Public Policy and Administration Research www.iiste.

org
ISSN 2224-5731(Paper) ISSN 2225-0972(Online)
Vol.4, No.11, 2014

A Critical Discourse Analysis of Election Manifestos of Pakistani

Political Parties
UshnaNadeem Dr Muhammad Asim Mahmood Dr. Rashid Mahmood
Government College University of Faisalabad
*Email of corresponding auther:ushnanadeem12@yahoo.com

Abstract
Present research aims at conducting Critical Discourse Analysis of election manifestoes of the major political
parties of Pakistan by using corpus-driven methodology.Corpora have been compiled from the manifestos of
three major political parties: PPP, PTI and PML-N from elections 2008 and 2013. The major purpose of the
study is to explore the agendas of political parties hidden in the manifestos through grammatical and lexical
features. Lexical fields, passive voice, nouns, verbs, pronouns have been studied in detail in order to generate
multiple meanings. Comparative study of manifestos reflects that political parties have dual contexts behind
simple statements.The research is expected to be significant in the sense that it may provide the covert
information to laymen and might make them more aware of the alternative choice available to them in the form
of the political parties.
Keywords: CDA, Corpus-driven, Manifestos, Political discourse, POS.

1.Introduction
discourse analysis. CDA is a development of awareness against the manipulation and inequality.
Vandijk(2006)Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach to discourse analysis that is concerned with
highlighting social issues through discourse analysis and exposes the non-transparent relations that are related to
discursive practices. It unveils ‘the underlying prejudices and exercise of power in the text’ (Widdoson, 2000,
p.157). Discourse analysis is the point where language meets ideology. CDA analyzes this ideological dimension
of political discourse. It points out the job of discourse structures in constituting inequality. It has a lot to do with
political discourse. Politicians use planned language in order to persuade and influence the people. They have the
ability to sustain and prolong their power and to appeal the harmony of the voters through language that supports
their own benefits. CDA analyzes such discourse patterns and exposes the purposes behind political statements.
Manipulation is one of the vital concepts in critical discusses manipulation as an important notion of discourse
analysis and offers triangulated approach to manipulation. He considers three forms of manipulation that are
social power abuse, cognitive mind control and discursive interaction. Manipulation has always a relationship
with cognition as it involves the process of understanding. It has positive connotation as well that can be called
as persuasion. In the present study CDA evaluates the positive manipulation in which the interlocutors are active
listeners and use their mind. CDA focuses on the wider socio-cultural context supporting the hidden connections
and investigates how these transparent relations earn power and leadership. It analyses the language by keeping
this view in mind that whatever we speak is purposeful. Language users, through their manipulative and
ideological intentions strive to maintain their status naming them as reality. This is where their hegemonic
control over people lies.
Manifestos are considered very important for masses of the country because they present an outlook and
view of the politicians. Present study unfolds the hidden aspects of election manifestos through corpus-driven
methodology and generates new insight in order to facilitate the electors. It is mainly concerned with the analysis
of persuasive strategies and its ideological components. It is exploratory in nature and determines to find out the
similarities and differences between the manifestos of parties. The study investigates the manifestos of three
major political parties of Pakistan namely PPP, PML and PTI from year 2008 and 2013. The research studies
both lexical and grammatical features e.g. verbs, nouns, pronoun, and passive vice in order to accomplish the
thought representation of the political artists. Frequencies of linguistic features gathered from ANTCONC 3.2.1
have been estimated through quantitative analysis. It brings into light the common people how the political
parties accomplish their agendas behind the scene by manipulating the opinion of the people.

2.Literature Review
“Discourse is the study of any aspect of language use” (Fasold, 1990, p.65). The purpose of discourse is to find
out how speech patterns work in specific structure and how they are utilized and exploited in society.
Itdesignates the particular ways that represent the particular aspects of social life. Critical discourse analysis
(CDA) is an approach to discourse analysis which is distinguished from the other forms of discourse analysis
because of its characteristic of ‘critical’.Fairclough (1993) opines, “Critical implies showing connections and
causes that are hidden: it also implies intervention, for example providing resources for those who may be
disadvantaged through change” (p.9).It was developed beyond critical linguistics and broadened the scope of

