MEDIEVAL PERIOD

1150-1450

 Play of Daniel, von Bingen, Leonin, Perotin, Sumer is icumen, De La Halle, DeVitry,
Mauchaut, Landini, Ciconia, Dunstable, Binchois.

 O.V., Pascha nostrum, Sederunt, Robin et Marion, Notre Dame

Though the church fathers were ambivalent about the place of music in a moral life, music adorned the
liturgy of the church as far back as we can trace. Over the next several centuries, the liturgy continued to
develop until it took on the format for the mass and office that is familiar to the modern-day student of the
medieval church.

This practice resulted in part from the religious reforms of Charlemagne (ca. 742-814), who drew on the
resources of the church in his attempts to unify his empire. He replaced the disparate local and regional
varieties of plainchant (such as Gallican, Mozarabic, and the like) with a single practice. He wisely decided
to send to 'the source,' that is to Rome, for the authoritative versions of chant. The resultant liturgical
practice--in fact, a combination of Frankish and Roman elements--is commonly known as Gregorian chant.

The music of the church can be divided into chants for the mass, which combines a celebration of the Word
of God and of the Eucharist, and those for the office, a daily cycle of services involving psalms and
prayers, though the requiem mass differs from the daily mass in structure, and various processions are
technically paraliturgical. Texts which change every day are called proper, while stable texts which repeat
over most of the church year (such as the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei) are called
ordinary. Chant melodies range from a simple recitational style involving a single pitch (perhaps with some
inflections to provide punctuation), through the straightforward chants which any member of the choir
could sing, to the extremely elaborate soloistic chants. Melodies are also classified by how many notes
there are per syllable: syllabic melodies have one note per syllable; neumatic melodies generally have two
to five notes per syllable; and melismatic melodies have elaborate runs of six or more notes decorating
several syllables over the course of the piece. Every service has a mixture of these styles, providing
dramatic impetus to the liturgical action.

As Carolingian cantors and their successors attempted to grapple with the importation of nearly four
thousand chants for the church year, they developed systems for organizing the musical materials involved.
The pressures of memorization supported, and perhaps instigated, the development of a notational system,
though the familiar square notation of most surviving chant leaves and most modern-day chant books did
not develop fully until the late twelfth century. It also encouraged the development of the system of church
modes, which classify chants by their range, their final (the central pitch of the melody where the tune
usually ends), and their melodic idiom. The spread of liturgical books, with or without notation, likewise
helped to regularize liturgical practice across the realm.

The medieval liturgy has been reconstructed in large part due to the efforts of the Benedictine monks of
Solesmes Abbey in France, who have issued facsimiles of early chant manuscripts and compiled editions
based on those early sources, including the Liber Usualis, which contains chants, prayers and readings for
important services throughout the church year. The Latin liturgy itself, however, has been out of favor since
Vatican II (1962-65).

Though the modern world considers music a 'sounding art' involving melodies, rhythms, and harmonies,
the medieval thinker classified music as a mathematical discipline, part of the quadrivium, along with
geometry, arithmetic, and astronomy. The intellectual study of music--speculative music theory--was a
study of proportions, whereas aspects of actual performed music treated music as a craft. This bias can be
traced back to Boethius (ca. 480-ca. 524) and Martianus Capella .
Throughout the Middle Ages, monasteries and abbeys nurtured music, preserving the quadrivial treatises
alongside practical musical sources. The 9th C library at Reichenau, for instance, boasted copies of works
by Augustine, Isidorus, Cassiodorus, and Boethius, as well as ten antiphoners containing music for the
Divine Office. St. Gall, too, had a vibrant intellectual life as well as an active musical scriptorium which
produced a large number of chant manuscripts in a distinctive musical script. The monastery of St. Martial
housed a rich collection of manuscripts containing monophonic and polyphonic additions to the liturgy
dating from the tenth to the twelfth centuries. Significant sources also survive from Santiago de
Compostela (the Codex Calixtinus which contains music brought by pilgrims to the shrine of St. James),
from St. Denis (a royal abbey in France) and from Las Huelgas (a women's convent in Spain with a
flourishing choir school where the women evidently performed polyphony). Most monasteries of any size
housed at least a few choirbooks containing the chants for either mass or office.

In the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries, composers and performers expanded the liturgy in a number of ways.
New feasts were created (with their attendant music for mass and office), and new music created for chants
of the ordinary. Moreover, the liturgical practice of the past was copied down and spread through staff
notation. Previous notational styles assumed that the reader had an aural familiarity with the piece at hand,
but Guido of Arezzo (ca. 991-d. after 1033) helped to create this new notation which specified the pitches
of a melody precisely through a combination of the staff with one or more clefs to identify the pitches C, F
or (sometimes) G. Guido also developed a system for sightsinging that involved solmization, using pre-
assigned syllables for particular pitches. Guido's system used hexachords, made up of six notes with only a
half-step between the third and fourth and a whole-step elsewhere (ut--re--mi-fa--sol--la); to sing a melody
with a larger range, one 'mutated' or shifted from one hexachord to another. The so-called Guidonian hand
assigned each pitch and its hexachordal names to a knuckle of the hand, serving as a mnemonic device.
Notes lying outside of the hand, including all accidentals except B-flat, were called musica ficta.

In addition to notational innovations, several new genres were established during this period of liturgical
consolidation. The monophonic conductus, also known as the versus, follows a strophic structure, in which
the music is repeated for each successive stanza of poetry. These pieces are thought to have served as
accompaniment to liturgical action, as the celebrant moved from one location to another within the church.
The trope, on the other hand, adds new textual and musical material to a pre- existent liturgical
composition, particularly introits (the introductory chant for the mass) and the shorter chants of the
ordinary. The trope members can come before, in the middle of, or after the host chant; they comment on
and amplify the meaning of the original. The trope members were sung by soloists, even if the host chant
was choral. Some tropes include dialogue and short dramatic interludes, and are thought to be the
forbearers to liturgical drama, which also evolved in this period.

Another new genre is the sequence, a separate choral composition which follows the Alleluia in the mass.
Notker Balbulus (ca. 840-912) claimed to have invented the sequence by putting words to long untexted
melismas as a memory aid; while this claim is probably exaggerated, the sequence as a genre is syllabic and
has irregular phrase lengths which might reflect musical (rather than textual) inspiration. In the sequence,
each musical line usually has one to four clauses, and the entire musical line is commonly repeated before
moving to new musical material, giving a structure of A B B C C D D.... Most sequences were banned by
the Council of Trent (1545-1563), and only five sequences remain in the modern chant repertory.

Finally, the earliest instructions for performing polyphony date to around 900 A.D. Alongside their
discussion of melodic organization of a single voice, the Musica enchiriadis and Scholica enchiriadis give
instructions for performing parallel organum, in which a given melody (the vox principalis) is harmonized
by a second voice (the vox organalis) at a set interval below. When the first voice goes up and down, so
does the second. A slightly more independent sound can be created by starting both parts on the same pitch
and having one voice held steady (known as oblique motion) until the appropriate perfect interval (usually a
fourth or fifth) is reached, and then commencing the parallel motion

Perhaps the most famous composer of this period of liturgical additions was the twelfth-century mystic,
abbess, author, and composer Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179). She wrote antiphons (loosely poetic texts
accompanied by exuberant, rhapsodic melodies) and sequences. She also wrote an early morality play
known as the Ordo virtutum intended for her nuns at Rupertsberg. Hildegard's musical languages falls
outside of the traditional modal practice of her day, which some have attributed to her lack of traditional
musical training, but her literary efforts were sanctioned by the Pope, and the care with which her
manuscripts were created reflects the respect she had within her community.

The use of polyphony to ornament solo chants on special feast days evidently appealed to the medieval ear,
for a version of composed polyphonic writing arose during the eleventh century. Curiously, the composed
varieties of organum placed the original chant line on the bottom, and composed an organal part above the
pre-existent melody. In the new note-against-note (or punctus contra punctum, i.e. contrapuntal) style of
organum, each note of the original was still matched by a single note of the organal voice, but now each
voice could move independently in pitch and direction. Thus, contrary motion supplemented parallel and
oblique motion, though dissonances had to be avoided or resolved with care.

Even more elaborate was the so-called florid organum which developed in south-west France during the
early twelfth century. In this style, the organal voice now had several notes for each note of the principal.
The effect was rhapsodic, but required close coordination between the two soloists, since the rhythm was
not notated, and the bottom voice had to follow along carefully to know when to switch to the next pitch.

