learning Outcome

Student Learning Outcome is the totality of accumulated knowledge, skills,

and attitudes that students develop during a course of study. And this
serve as the basis for assessing the extent of learning in an Outcome
Based Education (OBE). Outcome Based Assessment must be continuously
done during the entire teaching learning both by the teachers and
students to ensure that the activities are aligned with the expected
outcomes set for the students by the teacher. Providing feedback
including the results of assessment is important to identify the next steps (to
be done by the teacher and student) toward the realization of the intended
learning outcome

3.2 Sources of Student Expected Learning Outcome

As aforementioned, outcomes or targets for every lesson is to be defined and

clarified by the teacher at the start of the course/learning activities. This is
necessary so as both the students and teachers will be guided to what steps
taken during the course of the teaching-learning activities. There are several
factors that need to be considered in defining the outcomes, to ensure that
these are with the set directions of the program and evaluation setting in
general. Following are the factors that need to be considered in crafting the
student expected learning outcomes.

1. Mission statement of the school.

2. Mandated policies on competencies and standards issued by government
education agencies.
3. Competencies expected by different professions, business and industry.
4. Development plan and goals as well as the current thrusts of both
the national and local governments.
5. Current global trends and developments so that graduates can compete
globally.
6. General 21st century skills focusing on the following:

 Oral and written communication

 Quantitative reasoning ability together with scientific methodology
 Analyzing, synthesizing and developing creative solutions.
 Use or technology
 Information literacy

3.3 Characteristics of Good Learning Outcome

It is important to define outcomes as clearly and explicitly as possible.

Good learning outcomes give emphasis to the application and integration of
the knowledge and skills acquired in a particular unit or instruction (e.g.
activity, course program, etc.), and emerge from a process of reflection on
the essential contents of the activity, course, program. etc. Very specific, and
 use verbs (that makes expectations clear). By being very specific, it informs
students of the standards by which they will be assessed, and ensures
that student and instructor goals in the course are aligned.

2. Focused on the learner: rather than explaining what the instructor will do in
the course, good learning outcomes describe knowledge or skills that the
student will employ, and help the learner understand why that knowledge
and those skills are useful and valuable to their personal, professional, and
academic future.

3. Are realistic: all passing students should be able to demonstrate the

knowledge or skill described by the learning outcome at the conclusion of
the course. In this way, learning outcomes establish standards for the course.

4. Focus on the application and integration of acquired knowledge and

skills: good learning outcomes reflect and indicate the ways in which the
described knowledge and skills may be used by the learner now and in the
future.

5. Good learning outcomes prepare students for assessment and help them
feel engaged in and empowered by the assessment and evaluation process.

6. Offer a timeline for the completion of the desired learning.

Selecting appropriate assessment techniques: types of teacher-made assessments

One of the challenges for beginning teachers is to select and use appropriate
assessment techniques. In this section we summarize the wide variety of types of
assessments that classroom teachers use. First we discuss the informal techniques
teachers use during instruction that typically require instantaneous decisions. Then
we consider formal assessment techniques that teachers plan before instruction and
allow for reflective decisions.

Teachers’ observation, questioning, and record keeping

During teaching, teachers not only have to communicate the information they
planned but also continuously monitor students’ learning and motivation in order to
determine whether modifications have to be made. Beginning teachers find this
more difficult than experienced teachers because of the complex cognitive skills
required to improvise and be responsive to students needs while simultaneously
keeping in mind the goals and plans of the lesson. The informal assessment
strategies teachers most often use during instruction are observation and
questioning.

Observation

Effective teachers observe their students from the time they enter the
classroom. Some teachers greet their students at the door not only to
welcome them but also to observe their mood and motivation. Are Hannah
and Naomi still not talking to each other? Does Ethan have his materials with
him? Gaining information on such questions can help the teacher foster
student learning more effectively (e.g. suggesting Ethan goes back to his
locker to get his materials before the bell rings or avoiding assigning Hannah
and Naomi to the same group).

During instruction, teachers observe students’ behavior to gain information about

students’ level of interest and understanding of the material or activity. Observation
includes looking at non-verbal behaviors as well as listening to what the students are
saying. For example, a teacher may observe that a number of students are looking
out of the window rather than watching the science demonstration, or a teacher may
hear students making comments in their group indicating they do not understand
what they are supposed to be doing. Observations also help teachers decide which
student to call on next, whether to speed up or slow down the pace of the lesson,
when more examples are needed, whether to begin or end an activity, how well
students are performing a physical activity, and if there are potential behavior
problems. Many teachers find that moving around the classroom helps them
observe more effectively because they can see more students from a variety of
perspectives. However, the fast pace and complexity of most classrooms makes it
difficult for teachers to gain as much information as they want.

Questioning

Teachers ask questions for many instructional reasons including keeping

students’ attention on the lesson, highlighting important points and ideas,
promoting critical thinking, allowing students’ to learn from each others
answers, and providing information about students’ learning. Devising good
appropriate questions and using students’ responses to make effective
instantaneous instructional decisions is very difficult. Some strategies to
improve questioning include planning and writing down the instructional
questions that will be asked, allowing sufficient wait time for students to
respond, listening carefully to what students say rather than listening for what
is expected, varying the types of questions asked, making sure some of the
questions are higher level, and asking follow-up questions.
While the informal assessment based on spontaneous observation and questioning is
essential for teaching there are inherent problems with the validity, reliability and
bias in this information (Airasian, 2005; Stiggins 2005). We summarize these issues
and some ways to reduce the problems in Table 1.

Table 1: Validity and reliability of observation and questioning

Problem Strategies to alleviate problem

Try to make sure you are not only seeing what you want to see.
Teachers lack of
Teachers typically want to feel good about their instruction so
objectivity about overall
it is easy to look for positive student interactions. Occasionally,
class involvement and
teachers want to see negative student reactions to confirm
understanding
their beliefs about an individual student or class.

Remember to concentrate on student learning not just

Tendency to focus on involvement. Most of teachers’ observations focus on process
process rather than —student attention, facial expressions posture—rather than
learning pupil learning. Students can be active and engaged but not
developing new skills.

Make sure you observe a variety of students—not just those

who are typically very good or very bad.

Walk around the room to observe more students “up close”

and view the room from multiple perspectives.
Limited information and
selective sampling
Call on a wide variety of students—not just those with their
hands up, or those who are skilled as the subject, or those who
sit in a particular place in the room.