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analysis. It analyzes the linguistic and semiotic aspects of the text in the light of social and political context.CDA
is an interdisciplinary approach that studies the textual structures in relation to society and observes the relation
of the text with other texts.Vandijk (1998) states about CDA, “Most kinds of CDA will ask questions about the
way specific discourse structures are deployed in the reproduction of social dominance, whether they are part of
a conversation or a news report or other genres and contexts” (p.131).
CDA approaches the political discourse in which social structures determine the discursive
practices.These discursive practices refer to the rules of socially acceptable behaviors in a particular character
that help to produce and interpret a message specific message. CDA is linked with these practices in this way
that it tries to create a link between these practices, actual text and larger social context.Van Dijk (1995) states
that discourse analysis is actually ideology analysis. According to him, “ideologies are typically, though not
exclusively, expressed and reproduced in discourse and communication, including non-verbal semiotic messages,
such as pictures, photographs, movies” (p.17). Mind control and manipulation are two important concepts in
CDA that are achieved through political discourse.Controlling the minds of the audience is a major trick by
politicians to reproduce hegemony. Manipulation and mind control have their relation with cognition. The word
exploitation can be replaced by the words ‘hidden meaning’ in CDA. Meanings of the words transform
according to the speaker.
There lies a relationship between linguistics and CDA. The form and structure of the text consist of the
hidden information that exists in the text and reflect the attitude of the dominant group. Wodak (2001) asserts
that CDA’s interest resides in identifying how the linguistic forms are used in manipulation and exploitation.
Similarly, Schaffner (1996) adds to the importance of language in analyzing the political discourse that in
political discourse linguistics has a concern with linguistic structures in order to get relevant messages across the
address in order to fulfil a specific function. Another thing that can be related to CDA is cognitive linguistics.
Cognitive linguistics consists of a number of theories which are concerned with different aspects of linguistic
structures/ conceptual structures like conceptual metaphor theory, mental space theory, frame semantics and
cognitive grammar. So, cognitive linguistics is an apparent and obvious option for CDA. Its involvement to
linguistic structures is confined to sentence only.
The present study reflects clear connection between language and power and shows how the power is
secured through artistic use of language in political discourse. The research exposes how human beings are
manipulated by politicians and it is the manipulation of their minds through construction of mental
models.Bourdieu (1991) states about political discourse:
Political discourse is often important because the result of that discourse, and this in turn is why CDA is,
in my opinion, an interesting approach. In other words, it is not the language itself which has wider
ramifications which make it a worthy field of study but rather consequence of powerful person using
that language to achieve some goal (p.188).
Manifestos are the representatives of genre of writing that is political discourse. MacDonald (2001)
states in this regard that Parties usually issue a manifesto in which they outline the policies they advocate.
Elections manifestos formulate ideological goals and aims (cf.ex.1). An elector can have an estimate on party’s
position on ethnic and cultural and racial grounds. Manifestos facilitate the voter to base her/his decision on the
basis of party’s position on issues and vision that party hold. Manifesto text can be regarded as persuasive text.
What actually CDA locates in political discourse of manifestos is very important thing because words
represent the personalities. The words right and almost right convey two different meanings in political
discourse. CDA lets slip the reality though linguistic analysis of the political text.One of the aims of CDA is to
“demystify” discourses by deciphering ideologies” (Wodak 2002, p.6). Ideological components can be analyzed
through linguistic analysis based on critical discourse analysis because linguistic behavior owns a relationship
with political behavior and it constitutes a context. Political parties create a specific image through language in
front of the voters. Savola (2008) has analyzed the language through linguistic features utilizing the approach of
Critical Discourse Analysis. She uses lexical, grammatical and rhetorical features.She has focused on the verbs
that depict their value and policies for example, encourage, introduce and establish.She focuses on the tense
used by the political party. Similarly, Dobson (2007) also conducts an analysis by applying seven dimensions of
intertextuality like discourse representation, negation, presupposition, metadiscourse, irony, coherence and
subject in order to reveal the secret intentions of the politicians that reflect from their language. One central thing
about CDA is that it explores a link between the textual structures and their functions in interaction to society.
CDA may be regarded as ‘identifier of expressions’ in analyzing the manifesto language.It identifies the
particular and meaningful units in manifestos and other genre text.Soule (2006) monitors the construction and
negotiation of meaning in Scottish political discourse.She takes a special interest in describing the rhetorical
strategies used by politicians to develop an image of their identity and individuality. Our words are never
disinterested (Fiske, 1994).In political discourse words and context are not indifferent to each other.Manifesto
language meets two purposes. It can be used for influencing as well as persuading the electors by tracing the
discursive construction key issues. CDA is the too that exposes the facts and realities behind the words through