Thus, Notre Dame organum, which employs a rhythmic notation, seems to modern ears much more
evolved than its stylistic predecessors. Notre Dame organum employs three distinctive rhythmic styles:
organum purum in which both the upper voice and the lower voice move freely without a specified rhythm,
copula in which the upper part moves in a strict rhythm while the bottom voice moves freely, and discant
in which both parts move in strict rhythm. In all three styles, the lower voice, known as the tenor (from
tenere, to hold), tends to move more slowly than the top. The notation for the rhythmic sections is based on
a group of patterns known as rhythmic modes; once a pattern is selected (e.g. short-long, short-long, short-
long), it continues until a new pattern is adopted. The theorist Anonymous IV (named for its order among
the anonymous treatises contained in Coussemaker's nineteenth-century Scriptorum de musica medii aevi,
1864-1876) discusses six rhythmic modes, and describes the effect that composers were able to achieve
with them. According to his description, Leonin (fl. ca. 1163-90) was an excellent composer of organum
who wrote a cycle of organa for the major feasts of the church year, a collection known as the Magnus liber
organi. His successor Perotin (fl. ca. 1200), however, was better at composing discant, and also wrote for
more than two voices. Perotin's compositions, and those of his anonymous contemporaries, offered
alternative passages in a different style in a sort of a 'mix and match' rendition of the liturgical chant which
served as the basis for the whole work. Thus, their efforts are known as substitute clausula. A piece of
organum, then, would frequently include a mixture of different styles. Moreover, since only the solo
sections were set polyphonically, the organum would also contrast with passages of the original plainchant
sung by the choir in its original monophonic style.

During the thirteenth century, the motet developed out of the substitute clausula by texting the top voice or
voices syllabically. The plainchant segment from a passage of organum--preserved in the bottom- most
tenor voice--retained the word or syllable with which it was originally associated, but the voice above it,
now called the motetus, would have a newly-created text. Various combinations of texts could occur: the
Latin double motet had two syllabic voices, each with different texts, over a plainchant model; some motets
mixed French and Latin; and by the end of the century, two French texts over a plainchant model were
common. In all cases, the texture of the motet was elaborate, and the words hard to understand, since all of
the texts were operating simultaneously. The motet contained staggered cadences, for one or more voices
would continue on as another voice slowed to reflect punctuation or a line ending. As the century
progressed, the texts of the newly composed voices shifted in content from sacred to secular, addressing
love in both its platonic and its earthly guises. Other motets have political or allegorical texts. In some
cases, the text of one voice might contrast ironically with the text of another.

The thirteenth-century motet is frequently contrasted with the polyphonic conductus, which had a single
poetic text for all voices, with aligning rhythms and cadences. It also had a newly-composed tenor line, and
so was constructed quite differently from the motet, which had a pre-existing chant or secular tune as a
tenor
To accommodate the syllabic settings and, eventually, the new rhythmic independence of the melodic lines
within the motet, Franco of Cologne (fl. ca. 1250-1280) proposed a notational system which provided
individual note shapes (the long, breve, and semibreve) to accommodate different rhythmic values. Petrus
de Cruce's (fl. ca. 1290) elaboration on this system allowed even shorter notes. The so-called Franconian
and Petronian motets, then, exhibit a stratified texture in which the top part moves faster (in Petronian style,
much faster) than the middle and lower parts.

 Tetrachord: basic building block, a serious of 4 diatonic notes spanning a P4 & was the smallest
system commonly used in ancient Greek music. Major scale contains 2 tetrachords.
 Boethius: (500) De Institutione musica. Philosopher & poet who was the most revered &
influential authority on music in the middle ages. Said that music prepares one for the study of
philosophy. Wrote on liberal arts in the quadrivium.
 Guido of Arrezzo: Solmization, a sight-singing system using syllables to represent specific pitches
& help students remember the pattern of whole & semitones. Semitone between mi/fa. Presented a
diatonic scale w/pure 4th’s, 5th’s & octaves.
 Music Enchiriadis: Anonymous treatise/handbook on music. Describes 2 kinds of early organum-
parallel and oblique motion. Discusses a musical system based on the tetrachord of the finals of
plainchant d e f g, which is arranged disjunctly.
 Liber Usualis: Selection of the most frequently used chants from both the Antiphonale & the
Graduale. 19th century monks wanted to restore chant to its medieval style & collected the most
commonly used chants. Provided text & music for the most important feasts.
 Matins: before daybreak. From the Divine Offices of the….
 Vepsers: at sunset. From the offices (Canonical hours)
 Neume: Any of the signs employed in the notation of plainshong beginning in about the 9th C.
Earliest music notation, found above words in chantbooks. Simple neumes = up to 3 pitches. More
than 3 are called compound.
 Proper: Items of the Mass & Office of the Roman rite that vary according to church calendar.
Introit, Gradual, Alleluia…The Proper is presented in such a way as to reflect the 2 major cycles
of feasts in the liturgical year.
 Ordinary: Consistent at every mass during the year. Kyria/Gloria/Credo/Sanctus...The melodies of
the sung items of the Ordinary may change with the season or the class of feast. Most often set to
music.
 Authentic Modes: Had their range above the final. The odd numbered modes.
 Plagal Modes: Even-numbered. Range above & below their finals.
 Psalm Tone: A melodic formula to which the verses of the Psalms & certain other texts are sung.
Linked to Byzantine practice. Formulas for reciting the psalms, one for each of the 8 modes.
 Trope: Originally a newly-composed addition to the chant w/a poetic text to one of the antiphonal
chants of the Proper. Words gave commentary on liturgy. Generic term for a variety of musical
interpolations and sung commentaries upon the proper & ordinary. Chants of the mass. One of the
1st ways to show pure creative expression. Preface to regular chant. Abolished by Council Trent.
 Sequence: Started as tropes to alleluia (by adding poetic words to the final melisma), but became
independent pieces. Long, definitely shaped melodies which could be used with different texts.
Tended towards secularism. From the 9th century, these were sung in the Mass after the Alleluia &
before the intoning of the Gospel on major feast days.
 Conductus: A medieval song for oneor more voices w/ a serious, most often sacred, text in
rhythmical latin verse. Term 1st seen in the Codex Calixtinus. moved clerics from place to place in
church. Melody is newly-composed, not borrowed from chant.
 Troubadour (South)/Trouvere(North): Song-inventors. Flourished in aristocratic circles. Wrote
and sang their own songs. Their songs were so diverse, expressive & numerous that they are
viewed as the earliest significant repertoire of vernacular lyric song on Europe.
 Organum: “singing together” Medieval polyphony most often based on a cantus firmus. Intitially
improvised, with the added voice duplicating the preexistent melody at a given consonant interval,
the organum was eventually to be characterized by a sharp distinction, both melodic & temporal,
 between the original voice & the newly composed material. All types used a pre-existing chant
(vox principalis) Early/Parallel- plainsong imitated at a 4th or 5th below. Florid- chant melody is
sustained in the tenor while another voice sings an elaborate independent melody.
 Rhythmic Modes: From Notre Dame polyphony. Patterns indicated by combinations of numbers.
There are 6 modes, each with its own characteristic foot or combination of long/short notes.
Correspond to poetic meters.
 Magnus liber organi: Compiled by Leonin for Notre Dame “Great Book of Organum” which was
a cycle of 2-part Graduals, Alleluia’s & responsories for the church year. Overall, it represents the
largest localized repertory of medieval polyphoney, the 1st to indicate the rhythmic modes & the 1st
examples of 3 and 4-voice polyphoney.
 Clausula: Initially, a cadence. In the 12th & 13th C, it was a passage of Parisian liturgical
polypnony, most often in discant style. The tenor (the voice on which the piece is based) is
typically a melismatic fragment from one of the responsorial chants of the Mass or Office.
Toward the end of the 13th century, it served as the basis for the motet. Polyphonic form that used
a melismatic section of a chant as a cantus firmus. Sections of music where, since the original
chant was so melismatic, ti became necessary to move the tenor along more quickly. Clause or
phrase in discant style for melismatic portions of the chant
 Motet: Autonomous substitute clausulae. Clausulae that eventually cut loose from the larger organ
in which they were imbedded and then began to have a life of their own. Started in Paris & moved
thoughout Europe. The addition of words to clausulae. These words originally were tropes of the
tenor text. The motet-begun as a textual decoration of the polyphony that was itself a decoration of
the chant, inteded to fill a liturgical function & dependent upon the chant in which it was
imbedded- soon became an independent composition. There were 3 phases. First: it denoted a
particular structure: a tenor derived from chant that serces as the foundation for newly composed
upper voices. In the second phase, it denoted a genra: a polyphonic setting of a sacred Latin text.
In the last phase, while it was still known as a type of sacred music, it became associated with a
more serious, imitative style of church polyphony derived from Palestrina.
 Petrus de Cruce: One of the few identifiable 13 C composers who wrote motets where the triplum
voice moves at a much faster pace than the lower voices.
 Hocket: “hiccup” Technique rather than a form where the flow of melody is interrupted by rests,
in such a way that the missing notes are supplied by another voice. The melodic line is distributed
in such a way that as one line sounds the other is silent. Only 11 examples survived, although it is
much-talked about.
 Ars Nova: Coined by Philip de Vitry, “new technique”. This era in music can be marked by
Roman de Fauvel. Duple division of note values now allowed. The emphasis was on polyphonic
song, mainly as seen in the motet.
 Roman de Fauvel: (1310) Earliest 14th C musical document. A manuscript of a long satirical
poem by Germain de Bus. The motet texts are critical of church and political figures. Interpolated
167 pieces of music including motets, ballades, rondeaux, refrains & liturgical chants, some by
Philippe de Vitry.
 Isorhythmic Motet: The repetition of a rhythmic pattern throughout a voice part. The isorhythmic
voice usually contained 2 pattern that were repeated, a rhythmic pattern called talea and a melodic
pattern called color. It had a more complex & interesting rhythmic structer. Tenor used a repeating
melody (color) and a repeating rhythm (talea) which sometimes overlapped. Seen in the 14th C
motets of Machaut
 Ballade: One of the 3 “forme fixes” prominent in the poetry & music of France in the 14th & 15th
centuries Can also be known as Cantilena style. Top voice has the text. 2 lower voices are
instrumental. Guillame Machaut composed settings of 42 ballades, most of them courtly love
songs. The musical form can be described as XXY, representing the 2 sections of the ballade
stanza.
 Virelai: One of the 3 “forme fixes” prominent in the poetry & music of France in the 14th & 15th
centuries, usually with 3 stanzas. Made popular by Machaut, who set 33 of them to music,
Monophonic form- AbbaA- which is largely syllabic.
  Rondeau: The last of the 3 “form fixes”. This one emerged as distinct from the virelai & Ballade
with it’s unique interna. Half-refrain. Experimental genre for Machaut. Rondeaux were also used
to indicate the passage of time and to accompany scene changes in religious dramas.