Keep records.

If you want to know if you are missing important information

Fast pace of classrooms ask a peer to visit your classroom and observe the students’
inhibits corroborative behaviors. Classrooms are complex and fast paced and one
evidence teacher cannot see much of what is going on while trying to
also teach.

Be cautious in the conclusions that you draw from your

observations and questions. Remember that the meaning and
Cultural and individual
expectations of certain types of questions, wait time, social
differences in the
distance, and role of “small talk” varies across cultures. Some
meaning of verbal and
students are quiet because of their personalities not because
non verbal behaviors
they are uninvolved, nor keeping up with the lesson, nor
depressed or tired.

Record keeping

Keeping records of observations improves reliability and can be used to enhance

understanding of one student, a group, or the whole class’ interactions. Sometimes
this requires help from other teachers. For example, Alexis, a beginning science
teacher is aware of the research documenting that longer wait time enhances
students’ learning but is unsure of her behaviors so she asks a colleague to observe
and record her wait times during one class period. Alexis learns her wait times are
very short for all students so she starts practicing silently counting to five whenever
she asks students a question.
Teachers can keep anecdotal records about students without help from peers. These
records contain descriptions of incidents of a student’s behavior, the time and place
the incident takes place, and a tentative interpretation of the incident. For example,
the description of the incident might involve Joseph, a second grade student, who
fell asleep during the mathematics class on a Monday morning. A tentative
interpretation could be the student did not get enough sleep over the weekend, but
alternative explanations could be the student is sick or is on medications that make
him drowsy. Obviously additional information is needed and the teacher could ask
Joseph why he is so sleepy and also observe him to see if he looks tired and sleepy
over the next couple of weeks.

Anecdotal records often provide important information and are better than relying
on one’s memory but they take time to maintain and it is difficult for teachers to be
objective. For example, after seeing Joseph fall asleep the teacher may now look for
any signs of Joseph’s sleepiness—ignoring the days he is not sleepy. Also, it is hard
for teachers to sample a wide enough range of data for their observations to be
highly reliable.

Teachers also conduct more formal observations especially for students with special
needs who have IEPs (Individual Education Plans). An example of the importance of
informal and formal observations in a preschool follows:

The class of preschoolers in a suburban neighborhood of a large city has eight special
needs students and four students—the peer models—who have been selected
because of their well developed language and social skills. Some of the special needs
students have been diagnosed with delayed language, some with behavior disorders,
and several with autism.
The students are sitting on the mat with the teacher who has a box with sets of three
“cool” things of varying size (e.g. toy pandas) and the students are asked to put the
things in order by size, big, medium and small. Students who are able are also
requested to point to each item in turn and say “This is the big one,” “This is the
medium one,” and “This is the little one.” For some students, only two choices (big
and little) are offered because that is appropriate for their developmental level.
The teacher informally observes that one of the boys is having trouble keeping his
legs still so she quietly asks the aid for a weighted pad that she places on the boy’s
legs to help him keep them still. The activity continues and the aide carefully
observes students behaviors and records on IEP progress cards whether a child
meets specific objectives such as: “When given two picture or object choices, Mark
will point to the appropriate object in 80 percent of the opportunities.” The teacher
and aides keep records of the relevant behavior of the special needs students during
the half day they are in preschool. The daily records are summarized weekly. If there
are not enough observations that have been recorded for a specific objective, the
teacher and aide focus their observations more on that child, and if necessary, try to
create specific situations that relate to that objective. At end of each month the
teacher calculates whether the special needs children are meeting their IEP
objectives.

Selected response items

Common formal assessment formats used by teachers are multiple choice, matching,

and true/false items. In selected response items students have to select a response
provided by the teacher or test developer rather than constructing a response in
their own words or actions. Selected response items do not require that
students recall the information but rather recognize the correct answer. Tests with
these items are called objective because the results are not influenced by scorers’
judgments or interpretations and so are often machine scored. Eliminating potential
errors in scoring increases the reliability of tests but teachers who only use objective
tests are liable to reduce the validity of their assessment because objective tests are
not appropriate for all learning goals (Linn & Miller, 2005). Effective
assessment for learning as well as assessment of learning must be based on aligning
the assessment technique to the learning goals and outcomes.

For example, if the goal is for students to conduct an experiment then they should be
asked to do that rather that than being asked about conducting an experiment.

Common problems

Selected response items are easy to score but are hard to devise. Teachers often do
not spend enough time constructing items and common problems include:

1. Unclear wording in the items

1. True or False: Although George Washington was born into a wealthy
family, his father died when he was only 11, he worked as a youth as a
surveyor of rural lands, and later stood on the balcony of Federal Hall in
New York when he took his oath of office in 1789.
2. Cues that are not related the content being examined.
1. A common clue is that all the true statements on a true/false test or the
corrective alternatives on a multiple choice test are longer than the
untrue statements or the incorrect alternatives.
3. Using negatives (or double negatives) the items.
1. A poor item: “True or False: None of the steps made by the student was
unnecessary.”
2. A better item: True or False: “All of the steps were necessary.”
3. Students often do not notice the negative terms or find them confusing
so avoiding them is generally recommended (Linn & Miller 2005).
However, since standardized tests often use negative items, teachers
sometimes deliberately include some negative items to give students
practice in responding to that format.
4. Taking sentences directly from textbook or lecture notes. Removing the words
from their context often makes them ambiguous or can change the meaning.
For example, a statement from Chapter 3 taken out of context suggests all
children are clumsy. “Similarly with jumping, throwing and catching: the large
majority of children can do these things, though often a bit clumsily.” A fuller
quotation makes it clearer that this sentence refers to 5-year-olds: “For some
fives, running still looks a bit like a hurried walk, but usually it becomes more
coordinated within a year or two. Similarly with jumping, throwing and
catching: the large majority of children can do these things, though often a bit
clumsily, by the time they start school, and most improve their skills noticeably
during the early elementary years.” If the abbreviated form was used as the
stem in a true/false item it would obviously be misleading.
5. Avoid trivial questions e.g. Jean Piaget was born in what year?
1. While it important to know approximately when Piaget made his seminal
contributions to the understanding of child development, the exact year
of his birth (1880) is not important.