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linguistic features.Assessment or comparison between election manifestos contains a meaningful purpose that
exposes the reality in front of the voters. Sometimes, political parties are bound to keep divergence and
convergence of views on similar problems. Khan (2003) conducts a comparative study on manifestos of major
political parties in election 2002 in order to make the emerging trends and the focus of political forces on
national issues vivid in front of the voter.
CDA includes corpus methodology in research as well. Corpus studies have two approaches that are
corpus driven and corpus based approach. Concordance line in corpus methodology opens new directions of
analysis in political discourse of manifestos. It shows the words in the context in which they are used.
Computational tool in discourse analysis really help the researcher because it combines the qualitative and
quantitative approach. Computer generated concordance helps a lot in CDA. It allows the researcher to describe
the semantic and syntactic properties of the lexical items exhaustively. Exact number of occurrence is always
better than generalization.Mautner (1995) details the concordance as given below:
This is the most ‘mechanical’, but none the less important, application—the concordance is the most useful
research tool, allowing the analyst to retain a much firmer grip on the corpus than would otherwise be
possible. This is likely to pay off handsomely both in the research as well as in the writing up-stage (p.24).
Hote and Lemmens (2009) have carried out a corpus based study of labour election manifestos (1997,
2001, and 2005). It is an analysis of change and improvement in the discourse of new labour. The study proves
that new labour has proved herself as the representative of new and positive change. This success is achieved by
careful use of language. They have used metaphors of change.WMatrix software has been used for corpus
analysis and corpus comparison. A mix method approach has been used for the validity of results. They have
collected the data on the basis of frequency from keywords. A concept of newness has been presented that
invites a positive interpretation.
CDA is one of the clear options for corpus based studies. Computational analysis helps in CDA by
unraveling those discourses which construct the reality, identities and social relations. There lies difference in
corpus linguistics and CDA.
Many researchers have conducted the study by combining CDA and corpus methodology. Jaffries and
Evans (2013) have conducted a corpus based study of British manifestos (1900-2010). This study investigates
the use of term ‘Choice’ that comes across different changes with the passage of time.They used corpora in order
to discover the timings and speed of the rise of this politically significant word choice. Concordance lines
revealed that certain structures containing the word choice were repeated by the political parties. Each file was
loaded to the computer corpora programme WMatrix (2009). Researchers in CDA contend that the meanings of
the words like choice, freedom and democracy change with time in order to become good and more effective
over time.
This study, in contrast to other researches, is comparative and exploratory in nature. It uses corpus
driven methodology and finds out the use of nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and passive voice in manifestos.

3.Methodology
The study uses corpus driven methodology for critical discourse analysis of election manifestos. Eight
manifestos have been chosen from year 2008 and 2013 and combined into complete text file. The corpora have
been tagged by using CLAWS c7 Tagset and Multi Dimensional Analysis Tagger (MAT). Concordance lines
have studied in order to extract the parts of speech (nouns, verbs, pronouns) and passive voice and to calculate
the frequencies through ANTCONC 3.2.1. Word Smith 4 has been used to calculate the keywords.The data has
been collected from the instances occurring in manifestos through keyword list and frequency. Data has been
interpreted on the basis of usage of linguistic features in manifestos.

4. Data Analysis and Discussion.

The following discussion focuses upon lexical and grammatical features (passive voice, singular and plural
nouns, verb/present form/past form/ modal auxiliaries) of the study.

4.1Passive voice
Passive voice plays most significant role in producing the context that is not apparent.The frequency of agentless
passives in PPP is 504. The occurrence of passive voice in PML is 632 and it has 263 occurrences in PTI
manifestos.
Table 4.1 Frequency of passive voice in manifestos
PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
Passive voice 153 351 179 453 95 168

In passive construction though the agent is unknown, yet it is known and can be identified by the reader easily.

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CDA discovers that different parties use passive voice for the same purpose. The major difference lies in
frequency. Passive voice is a clear option for all the parties. PML-N uses the passive construction recurrently as
compared to all other parties. CDA investigates that the agent is anonymous but still it can be recognized that
they are talking about their own achievements during their time. Passive voice is used by all the parties for
objectivity and to quit responsibility because if the agent is unknown, the expression is softened. It happens
wherever parties talk about the improvement. Passive voice is a trick to achieve the hidden agendas and it helps
to make things less decisive that favors the interests of parties.
Merit based job system will be established (PTI).
The first fibre optic infrastructure for telecommunication was also installed during this period (PML).
Gilgit Baltistan was given self rule (PPP).

