Module 6: Vertical Stresses in Soils

Introduction

The pressure transmitted through grain to grain at the contact points through a soil mass is
termed as intergranular or effective pressure. It is known as effective pressure since this
pressure is responsible for the decrease in the void ratio or increase in the frictional resistance of
a soil mass.

If the pores of a soil mass are filled with water and if a pressure induced into the pore water,
tries to separate the grains, this pressure is termed as pore water pressure or neutral stress. The
effect of this pressure is to increase the volume or decrease the frictional resistance of the soil
mass.

Terzaghi (1925) developed the effective stress concept, which became a key concept in
modern soil mechanics. Effective stress in soil contributes to its strength and volume change. It
also influences the capillary rise, seepage force due to water flow, quicksand (sand boiling), and
heaving at the bottom of the excavation. These are discussed in this module.

Topic Outcomes

1. To determine the stresses in soil by the action of solid particles and water

2. To determine the critical hydraulic gradient in soil with upward seepage that will cause
heaving of soil

3. To determine the additional increase in soil stress caused by surface loads

STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITHOUT SEEPAGE
Figure 80a shows a column of saturated soil mass with no seepage of water in any direction.
The total stress at the elevation of point A can be obtained from the saturated unit weight of the
soil and the unit weight of water above it. Thus,

Figure 80: (a) Effective stress consideration for a saturated soil column without seepage;
(b) forces acting at the points of contact of soil particles at the level of point A
 The total stress, σ, given can be divided into two parts:
1. A portion is carried by water in the continuous void spaces. This portion acts with equal
intensity in all directions.
2. The rest of the total stress is carried by the soil solids at their points of contact. The sum of the
vertical components of the forces developed at the points of contact of the solid particles per unit
cross-sectional area of the soil mass is called the effective stress.

This can be seen by drawing a wavy line, a–a, through point A that passes only through the
points of contact of the solid particles. Let P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pn be the forces that act at the points
of contact of the soil particles (Figure 80b). The sum of the vertical components of all such
forces over the unit cross-sectional area is equal to the effective stress σ’, or

where P1(v), P2(v), P3(v), . . ., Pn(v) are the vertical components of P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pn, respectively,
and Ᾱ is the cross-sectional area of the soil mass under consideration.

Again, if as is the cross-sectional area occupied by solid-to-solid contacts (that is,

as = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an), then the space occupied by water equals ( Ᾱ - as). So we can write

The value of as’ is extremely small and can be neglected for pressure ranges generally
encountered in practical problems. Thus, it can be approximated by

where u is also referred to as neutral stress. Substitution of equation gives

where γ’ = γsat - γw equals the submerged unit weight of soil. Thus, we can see that the effective
stress at any point A is independent of the depth of water, H, above the submerged soil.

Figure 81a shows a layer of submerged soil in a tank where there is no seepage. Figures 81b
through 81d show plots of the variations of the total stress, pore water pressure, and effective
stress, respectively, with depth for a submerged layer of soil placed in a tank with no seepage.

Figure 81: (a) Layer of soil in a tank where there is no seepage; Variation of (b) total stress,
(c) pore water pressure, and (d) effective stress with depth for a submerged soil layer without
seepage
 The principle of effective stress was first developed by Terzaghi (1925, 1936). Skempton
(1960) extended the work of Terzaghi and proposed the relationship between total and effective
stress. In summary, effective stress is approximately the force per unit area carried by the soil
skeleton. The effective stress in a soil mass controls its volume change and strength. Increasing
the effective stress induces soil to move into a denser state of packing.

The effective stress principle is probably the most important concept in geotechnical
engineering. The compressibility and shearing resistance of a soil depend to a great extent on the
effective stress. Thus, the concept of effective stress is significant in solving geotechnical
engineering problems, such as the lateral earth pressure on retaining structures, the load-bearing
capacity and settlement of foundations, and the stability of earth slopes.

Example #1
A soil profile is shown in the figure below . Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure, and
effective stress at points A, B, and C.
STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH UPWARD SEEPAGE
If water is seeping, the effective stress at any point in a soil mass will differ from that in
the static case. It will increase or decrease, depending on the direction of seepage.
Figure 82a shows a layer of granular soil in a tank where upward seepage is caused by
adding water through the valve at the bottom of the tank. The rate of water supply is kept
constant. The loss of head caused by upward seepage between the levels of A and B is h.