Strengths and weaknesses

All types of selected response items have a number of strengths and

weaknesses. True/False items are appropriate for measuring factual knowledge such
as vocabulary, formulae, dates, proper names, and technical terms. They are very
efficient as they use a simple structure that students can easily understand, and take
little time to complete. They are also easier to construct than multiple choice and
matching items. However, students have a 50 per cent probability of getting the
answer correct through guessing so it can be difficult to interpret how much students
know from their test scores. Examples of common problems that arise when devising
true/false items are in Table 2.

Table 2: Common errors in selected

response items

Type of item Common errors Example

True/False The statement is

not absolutely
T/F: The President of the United States is
true—typically
elected to that office. This is usually true but the
because it
US Vice President can succeed the President.
contains a broad
generalization.

True/False The item is T/F: Education for K-12 students is improved

opinion not fact though policies that support charter
schools. Some people believe this, some do not.

True/False Two ideas are T/F: George H Bush the 40th president of the US
included in item was defeated by William Jefferson Clinton in
1992. The 1st idea is false; the 2nd is true making it
difficult for students to decide whether to circle T
or F.

True/False Irrelevant cues T/F: The President of the United States is usually
elected to that office. True items contain the
words such as usually generally; whereas false
items contain the terms such as always, all, never.

Matching Columns do not Directions: On the line to the US Civil War Battle
contain write the year or confederate general in Column
homogeneous B.
information
Column A

 Ft Sumter
 2nd Battle of Bull Run
 Ft Henry

Column B

o General Stonewall Jackson

o General Johnson
 1861
 1862

Column B is a mixture of generals and dates.

Matching Too many items Lists should be relatively short (4–7) in each
Table 2: Common errors in selected
response items

in each list column. More than 10 are too confusing.

Matching Responses are In the example with Spanish and English words
not in logical (Exhibit 1) should be in a logical order (they are
order alphabetical). If the order is not logical, student
spend too much time searching for the correct
answer.

Multiple Problem (i.e. the New Zealand

Choice stem) is not 1. Is the worlds’ smallest continent
clearly stated 2. Is home to the kangaroo
problem
3. Was settled mainly by colonists from
Great Britain
4. Is a dictatorship
This is really a series of true-false items. Because
the correct answer is 3, a better version with the
problem in the stem is

Much of New Zealand was settled by colonists

from

1. Great Britain
2. Spain
3. France
4. Holland

Multiple Some of the Who is best known for their work on the
Choice alternatives are development of the morality of justice?
not plausible 1. Gerald Ford
2. Vygotsky
3. Maslow
4. Kohlberg

Obviously Gerald Ford is not a plausible

alternative.

Multiple Irrelevant cues  Correct alternative is longer

Choice  Incorrect alternatives are not
grammatically correct with the stem
 Too many correct alternatives are in
position “b” or “c” making it easier for
students to guess. All the options (e.g. a,
b, c, d) should be used in approximately
equal frequently (not exact as that also
provides clues).

Multiple Use of “All of If all of the “above is used” then the other items
Choice above” must be correct. This means that a student may
 Table 2: Common errors in selected
response items

read the 1st response, mark it correct and move

on. Alternatively, a student may read the 1st two
items and seeing they are true does nor need to
read the other alternatives to know to circle “all
of the above.” The teacher probably does not
want either of these options.

In matching items, two parallel columns containing terms, phrases, symbols, or

numbers are presented and the student is asked to match the items in the first
column with those in the second column. Typically there are more items in the
second column to make the task more difficult and to ensure that if a student makes
one error they do not have to make another. Matching items most often are used to
measure lower level knowledge such as persons and their achievements, dates and
historical events, terms and definitions, symbols and concepts, plants or animals and
classifications (Linn & Miller, 2005). An example with Spanish language words and
their English equivalents is in Exhibit 1.

EXHIBIT 1: SPANISH AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION

Directions: On the line to the right of the Spanish word in Column A, write the letter
of the English word in Column B that has the same meaning.
Column A
1. Casa ___
2. Bebé ___
3. Gata ___
4. Perro ___
5. Hermano___
Column B
1. Aunt
2. Baby
3. Brother
4. Cat
5. Dog
6. Father
7. House

While matching items may seem easy to devise it is hard to create homogenous lists.
Other problems with matching items and suggested remedies are in Table 2.

Multiple Choice items are the most commonly used type of objective test items
because they have a number of advantages over other objective test items. Most
importantly they can be adapted to assess higher levels thinking such as application
as well as lower level factual knowledge. The first example in Exhibit 2 assesses
knowledge of a specific fact whereas the second example assesses application of
knowledge.

EXHIBIT 2: MULTIPLE-CHOICE EXAMPLES

Who is best known for their work on the development of the morality of justice?
1. Erikson
2. Vygotsky
3. Maslow
4. Kohlberg
Which one of the following best illustrates the law of diminishing returns?
1. A factory doubled its labor force and increased production by 50 per cent
2. The demand for an electronic product increased faster than the supply of the
product
3. The population of a country increased faster than agricultural self sufficiency
4. A machine decreased in efficacy as its parts became worn out
(Adapted from Linn and Miller 2005, p, 193).

There are several other advantages of multiple choice items. Students have to
recognize the correct answer not just know the incorrect answer as they do in
true/false items. Also, the opportunity for guessing is reduced because four or five
alternatives are usually provided whereas in true/false items students only have to
choose between two choices. Also, multiple choice items do not need homogeneous
material as matching items do. However, creating good multiple choice test items is
difficult and students (maybe including you) often become frustrated when taking a
test with poor multiple choice items. Three steps have to be considered when
constructing a multiple choice item: formulating a clearly stated problem, identifying
plausible alternatives, and removing irrelevant clues to the answer. Common
problems in each of these steps are summarized in Table 3 (below).

Constructed response items

Formal assessment also includes constructed response items in which students are
asked to recall information and create an answer—not just recognize if the answer is
correct—so guessing is reduced. Constructed response items can be used to assess a
wide variety of kinds of knowledge and two major kinds are discussed: completion or
short answer (also called short response) and extended response.

Completion and short answer

Completion and short answer items can be answered in a word, phrase, number, or
symbol. These types of items are essentially the same only varying in whether the
problem is presented as a statement or a question (Linn & Miller 2005). Look at
Exhibit 3 for examples:

EXHIBIT 3: COMPLETION AND SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Completion: The first traffic light in the US was invented by ________.