Renaissance Period
1450-1600
 Dufay, Ockeghem, Issac, Obrecht, de Prez, Willaert, Palestrina, Lassus, Marenzio, Morely,
Gesualdo, de Victoria, Gabrieli, Byrd, Monteverdi, Peri, Downland.

 Innsbruck, Hercules, Deploration, paschali, Marcellus, Orianna, magnum, In eccelsis, Gradualia,

Amarilli, Orfeo, Lamento, Tancredi, Poppea, Euridice, Flow.

This term is applied, in Western music history, to the era lasting from circa 1430 to the end of the 16th
century. The word means 'rebirth', referring to the objective of intellectuals and artists of the time to
repudiate the previous era (the Middle Ages) and to restore the philosophical and artistic ideals of classical
antiquity.

The relationship between this movement and music is complex and it is not easy to cite musical features
that reflect Renaissance ideals, at least until rather later. However, the Renaissance spirit is often felt to be
reflected in such music as the chansons of Dufay and Binchois, with their smoother, more flowing lines,
and particularly in Josquin's music, from the end of the 15th century, in which imitative counterpoint in
four or more parts (replacing the predominant three-part writing of the previous generation) came to be the
norm, with all parts alike in texture and frequent imitative writing. Josquin's music, in particular, is often
paralleled with the beginnings of humanism, at much the same time. This was also the period when, with
the European invention of printing, knowledge began to spread more readily and music came to be
published instead of circulating only in manuscript.

The characteristic musical style of the Renaissance period is the smooth, homogeneous, imitative
polyphonic style, used by Palestrina, Lassus and Byrd. It was used not only in sacred music (predominantly
masses and motets) but also in secular madrigals and instrumental consort music. The favoured instrument
was the lute, which during the 16th century became established as the standard instrument for domestic
music-making.

The Renaissance period was succeeded by the Baroque. Elements of Baroque style are found early in the
second half of the 16th century but Renaissance imitative polyphony remained in use, particularly in sacred
music, during the 17th century and beyond, widely recognized as a fitting manner for church music.

 Caccia: Landini.“chase” In Italian poetic & musical genre of the 14th and early 15th centuries.
Most of the surviging works havce 2 texted upper voices in canon & a textless tenore that does not
participate in the canon. Canon at the unison with lively, descriptive words. Irregular poetic form,
sometimes with a ritornello.
 Musica Ficta: (Josquin & the Ren. Motet) “False or feigned” In music theory before the end of
the 16th century, notes outside of the gamut or Guidonian hand. The term is now often used loosely
to describe intended accidentals left unwritten in the original manuscripts, but added in
performance or editing.
 Mensuration Canon: (Ockeghem) 2 voices moving at different speeds to a single written melody.
 Cantus Firmus: A preexistent melody used as the basis of a new polyphonic composition. Can be
derived from sacred or secular music or freely invented. Composition on a cantus firmus
dominated the music of the 14th & 15th centuries, particularly sacred vocal music. Mass Ordinary
cycle in which each movement is based on a different plainsong melody.
 L’homme arme: (Dufay) 15th century melody that was widely used as a cantus firmus of
polyphonic Masses. Dufay, Ockeghem, Obrecht, & Josquin. The origins of the melody are in
doubt, although it has been attributed to Busnois.
 Imitation Mass: The name Lewis Lockwood used to replace “parody mass” because it eliminated
confusion with parody technique.
 Parody Mass: Original name for “imitation mass”, a cyclic Mass based on a polyphonic model,
making use of the model’s motivic construction & quoting more than one of its voices. A large
percentage of 16th century masses are these type that offer little room for experimentation.
 Contrafactum: A vocal work in which a new text has been substituted for the original one, could
be sacred instead of secular. Used by the troubadores & the Minnesingers of Germany.
 Fauxbourdon: A 15th century French technique of composition, employed in short pieces or
sections within longer pieces. Melody/cantus firmus is now on top, with harmony below in 3rds &
6ths. Dufay.
 Humanism: Movement that revived ancient learning, encouraged expression of emotions in
music. Pivotal in the Renaissance’s radical changes in its approach to composition. Revived the
doctrine of ethos.
 Petrucci: Printer who produced the 1st collection of polyphony using moveable type in 1501.
Published in Venice. Wrote frottole in northern Italy.
 Odhecaton: The anthology (see above) by Petrucci containing 96 songs, most French chansons
without text.
 Chanson: French secular polyphonic song setting of the 3 formes fixes, the 1st surviving is by de
la Halle. Homophonic in style with the principal voice generally occupying the middle position.
Dominated by Machaut through the 15th.
 Musica Reservata: “reserved”, referring to a style suited to those with greater musical training.
While there has been some debate on the precise meaning of the term, it generally refers to the
whole range of techniques applicable to text expression. Sensitivity to the text. Using composition
to express certain things, like block chords for Christ’s burial & fast notes for his resurrection.
This text-oriented style was exemplified in the music of Josquin.
 Frottola: A piece from a repertory of secular music written in northern Italy. The word has
popular, rustic connotations. Very popular genre of songs sung at noble courts. 11 collections
written by Petrucci. 4-part strophic songs, homophonic, melody in top voice. Direct predecessor of
the madrigal. Considered a generic term w/ several distinct versions.
 Madrigal: Italy. Carefully matched musical settings to the structure & meaning of a one-stanza
poem in free rhyme scheme, closely modeled on canzoni. Petrarchan language is commonly
employed. Generally written for four to six voices that may or may not be accompanied.
 Madrigalism: Word painting. A musical effect intended to illustrate, usually in a rather literal
way, some aspect of the text in a vocal composition.
 Tablature: Music for lute notated to show where to place the finger on the string.
 Pavane: 16th century court dance of Italy. Slow, processional type of dance from the peacock.
Duple meter. Used as the 1st dance in a set of dances.
 Galliard: Lively dance in triple meter, following the pavan. “Merry” This, w/Pavane, is the
precursor to the Baroque dance suite (Sarabande & Gigue).
 Ricercare: Instrumental version of the Renaissance motet. Predecessor of fugue. Brief, serious
composition for organ or clavier. Develops one theme continuously in imitation. a keyboard or
lute composition of an introductory nature.
 Syntagma Musicum: (A Systematic Treatise of Music) by Praetorius, include woodcut
illustrations of instruments of the time.
 Fitzwilliam Virginal Book: (virginal= English harpsichord) Most comprehensive collection of
keyboard music. Hand-copied manuscript of 300 works by the principal English composers of the
time. Most are slow dance tunes or familiar songs.
 Camerata: gathering of noblemen & musicians who met regularly, in the late 16th century, to
discuss and experiment with art. This group of scholars desired to see a revival of Greek thinking
and learning. In music, they wanted to re-create the expressive power of ancient Greek music
through a new manner of solo song & a belief that ancient Greek drama was sung throughout.
Indirectly lead to opera.
 Baroque Period
(1600-1750)

