PARCHAMENTO, Johnrey Vincent M.

2019-03551-MN-0

ATOMS AND IONS

1. Why is it important to consider the structure of a material while designing and fabricating
engineering components?

As stated in the previous course assignment, the structure of a material refers to the
arrangement of a material’s internal components. Engineering components have properties that
need to be considered before use and implementation. Each component has its own purpose.
These considerations affect a material’s cost, size, weight, strength, fabrication, production, and
assembly of the engineering components to be used. Moreover, the world is constantly changing
so there are factors, such as modernization, environmental issues, and phenomena, that call for
the improvement of these structures through research and development.

2. What is the type of bonding in diamond? Are the properties of diamond commensurate
with the nature of bonding?

Diamond is composed entirely of carbon elements. These carbon atoms are connected to
four other carbon atoms, forming a 109.5 degrees bond. The bonds in diamond are created by
sharing electrons, which is strong covalent bonding. There is no free electron that can bond with
another. For this reason, Diamond is the hardest material in the world topping the Vickers and
Mohs scale. Diamonds also possess the following properties: high thermal conductivity, high
electrical resistivity, chemical corrosion resistance, etc. These properties are commensurate with
its nature of bonding.

3. The periodic table of elements can help us better rationalize trends in properties of
elements and compounds based on elements from different groups. Search the literature
and obtain the coefficients of thermal expansion of elements from Group 4B. Establish a
trend and see if it correlates with the melting temperatures and other properties (e.g.,
bandgap) of these elements.

Group 4B includes the second group of transition metals in the periodic table of elements.
The table below shows the trend between the element’s thermal expansion coefficient, melting
temperatures, and other relevant properties.

Element Thermal Melting Point Boiling Band Gap (eV)

Expansion (°C) Point
Coefficient (°C)

22 Titanium (Ti) 8.5 x 10-6 K-1 1668 3287 3.2

40 Zirconium (Zr) 5.7 x 10-6 K-1 1855 4409 3.84 - 4.51

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 72 Hafnium (Hf) 5.9 x 10-6 K-1 2233 4603 5.3 - 5.7

104 Rutherfordium (Rf) - 2100 5500 -

Based on the table, the following observations were made: As we go down the group, the
thermal expansion coefficient decreases, and the melting point, boiling point and band gap
increases. The thermal expansion coefficient has an inverse relation with the three properties.

4. Turbine blades used in jet engines can be made from such materials as nickel-based
superalloys. We can, in principle, even use ceramic materials such as zirconia or other
alloys based on steels. In some cases, the blades also may have to be coated with a
thermal barrier coating (TBC) to minimize exposure of the blade material to high
temperatures. What design parameters would you consider in selecting a material for the
turbine blade and for the coating that would work successfully in a turbine engine? Note
that different parts of the engine are exposed to different temperatures, and not all blades
are exposed to relatively high operating temperatures. What problems might occur?
Consider the factors such as temperature and humidity in the environment in which the
turbine blades must function.

In designing a turbine blade, we should prioritize the thermal, mechanical, and chemical
properties. These turbine blades should be cost-effective and have the ability to perform its
function without failure. Aside from coating the turbine blades with thermal barrier coating (TBC),
it is worth noting that high creep strength, high temperature fatigue strength, and high temperature
corrosion resistance are important as design parameters for turbine blades. Creep strength refers
to the stress threshold of a material at specified environmental conditions and stress.
Temperature fatigue is a progressive degradation of a material due to cyclic fluctuations in
temperature. Lastly, high temperature corrosion resistance is a parameter since turbine blades
temperature can rise up to 400oC causing the blades to deteriorate. It should withstand both high
and low temperature conditions.
As stated in the question, the different parts of the engine, specifically the turbine blade,
are exposed to different temperatures. It is also important to consider the melting point or
maximum temperature a specific part of the engine can withstand to prevent deformation in the
turbine blades. The different temperature issue primarily causes these turbine blades to be
inefficient, and low life expectancy. Humidity also poses problems in turbine engines. It may
degrade the coating material causing it to corrode quickly.

5. You want to design a material for making kitchen utensils for cooking. The material
should be transparent and withstand repeated heating and cooling. What kind of materials
could be used to design such transparent and durable kitchenware?