Short Answer: Who invented the first traffic light in the US?
These items are often used in mathematics tests, for example:
3 + 10 = ____?
If x = 6, what does x(x − 1) = ________

Draw the line of symmetry on the following shape: 

A major advantage of these items is they that they are easy to construct. However,
apart from their use in mathematics they are unsuitable for measuring complex
learning outcomes and are often difficult to score. Completion and short answer tests
are sometimes called objective tests as the intent is that there is only one correct
answer and so there is no variability in scoring but unless the question is phrased very
carefully, there are frequently a variety of correct answers. For example, consider the
short answer question “Where was President Lincoln born?”

The teacher may expect the answer “in a log cabin” but other correct answers are
also “on Sinking Spring Farm,” “in Hardin County,” or “in Kentucky.” Common errors
in these items are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Common errors in constructed response items

Type of item Common errors Examples

Completion and There is more than one Where was US President Lincoln
short answer possible answer. born? The answer could be in a log cabin,
in Kentucky, etc.

Completion and Too many blanks are in In ________ theory, the first stage,
short answer the completion item so ________ is when infants process
it is too difficult or through their ________
doesn’t make sense. and________ ________.

Completion and Clues are given by Three states are contiguous to New
short answer length of blanks in Hampshire: ________ is to the West,
completion items. ________ is to the East, and ________ is
to the South.

Extended Ambiguous questions Was the US Civil War

response avoidable? Students could interpret this
question in a wide variety of ways,
perhaps even stating “yes” or “no.” One
student may discuss only political causes
another moral, political and economic
causes. There is no guidance in the
question for students.

Extended Poor reliability in The teacher does not use a scoring

response grading rubric and so is inconsistent in how he
scores answers especially unexpected
responses, irrelevant information, and
grammatical errors.

Extended Perception of student By spring semester the teacher has

response influences grading developed expectations of each
student’s performance and this
influences the grading (numbers can be
used instead of names). The test
consists of three constructed responses
and the teacher grades the three
answers on each students’ paper
before moving to the next paper. This
means that the grading of questions 2
and 3 are influenced by the answers to
question 1 (teachers should grade all
 Table 3: Common errors in constructed response items

the 1st question then the 2nd etc).

Extended Choices are given on the Testing experts recommend not giving
response test and some answers choices in tests because then students
are easier than others are not really taking the same test
creating equity problems.

Extended response

Extended response items are used in many content areas and answers may vary in
length from a paragraph to several pages. Questions that require longer responses
are often called essay questions. Extended response items have several advantages
and the most important is their adaptability for measuring complex learning
outcomes— particularly integration and application. These items also require that
students write and therefore provide teachers a way to assess writing skills. A
commonly cited advantage to these items is their ease in construction; however,
carefully worded items that are related to learning outcomes and assess complex
learning are hard to devise (Linn & Miller, 2005). Well-constructed items phrase the
question so the task of the student is clear. Often this involves providing hints or
planning notes. In the first example below the actual question is clear not only
because of the wording but because of the format (i.e. it is placed in a box). In the
second and third examples planning notes are provided:

EXAMPLE 1: THIRD GRADE MATHEMATICS

The owner of a bookstore gave 14 books to the school. The principal will give an
equal number of books to each of three classrooms and the remaining books to the
school library. How many books could the principal give to each student and the
school?
Show all your work on the space below and on the next page. Explain in words how
you found the answer. Tell why you took the steps you did to solve the problem.

EXAMPLE 2: FIFTH GRADE SCIENCE: THE GRASS IS ALWAYS GREENER

Jose and Maria noticed three different types of soil, black soil, sand, and clay, were
found in their neighborhood. They decided to investigate the question, “How does
the type of soil (black soil, sand, and clay) under grass sod affect the height of grass?”
Plan an investigation that could answer their new question. In your plan, be sure to
include:
 Prediction of the outcome of the investigation
 Materials needed to do the investigation
 Procedure that includes:
o logical steps to do the investigation
o one variable kept the same (controlled)
o one variable changed (manipulated)
o any variables being measure and recorded
o how often measurements are taken and recorded

EXAMPLE 3: GRADES 9–11 ENGLISH

 Writing prompt

Some people think that schools should teach students how to cook. Other people
think that cooking is something that ought to be taught in the home. What do you
think? Explain why you think as you do.

Planning notes

Choose One:
 I think schools should teach students how to cook
 I think cooking should l be taught in the home
I think cooking should be taught in ____________ because
________________________.
A major disadvantage of extended response items is the difficulty in reliable scoring.
Not only do various teachers score the same response differently but also the same
teacher may score the identical response differently on various occasions (Linn &
Miller 2005). A variety of steps can be taken to improve the reliability and validity of
scoring. First, teachers should begin by writing an outline of a model answer. This
helps make it clear what students are expected to include. Second, a sample of the
answers should be read. This assists in determining what the students can do and if
there are any common misconceptions arising from the question. Third, teachers
have to decide what to do about irrelevant information that is included (e.g. is it
ignored or are students penalized) and how to evaluate mechanical errors such as
grammar and spelling. Then, a point scoring or a scoring rubric should be used.

In point scoring components of the answer are assigned points. For example, if
students were asked: What are the nature, symptoms, and risk factors of
hyperthermia?

Point Scoring Guide:

 Definition (natures) 2 pts

 Symptoms (1 pt for each) 5 pts
 Risk Factors (1 point for each) 5 pts
 Writing 3 pts
This provides some guidance for evaluation and helps consistency but point scoring
systems often lead the teacher to focus on facts (e.g. naming risk factors) rather than
higher level thinking that may undermine the validity of the assessment if the
teachers’ purposes include higher level thinking. A better approach is to use a scoring
rubric that describes the quality of the answer or performance at each level.

Scoring rubrics

Scoring rubrics can be holistic or analytical. In holistic scoring rubrics, general

descriptions of performance are made and a single overall score is obtained. An
example from grade 2 language arts in Los Angeles Unified School District classifies
responses into four levels: not proficient, partially proficient, proficient and advanced
is on Exhibit 4.