 1625: Frescobaldi, Schutz, Schein, Cavalli, Froberger

 1650: Gaultier, Cesti,
 1675: Corelli, Purcell,
 1725: Vivaldi, Telemann, Lully, Rameau,
 1740: J.S.Bach, Scarlatti, Handel

 Symphoniae Sacrae, Saul, Banchetto, Rhetorique, pomo d’oro, Twelve solo sonatas, Dido,
l’harmonie, WTC, Offering, Jeptha, Casare, Semele

Baroque era covers the period between 1600 and 1750 beginning with Monteverdi (birth of opera)
and ending with the deaths of Bach and Handel. The term Baroque music is borrowed from the
art history. It follows the Renaissance era (1400 to 1600). It was initially considered to be a
‘corrupt dialect of Renaissance’ by conservatives.

The dominant trends in Baroque music correspond to those in Baroque art and literature. Among
the general characteristics of Baroque art is a sense of movement, energy, and tension (whether
real or implied). Strong contrasts of light and shadow enhance the dramatic effects of many
paintings and sculptures. In music, the Baroque era is the era of style-consciousness. The means
of verbal representation in Baroque music were indirect -intellectual and pictorial-. In Baroque
music, representation of extreme affections called for a richer vocabulary. Opera is one of the
foremost innovations of the Baroque era which allowed the realization of extreme affections in
music. It represents melodic freedom. In early Baroque era, no tonal direction existed, but
experiments in pre-tonal harmony led to the creation of tonality.

The philosophy of Baroque music is that music represents the emotions (affections) of real life
and, in so doing, excites the listener’s emotions. Music must express emotions and it must move
the listener. It is generally agreed that Italian Baroque music expressed the emotions (passions or
affections) best. Baroque music was the end-result of a search for new modes of expression.
During this process, a concern for formal organisation resulted in the development of tonal
system (replacing the modal system).

Renaissance music (stile antico) was so rigid and structured and learnt by academic training. The
new concept (stile moderno) was a vehicle of spontaneous expression. Both practices existed
side by side. Some composers used both styles; stile antico in church music and stile moderno in
secular vocal music. One of the most important creations of Baroque was the concept of contrast
as in Baroque art (like loud and soft, solo and tutti, high and low, fast and slow). Numerous
composers used the concerto or concertanto style (meaning a style with a marked contrasting
element). The term Baroque denotes the inner stylistic unity of the period. The most important
unifying feature of all Baroque music is the characteristic accompanying part, the basso continuo
(Baroque era is usually referred to as the ‘thorough-bass period’). A bass line is followed by a
continuo player(s) above which a figure is written to indicate what additional notes should be
played to fill in the harmony (figured bass). A typical Baroque piece consists of a melodic line for
a voice (more typically two melodic lines as in trio sonata), a bass line for a continuo instrument
such as cello or bassoon playing the written line, and a plucked (chitarrone) or keyboard
instrument (harpsichord or organ) playing the figured chords (mainly improvising) to fill the
intervening space between the two poles. The result is the polarity of outer parts.

Baroque music has unique idioms (specific style/character) and it is an idiomatic form.
Composers began to write music specifically for a particular medium, such as the violin or the
solo voice, rather than music with interchangeable or no idioms that might be either sung or
played by almost any combination of voices and instruments, as had previously been the case.
Before 1600, as the church had been the centre of music, vocal music had been dominating, and
the instrumental music had been written for any instrument. After 1600, the violin became the
main instrument and developed its idioms. Instrumental and vocal styles began to be
differentiated, eventually becoming so distinct that the composers could borrow vocal idioms in
instrumental writing, and vice versa. This transfer of idioms between instruments forms one of the
most fascinating aspects of Baroque music. In the late Baroque music, a rich interchange and
interpenetration of idioms is observed, i.e., transfer of lute ornaments to keyboard or vocal
techniques to violin. Nobody can mistake the violin character of a Baroque concerto grosso
(persistent figuration to maintain the same affekt).

The Baroque preference for extreme contrast had a decisive influence on the range of musical
instruments. The desire for deeper bass resulted in lowering the register of harpsichord and
organ, addition of bass strings to the lute and enlargement of the lute family by bigger members.
The double bassoon and contrabass trombone were created. With its treble character, the violin
became the queen of the instruments. Among the wind instruments, the bassoon and shawm,
reborn as oboe, survived. At the close of the seventeenth century, the French horn and clarinet
were added to the wind ensemble. Because of their quiet sound in the enlarging ensemble, the
viol family, recorder and harpsichord did not have a long life span and eventually became
obsolete.

In Renaissance , harmony was the master of the word; in Baroque music, however, the word is
the master of harmony or, music is subservient to the words. The outermost voices (bass and
soprano) acquired a dominant position forming the skeleton of the composition. The rest could be
filled in by the improvising continuo player in this structural contour. Choral music had risen to its
apogee in the 16th century and the turn of instrumental music had come.