Common kitchen utensils were produced to keep up with the kitchen environment,
conditions, and its purpose. If I’m going to design a transparent kitchenware that can withstand
repeated heating and cooling, I will choose glass ceramics, or better known as transparent

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ceramics. These materials are polycrystalline ceramics that can exhibit. Once these materials are
processed, they have a maximum transparency until 1200oC, higher thermal resistance, strength,
hardness, and scratch resistance.

6. You wish to attach aluminum sheets to the frame of the twenty fourth floor of a
skyscraper. You plan to use rivets made of an age hardenable aluminum, but the rivets
must be soft and ductile to close. After the sheets are attached, the rivets must be very
strong. Design a method for producing, using, and strengthening of rivets.

Aluminum alloy rivets are easy to apply to any components such as sheets due to its soft
and ductile properties. After being fastened to the sheets, the aluminum rivets should be stronger
and should demonstrate an increase in strength over time. For that reason, these rivets should
be kept in a refrigerated condition immediately. They cannot be kept at room temperature for a
huge amount of time. It should only be taken out if it will be put into use. After these rivets are
stored in low temperature condition, it will automatically strengthen as it gets acclimated to normal
temperature and the age-hardening process will commence.

7. A good classification looks simple—think, for instance, of the Periodic Table of the
elements. Creating it in the first place, however, is another matter. This lecture introduced
classification schemes that work, meaning that every member of the scheme has a unique
place in it, and any new member can be inserted into its proper position without disrupting
the whole. Try one for yourself. Here are some scenarios. Make sure that each level of the
hierarchy properly contains all those below it. There may be more than one way to do this,
but one is usually better than the others. Test it by thinking how you would use it to find
the information you want.
a. You run a bike shop that stocks bikes of many types, prices, and sizes. You need
a classification system to allow customers to look up your bikes on the internet.
How would you do it?
b. You are asked to organize the inventory of fasteners in your company. There are
several types (snap, screw, rivet) and, within each, a range of materials and sizes.
Devise a classification scheme to store information about them.

a. Classification systems are ways of grouping and organizing data so that they may
be compared with other data. It allows us to browse easier with our specific specifications
in mind that we want. For the bike shop, first I will classify them according to their purpose
or usage. It can either be a mountain bike, road bike, folding bike, special purpose (japan
bike) bike, or a children bike. From their purpose, I will classify them according to the bike
frame. This classification includes Steel, Alloy, and Carbon; with carbon being the lightest
and steel being the heaviest. Along with the bike frame, the typical average speed will also
be considered. Next, I will classify them according to their price ranges. Price range is as
follows (in peso): 0-10k, 11-20k, 21-30k, 31k-above. Lastly, I will classify them according
to sizes: 20’’, 26’’, 27.5’’, 29’’, 36”.
If I’m going to create a hierarchy or classification like the periodic table, I will
compare the purpose or usage as the groups in the table. The type of element (metal,

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 non-metal, metalloids) will correspond to the bike frame. The element number
corresponds to the price ranges and bike size. The frame, price, and size are directly
proportional with each other.

b. A fastener is a temporary or permanent mechanical device that securely joins or

fastens two surfaces or items together. For this classification, first I will consider if the
fastener is permanent or non-permanent. Snap and screws are non-permanent while
rivets and other types of couplings are permanent. From that I will classify them according
to types (snap, screw, and rivet) and from that type I will segregate them according to
specific purpose or for what material the fasteners are used . Lastly, I will classify them
according to head screw shape and groove types. It is also important to consider the
available tools that the customer has or sell them the required tool instead.

8. (a) Can fully cured Bakelite be ground up and reused? Explain. (b) Can polyethylene be
ground up and reused? Explain.

(a) Bakelite is a polymer obtained by polymerization of formaldehyde and phenol, two of the
oldest known polymers that are being synthesized. Despite its notable properties such as
low electrical conductivity and cost effectiveness, a fully cured Bakelite cannot be reused
and ground up. Curing is a hardening of a polymer by cross-linking of polymer chains, and
it is irreversible. Bakelite is also a thermoset, meaning it cannot be reshaped, remolded
and recycled.
(b) Polyethylene is the most common type of consumer plastic. It can be found and used in
our daily lives. A classification for polyethylene plastics was also made based on its
purpose. On top of that, polyethylene can be reused in different forms such as water
bottles, containers, etc. These materials are non-toxic, inexpensive, and recyclable.
Various studies and implementation of polyethylene recycling are being practiced as of
doing this assignment.

9. Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion relates the change in concentration of a diffusing species
with time to the diffusion coefficient and the concentration gradient for non-steady-state
diffusion:

The solution to this partial differential equation depends upon geometry, which imposes
certain boundary conditions. Look up the solution to this equation for a semi-infinite solid
in which the surface concentration is held constant, and the diffusion coefficient is
assumed to be constant. The solution should contain the error function. Report the
following: the boundary conditions, the resulting equation, and a table of the error function

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 Based on my research, Fick’s second law revolves around the concentration gradient
changes with respect to time. It is essential to know this law and understand for precise numerical
simulation of diffusion.

Boundary Conditions:
The initial concentration of solute in the semi-infinite solid is zero, so
C(x,t = 0) = C0
The concentration of solute at the end of the bar is a constant, so
C(x = 0, t) = CS

Resulting Equation:
In a semi-infinite solid, it resembles a stack of non-infinite or thin sources at one end of the solid.
When summing this effects, it will give the following solutions:

C(x,t = 0) = CS - (CS - C0)erf(x/(2√(Dt))

Error Function:
Error function of the concentration is caused by stacking of non-infinite thin sources. It will give
an equation of:

10. (a) Describe the problems associated with metal impurities in silicon devices. (b) What
are the processes involved in the removal of metal impurities from silicon devices by
gettering

(a) Impurities in silicon devices are inevitable. It allows control of the conductivity of the
semiconductor. Due to how impurities and free charge interact, metal impurities in silicon
affect electrical devices. One problem associated with metal impurities in silicon devices
is that they rapidly diffuse in the silicon on higher diffusion coefficients and solubilities at
process temperatures. These metal impurities will accumulate, clogging the minority
carriers. Moreover, these impurities produce low resistance paths in rectifying devices.

(b) Gettering is the process of removing impurities by converting them into more stable
compounds that are insoluble in the liquid metal. These compounds known as getters will
be immersed in liquid metals to collect impurities to be withdrawn. This process is called
hot trapping in industrial application. The process of gettering is as follows: (1) The
impurities to be gettered are discharged into solid solutions from any precipitate they’re
in. (2) It will undergo diffusion through the silicon (3) They will be trapped by defects such
as dislocations in silicon devices or will precipitate away from the device region.

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REFERENCES:

Aerospace – Turbine blade (2022, June 17). Tungaloy Corporation.

https://tungaloy.com/industries/aerospace_turbine-blade/

Addison, C. (2003). Liquid Akali Metals. Encyclopedia of Physical Science and

Technology (Third Edition). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/gettering

Bakelite – Structure, monomers, preparation, properties, uses. (2020, February 23).

BYJUS. https://byjus.com/chemistry/bakelite-structure-properties-application/

Brief introduction of the different classification of fasteners and screws. (n.d). China
Fastener & Screw Manufacturers and Suppliers. http://www.alfirste.cn/news/industry-news/brief-
introduction-of-the-different-classification-of-fasteners-and-screws.html

Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion. (2020). Libretexts Engineering.

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Materials_Science/TLP_Library_I/20%3A_Diffusion/20.02
%3A_Fick's_Second_Law_of_Diffusion

How the burning heart of a jet engine functions without melting. (2021, May 21). Popular
Science. https://www.popsci.com/science/materials-that-handle-hottest-temperatures/

Periodic Table. (n.d). Periodic Table – Ptable. https://ptable.com/#Properties

Transparent ceramics. (2017., June 13). American Elements.

https://www.americanelements.com/transparent-ceramics

Vedantu Content Team. (2022, August 18). The nature of the bond in diamond. Vedantu:
Online Courses. https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/the-nature-of-the-bond-in-diamond-
is-a-ionic-b-class-11-chemistry-cbse-5f7b1ebf156eba0c084f17e5

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