EXHIBIT 4: EXAMPLE OF HOLISTIC SCORING RUBRIC: ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS GRADE 2

Assignment. Write about an interesting, fun, or exciting story you have read in class
this year. Some of the things you could write about are:
  What happened in the story (the plot or events)
 Where the events took place (the setting)
 People, animals, or things in the story ( the characters)
In your writing make sure you use facts and details from the story to describe
everything clearly. After you write about the story, explain what makes the story
interesting, fun or exciting.

Scoring Rubric

Level Points Criteria

 The response demonstrates well-developed reading

comprehension skills.
 Major story elements (plot, setting, or characters) are
clearly and accurately described.
Advanced Score 4  Statements about the plot, setting, or characters are
arranged in a manner that makes sense.
 Ideas or judgments (why the story is interesting, fun, or
exciting) are clearly supported or explained with facts
and details from the story.

 The response demonstrates solid reading

Proficient comprehension skills.
 Most statements about the plot, setting, or characters
are clearly described.
 Most statements about the plot, setting, or characters
are arranged in a manner that makes sense.
 Ideas or judgments are supported with facts and details
Score 3 from the story.

 The response demonstrates some reading

comprehension skills
Partially  There is an attempt to describe the plot, setting, or
Proficient characters
 Some statements about the plot, setting, or characters
are arranged in a manner that makes sense.
 Ideas or judgments may be supported with some facts
Score 2 and details from the story.

 The response demonstrates little or no skill in reading

comprehension.
 The plot, setting, or characters are not described, or the
description is unclear.
Not
Proficient  Statements about the plot, setting, or characters are
not arranged in a manner that makes sense.
Score 1  Ideas or judgments are not stated, and facts and details
from the text are not used.
Analytical rubrics provide descriptions of levels of student performance on a variety
of characteristics. For example, six characteristics used for assessing writing
developed by the Northwest Regional Education Laboratory (NWREL) are:

 ideas and content

 organization
 voice
 word choice
 sentence fluency
 conventions
Holistic rubrics have the advantages that they can be developed more quickly than
analytical rubrics. They are also faster to use as there is only one dimension to
examine. However, they do not provide students feedback about which aspects of
the response are strong and which aspects need improvement (Linn & Miller, 2005).
This means they are less useful for assessment for learning. An important use of
rubrics is to use them as teaching tools and provide them to students before the
assessment so they know what knowledge and skills are expected.

Teachers can use scoring rubrics as part of instruction by giving students the rubric
during instruction, providing several responses, and analyzing these responses in
terms of the rubric. For example, use of accurate terminology is one dimension of the
science rubric in Table 4. An elementary science teacher could discuss why it is
important for scientists to use accurate terminology, give examples of inaccurate and
accurate terminology, provide that component of the scoring rubric to students,
distribute some examples of student responses (maybe from former students), and
then discuss how these responses would be classified according to the rubric. This
strategy of assessment for learning should be more effective if the teacher (a)
emphasizes to students why using accurate terminology is important when learning
science rather than how to get a good grade on the test (we provide more details
about this in the section on motivation later in this chapter); (b) provides an
exemplary response so students can see a model; and (c) emphasizes that the goal is
student improvement on this skill not ranking students.

Table 4: Example of a scoring rubric, Science

Level of Use of Use of Synthesis of Application of

understanding accurate supporting information information[1]
scientific details
terminology

4 There is evidence The use of Pertinent The response An effective

in the response accurate and reflects a application of
that the student scientific complete complete the concept to
has a full and terminology supporting synthesis of a practical
complete enhances the details information. problem or
understanding. response. demonstra real-world
te an situation
integration reveals an
of ideas. insight into
scientific
principles.

3 There is evidence The use of The The response The concept

in the response accurate supporting reflects some has been
that the student scientific details are synthesis of applied to a
has a good terminology generally information. practical
 Table 4: Example of a scoring rubric, Science

understanding. strengthens complete. problem or

the response. real-world
situation.

2 There is evidence The use of The The response The application

in the response accurate supporting provides little of the concept
that the student scientific details are or no to a practical
has a basic terminology adequate. synthesis of problem or
understanding. may be information. real-world
present in the situation is
response. inadequate.

1 There is evidence The use of The The response The

in the response accurate supporting addresses the application, if
that the student scientific details are question. attempted, is
has some terminology is only irrelevant.
understanding. not present in minimally
the response. effective.

0 The student has no understanding of the question or problem. The response is completely
incorrect or irrelevant.

Performance assessments

Typically in performance assessments students complete a specific task while

teachers observe the process or procedure (e.g. data collection in an experiment) as
well as the product (e.g. completed report) (Popham, 2005; Stiggens, 2005). The
tasks that students complete in performance assessments are not simple—in
contrast to selected response items—and include the following:

 playing a musical instrument

 athletic skills
 artistic creation
 conversing in a foreign language
 engaging in a debate about political issues
 conducting an experiment in science
 repairing a machine
 writing a term paper
 using interaction skills to play together

These examples all involve complex skills but illustrate that the term performance
assessment is used in a variety of ways. For example, the teacher may not observe all
of the process (e.g. she sees a draft paper but the final product is written during out-
of-school hours) and essay tests are typically classified as performance assessments
(Airasian, 2000). In addition, in some performance assessments there may be no clear
product (e.g. the performance may be group interaction skills).

Two related terms, alternative assessment and authentic assessment are sometimes

used instead of performance assessment but they have different meanings (Linn &
Miller, 2005). Alternative assessment refers to tasks that are not pencil-and-paper
and while many performance assessments are not pencil-and paper tasks some are
(e.g. writing a term paper, essay tests). Authentic assessment is used to describe
tasks that students do that are similar to those in the “real world.” Classroom tasks
vary in level of authenticity (Popham, 2005). For example, a Japanese language class
taught in a high school in Chicago conversing in Japanese in Tokyo is highly authentic
— but only possible in a study abroad program or trip to Japan. Conversing in
Japanese with native Japanese speakers in Chicago is also highly authentic, and
conversing with the teacher in Japanese during class is moderately authentic. Much
less authentic is a matching test on English and Japanese words. In a language arts
class, writing a letter (to an editor) or a memo to the principal is highly authentic as
letters and memos are common work products. However, writing a five-paragraph
paper is not as authentic as such papers are not used in the world of work. However,
a five paragraph paper is a complex task and would typically be classified as a
performance assessment.