4.2Pronouns
Pronominal choice has a direct link with cognitive manipulation. The most important thing is to whom political
parties refer when they use specific pronouns. Present study uses personal pronouns (I, We, They) and possessive
pronouns (my, our, your and their).
Table 4.2 Pronouns in manifestos
PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
We 50 573 8 `34 16 29
Our 29 536 11 46 44 16
Us 03 11 0 5 1 2
They 06 19 9 7 4 3
Their 28 98 15 55 27 27
Them 07 25 9 24 10 7
I 0 2 0 2 0 1
Me 0 0 0 0 0 4
My 0 4 0 1 0 1
You 0 1 0 3 0 2

Personal pronouns have a stronger link with the connection of influence, authority and solidarity.All
the personal pronouns are used correctly whether consciously or unconsciously because people are very clearly
excluded or included. However, ‘we’ pronoun and its variants are most important among them as it refers to the
thing that is most important for political parties.
All the parties use pronoun ‘we’ for different purposes like for nation and party. One feature is common
in all the parties that they use pronoun ‘we’ as party frequently. However, PPP makes a clear difference in the
frequencies of ‘we’ as nation and ‘we’ as country. The frequency of we asnationin PPP manifestos is 37 whereas
it has 586 occurrences for we as party.PML has 25 occurrences for we as nation and 17 frequency for we as
nation. Similarly, PTI has 21 frequencies of we as nation and 24 occurrences for we as party. CDA points out
that ‘we’ and ‘us’for partyis used by all the parties to highlight the good characteristics of the speaker. It is
manipulation of mind. Political parties try to convince the people by telling about their achievements in their era
and their future plan whatever they will do for the country and for the pinched masses if they will rule.We is used
for nation where politicians want to show a kind of unity and they make them ready to face the hardships of
circumstances. People are prepared to fulfill their obligations as nation of Pakistan.CDA discovers that we, our
and us are usedby the parties when they want to share the responsibility.
We are here to revive the confidence of the people by instilling hope and restoring national dignity and laying
foundation for a sustainable growth and d development (PML-N, 2013).
However, we as nation over the last65 years have not recognized that it is the duty of the state to ensure
minimum facilities and basic necessities for its total population (PTI, 2013)
Wewill reduce social and economic inequalities between various classes, between provinces, within provinces
and genders establishing a just society (PPP, 2008).
CDA evaluates that they, their, them are the pronouns that are used in negative connotation. However,
they is used is neutral sense most of the times. Politicians try to prove the opponents less as suitable. PPP is the
only party that uses ‘they’ in negative connotation. The other parties use it in neutral sense where public,
servants, workers, military forces are focused.Such kind of discourse invokes the concept of Us/ Them and calls
upon the positivity for ‘Us’ and negativity for ‘Them’. PronounI, me and themreflect the responsibility of the
leader and his involvement and interest in the affairs of country. The occurrence of I in PPP manifestos is 2
whereas it is 2 and 1 in PML and PTI respectively. CDA examines that You is a most important pronoun. PPP
and PML use you as specific pronoun with 1 occurrence.You in specific sense refers to opposition. It is used in
generic sense for nation or whole world. The study has proved that these pronouns help the in persuading the

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voters. Their own benefits are involved behind all the important pronouns.

4.3Nouns
Nouns are the most important part of any sentence. Present study involves ten singular and ten plural nouns that
have been selected on the basis of frequency.
4.3.1Singular Nouns
Table 4.3 Singular nouns in manifestos
PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
Policy 22 97 21 37 31 48
Investment 7 40 5 37 21 12
Growth 27 33 8 33 24 13
Country 16 64 35 29 14 33
Party 51 245 4 8 2 3
Health 23 105 13 32 15 24
Democracy 9 31 12 8 2 0
Youth 7 39 10 25 9 14
Market 8 16 3 12 4 3
System 14 37 18 60 29 26