Figure 82: (a) Layer of soil in a tank with upward seepage. Variation of (b) total stress;
(c) pore water pressure; and (d) effective stress with depth for a soil layer with upward
seepage

Keeping in mind that the total stress at any point in the soil mass is due solely to the weight
of soil and water above it, we find that the effective stress calculations at points A and B are as
follows:
 The variations of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress with depth are plotted
in Figures 82b through 82d, respectively. A comparison of Figures 81d and 82d shows that the
effective stress at a point located at a depth z measured from the surface of a soil layer is reduced
by an amount izγw because of upward seepage of water. If the rate of seepage and thereby the
hydraulic gradient gradually are increased, a limiting condition will be reached, at which point

where icr = critical hydraulic gradient (for zero effective stress).

Under such a situation, soil stability is lost. This situation generally is referred to as boiling, or a
quick condition.
From the above equation,

For most soils, the value of icr varies from 0.9 to 1.1, with an average of 1.

Example 9.2
A 20-ft thick layer of stiff saturated clay is underlain by a layer of sand (Figure below). The sand
is under artesian pressure. Calculate the maximum depth of cut H that can be made in the clay.
STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH DOWNWARD SEEPAGE
The condition of downward seepage is shown in Figure 83a. The water level in the soil tank
is held constant by adjusting the supply from the top and the outflow at the bottom.

Figure 83: (a) Layer of soil in a tank with downward seepage; variation of (b) total stress;
(c) pore water pressure; (d) effective stress with depth for a soil layer with downward seepage
 The hydraulic gradient caused by the downward seepage equals i = h/H2. The total stress,
pore water pressure, and effective stress at any point C are, respectively,

The variations of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress with depth also are
shown graphically in Figures 83b through 83d.

Seepage Force

The preceding section showed that the effect of seepage is to increase or decrease the
effective stress at a point in a layer of soil. Often, expressing the seepage force per unit volume
of soil is convenient.
In Figure 81, it was shown that, with no seepage, the effective stress at a depth z measured
from the surface of the soil layer in the tank is equal to zγ’. Thus, the effective force on an area A
is

(The direction of the force P1’is shown in Figure 84a.)

Figure 84:Force due to (a) no seepage; (b)

upward seepage; (c) downward seepage on a
volume of soil
 Again, if there is an upward seepage of water in the vertical direction through the same soil
layer, the effective force on an area A at a depth z can be given by

Hence, the decrease in the total force because of seepage is

The volume of the soil contributing to the effective force equals zA, so the seepage force per unit
volume of soil is

The force per unit volume, iγw, for this case acts in the upward direction—that is, in the
direction of flow. This upward force is demonstrated in Figure 84b. Similarly, for downward
seepage, it can be shown that the seepage force in the downward direction per unit volume of
soil is iγw (Figure 84c).
From the preceding discussions, we can conclude that the seepage force per unit volume of
soil is equal to iγw, and in isotropic soils the force acts in the same direction as the direction of
flow. This statement is true for flow in any direction. Flow nets can be used to find the hydraulic
gradient at any point and, thus, the seepage force per unit volume of soil.

Example 9.3

Consider the upward flow of water through a layer of sand in a tank as shown in the figure
below. For the sand, the following are given: void ratio (e) = 0.52 and specific gravity of solids
= 2.67.
a. Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress at points A and B.
b. What is the upward seepage force per unit volume of soil?
STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS DUE TO SURFACE LOADS
Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil-mass due to external vertical loadings
are of great significance in the prediction of settlements of buildings, bridges, embankments and
many other structures. Equations have been developed to compute stresses at any point in a soil
mass on the basis of the theory o f elasticity. According to elastic theory, constant ratios exist
between stresses and strains. For the theory to be applicable, the real requirement is not that the
material necessarily be elastic, but there must be constant ratios between stresses and the
corresponding strains. Therefore, in non-elastic soil masses, the elastic theory may be assumed
to hold so long as the stresses induced in the soil mass are relatively small. Since the stresses in
the subsoil of a structure having adequate factor of safety against shear failure are relatively
small in comparison with the ultimate strength of the material, the soil may be assumed to
behave elastically under such stresses.
When a load is applied to the soil surface , it increases the vertical stresses within the soil
mass. The increased stresses are greatest directly under the loaded area, but extend indefinitely
in all directions. Many formulas based on the theory of elasticity have been used to compute
stresses in soils. They are all similar and differ only in the assumptions made to represent the
elastic conditions of the soil mass. The formulas that are most widely used are the Boussinesq
and Westergaard formulas. These formulas were first developed for point loads acting at the
surface. These formulas have been integrated to give stresses below uniform strip loads and
rectangular loads.
The extent of the elastic layer below the surface loadings may be any one of the following:
1. Infinite in the vertical and horizontal directions.
2. Limited thickness in the vertical direction underlain with a rough rigid base such as a rocky
bed

The loads at the surface may act on flexible or rigid footings. The stress conditions in the
elastic layer below vary according to the rigidity of the footings and the thickness of the elastic
layer. All the external loads considered are vertical loads only as the vertical loads are of
practical importance for computing settlements of foundations.

BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT LOAD

Figure 85 shows a load Q acting at a point 0 on the surface of a semi-infinite solid. A

semi-infinite solid is the one bounded on one side by a horizontal surface, here the surface of the
earth, and infinite in all the other directions. The problem of determining stresses at any point P
at a depth z as a result of a surface point load was solved by Boussinesq (1885) on the following
assumptions.
1. The soil mass is elastic, isotropic, homogeneous and semi-infinite.
2. The soil is weightless.
3. The load is a point load acting on the surface.
 Figure 85: Vertical pressure within an earth mass

The soil is said to be isotropic if there are identical elastic properties throughout the mass
and in every direction through any point of it. The soil is said to be homogeneous if there are
identical elastic properties at every point of the mass in identical directions.
The expression obtained by Boussinesq for computing vertical stress σz , at point P (Fig. 85)
due to a point load Q is

where, r = the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point P below the surface and the
vertical axis through the point load Q .
z = the vertical depth of the point P from the surface .

The values of the Boussinesq coefficient IB can be determined for a number of values of r/z.
The variation of IB with r/z in a graphical form is given in Figure 86 . It can be seen from this
figure that IB has a maximum value of 0.48 a t r/ z = 0, i.e. , indicating thereby that the stress is a
maximum below the point load .
 Figure 86: Values of IB or Iw for use in the Boussinesq
or Westergaard formula

Or in three-dimension,
The relationship for Δσz can be rewritten as

The variation of I1 for various values of r/z is given in Table 14

Table 14: Variation of I1 for Various Values of r/z

Example #1:
Consider a point load P = 5 kN. Calculate the vertical stress increase Δσz at z = 0, 2 m, 4 m, 6 m,
10 m, and 20 m. Given x = 3 m and y = 4 m.

Example #2:
A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground surface. Compute the vertical pressure
(i) at a depth of 4m below the load, (ii) at a distance of 3m at the same depth . Use Boussinesq's
equation
Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Line Load

Figure 87 shows a vertical flexible line load of infinite length that has an intensity q/unit
length on the surface of a semi-infinite soil mass. The vertical stress increase, Δσz, inside the soil
mass can be determined by using the principles of the theory of elasticity, or

The value of Δσz is the additional stress on soil caused by the line load. The value of Δσz does
not include the overburden pressure of the soil above point A.

Figure 87: Line load over the surface of a semi-infinite soil mass
Example #3:
Figure below shows two line loads on the ground surface. Determine the increase of stress at
point A.

Solution:

Vertical Stress Caused by a Horizontal Line Load

Figure 88 shows a horizontal flexible line load on the surface of a semi-infinite soil mass. The
vertical stress increase at point A in the soil mass can be given as

Figure 88: Horizontal line load over

the surface of a semi-infinite soil mass
Example #4:
An inclined line load with a magnitude of 1000 lb/ft is shown in Figure below. Determine the
increase of vertical stress Δσz at point A due to the line load.

Solution:

= 23 lb/ft2

= 10.7 lb/ft2
Vertical Stress Below the Center of a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
Using Boussinesq’s solution for vertical stress Δσz caused by a point load, one also can
develop an expression for the vertical stress below the center of a uniformly loaded flexible
circular area.
From Figure 89, let the intensity of pressure on the circular area of radius R be equal to q.
The total load on the elemental area (shaded in the figure) is equal to qr dr dα. The vertical
stress, dσz, at point A caused by the load on the elemental area (which may be assumed to be a
concentrated load) is:

Figure 89: Vertical stress below the center

of a uniformly loaded flexible circular area

The increase in the stress at point A caused by the entire loaded area can be found by integration:
Vertical Stress Caused by a Rectangularly Loaded Area
Boussinesq’s solution also can be used to calculate the vertical stress increase below a
flexible rectangular loaded area, as shown in Figure 90. The loaded area is located at the ground
surface and has length L and width B. The uniformly distributed load per unit area is equal to q.
To determine the increase in the vertical stress (Δσz) at point A, which is located at depth z
below the corner of the rectangular area, we need to consider a small elemental area dx dy of the
rectangle. The load on this elemental area can be given by

The increase in the stress (dσz) at point A caused by the load dq can be determined by using
Boussinesq formula for point load.