Advantages and disadvantages

There are several advantages of performance assessments (Linn & Miller 2005). First,
the focus is on complex learning outcomes that often cannot be measured by other
methods. Second, performance assessments typically assess process or procedure as
well as the product. For example, the teacher can observe if the students are
repairing the machine using the appropriate tools and procedures as well as whether
the machine functions properly after the repairs. Third, well designed performance
assessments communicate the instructional goals and meaningful learning clearly to
students. For example, if the topic in a fifth grade art class is one-point perspective
the performance assessment could be drawing a city scene that illustrates one point
perspective. This assessment is meaningful and clearly communicates the learning
goal. This performance assessment is a good instructional activity and has good
content validity—common with well-designed performance assessments (Linn &
Miller 2005).

One major disadvantage with performance assessments is that they are typically very
time consuming for students and teachers. This means that fewer assessments can
be gathered so if they are not carefully devised fewer learning goals will be assessed
—which can reduce content validity. State curriculum guidelines can be helpful in
determining what should be included in a performance assessment. For example,
Eric, a dance teacher in a high school in Tennessee learns that the state standards
indicate that dance students at the highest level should be able to do demonstrate
consistency and clarity in performing technical skills by:

 performing complex movement combinations to music in a variety of meters

and styles
 performing combinations and variations in a broad dynamic range
 demonstrating improvement in performing movement combinations through
self-evaluation
 critiquing a live or taped dance production based on given criteria

Eric devises the following performance task for his eleventh grade modern dance
class:

In groups of 4–6 students will perform a dance at least 5 minutes in length. The
dance selected should be multifaceted so that all the dancers can demonstrate
technical skills, complex movements, and a dynamic range (Items 1–2). Students will
videotape their rehearsals and document how they improved through self evaluation
(Item 3). Each group will view and critique the final performance of one other group
in class (Item 4). Eric would need to scaffold most steps in this performance
assessment. The groups probably would need guidance in selecting a dance that
allowed all the dancers to demonstrate the appropriate skills; critiquing their own
performances constructively; working effectively as a team, and applying criteria to
evaluate a dance.
Another disadvantage of performance assessments is they are hard to assess reliably
which can lead to inaccuracy and unfair evaluation. As with any constructed response
assessment, scoring rubrics are very important. An example of holistic and analytic
scoring rubrics designed to assess a completed product are in Exhibit 4 and Table 4. A
rubric designed to assess the process of group interactions is in Table 5.

Table 5: Example of group interaction rubric

Scor Participation and

Time management Shared involvement
e performance in roles

0 Group did not stay on Group did not assign or Single individual did
task and so task was share roles. the task.
not completed.

1 Group was off-task the Groups assigned roles but Group totally
majority of the time members did not use disregarded comments
but task was these roles. and ideas from some
completed. members.

2 Group stayed on task Groups accepted and used Group accepted some
most of the time. some but not all roles. ideas but did not give
others adequate
consideration

3 Group stayed on task Group accepted and used Groups gave equal
throughout the roles and actively consideration to all
activity and managed participated. ideas
time well.

4 Group defined their Group defined and Groups made specific

own approach in a used roles not efforts to involve all
way that more mentioned to them. group members including
effectively managed Role changes took the reticent members.
the activity. place that
maximized
individuals’
expertise.

This rubric was devised for middle grade science but could be used in other subject
areas when assessing group process. In some performance assessments several
scoring rubrics should be used. In the dance performance example above Eric should
have scoring rubrics for the performance skills, the improvement based on self-
evaluation, the team work, and the critique of the other group. Obviously, devising a
good performance assessment is complex and Linn and Miller (2005) recommend
that teachers should:

 Create performance assessments that require students to use complex

cognitive skills. Sometimes teachers devise assessments that are interesting
and that the students enjoy but do not require students to use higher level
cognitive skills that lead to significant learning. Focusing on high level skills and
learning outcomes is particularly important because performance assessments
are typically so time consuming.
 Ensure that the task is clear to the students. Performance assessments typically
require multiple steps so students need to have the necessary prerequisite
 skills and knowledge as well as clear directions. Careful scaffolding is important
for successful performance assessments.
 Specify expectations of the performance clearly by providing students scoring
rubrics during the instruction. This not only helps students understand what it
expected but it also guarantees that teachers are clear about what they
expect. Thinking this through while planning the performance assessment can
be difficult for teachers but is crucial as it typically leads to revisions of the
actual assessment and directions provided to students.
 Reduce the importance of unessential skills in completing the task. What skills
are essential depends on the purpose of the task. For example, for a science
report, is the use of publishing software essential? If the purpose of the
assessment is for students to demonstrate the process of the scientific method
including writing a report, then the format of the report may not be significant.
However, if the purpose includes integrating two subject areas, science and
technology, then the use of publishing software is important. Because
performance assessments take time it is tempting to include multiple skills
without carefully considering if all the skills are essential to the learning goals.

Portfolios

“A portfolio is a meaningful collection of student work that tells the story of student
achievement or growth” (Arter, Spandel, & Culham, 1995, p. 2). Portfolios are
a purposeful collection of student work not just folders of all the work a student
does. Portfolios are used for a variety of purposes and developing a portfolio system
can be confusing and stressful unless the teachers are clear on their purpose. The
varied purposes can be illustrated as four dimensions (Linn & Miller 2005):

Assessment for Learning ↔ Assessment of learning

Current Accomplishments ↔ Progress
Best Work Showcase ↔ Documentation
Finished ↔ Working

When the primary purpose is assessment for learning, the emphasis is on student

self-reflection and responsibility for learning. Students not only select samples of
their work they wish to include, but also reflect and interpret their own work.
Portfolios containing this information can be used to aid communication as students
can present and explain their work to their teachers and parents (Stiggins, 2005).
Portfolios focusing on assessment of learning contain students’ work samples that
certify accomplishments for a classroom grade, graduation, state requirements etc.
Typically, students have less choice in the work contained in such portfolios as some
consistency is needed for this type of assessment. For example, the writing portfolios
that fourth and seventh graders are required to submit in Kentucky must contain a
self-reflective statement and an example of three pieces of writing (reflective,
personal experience or literary, and transactive). Students do choose which of their
pieces of writing in each type to include in the portfolio.

Portfolios can be designed to focus on student progress or current accomplishments.