All these pronouns are interrelated to each other and play a significant role in strengthening the roots
of the country. However, each party shows a different frequency for these nouns. Every government introduces
some plans and policies that are a source of hope for people. The noun policy is frequent in PPP manifestos with
119 frequencies. PML uses it with 58 frequencies and PTI has 79 frequencies of policy. CDA discovers that PPP
has covered many aspects of policy like fair job policy, Benazir Bhutto policy, reconciliation andtrade policy,
security and education policy. However, all the parties are agreed on the importance of the foreign policy.
Second noun investment has a relation with policy. Progress of the country depends upon investment in schemes
and projects in the whole year. Present study finds out what kind of investment is given importance by the
political parties. CDA discovers that PPP shows a special kind of concern in describing the investment in
different programs. It discusses fisheries and livestock investment, investment for shelter, trade and IT based
future, whereas PML talks about investment in education and electricity. Though all the parties discuss the
investment in a better way, yet PP discusses the things in wider range. PTI and PML discuss the things in
objective way. Growth ratio is most important factor related to the economy of the country. The economy may
collapse with the fall down of growth. Usage of growth is worth noting. PPP has 60 frequencies of growth. Both
PTI and PML have 41 occurrences.Growth is associated with ‘will’. All the parties use it with future reference.
‘Will’ is used by all the parties as it makes the statements more likeable and engaging to the public. PPP
predominantly talk about their future intentions by using ‘will’ when they refer to growth. There are very few
sentences about the past in which the situation of crises by other governments is discussed by the party. PML
discusses pre-crises situation of their era. However, PTI focuses on suggesting the solution. The use of will is not
dominant in PTI manifestos. CDA recognizes that the use of growth in PPP manifestos is aspiring as it gives a
hope.
CDA lays bare the context of the word country in manifestos. CDA estimates that politicians use
country repeatedly in order to show their deep worry and unease for Pakistan. Different political parties show a
negative picture of the other parties by mentioning all the calamities and catastrophes and then present a
solution.PTI uses only 4 sentences against the previous disasters and focuses upon its own work. However, PPP
uses another weapon what they have given to the country in their era. It is tricky thing used by PPP. The next
important noun is party. When political parties try to prove themselves as different and matchless due to specific
characteristics, they use the word party. The concept of us/ them can be applies here.CDA evaluates the usage of
party in manifestos and highlights the similarities and differences. Frequency makes it clear which party is
supporting its own ‘party’ instead of the country. The occurrence of party in PPP manifestos is 296. It occurs 12
times in PML and 5 times in PTI manifestos. CDA discovers that the other two parties prefer their own country
and services for the country. But PPP keeps on introducing itself as party and its sacrifices. PPP is the only party
that uses ‘will’ while giving reference to their party.Similarly PPP uses ‘our’ with party in its manifesto 2013. It
adds exclusion and indifference to other things. Health is interrelated with schemes and plans of the
country. The most significant use of health is found in PPP manifestos because it gives a detailed description and
raises unique points regarding health. The frequency of health in PML is 45 whereas it occurs 39 times in PTI
manifestos. Though almost every party gives proper attention to the health but PPP raises the point of LHV in
villages and mentions cure of all the dangerous diseases in rural areas. Another important noun is democracy. It
is PPP that uses it 40 times. However, the occurrence of democracy in PTI is 2 whereas it occurs 10 times in