Figure 90: Vertical stress below the corner

of a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular area
 The increase in the stress, at point A caused by the entire loaded area can now be determined
by integrating the preceding equation. We obtain

The increase in the stress at any point below a rectangularly loaded area can be found by
using the above equation. This can be explained by reference to Figure 91.

Figure 91: Increase of stress at any point

below a rectangularly loaded flexible area
 Let us determine the stress at a point below point A’ at depth z. The loaded area can be
divided into four rectangles as shown. The point A’ is the corner common to all four rectangles.
The increase in the stress at depth z below point A’ due to each rectangular area can now be
calculated. The total stress increase caused by the entire loaded area can be given by

Example #5:
The plan of a uniformly loaded rectangular area is shown in the figure below. Determine the
vertical stress increase Δσz below point A’ at a depth of z = 4 m.

Solution:
2:1 APPROXIMATE SLOPE METHOD
Figure 92 shows a B × L rectangular footing on ground surface with a vertical force P,
which is applied on the center of the footing. Vertical stress σv,0 on the ground surface is P/(B ×
L). This σv,0 is redistributed over a wider loading area with increasing depth z. A slope with 2 in
vertical to 1 in horizontal defines spread loading areas within the soil mass. Stress is spread over
an area of (B + z) × (L + z) at depth z. Accordingly, the vertical stress increment Δσv at depth z
can be calculated from

Vertical stress decreases with increasing depth z with increased distributed area as seen in
Figure 92. In this method, it is assumed that the stress is uniformly distributed over (B + z) × (L
+ z) area and it suddenly becomes zero beyond the zone defined by 2:1 slope. The real stress
distribution is, however, a smooth change over the area under the footing with its maximum
value directly under the center of the footing. This is a simple approximate method, and thus it
could be used as a rough estimation of stress increment computation.

Figure 92: Vertical stress increment by approximate 2:1 slope method.

Example #6:
A 5 kN point load is applied at the center of 1 m × 1 m square footing on the ground surface.
Compute and plot the magnitudes of a vertical stress increment under the center of the footing at
the depths 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 m from the ground surface. Use the 2:1 approximate slope method.

Solution:
End of Module Exercises:
1. Point loads of magnitude 2000, 4000, and 6000 lb act at A, B, and C, respectively. Determine
the increase in vertical stress at a depth of 10 ft below point D. Use Boussinesq’s equation.

2. Refer to the figure below. Determine the vertical stress increase, Δσz, at point A with the
following values:
• q1 = 75 kN/m • x1 = 2 m
• q2 = 300 kN/m • x2 = 3 m
•z=2m
3. Refer to the figure. Due to the application of line loads q1 and q2, the vertical stress increase,
Δσz, at A is 30 kN/m2 . Determine the magnitude of q2.

4. The plan of a flexible rectangular loaded area is shown in the figure below. The uniformly
distributed load on the flexible area, q, is 100 kN/m2 . Determine the increase in the vertical
stress, Δσz, at a depth of z = 2 m below
a. Point A
b. Point B
c. Point C

5. Three footings are placed at locations forming an equilateral triangle of 13 ft sides. Each of
the footings carries a vertical load of 112.4 kips. Estimate the vertical pressure increase by
means of the Boussinesq equation at a depth of 9 ft at the following locations :
a. Vertically below the centers of the footings,
b. Below the center of the triangle.
6. Three concentrated loads Ql = 255 kips, Q2 = 450 kips and Q3 = 675 kips act in one vertical
plane and they are placed in the order Ql-Q2-Q3. Their spacings are 13 ft and 10 ft respectively.
Determine the vertical pressure at a depth of 5 ft along the center line of footings.

7. A square footing of size 13 x 13 ft founded on the surface carries a distributed load of 2089
lb/ft2. Determine the increase in pressure at a depth of 10 ft by the 2:1 method

8. A loaded footing ABCD with q = 200 kN/m2 on the ground is shown in the figure below.
Compute Δσz under Points E, F, B, and G at a depth of 5 m

9. 50, 100, and 150 kN point loads are applied at Points A, B, and C, respectively, on the
ground surface as seen in the figure. Compute the vertical stress increment under Point D down
to the depth z = 20 m.
Bibliography
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering; 7th Edition; Braja M. Das

Geotechnical Engineering (Principles and Parctices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation

Engineering); V.N.S. Murthy

Soil Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications; 2nd Edition; Isao Ishibashi, Hemanta Hazarika