 Prima/secunda practica: Monteverdi characterized Zarlino’s style as prima & his own as secunda,
in which Zerlino’s rules could be broken in the interest of text expression. Term used in Italy in
the early 17th century to distinguish the Renaissance polyphonic style from the Baroque, where
text dominates the music.
 Basso Continuo: Thoroughbass. Figured bass from which the cembalist or organist played.
Individual chords may be specified by figures written above, below or beside the bass notes. This
method was essential to ensemble music. The creation of a complete texture from a figured-bass
part is termed its realization. Composer wrote out melody & bass; bass played on a continuo
instrument.
 Intermedi: Italian spectacular & elaborate musical productions w/choruses starting in the
Renaissance, soloists & large instrumental ensembles. An instrumental interlude between the acts
of a performance. Early opera made use of the subject matter & even had intermedi of their own
through the 17th century.
 Monody: Music consisting of a single melodic line, usually for a solo singer accompanied by
basso continuo. Various styles, recitative, aria & madrigal- quickly infiltrated all kinds of music.
Made musical theater possible because text could be conveyed quickly & w/expression. Embraced
all the styles of solo singing of the early 17th C in Italy. e.g. Frottola.
 Chaconne: Dance song with a refrain. Originated in Latin America, then came to Europe via
Spain. An ostinato or ground bass variation form of Baroque music in 3/4 time similar to the
passacaglia. A set of variations composed upon a continually repeated chord progression
 Passacaglia: A continuous variation form which originated in Spain as a pattern of chords played
between the strophes of a song (i.e., a ritornello). Evolved into a variety of 4-bar bass formulas
repeated continuously. Usually in minor and triple. Played on a guitar. By 18th C, this term was
interchangeable with Chaconne.
 Concertato: Italian. Of or pertaining to works of the early 17th C that combine & contrast vocal &
instrumental forces, especially through the intro. Of the thoroughbass. Either a genre or a style of
music in which groups of instruments or voices share a melody, usually in alternation, and almost
always over a basso continuo. Practice of writing separate parts for voices and instruments or
different groups. Not a style, but char. Mingling of voices with instruments no longer doubling,
but used as independent voices.
 Stile Concitato: Instruments play interludes portraying action in the story. A name given to a
musical style expressing anger and agitation by Monteverdi, who invented these interludes for
instruments to play in which various parts of action are imitated or suggested. Used in his Poppea.
It was based on a division of the whole note into 16 sixteenth notes.
 Cori Spezzati: (Gabrielli) “Broken choirs” Divided choirs in Venetian music. Encouraged the
homophonic type of choral A style of performance with groups of singers placed in different
locations of a building.
 Basso Ostinato: Interchangeable term with “ground bass”. A pattern of notes, most often a single
melodic phrase set in the bass, that is repeated over & over again during the course of a vocal or
instr. Composition. Ground bass that is repeated, intact, while the melody above it changes.
 Cantata: Originated in Italy, although most closely associated with Bach. By the mid-17th C the
term was applied to any composition for solo voice with continuo in several sections, including
recitatives , set pieces & arias. May be either secular or sacred in subject matter & function. Range
from small-scale works for solo singer to large with chorus & orchestral accompaniment. .
 Oratorio: Prayer hall. An extended musical setting of a text based on religious or ethical subject
matter, consisting of narrative, dramatic & contemplative elements. Most were written in Italian
during the counter-reformation attempt to attract large audiences. Began in Rome as a sacred
dialogue combining narrative, dialogue and exhortation. Influenced by opera, but not staged.
Large scale dramatic composition with text ususally based on religious subjects.
 Canzona: “song” Italian. A song-like work for voice or instrument. Sectional pieces in imitative
counterpoint. A graceful and somewhat elaborate air in two or three strains or divisions. This term
can also be taken to mean an air in two or three parts with passages of fugue and imitation,
something like a madrigal.
 Toccata: Virtuoso comp. for keyboard or plucked string instr. Featuring sections of brilliant
passage work, with or without imitative or fugal interludes. Chief form of keyboard music in
improvisatory style. It often served as an introduction to a fugue.
 Sonata da chiesa: (Corelli) Baroque instrumental work intended for performance in a church.
Serious style seen in much fugal writing and fewer dance movements than the “camera”. Organ
used for the continuos.Generally in four movements, slow, fast, slow, fast.
 Sonata da camera: A Baroque style of sonata, called a "chamber sonata" to distinguish it from the
sonata da chiesa. Associated with the dance. Usually consisted of a suite of stylized dances,
performed either by a small ensemble or by a soloist.
 Trio Sonata: Most common type of Baroque instrumental chamber music. Two violins and
continuo. Written in three voices- two separate melody lines and the basso continuo part requiring
four players to perform.
 Style Brise (Couperin) Broken style. Essential feature of French lute music. Fr. Baroque term used
to describe arpeggiated style of keyboard music. French composers adapted lute music for the
keyboard.
 Recitativo Accompagnato: One of 2 distinct types of recitative in 1700’s opera. Accompanied by
the orchestra as opposed to continuo instruments. Rapid changes of emotion in dialogue reinforced
in the orchestra. Emphasized tense moments in the drama and was accompanied by the orchestra.
 Da Capo Aria: “to the head” A lyric song in ternary or A-B-A form. Most common form of music
in early 1700’s. Basic scheme that permitted infinite variations in detail. Form of Neopolitan opera
(came from Florence, then Venice). By the end of the 1700’s, it began to be criticized by Gluck &
others for being merely a singer’s plaything & thus its form began to change.
 Tragedie lyrique: French version of opera seria. From Lully’s Cadmus, by way of combining
elements of the ballet & drama. Drew its subject from Greek mythology or chivalric romance.
Eventually, the form deteriorated in quality & importance because it became more spectacle.
 Masque: A form of entertainment involving costumes, scenery, dances, music & poetry that
flourished in England in Tudor & Stuart times. The subject matter was usually mythological,
allegorical or heroic.
 Singspiel: Musico-dramatic work with a German text. Spoken dialogue alternates with songs &
sometimes with ensembles, choruses or more extended musical pieces. Arias were more eclectic
and independent. Mozart’s Magic Flute & Abduction from the Seraglio are 2 examples.
 Chorale Prelude: Composition for organ based on a German Protestant chorale melody. Short
piece in which the entire melody is presented just once in recognizable form. Started as functional
liturgical music. Bach was a master, as evidenced in his Orgelbuchlein, which he intended to be a
collection for the entire church year, but was never finished.
 Chorale Cantata: A chorale is a hymn of the Lutheran church, usually written for four-voice
harmony. A cantata based on the words or on both words & melody of a German Protestant
chorale. Several types of chorales were written by J. S. Bach, which serve as a basis for the rules
of part-writing. The melody is usually in the top voice, with supporting harmony in the lower
voices.
 Scordatura: Particularly lutes & violins. Used to facilitate or make available otherwise difficult or
impossible pitch combinations. First done by lutenists in Italy. Unusual tunings in solo sonatas.
Used to extend an instrument’s range, or to make certain passages easier or more possible to
perform- e.g. the 5th unaccompanied cello suite of Bach. Popular 1600-1750, but rarely used now.
 Equal Temperament: All 12 pitches in the octave are equidistant, not widely employed. All
intervals are less than true, but acceptable. (early 16th C)
 Mean-tone temperament: Slightly larger M3’s & slightly smaller P5th’s to give the keyboard
sweeter sounding 3rds & 6ths. Some keys sound better than others.
 Suite/Partita: A series of disparate instrumental movements with some element of unity, most
often to be performed as a single work. Invidvidual movements are almost always short &
contrasting. Bach wrote nearly 40 suites, come called partitas, for solo instruments. Best known
are his solo violin & keyboard partitas.
 Concerto Grosso: a small group of solo instruments (the concertino) plays in opposition to a
larger ensemble (the ripieno).
 Ripieno: “tutti” or “all”. The ripieno orchestra consisted of strings and basso continuo. Used in a
concerto grosso.
 Ritornello: The recurring tutti section of a concerto movement or an aria. Descended from the 17th
century where it was an instrumental section of some kind of vocal work. A short, recurring
instrumental passage in Baroque aria and concerti, particularly in a tutti section.
 Guerre des bouffons: A dispute, carried on principally in an exchange of several dozen published
letters & pamphlets over the relative merits of French & Italian music. Intellectual war in France
between fans of Italian Comic & French serious operas. As a result, the operas of Lully/Rameau
fell out of favor.
 French Overture: Established by Lully, instr. pieces in 2 parts that not only introed operas &
large pieces, but also appeared as independent compositions. The original aim was to create a
festive atmosphere & welcome the king. 1st section in a slow, dotted rhythm & the 2nd was a fast
fugal section, e.g. the opening to Handel’s Messiah.
 Classical Period
(1750-1825)
 1750: Gluck
 1775: CPE Bach, Haydn, JC Bach
 1780: Mozart
 1810: Beethoven,
 1825: Weber, Meyerbeer, Rossini

 Alceste, Essay on the True Art, Farewell Symphony, London Symphony, Quartets, Idomeneo,
Rasumovsky, Diabelli, Kreutzer, Der Freischutz, Huguenots, Barbiere di Siviglia, Guillame Tell,

By the death of JS Bach in 1750, a major successor to Baroque style was not available. The period between
then (or even 1730) and the start of the (high) Classical era in 1780, is called the early Classical period.
Even before the death of JS Bach, there was a movement towards replacing majestic splendor by graceful
delicacy. If Baroque music is notable for its textural intricacy, the Classical music is characterized by a
near-obsession with its structural clarity. The search for intellectual freedom was to be the main principle of
this new age of enlightenment. A more spontaneous musical expression was preferred. The better known
composers of the pre-classical era were Gluck, Boccherini and CPE, WF and JC Bach brothers.

The end of Baroque coincides with the Rococo period which is a reaction to the formalism, rigidity, and
seriousness of Baroque. The pre-classical Rococo style flourished around 1720. Music with refined
ornamentation can be seen as counterpart to the movement in architecture. It represents the breakdown of
the severe grandeur of high Baroque music with graceful music and detailed elaboration. In music, the term
Rococo has been too loosely applied and the term galant is more appropriate. One of the earliest composers
wrote in galant style was F. Couperin (1668-1733) in France (his keyboard character pieces). This style can
be summarized as pleasing tunefulness and prettiness. Music was designed to be entertaining. Seriousness
was avoided. Polyphony was replaced by a single melody placed uppermost in a composition and supplied
with most transparent harmony (homophonic texture=melody with chordal accompaniment). The melody
consisted of short motives cast in four- or eight-bar phrases (instead of an uninterrupted stream of music
with a single affekt). Repetition of short phrases became the characteristic of stile galant. Music stopped for
frequent cadences but freely used sevenths and diminished sevenths. The elements of the grand Baroque
style were abandoned. Among those were basso continuo, contrapuntal texture and polyphonic writing.
Inner parts were fully written out. The mood of music was changeable in the same piece as opposed to
constant affekt of Baroque music. Establishing a single emotional quality and maintaining it throughout a
composition seemed constricting to the younger composers. A meaning was given to the music by
providing titles for them (program music). The flute and solo voice used frequently. The Classical period
saw the introduction of a form which has dominated instrumental composition to the present day: the
sonata-form emerged from the rounded binary form of Baroque during this period. It appeared in
embryonic form in A. Scarlatti's opera overtures, D. Scarlatti's sonatas, Pergolesi's trio sonatas,
Sammartini's and Monn's sinfonias.