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PML manifestos.PML and PTI use democracy in a very general way by saying that they are committed to revival
of general democracy in the country and do not suggest proper plans. CDA discovers that PPP manipulates the
audience by claiming their priority for democracy in country. PPP presents the solution but does not mention the
steps that may lead to the solution. This study exposes through CDA that what kind of things are considered
necessary for the youth of the country so they may be able to develop. The centre of attention of all the parties is
the employment and education of the youth. The occurrence of youth in PPP is 46 whereas it is 35 in PML and
23 in PTI manifestos.All the parties share some common features regarding youth empowerment in Pakistan as
they are holding the bridle of the country. The difference is frequency. Another noun market is concerned with
the economy of the country. CDA divulges the uses of market in election manifestos of the parties. The
occurrence of market is 24 in PPP manifestos. PML uses it 15 times whereas it occurs 7 times in PTI manifestos.
PTI talks about improvement in capital market only. PML discusses stock market besides capital market. PPP
discusses improvement in stock market, local market, social market, job market and financial market. PPP
suggests proper planning for the improvement of market, while the other parties do not recommend plans. They
just keep on claiming. It is the only party that discusses the achievements of the past era in order to manipulate
the opinions. Similarly, noun system is also one of the important nouns. CDA explores that every party tries to
elaborate the system and recommends improvements. Every party has different preferences regarding system.
PPP talks about itsaccomplishments of past in this noun a well.
4.3.2Plural Noun
This study has 8 most frequent plural nouns that are areas, women, provinces, projects, farmers, rights, measures
and efforts.
Table 4.4 Plural Nouns in manifestos
PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
Areas 18 51 23 32 17 2
Women 18 87 13 24 14 13
Provinces 8 50 6 33 9 2
Projects 3 23 1 26 3 4
Farmers 6 33 5 9 5 3
Rights 16 80 10 15 6 6
Measures 8 33 11 17 5 5
Efforts 2 28 7 12 3 0
These nouns are also interrelated to each other and expose the intentions and interests of the parties in a
best way. First of them is areas. CDA evaluates which party prefers the area for development the most and
which area is being neglected.The frequency of area in PPP is 69 whereas it is 55 and 19 in PML and PTI
respectively.PML is the party that gives priority to the development of rural and under developed areas. In
contrast to PML, PTI focuses upon urban development more than the rural areas. PPP maintains a balance
among these areas. PPP claims to increase the Lady Health Worker Service in rural areas. CDA notices that PPP
has the most appreciative usage of areas. It has a balance in rural and urban areas. It talks about agricultural and
health issues and housing schemes in rural areas.
‘women’ is the noun that owns importance because it covers half of the population of the country.CDA
evaluates how political parties attract the public by describing those rights that are not in the fate of Pakistani
women till now and how women are represented by the parties. All the parties talk about the development of
women but in a different way. Each party discusses the protection of women. PPP mentions points like reserved
seats for women in FATA. It is the only party to initiate Benazir Income Support Program for the poor women.
PML gives high priority to women borrowers in micro credit program and plans to irrigate additional land for
women haris. All the parties have introduced programs but major difference lies in frequency. The occurrence of
women is 105 in PPP manifestos. PTI uses it 37 times whereas it occurs 27 times in PTI manifestos. CDA
explores how provinces are viewed from the eye of politicians. Provinces and Areas are the pronouns that are
interrelated to each other. CDA analyzes that PTI seems less interested and less instructive as compared to the
other two parties. The other two parties present the issues of the provinces differently but seem interested in
them and suggest the solution to the problems. PML suggests improving infrastructures of provinces, economical
condition by adopting specific economic policies and land record projects for the provinces. Both PML and PPP
talk about terrorism and education in provinces.
Another important noun is projects. All parties confidently tell about their incoming projects in order
to make the audience happy. All the parties use energy projects in their corpora due to lack of energy in Pakistan.
Plans are related to the future as well as past. However, some are the suggestions for the betterment. The results
prove that PPP uses projects in manifestos for future intentions as well as past achievements. However, the other
two parties refer to it for future and a suggestion for the good. PML puts emphasis on infrastructure projects and
water projects. It talks about housing, dams and motor ways. CDA explains that PPP is always more strategic

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and successful in convincing the reader.