For example, audio tapes of English language learners speaking could be collected
over one year to demonstrate growth in learning. Student progress portfolios may
also contain multiple versions of a single piece of work. For example, a writing
project may contain notes on the original idea, outline, first draft, comments on the
first draft by peers or teacher, second draft, and the final finished product (Linn &
Miller 2005). If the focus is on current accomplishments, only recent completed work
samples are included.
Portfolios can focus on documenting student activities or highlighting important
accomplishments. Documentation portfolios are inclusive containing all the work
samples rather than focusing on one special strength, best work, or progress. In
contrast, showcase portfolios focus on best work. The best work is typically
identified by students. One aim of such portfolios is that students learn how to
identify products that demonstrate what they know and can do. Students are not
expected to identify their best work in isolation but also use the feedback from their
teachers and peers.

A final distinction can be made between a finished portfolio—maybe used to for a job
application—versus a working portfolio that typically includes day-to-day work
samples. Working portfolios evolve over time and are not intended to be used for
assessment of learning. The focus in a working portfolio is on developing ideas and
skills so students should be allowed to make mistakes, freely comment on their own
work, and respond to teacher feedback (Linn & Miller, 2005). Finished portfolios are
designed for use with a particular audience and the products selected may be drawn
from a working portfolio. For example, in a teacher education program, the working
portfolio may contain work samples from all the courses taken. A student may
develop one finished portfolio to demonstrate she has mastered the required
competencies in the teacher education program and a second finished portfolio for
her job application.

Advantages and disadvantages

Portfolios used well in classrooms have several advantages. They provide a way of
documenting and evaluating growth in a much more nuanced way than selected
response tests can. Also, portfolios can be integrated easily into instruction, i.e. used
for assessment for learning. Portfolios also encourage student self-evaluation and
reflection, as well as ownership for learning (Popham, 2005). Using classroom
assessment to promote student motivation is an important component of
assessment for learning which is considered in the next section.

However, there are some major disadvantages of portfolio use. First, good portfolio
assessment takes an enormous amount of teacher time and organization. The time is
needed to help students understand the purpose and structure of the portfolio,
decide which work samples to collect, and to self-reflect. Some of this time needs to
be conducted in one-to-one conferences. Reviewing and evaluating the portfolios out
of class time is also enormously time consuming. Teachers have to weigh if the time
spent is worth the benefits of the portfolio use.

Second, evaluating portfolios reliability and eliminating bias can be even more
difficult than in a constructed response assessment because the products are more
varied. The experience of the state-wide use of portfolios for assessment in writing
and mathematics for fourth and eighth graders in Vermont is sobering. Teachers used
the same analytic scoring rubric when evaluating the portfolio. In the first two years
of implementation samples from schools were collected and scored by an external
panel of teachers. In the first year the agreement among raters (i.e. inter-rater
reliability) was poor for mathematics and reading; in the second year the agreement
among raters improved for mathematics but not for reading. However, even with the
improvement in mathematics the reliability was too low to use the portfolios for
individual student accountability (Koretz, Stecher, Klein & McCaffrey, 1994). When
reliability is low, validity is also compromised because unstable results cannot be
interpreted meaningfully.

If teachers do use portfolios in their classroom, the series of steps needed for
implementation are outlined in . If the school or district has an existing portfolio
system these steps may have to be modified.
 Table 6: Steps in implementing a classroom portfolio program

1. Make sure students own Talk to your students about your ideas of the
their portfolios. portfolio, the different purposes, and the variety of
work samples. If possible, have them help make
decisions about the kind of portfolio you
implement.

2. Decide on the purpose. Will the focus be on growth or current

accomplishments? Best work showcase or
documentation? Good portfolios can have multiple
purposes but the teacher and students need to be
clear about the purpose.

3. Decide what work samples For example, in writing, is every writing assignment
to collect. included? Are early drafts as well as final products
included?

4. Collect and store work Decide where the work sample will be stored. For
samples. example, will each student have a file folder in a file
cabinet, or a small plastic tub on a shelf in the
classroom?

5. Select criteria to evaluate If possible, work with students to develop scoring

samples. rubrics. This may take considerable time as
different rubrics may be needed for the variety of
work samples. If you are using existing scoring
rubrics, discuss with students possible
modifications after the rubrics have been used at
least once.

6. Teach and require students Help students learn to evaluate their own work
conduct self-evaluations of using agreed upon criteria. For younger students,
their own work. the self-evaluations may be simple (strengths,
weaknesses, and ways to improve); for older
students a more analytic approach is desirable
including using the same scoring rubrics that the
teachers will use.

7. Schedule and conduct Teacher-student conferences are time consuming

portfolio conferences. but conferences are essential for the portfolio
process to significantly enhance learning. These
conferences should aid students’ self evaluation
and should take place frequently.

8. Involve parents. Parents need to understand the portfolio process.

Encourage parents to review the work samples.
You may wish to schedule parent, teacher-students
conferences in which students talk about their
work samples.

ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING AT THE PROGRAM LEVEL

Determining whether students are achieving the educational outcomes faculty have
established for graduates of their programs is a critical part of the teaching-learning
process. UNC-Chapel Hill requires academic programs to develop student learning
outcomes assessment plans and to report on how they have used assessment results
to enhance their programs. Appendix A displays the policy adopted by the University
to ensure that these processes take place regularly for purposes of continuous
improvement as well as accountability. There are a number of reasons for measuring
and assessing student learning outcomes at the program level:

• Curriculum Evaluation: To confirm that the actual knowledge students

acquire by completing the requirements of the major is consistent with the intended
goals of the curriculum.

• Student Success: To monitor student success across the program, identify

gaps, and suggest initiatives to enhance the educational experience for all students.

• Evaluate Alumni Success: To ensure that graduates demonstrate

competencies such as critical thinking and communication skills that employers in all
fields consistently identify as prerequisites for success in a rapidly changing economic
environment.

• Measure Effectiveness: To gather and aggregate evidence across the

program – not just in individual courses -- to measure effectiveness and guide efforts
to continuously improve the quality of the program.

• Accountability: To respond to the increasing pressure from the public and

our constituents to be accountable and to demonstrate the value students receive
from participating in our programs and services.

• Accreditation: To meet regional and professional accreditation

requirements. The institution identifies expected outcomes, assesses the extent to
which it achieves these outcomes, and provides evidence of improvement based on
analysis of the results in…educational programs, to include student learning
outcomes.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

What is a “learning outcome”?