The German equivalent of style galant was empfindsamer Stil (sensitive style) represented mainly by CPE
Bach. This style expressed a wider range of emotions. This style was a refined passionateness and
melancholy. This is expressed through surprising turns of harmony, chromaticism, nervous rhythmic
figures and free speech-like melody. Bach's music expressed contrasting emotions in close juxtaposition.
CPE Bach was among the leading composers who brought sonata principle to the concerto. Baroque
textures were abandoned, and a series of textures in which chordal patterns, running figures, unsupported
melodies, and other devices alternated according to the expressive requirements of the composer. The long
lines of Baroque music were still used but conflicted with the desire to create expressive variety. The
balance between variety and unity was accomplished only by later Viennese composers. The inner voices
were raised to the level of real accompaniments. Motives derived from the melody often appeared in the
inner voices. The bass was freed from its old function of providing merely a continuous harmonic support.
It could now become melodic. A new era of fully written-out music, free in texture and varied in emotional
content started. The Germans played a significant role in the development of abstract forms, such as sonata
form, and in the development of large instrumental genres, such as concerto, sonata, and symphony.
In the new era, the role of the harpsichord as a continue player was no longer needed. Instead it became a
solo instrument in concertos of the new type (especially by CPE Bach). With the abandonment of figured-
bass, the trio sonata vanished. It was replaced by harpsichord sonata accompanied by violin, or cello or
both. The roles of the harpsichord and string instruments were reversed. With the advent of the piano, the
sonatas for piano and violin or cello, or piano trios became fashionable. The three string instruments of the
trio sonata was complemented by viola for additional harmonic support and the modern string quartet
resulted. Much of the music for a string quartet was cast in the form of the divertimento which originated
about the beginning of the Rococo period. This was written purely for entertainment purposes.

The enlightenment age brought about nationalism and humanitarian ideas. Mysticism and superstitions
faded. The idea of extending culture to the ordinary people resulted in the emergence of opera buffa (opera
comique in France) in native languages and for public performances. The buffa style appeared about 1730
and is characterized by an exuberant, simple, lively, seemingly spontaneous style.

The eminent centers of the early classical era were Mannheim and Vienna. The Mannheim school was
developed through the efforts of Johann Stamitz who was the violinist and concertmaster of the Mannheim
orchestra. Stamitz has a place in the music history owing to his development of a new style of composition
and orchestration. Stamitz also contributed to the development of the sonata principle in the first movement
of symphonies. Stamitz's second theme, in contrast to his dramatic, striking, or incisive first theme, is often
filled with cantabile expressiveness, bringing a lyric note into the symphony. Abrupt dynamic changes in
short intervals were first introduced by the Mannheim orchestra. Stamitz also expanded the movement
scheme of symphony from fast-slow-fast to fast-slow-minuet-fast (first used by GM Monn). This plan
became a standard in symphonies and string quartet during Haydn's early musical life.

 Style Galant: (J.C. Bach) A less linear style. A clear, elegant, uncomplicated style that arose in
contrast to the more complex style of Baroque counterpoint. It is light, graceful, sometimes witty,
and very pleasing to listen to. This style of music rejected the old figured bass and replaced it with
the more lively murky bass and Alberti bass. Later exemplified in the works of Mozart.
 Empfindsamer Stil:(CPE Bach)The north German “sensitive” or “sentimental” style of the mid-
18th C. The goal of the style was the direct, natural, sensitive & often subjective expression of
emotion. A refined passion & melancholy that characterizes some slow movements & obbligato
recitatives in particular. Movement occurring in German instrumental music during the early 18th
century and characterized by an emphasis upon the expression of a variety of deeply felt emotions
within a musical work. This aesthetic is typical of an age that was much given to the expression of
moving sentiments not only in art but in everyday life. This merged together with Style Galant to
eventually be Classical music.
 Metastasio: Italian poet who gave opera seria its standard formulation. His dramas were set to
music hundreds of times. Librettos dominated 18th C opera.
 Opera Seria: Serious opera. Presented a conflict of human passions in an action-based on some
story from an ancient Greek/Latin author. 3-act operas of the 18th and 19th centuries that was
either heroic or tragic. Performed throughout Europe except France.
 Opera Buffa: Comic Opera is derived from short entertaining scenes (typically with funny
servants) that were played between the acts of serious opera. These were found in operas before
the mid 17th century. The comic opera, or Italian Opera Buffa, is an outgrowth of these scenes and
developed as a completely independent genre. There are several varieties of comic opera: Itailian
Opera Buffa, French Opéra Comique, English Ballad Opera, and German Singspiel.
 Ballad Opera: English form which rose to popularity after the success of Beggar’s Opera. Spoken
dialogue alternates with songs consisting of new words fit to traditional or familiar tunes.
Consisted of popular tunes with a few parodies of familiar arias.
 Mannheim Orchestra: Led by Johann Stamitz, the orchestra was renowned for its virtuosity,
dynamic range, and effective use of crescendo. In the mid-18th century, Mannheim became a great
center of music in Germany. Due to the magnificent musicians and lively musical atmosphere of
that town, several musical innovations took place there and were named after it.
 Lorenzo da Ponte: Librettist for Mozart’s operas: Figaro, Giovanni, Cosi, Abduction & Magic
Flute. Lifted Opera Buffa to a higher level of literature by giving greater depth to characters,
intensifying social situations & playing with moral issues.
 Melodrama: Theatrical genre combining spoken dialogue with background music. May be found
in operas or plays, or may stand-alone as a complete form of entertainment. One of the most
famous examples of melodrama can be found in act 2 scene 1 of Beethoven’s Fidelio.
 Romantic Period
(1825-1900)
 1825: Schubert, Donizetti, Bellini
 1840: Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann
 1875: Wagner, Verdi, Brahms, Bizet, Saint-Saens, J. Strauss, Liszt, Tchaikovsky,
Mussorgsky, Gounoud, Smetana, Dubois

 Wanderer, Lucia, Norma, Grande Messe de Morts, Harold en Italie, Troyens, Hebrides, Italian
Symph, Scottish Symph, Spring Symph, Kreislerania, Symphonic Etudes, Frauenliebe und leben,
Rigoletto, Don Carlos, Falstaff, Boris Godunov, Pictures, Bartered Bride, Variations on a theme
by Haydn, 7 Last Words of Christ, Peer Gynt, Sheherazade, Enigma, Italienisches Liederbuch,
Children’s Corner Suite, Salome, Quixote, Also sprach, Eulenspiegel, Gaspard, La Valse,
Daphnis, Tombeau