Farmersis an important noun. Agriculture is its back bone. Without farmers, agriculture department
cannot flourish as they are the managers and rescuers of the field. This study explores that to which extent
farmers are given importance.PTI as such does not introduce the schemes that may favor their interest. It does
not talk about facilities and support for the farmers. PML provides a security to farmers and announces schemes
for the farmers in a better way as compared to PTI. PML and PTI’s focus is on small famers. PPP is the party
that introduces schemes for farmers and facilitates agriculture department. PPP talks about women famers for the
first time. CDA considers how political parties present the rights of the people in manifestos and which right is
preferred. Right is also one of the important nouns. Political parties draw the concentration of masses by
ensuring them that they will be offered their basic privileges.It is PPP that is frequent in the use of rights with 96
occurrences in manifestos. The frequency of rights is low in PTI with 12 occurrences and it is used 25 times in
PML manifestos.PML prefers the inheritance and basic rights of females in the light of religion. PPP discusses
the rights of females and laborers but in a very general way. However, PTI does not even touch the issue of
female rights. However, it is a fact that PPP discusses all the rights in a very general way and discusses those
rights that come later and do not give proper solution to the issues and seems less interested as compared to other
parties. It keeps on appreciating their leaders who defended the rights of the people. It is a persuasion trick.
Similarly, the use of pronoun ‘we’ and ‘our’ is dominant in the start of the sentence that is also a reference
towards fulfilling their political objectives.
Measure is a noun that is discussed by PTI in a limited range. It discusses the issues generally.It does
not discuss the burning issues of the country like education, electricity, health and minorities and citizens.
Measures for economic policy, financial support to all citizens, law enforcement, PPP is the only party that takes
measures on burning issues like education and inflation. CDA shows that it is a trick to win the hearts by
showing deep concern for the people. Government’s efforts in every field give anticipation to the disappointed
people. It is a beat way to inspire the public by telling them about their efforts in all the fields. Effort is the last
noun. The noun efforts occur in PPP manifestos 30 times. It is less frequent in PML with 19 occurrences. PTI
gives less importance to showing efforts.CDA evaluates that PPP and PML are the parties that have planned
efforts related to the burning issues of the country. PPP wins its game and discusses lot of issues. However, PTI
does not seem interested in efforts. PPP talks about efforts on improving productivity and crop diversification,
agricultural markets and exports. It can be claimed that PPP uses all the nouns in a broad way. On the other
hand, PML’s shows efforts to provide clean water and healthcare and education needs as well as security that
lacks in Pakistan.

4.4Verb
4.4.1 Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are complex phenomenon of English grammar. They play different roles and communicate various
meanings. This research examines the use of modal verbs in manifestos.These modal verbs deliver both
epistemic and deontic meanings in manifestos.
Table 4. 5 Modal Verbs in manifestos
PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
Will 233 472 153 386 50 221
Shall 7 2 53 65 12 6
Would 5 3 10 19 37 13
Can 12 49 17 32 12 16
Could 1 1 2 4 0 3
May 0 4 2 3 1 0
Must 4 16 6 6 6 7

All the above given modal verbs are the representative of the mood and attitude of the speaker. The
frequency of modal auxiliaries in PPP manifestos is 809. It has 758 occurrences in PML and 384 frequencies in
PTI manifestos.In manifestos of political parties statements are moulded according to the will and desire of the
politicians. Politicians play on the words and conceal the true information from the public through the use of
these modal verbs. Less use of modal verbs shows that there are less uncertainty and vagueness in manifestos.
PTI usually gives clear statements. PML and PPP have overuse of modal verbs in their manifestos that shows
that their sentences and statements are complex.
Will and can are twomost frequent modal verbs in manifestos. The frequency of will in manifestos is
705, 509 and 271 in PPP, PML and PTI respectively.Will is used in manifestos for predictions and showing
willingness. It refers to epistemic meanings. It raises a hope. Can refers to possibility and chance that makes the
voter hopeful that they are opting the best option. Shall and used for estimation and would is used for
expectation. Both of these auxiliaries are pre planned that develop and estimation and a strong expectation for

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the desired future.

The PPP will be tough on crime (PPP, 2008)
Recruitment in police shall be ensured on merit (PML).
Facilities would be sustained and suspended (PTI).
CDA makes the dual meanings behinds the simple words clear. Similarly, could is used in manifestos for
probability. CDA examines that could is used where politicians want to show others as misfit and depict their
own ability. It is dominant in PML with 6 occurrences.May is used for hypothetical condition which gives a
situation that may be wrong or right. Parties use may where they lack the confidence. Use of may is not frequent
in PTI. It is found in PML and PPP. It depicts that they lack confidence and surety of what they are saying.Must
is the last and rare modal verb in manifestos.Must is the modal verbs that puts on a heavy responsibility upon the
shoulders of the politicians. CDA points out that PTI has direct statements that are less ambiguous. On the other
hand, PML and PPP try to play on words and give fake hope to innocent masses in order to win their confidence.
4.4.2 Present form of verb
Ten verbs have been selected on the basis of frequency. All these words show a kind of improvement in the
country that itself is a trick of manipulation.