How is an outcome different from a goal or objective?

While often these terms are used interchangeably, an outcome differs from a goal or
objective in terms of specificity and focus. Learning outcomes describe measurable
knowledge, skills, and behaviors that students should be able to demonstrate as a
result of completing the program. Goals and objectives are typically broader
statements of program purpose that are more difficult to measure, such as
“providing a comprehensive liberal arts education,” “producing quality scientists for
the twenty-first century,” etc.

What do you mean by “assessment”? Don’t we already assess individual students’

performances in our classes, labs, internships, etc.? There are many different uses of
the term “assessment.” In this context, we are using “assessment of student
learning outcomes” to refer to the process of gathering and reviewing evidence to
determine the extent to which graduates of the program are achieving the major
educational outcomes intended by the faculty. The primary difference between
assessment in this sense and the type of assessment that we do when we grade an
individual.

Learning outcomes describe measurable knowledge, skills, and behaviors that

students should be able to demonstrate as a result of completing the program.
Student’s test or paper is how the results are analyzed and used. The unit of analysis
in learning outcomes assessment is the program, not individual students. Data on
student performance are gathered and reviewed in the aggregate for the purpose of
evaluating how well the learning goals of the program are being accomplished and if
specific improvements should be made. In contrast, assessment of individual student
performance – typically in the form of course grades – is conducted to provide
feedback to students about their progress. In short, “assessing learning outcomes” is
a form of program and curriculum evaluation. Individual student performance data
can be aggregated for use as evidence for assessment/program evaluation purposes.

To be useful in this context, however, the performance data would need to: (1) be
rated using agreed-upon, standard criteria, and (2) be “rolled up” and analyzed at the
program level. More on how to assess student performance so that it can be used to
evaluate the program is contained in later sections of this document. What is a
“Program”? For purposes of student learning outcomes assessment, the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has defined a “program” as a credit-bearing course of
study that results in a degree or a stand-alone professional certificate.

The following guidance is provided to help determine what programs are required to
submit assessment plans and reports:

• Include all undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral degree major programs, and
free-standing certificate programs. Exclude certificate programs consisting only of
courses from existing degree programs offered to matriculated students.

• Within degree programs, the focus of learning outcomes assessment is the major.
Minors, concentrations, program tracks, and certificates offered only to degree-
seeking students may be assessed separately at the discretion of the dean or chair,
but the results do not need to be reported outside of the department.

• A program with multiple degrees at the same level and a common core curriculum
(e.g., BA and BS in Biology) may submit one report, but should include at least one
unique measure for each degree.

• Graduate programs that only admit students to pursue a doctoral degree but are
approved to award a master’s degree as students’ progress toward the doctorate
may prepare one report. The outcomes should reflect what students know or can do
upon completion of the doctoral degree.

• Programs with residential and distance education versions of the same degree may
submit joint or separate reports, but either way, need to present evidence that
graduates demonstrate equivalent knowledge and skills, regardless of mode of
delivery.

A professional certificate program is defined here as admits non-degree students

whose objective is the development of a specialization in a specific field (for example,
Dental Assisting). An academic program is a credit-bearing course of study that
results in a degree or a professional or stand-alone certificate. Assessing learning
outcomes is a form of program and curriculum evaluation with the goal of
continuous program improvement.
What are Department and Program Faculty Required to Do? Faculty in each program
must develop and keep on file in the deans’ office an assessment plan that
documents their student learning outcomes and how they will be measured. Some
programs measure and review all their outcomes each year. However, many
academic programs have outcomes that are more complicated to measure and
analyze, and their plans may include a tentative schedule for how they will stagger
the assessments across multiple years. According to the University’s policy, each
program will prepare and submit an annual assessment report that describes the
learning outcomes conducted that year and how they have used the results for
program improvement. Deans are responsible for ensuring that these processes take
place, and will appoint Assessment Coordinators within the school to provide local
advice and support for assessment activities. The assessment reports are submitted
to the Provost on an annual basis where they are reviewed by teams consisting of
faculty and staff with expertise in evaluation who offer feedback and assistance to
help programs improve their assessment processes.

Developing Assessment Plans

All assessment plans include:

1. a mission statement,
2. intended learning outcomes, and
3. a description of the methods that will be used to gather data to measure student
achievement of each outcome.

Begin with a brief statement of the mission and general goals for the program
• A brief description of the purpose of the program (usually a paragraph)
• Can include statements about: o Educational values; o Major bodies of
knowledge covered in the curriculum; What the program prepares students for (e.g.,
graduate study, professional positions)
• An example taken from UNC-Chapel Hill websites: Curriculum in Toxicology
(Ph.D.) The Curriculum in Toxicology is an interdisciplinary program dedicated to the
development of future scientists who are knowledgeable in the basic principles of
toxicology and environmental health sciences with in-depth experience in the design,
execution and publication of research relevant to toxicology and human health. An
annual assessment report describes learning outcomes and how they have been used
for program improvement. Identify the intended student learning outcomes of the
program
• The faculty should clearly define learning outcomes for each major in terms
of what a student should know, think, do, or value as a result of completing the
program. Note that the focus is on measuring what students actually learn, not what
the faculty intend to deliver.
• Learning outcomes must be stated in measurable terms. Producing
“educated persons” or an “ethical individuals” or a “good citizens” might be worthy
goals, but such terms need to be operationalized in order to be measured Assessing
Student Learning at the Program Level Determining whether students are achieving
the educational outcomes faculty have established for graduates of their programs is
a critical part of the teaching-learning process. UNC-Chapel Hill requires academic
programs to develop student learning outcomes assessment plans and to report on
how they have used assessment results to enhance their programs.

References

Airasian, P. W. (2000). Classroom Assessment: A concise approach 2nd ed. Boston:

McGraw Hill.

Airasian, P. W. (2005). Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications 3rd ed.

Boston: McGraw Hill.
Panter, Abigail (2017). Introduction to Student Learning Outcomes Assessment.
https://oira.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/297/2017/07/Introduction-to-
SLO-Assessment.pdf

Siarova, H.; Sternadel, D.; Mašidlauskaitė, R., Assessment Practices for 21st Century
Learning: Review of Evidence, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office
of the European Union, 2017. doi: 10.2766/71491