Classicism is conservatism in creativity with emphasis on balance, control, proportion, symmetry and
restraint. Romanticism is a more radical kind of expression, it seeks out the new, the curious, and the
adventurous. It is characterized by restless seeking and impulsive reaction. Romantic art differs from
classic art by its greater emphasis on the qualities of remoteness and strangeness. A fundamental trait of
Romanticism is boundlessnes. Throughout the Romantic period, the human mind was peculiarly attracted
by disproportionate and excessive features. The tiny piano piece and the brief lyrical song, forms which had
been of no consequence during the Classical period, now assumed the highest significance. On the other
hand, the moderate length of the classical symphony and opera was hugely extended (Mahler's symphonies,
Wagner's operas). As against the classic ideals of order, equilibrium, control, and perfection within
acknowledged limits, Romanticism cherishes freedom of expression, movement, passion, and endless
pursuit of the unattainable (fantasy and imagination); a search for new subject matters. Because its goal can
never be attained, romantic art is haunted by a spirit of longing.
At this period, the arts of literature and painting began to influence music. In the Romantic era,
music acquired poetic or philosophical meaning. Antiquity, folklore, history and exotic cultures were
examined as possible sources of inspiration. Romanticism in literature appears to precede the first signs of
Romantic music (for example Goethe and Wordsworth). The romantic movement was fostered especially
by a number of German writers and poets. Their influence on musicians was pervasive and enduring. Thus,
a fertilization of music by poetry, fiction, philosophy and painting took place, and with it was associated a
further fertilization by the spirit of nationalism. Weber, Schumann, Wagner expressing the German spirit;
Chopin, Poland; Liszt, Hungary; Dvorak, Bohemia; Grieg, Norway, etc.
Romantic traits can be identified in the music of Monteverdi (Poppea), JS Bach (chromatic organ
works, program music) or Handel (expressive arias). It is possible to sense the ground for the predominant
Romanticism of the nineteenth century being prepared from the time in 1740s when 'feeling' came to be
consciously valued when the galant style and its German counterpart Empfindsamkeit were at its height
(especially in the works of CPE Bach). Another precedent for Romanticism is found in the musical
connections with the literary movement known as Sturm und Drang (dramatic works of Gluck in 1760s and
some of Haydn's symphonies from the early 1770s such as Trauersinfonie and the Farewell). These
temporary movements, however, did not progress to Romanticism. Classicism and Romanticism represent
qualities which co-existed throughout the periods of musical history (1750-1900) [concurrent tendencies]
normally assigned to one or the other. The change from Classic to Romantic is, in essence, a change of
emphasis, not a sudden, total transformation. Musical Romanticism is more style than language
characterized by Nationalism, Realism, Impressionism, and Expressionism. It remained faithful to tonality
and to metrical periodicity. Emotion became more urgent and intense as form became freer and tone color
richer. Remaining mainly tonal, Romantic music became more chromatic, the melodic structure remained
periodic but phrase structure became less regular. Music became more poetic than abstract, more melodic
than harmonic and more organic than mosaic.
 Program Music: Music that, most often explicitly, attempts to express or depict one or more
nonmusical ideas, images or events. The composer usually indicates the “program” (the subject
being evoked) by a suggestive title or preface. Instrumental music associated with poetic,
descriptive or narrative subject matter. Became a weapon in the battle to gain respect for
 instrumental music. Compositions with extra-musical content that directs the attention of the
listener to a literary or pictorial association especially popular in the 19th century.
 Sturm und drang: A movement in German literature of the 2nd half of the 18th C that had as its
goal the powerful, shocking, even violent expression of emotion. Seen in the works of Goethe &
Schiller. Musically, it is a style of composition that communicates emotions of stress, fear, horror,
anxiety, etc. Used mostly in German music of the Romantic era, especially in German opera &
other stage music, especially the melodrama.
 Idee Fixe: French “obsession”. Berlioz’s term for the recurring musical idea linking the several
movements of his Symph Fantastique in 1830. Idea is associated with the image of the beloved.
 Symphonic Poem: Continuous form with sections in contrasting character & tempo. Liszt wrote
12, like les Preludes. Relatively short & not divided into separate movements.
 Mazurka: Lively Polish dance in triple meter with the accent usually on the 2nd or 3rd beat of each
measure. Popular in the 18th & 19th C’s. Can be seen in the compositions for piano by Chopin.
 Liederkreis: German word for song cycle. Schumann wrote 2 collections, Frauenlieben und leben
& Dichterlieb in 1840.
 Rescue Opera: Style that became popular in France after the fall of the monarchy The main hero
is rescued from certain death at the last moments, e.g. Fidelio.
 Grand Opera: In 19th-C France, a work suitable for performance at the Paris Opera. Implied a
serious work on a historical subject, in 4 or 5 acts, including chorus & ballet, with the text fully set
musically. For example, Meyerbeer’s Les Huguenots.It contained huge choruses, serious plots,
elaborate dance episodes, ornate costumes, and spectacular scenery.
 Verismo: “Realism” Began in Italy as a literary movement. Operas w/librettos portraying
everyday people in familiar situations, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.vLandmark
work is Mascagni’s Cavalleria rusticana. Also Puccini.
 Cavatina: In 19th C Italian opera, it is the entrance aria of a principal singer. See in Rossini,
Donizetti, Bellini & Verdi. Signifying a short aria without da capo. Originally from the Baroque
period. Carefully composed aria, with instrumental accompaniment, set to blank or rhymed verse
and not in da capo form.
 Cabaletta: In 19th C Italian opera, the concluding portion of an aria or duet with several sections
The final movement in a lively style for one or two soloists. Repeats, sometimes
w/embellishments. Cantabile & cabaletta constitute the aria.
 Bel Canto: “beautiful singing” A style of singing that emphasizes the beauty of sound throughout
the entire voice range. A tender, pure & sympathetic legato that is the opposite of bravura singing.
An elegant style characterized by florid melodic lines delivered by voices of great agility,
smoothness & purity of tone.
 Leitmotif: A musical fragment, related to some aspect of the drama, that recurs in the course of an
opera. 1st seen in the music of Carl Maria von Weber. A musical theme or motive associated with a
person, thing, emotion or idea in the drama. The 1st occurrence is usually in the orchestra at the 1st
appearance of the thing represented. 1st Most associated with the operas of Wagner.
 Gesamtkunstwerk: Poetry, scenery, staging, action and music worked together to createtotal or
joint artwork. The ruling ideal of Wagner’s form is the absolute oneness of dramatic idea, unlike
conventional opera, in which song dominates & the libretto is mainly a framework for the music.
 Mighty Five: (handful) Five russian composers band together in the 19th c to study folk music and
exotic scales. Rimsky-Korsakov, Mussorgsky, Glinka & Borodin.1st composers to create a
distinctively Russian music.
 Impressionism: A term principally applied to the style cultivated by Claude Debussy. An artistic
movement exemplified in the paintings of Monet, concerned with atmosphere, color & light. Also
to Delius & Ravel. A blurring of classical forms, exaggerated attention to musical color, and a
focus on modal and chromatic progressions rather than tonal ones.
 Expressionism: Major feature is a restructuring of external reality through exaggeration &
distortion. German painters depicted real objects in distorted representations to reflect their
feelings. In music, it portrays the inner emotional life of the modern person. It is the opposite of
impressionism, which attempts to depict external objects. Schoenberg & Berg. Sought to represent
inner feelings & man as he existed in the modern world & as described by modern psychology.
 20th Century Period
(1910-1950)

 1925: Siblelius, Gershwin, Rachmaninoff, Holst, Weill, Schoenberg, Vaughn-Williams, Ives,

Bartok, Stravinsky, Berg, Prokoviev, Hindemith, Sessions, Thomson, Cowell.
 1950: Copland, Poulenc, Shostakovich, Tippett, Messiaen, Barber, Britten, Stockhausen.

 Theme by Paganini, Planets, 3-Penny, Pierrot, Verklarte, Pastoral Symphony, Theme/Tallis, 3

Places in NE, Concord Sonata, Bluebeard’s Castle, Mikrokosmos, Strings/Perc/Celesta, L’Histoire
du Soldat, Pulcinella, Le Noces, Oedipus Rex, Wozzek, Lulu, Lyric Suite, Moses und Aaron,
Classical Symphony, Mathis der Maler, 4 saints in 3 acts, The Banshee….(1950)Appalachian
Spring, Les Dialogues, Leningrad, Quartor pour le fin du temps, Dover Beach, Peter Grimes, War
Requiem, Gesan der Junglinge, Kavierstruck XI

With the coming of the 20th century another evolution in the musical world emerged. While some of
the early 20th century music can be seen as extensions of the late Romantic style, much of 20th century
music can be seen as a rebellion. Composers did not look to build on what was standard but again created
music freely and used sounds that went against the current grain. Twentieth century music can be described
as being more refined, vague in form, delicate, and having a mysterious atmosphere.

Twentieth century music is an era that is hard to define in terms of musical style. The only easy
way to define 20th century music is that it does not fit into the Romantic era's requirements. And because
of its own expression and orchestral technique it does not fit into any other category but its own.

     As was true in the Romantic era, nationalism was still an important musical device used during the first
half of the 20th century. Composers utilized folk songs to enrich their music. Examples can be seen in the
music of Vaughan Williams (England), Bartok (Hungary), Heitor Villa Lobos (Brazil) and Aaron Copland
(USA). Jazz and popular musical styles influenced composers from both the United States and Europe.

In 20th century musical styles traditional forms and structures were broken up and recreated or
composed using non-Western musical techniques and abstract ideas. Technology also became an extremely
important factor in the music making during this time period. Composers have been known to use recording
tape as a compositional tool. Electronically created sounds are used in combination with other electronic
sounds or played together with traditional music instruments. Most recently, the use of computer
technology has affected the world of music making. Some ways in which computers currently alter the face
of the music world are by manipulating the performance of instruments in real time.