Table 4.6 Present form of verb in manifestos

PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
Strengthen 0 26 2 2 5 2
Develop 0 16 1 4 10 3
Encourage 0 20 1 2 9 4
Reduce 0 4 0 10 4 6
Ensure 3 32 8 6 9 10
Establish 0 21 0 5 5 2
Improve 1 21 4 8 3 4
Need 1 18 0 5 2 1
Promote 2 92 4 6 6 1
Provide 2 37 7 9 11 6

All these verbs show development and claims about improvement in the country. However, they are
less frequent. PPP has 291 occurrences of present form of verb. Similarly, PML has 81 frequencies and PTI has
103 frequencies of this modal verb. CDA discovers that PML seem less interested in the matter of emancipation.
In other words, a question arises whether these parties are making the people fool. Mostly these words are used
with ‘will’and simple use. CDA discovers that parties show lack of curiosity and attention towards future actions.
strengthen, develop, encourage, establish, improve, promote are also the noteworthy present form of verbs. They
declare the fact that what are things that must be promoted, encouraged, establish and developed in the
country.PPP is the party that covers many aspects of problems of the country but in a very broad way. PPP gives
priority to security issues. However, other parties also raise the issues in accurate way but PPP leads in
frequency and covering the issues. Another verb that is most striking is ‘Need’ that is more frequent in PPP
manifesto, less frequent in PTI manifesto and PML 2013. However, it is absent in PML 2008. It refers to the fact
that to which extent politicians concern the needs of the masses. Parties lack the vision. The needs mentioned by
PPP must be adored. They want to fulfill the basic need like security, better healthcare, and better schools for the
people. PTI and PML ignore the basic issues and focus upon less important things that come under facilities not
needs. Pakistan is the country that needs many things that should be reduced. Reduce is also a most prominent
and unusual verb. However, CDA uncovers the fact that ‘reduce’ is not used in PML 2008 and PPP 2008. It is
less frequent in rest of the manifestos. PML says that injustice, country’s dependence on the foreign loan and
theft of electricity must be reduced. PTI gives priority to reduce federal taxes and non development government
taxes. PPP mentions income loss and power tarrifs that must be reduced. CDA discovers that PML covers many
aspects as far as verb reduce is concerned. These verbs have a relation with each other. CDA discovers that
parties lack insight and proper planning.

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4.4.3 Past from of verb

Past form of the verb has extremely low occurrence in manifestos. The overall occurrence is low.
Table 4.7 Past form of verb in manifestos
PPP 2008 PPP 2013 PML 2008 PML 2013 PTI 2008 PTI 2013
Brought 1 5 0 3 0 0
Initiated 1 12 0 1 0 0
Introduced 6 4 0 1 0 0
Increased 2 2 0 2 0 0
Transformed 0 3 0 2 0 0
Established 1 11 0 1 0 0
Gave 6 5 0 0 0 0
Took 5 3 2 2 1 0
Built 2 4 0 1 0 1
Made 1 5 1 5 1 1

The findings show that the use of second form of the verb is not appreciative in manifestos because
most of the times they are used in past tense in order to describe the future plans. It is less frequent in future
sentences in which it is used to describe the positive points of the government or the party. Sometimes, it is used
to portray the negative points of the opposition on the basis of their pastworks. CDA discovers that past from of
the verb is used in order to defend the government whether by describing their positive points or the negative
points of the opposition. However, it is only PML that has described the negative points of their opponents. PPP
usually focuses on past.
Military dictators introduced a new system of local bodies to serve their own political agendas (PML 2013).
Parties present a flashback picture of the party that shows that they are trying to convince the voters.
The focus on future is not prominent.

Conclusion
Present study has conducted a comparative corpus driven analysis of manifestos of Pakistani political parties in
order to make publicize the hidden context through critical discourse analysis.The study pulled out the linguistic
features including parts of speech and passive construction and mentioned the fact that these features do not have
a regular use and theyare not as impartial as they seembut contain a specific purpose of positive manipulation
behind it that involves social power. CDA discovers that political parties are different in usages of lexical and
grammatical features. PPP mentions all the issues of the country in detail and gives proper plans for them.
However, PTI and PML provide minor details of important issues of the countries like education, health and
economy and agricultural, facilities. They fail to give a proper solution to these issues. PPP offers innovative and
pioneering ideas for the development of the country like women farmers and Benazir Income Support Program
(BISP). PPP leads both quantitatively and qualitatively in describing the basic issues of Pakistan. PPP tries to
convince the reader by describing flashback and flash forward picture of the country. On the other hand, PPP and
PTI put less focus on their past works and more focus on their future plans. These differences are found in the
parties of the same countries that is quite natural thing. Sometimes, the difference is only the frequency that is
not fixed. However, one similar thing is common that all the parties hide meanings behind the words.

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