 Neoclassicism: Stravisnsky, in particular, is associated with this leaning toward more balance,
obejectivity and absolute music (as opp. To program), leaving Russian nationalism behind. Chief
characteristics are ovjectivity & expressive restraint. Sought to absorb new discoveries w/o losing
the continuity with tradition by holding onto some recognizably familiar features.
 Gebrauchsmusik: German. Workaday music, intended to be immediately useful or accissivle to a
large public, e.g., music for films. Hindemith esp. began composing this “music for use” to close
the gap between composers & the public (incl. Mathis der Mahler, the opera).
 Polytonality: Two or more simultaneous harmonic planes. Bartok & Milhaud used it, but not to
negate tonality altogether.
 Octatonic Scale: Scale of 8 pitches per octave arranged by alternating half & whole steps. Only 3
arrangements of this scale.
 Atonality: Literally, the absence of tonality. Marked by a weakening or suppression of the
defining conditions of tonality. Initially meant the elimination of the necessity for a central tonic
triad & for the diatonic harmonies functionally relating to it. Music that is not based on a key
center. Music centered around no central key or scale. Schoenberg wrote music based on sets,
series or rows of 12 tones, a trend that is seen in late Romantic music.
 Pitchsets: 12 tone method developed by Schoenberg where the basis is a row or series consisting
of all 12 pitches arranged in an order chosen by the composer. The rows are used as melodies,
harmony or counterpoint. They may be transposed, inverted or in retrograde. All 12 pitches are
exhausted before starting again. The entire pitch structure of the composition is then derived from
the row, or pitch-set, including its melodic, contrapuntal & harmonic features.
 Sprechstimme: “speaking voice”Used by Schoenberg, the use of speaking voice to approximate
written pitches while keeping close to the rhythm, e.g. Pierrot Lunaire. A vocal style in which the
melody is spoken at approximate pitches rather than sung on exact pitches. Avoids the sustaining
of any pitch.
 Sprechgesang: “speech-song”A style of vocalization between singing & speaking.
 Serialism: Music constructed according to permutations of a group of elements placed in a certain
order or series. These elements may include pitches, durations, or virtually any other musical
values. The term is generally reserved for music that extends classical Schoenbergian 12-tone
pitch techniques and, especially, applies serial control to other musical elements, such as duration.
Characterized by a high degree of precompositional planning. Leading figures were Stockhausen,
Boulez & Babbitt.
 Combinatoriality: A technique developed by Schoenberg for controlling the relationship between
2 different forms of a row used simultaneously. A row is combinatorial if half of one of its forms
can be combined with half of one of its other forms without producing any pitch duplications
between the 2 halves. Thus, the 2 hexachords, one from each row from, combine to create a new
12-tone aggregate. The special property of combining row forms simultaneously, w/o duplications
of pitch sets before all pitches have occurred.
 Nonretrogradable Rhythm: one which is the same when performed backward.

Modern Period
(1950-present)

 1950: Stockhausen
 1975: Carter, Babbitt, Boulez, Schnittke, Reich, Penderecki, Glass Adams, Berio, Crumb,
Verese

 Le Marteau sans Maitre, Threnody…Hiroshima, Einstein on the Beach, Nixon in China, Sinfonia
1968, Sequenza, Philomel, Ancient Voices, Black Angels.

 Musique concrete: French. From the 50’s & 60’s, developed in Paris. Raw material consisted of
musical tones or other natural sounds which, after being transformed in various ways by electronic
means, assembled on tape to be played back.
 Indeterminancy: (chance) Used in Aleatory music. Leaves at least one element to the discretion of
the performer. The degree of freedom is programmed for each composition. Composer may give
performers a selection of choices.
 Open Form: John Cage. Uses the idea of interdeterminancy or chance. Performers may choose for
themselves or have their choices dictated by a device. Indeterminate contemporary music in
which some details of a composition are clearly indicated, but the overall form is left to choice or
chance.
 Metric Modulation: Elliott Carter experimented with this, in which the tempo changes
proportionally as in some 15th C music.
 Minimalism: Composers aim at reducing the range of compositional materials through the use of
repetition and static harmony. In the 60’s inspiration was found in the traditions of Asia. Indian
ragas use changing patterns in controlled improvisation. Sythesizers created the ability to
improvise over prerecorded patterns.
 Post modernism: In architecture, a turning away from the belief in a linear history and toward an
inclusive attitude that admits the style of all epochs as the architect sees fit. The musical
equivalent is the use of musical styles and quotations from all periods of music.
Medieval: (vonBing/Binchois) 1150-1450 To Memorize:
Renaissance: (Dufay to Dowland) 1450-1600 *Epochs w/composer bookends.
Baroque: (Schein to Scarlatti) 1600-1750 *Start year for each century w/exceptions.
Classical: (Gluck to Rossini) 1750-1825 *How each century breaks down.
Romantic: (Schubert to Ravel) 1825-1910 *Acronym for combined centuries.
20th Century: (Sibelius to Copland) 1910-1950 *Acronym for each century.
Modern: (Stockhausen to Reich) 1950-present *Sentences within each century.

 1150, 1225, 1350, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1725 (+40/80), 1810 (+40/no 50), 1900
1780/Mozart 1810/Beethoven 1925/no acronym

 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 4, 4

 Anonymous Monti & Vivian Beethoven are Divorcing (1st sentence to write)

1150: Amy von Brenneman / Lives! (3rd group to write) Anonymous-2nd group to write
1225: P / A / D-wan learner (only 25) Peridontist
1350: DeVitry / Makes Land Divides
1400: C / D B D / O Cheeky
1500: Isaac & Obrecht Prez / that Willaert / Lassos Palestrina Israelis

1600: Monteverdi Married Geraldo deVictoria

while Peri Grabbed More Byrds Downland Monti’s
1625: Shiny Frobergers Shoot Cavemen FreshBaldies Shiny
1650: Chesti Gauls have Chest
1675: Coral Purses Corrupts

1725: Vivid Television Lulls Rameau’s Coupe. Vivian

1740: Bach Handels Scarlatti Bach
1750: Goodluck with that Percoset Glues
1775: C.P.A.’s Hide-in J.C. Penney’s CPE to
1780: Mozart Mozart

1810: Beethoven Beethoven’s

1825: Miss Weber loves oscarMeyerbeer’s Rossi spumante, but Web
Schubert Don’t like Bellini’s martini.
1840: Bears were Chopin up Mendel’s son Schumann Bears
1875: Wagner & Verdi Lisztened to Tchaikovsky’s Modest but Wagner
Good Smelt Brag while Saintsaitionally Bizzy
blanche DuBois dated levi J. Strauss.

1900: Divorced Greg Rimsky-Korsavoved his way to Elegant Divorcing

miss Wolf’s sMahler Foreign Puccini Debut
until R. Strauss UnrRavelled.
1925: Sibelius, Sessions, Gershwin, Rachman, Holst, Weill,
Schoenberg, Ives, Cowell Vaughn-Will, Bartok, Strav, Siblings’
Berg, Prokov, Hinde, Verese, Thompson.
1950: Barber & Britten Messed up a Stock Tipp when Shastaclause Barbershop
got Pooled over by a Cop.
1975: Crumby Penderecki took Adam’s Glass from Berio’s Rabbitt, Crumbles
but president Carter was in a Schnitt when Boulez
Vareasiyly drank Reichling.
1150: Anonymous von Bingen/ Leonin
1225: Perotin/ Anonymous / De La Halle
1350: DeVitry/ Mauchaut, Landini
1400: Cicconia/ Dunstable, Binchois, Dufay / Ockeghem
1500: Isaac, Obrecht, de Prez/ Willaert / Lasso, Palestrina

1600: Monteverdi, Marenzio, Gesualdo, De Victoria, Peri, Gabrielli, Morely, Byrd, Dowland
1625: Schein, Froberger, Schutz, Cavalli, Frescobaldi
1650: Cesti, Gaultier
1675: Corelli, Purcell

1725: Vivaldi, Telemann, Lully, Rameau, Couperin

1740: Bach, Handel, Scarlatti
1750: Gluck, Pergolesi
1775: C.P.E. Bach, Haydn, J.C. Bach
1780: Mozart

1810: Beethoven
1825: von Weber, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Schubert, Donizetti, Bellini
1840: Berlioz, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schumann
1875: Wagner, Verdi, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Goudnod, Smetana, Brahms
Saint-Saens, Bizet, Dubois, J. Strauss

1900: Dvorak, Grieg, Rimsky-Kors., Elgar, Wolf, Mahler, Faure, Puccini, Debussy, R. Strauss, Ravel
1925: Sibelius, Sessions, Gershwin, Rachmaninov, Holst, Weill, Schoenberg, Ives, Cowell, Bartok,
Vaughn-Williams, Stravinski, Berg, Prokoviev, Hindemith, Thompson, Webern.
1950: Barber, Britten, Messiaen, Stockhausen, Tippett, Shostakovich, Poulenc, Copland.
1975: Crumb, Penderecki, Adams, Glass, Berio, Babbitt, Carter, Schnittke, Boulez, Verese, Reich